Automation Training

Industrial Automation
1. INTRODUCTION
AUTOMATION
Automation or industrial automation is the
use of control systems such as computers
to control industrial machinery and
processes, reducing the need for human
intervention.
Automation is the use of control systems
(such as numerical control, programmable
logic control, and other industrial control
systems), in concert with other
applications of information technology
(such as computer-aided technologies
[CAD, CAM, CAx]), to control industrial machinery and processes, reducing the need for human
intervention. In the scope of industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas
mechanization provided human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular
requirements of work, automation greatly reduces the need for human sensory and mental
requirements as well. Processes and systems can also be automated.
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the world economy and in daily experience.
Engineers strive to combine automated devices with mathematical and organizational tools to create
complex systems for a rapidly expanding range of applications and human activities.
Many roles for humans in industrial processes presently lie beyond the scope of automation. Human-
level pattern recognition, language recognition, and language production ability are well beyond the
capabilities of modern mechanical and computer systems. Tasks requiring subjective assessment or
synthesis of complex sensory data, such as scents and sounds, as well as high-level tasks such as
strategic planning, currently require human expertise. In many cases, the use of humans is more cost-
effective than mechanical approaches even where automation of industrial tasks is possible.
Specialised hardened computers, referred to as programmable logic controllers (PLCs), are
frequently used to synchronize the flow of inputs from (physical) sensors and events with the flow of
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outputs to actuators and events. This leads to precisely controlled actions that permit a tight control
of almost any industrial process.
Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human interfaces (CHI), formerly known as man-
machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate with PLCs and other computers, such as
entering and monitoring temperatures or pressures for further automated control or emergency
response. Service personnel who monitor and control these interfaces are often referred to as
stationary engineers in boiler houeses or central utilities departments. [2] In most industrial process
and manufacturing environments, these roles are called operators or variations on this.
Advantages and disadvantages
The main advantage of automation are:
 Automation Impacts :
 It increase productivity and reduce coasts.
 Decrease in cost.
 High accuracy, real time operation
 Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous work[7].
 Replacing humans in tasks that should be done in dangerous environments (i.e. fire, space,
volcanoes, nuclear facilities, underwater, etc)
 Making tasks that are beyond the human capabilities such as handling too heavy loads, too
large objects, too hot or too cold substances or the requirement to make things too fast or too
slow.
 Economy improvement. Sometimes and some kinds of automation implies improves in
economy of enterprises, society or most of humankind. For example, when an enterprise that
has invested in automation technology recovers its investment; when a state or country
increases its income due to automation like Germany or Japan in the 20th Century or when
the humankind can use the internet which in turn use satellites and other automated engines.
The main disadvantages of automation are:
 Technology limits. Current technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks.
 Unpredictable development costs. The research and development cost of automating a
process is difficult to predict accurately beforehand. Since this cost can have a large impact
on profitability, it's possible to finish automating a process only to discover that there's no
economic advantage in doing so.
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 Initial costs are relatively high. The automation of a new product required a huge initial
investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the cost of automation is
spread in many product batches. The automation of a plant required a great initial investment
too, although this cost is spread in the products to be produced.
 Unemployment. It is commonly thought that automation implies unemployment because the
work of a human being is replaced in part or completely by a machine. Nevertheless, the
unemployment is caused by the economical politics of the administration like dismissing the
workers instead of changing their tasks. Since the general economical policies of most of the
industrial plants are to dismiss people, nowadays automation implies unemployment. In
different scenarios without workers, automation implies more free time instead of
unemployment like the case with the automatic washing machine at home. Automation does
not imply unemployment when it makes tasks unimaginable without automation such as
exploring mars with the Sojourner or when the economy is fully adapted to an automated
technology as with the Telephone switchboard.
 Environment. The costs of automation to the environment are different depending on the
technology, product or engine automated. There are automated engines that consume more
energy resources from the Earth in comparison with previous engines and those that do the
opposite too.
Different types of automation tools exist:
 ANN - Artificial neural network
 DCS - Distributed Control System
 HMI - Human Machine Interface
 SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
 PLC - Programmable Logic Controller
 PAC - Programmable automation controller
 Instrumentation
 Motion control
 Robotics
Applications of Automation
 Automated Video surveillance:
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) started the research and
development of automated Visual surveillance and Monitoring (VSAM) program 1997-99 and
airborne Video Surveillance (AVS) program 1998-2002. Currently there is a major effort underway
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in the vision community to develop a fully automated tracking surveillance system. Automated video
surveillance monitors people and vehicle in real time within a busy environment. Automated
Highway Systems:
As demands for safety and mobility have grown and technological possibilities have
multiplied, interest in automation have grown. Seeking to accelerate the development and
introduction of fully automated vehicles and highways, Congress authorized more than $650 million
over 6 years for intelligent transport systems (ITS) and demonstration projects in the 1991
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA). Congress legislated in ISTEA that “The
secretary [of transportation] shall develop an automated highway and vehicle prototype from which
future fully automated intelligent vehicle-highway systems can be developed. Such development
shall include research in human factors to ensure the success of the man-machine relationship. The
goal of this program is to have the first fully automated highway roadway or an automated test track
in operation by 1997. This system shall accommodate installation of equipment in new and existing
motor vehicles." [ISTEA 1991, part B, Section 6054(b)].
Full automation commonly defined as requiring no control or very limited control by the driver; such
automation would be accomplished through a combination of sensor, computer, and communications
systems in vehicles and along the roadway. Fully automated driving would, in theory, allow closer
vehicle spacing and higher speeds, which could enhance traffic capacity in places where additional
road building is physically impossible, politically unacceptable, or prohibitively expensive.
Automated controls also might enhance road safety by reducing the opportunity for driver error,
which causes a large share of motor vehicle crashes. Other potential benefits include improved air
quality (as a result of more-efficient traffic flows), increased fuel economy, and spin-off technologies
generated during research and development related to automated highway systems.[6]
 Automated manufacturing:
Automated manufacturing refers to the application of automation to produce things in the
factory way. Most of the advantages of the automation technology has its influence in the
manufacture processes.
The main advantage of the automated manufacturing are: higher consistency and quality, reduce the
lead times, simplification of production, reduce handling, improve work flow and increase the
morale of workers when a good implementation of the automation is made.
 Home Automation
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Home automation (also called domotics) designates an emerging practice of increased
automation of household appliances and features in residential dwellings, particularly through
electronic means that allow for things impracticable, overly expensive or simply not possible in
recent past decades.
2. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)
A PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC) is an industrial computer control system that

continuously monitors the state of input devices and makes decisions based upon a custom program
to control the state of output devices.
Almost any production line, machine function, or process can be greatly enhanced using this type of
control system. However, the biggest benefit in using a PLC is the ability to change and replicate the
operation or process while collecting and communicating vital information.
Another advantage of a PLC system is that it is modular. That is, you can mix and match the types of
Input and Output devices to best suit your application.
Micrologix 1100 Siemens S7 200

Fig. 1 (a) Fig. 1 (b)
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2.1 HISTORY OF PLC’S
The first Programmable Logic Controllers were designed and developed by Modicon as a
relay re-placer for GM and Landis. These controllers eliminated the need for rewiring and
adding additional hardware for each new configuration of logic. The new system drastically
increased the functionality of the controls while reducing the cabinet space that housed the
logic. The first PLC, model 084, was invented by Dick Morley in 1969 The first commercial
successful PLC, the 184, was introduced in 1973 and was designed by Michael Greenberg.
2.2 WHAT IS INSIDE A PLC?
The Central Processing Unit, the CPU, contains an internal program that tells the PLC how to
perform the following functions:
Execute the Control Instructions contained in the User's Programs. This program is stored in
"nonvolatile" memory, meaning that the program will not be lost if power is removed
Communicate with other devices, which can include I/O Devices, Programming Devices,
Networks, and even other PLC’s.
Perform Housekeeping activities such as Communications, Internal Diagnostics, etc.
O
I Central U
N Processing T
P Unit P
U U
T T
Fig. 2
2.2.1 The CPU is the brain of a PLC system. It consists of the microprocessor, memory
integrated circuits, and circuits necessary to store and retrieve information from memory. It
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also includes communications ports to other peripherals, other PLC's or programming
terminals. Today's processors vary widely in their capabilities to control real world devices.
Some control as few as 6 inputs and outputs (I/O) and others 40,000 or more. One processor
can control more than one process or manufacturing line. Processors are often linked together
in order to provided continuity throughout the process. The number of inputs and outputs
PLC’s can control are limited by the overall capacity of the PLC system hardware and
memory capabilities. The job of the processor is to monitor status or state of input devices,
scan and solve the logic of a user program, and control on or off state of output devices.
2.2.2 RAM or Random Access Memory is a volatile memory that would lose it's information if
power were removed. This is why some processor units incorporate a battery back up. The
type of RAM normally used is CMOS or Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor.
CMOS RAM is used for storage of the user's program (ladder logic diagrams) and storage
memory.
2.2.3 ROM or Read Only Memory is a non-volatile type of memory. This means you don't need an
external power source to keep information. In this type of memory, information can be read,
but not changed. For this reason the manufacture sometimes calls this firmware. It is placed
there for the internal use and operation of processor units.
2.2.4 EEPROM or Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory is usually an add-on
memory module that is used to back up the main program in CMOS RAM of the processor.
In many cases, the processor can be programmed to load the EEPROM's program to RAM if
RAM is lost or corrupted.
2.2.5 Input Module
There are many types of input modules to choose from. The type of input module used is
dependent upon what real world input to the PLC is desired. Some examples of inputs are
limit switches, electric eyes, and pushbuttons. DC inputs, such as thumbwheel switches, can
be used to enter integer values to be manipulated by the PLC. DC input cards are used for
this application. Since most industrial power systems are inherently noisy, electrical isolation
is provided between the input and the processor. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) can cause severe problems in most solid state control
systems. The component used most often to provide electrical isolation within I/O cards is
called an optical isolator or opto coupler. The wiring of an input is not complex. The object is
to get a voltage at a particular point on the card. Typically there are 8 to 32 input points on
any one input module. Each point will be assigned a unique address by the processor. Analog
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input modules are special input cards that use analog to digital conversion (A to D) to sense
variables such as temperature, speed, pressure, and position. The external device normally is
connected to a controller (transducer) producing an electrical signal the analog input card can
interpret. This signal is usually 4 to 20 Ma or a 0 to 10 volt signal.
2.2.6 Output Module
Output modules can be for used for ac or dc devices such as solenoids, relays, contractors,
pilot lamps, and LED readouts. Output cards usually have from 6 to 32 output points on a
single module. The output device within the card provides the Connection from the user
power supply to the load. Usually silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR), triac, or dry contact
relays are use for this purpose. Individual outputs are rated most often at 2 to 3 amperes.
Output cards, like input cards have electrical isolation between the load being connected and
the PLC. Analog output cards are a special type of output modules that use digital to analog
conversion (D to A). The analog output module can take a value stored in a 12 bit file and
convert it to an analog signal. Normally this signal is 0 -10 volts dc or 4 to 20 Ma. This
analog signal is often used in equipment such as motor operated valves and pneumatic
position control devices.
2.3 OPERATION OF PLC

A PLC operates by continually scanning the program and acting upon the instructions, one at
a time, to switch on or off the various outputs. In order to do this the PLC first "looks" at all
the inputs and remembers their states (i.e. "1" or "0" / on or off) this information is then
stored in memory. The PLC then scans the program instructions and decides if an output
should be on or off and this is important to remember, the physical output is NOT turned on
immediately. When the PLC has finished scanning the programmed instructions it will,
finally, turn on the required outputs. This is called updating the process output image. At this
point the PLC then checks its own operating system and if everything is ok it then goes and
checks the states of the inputs and starts all over again. This is program scanning and the
delay is called the program scan time. From the above statement it should be seen that there
is a delay from when an input is turned on; the program scanned and then a physical output
being turned on or off. As the delay is only ms it is not usually a problem unless you are
using the PLC in a high speed process. However it should be remembered that in a PLC with
many thousand I/O an input could turn on and then off before the PLC has finished scanning
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the programmed instructions. This could result in an output coming on for one or two scans
when in fact it should be off.
PLC SCAN CYCLE

In case of PLC, before any output devices can be turned ON or OFF, the processor has to
scan the entire program that is in user memory
 Input scan :- In input scan, the states of inputs are scanned and input status table is
updated accordingly.
 Program scan : In this scan\, data input table is applied to used created program,
program is executed and output table is updated accordingly.
 Output scan :- In this scan, the states of outputs are generated as per the data
associated with output status table.
Check input status
Execute program
Update output status
2.4 COMMUNICATIONS
There are several methods to communicate between a PLC and a programmer or even
between two PLC’s. Communications between a PLC and a programmer (PC or Hand held)
are provided by the makers and you only have to plug in a cable from your PC to the
programming port on the PLC. This communication can be RS232; RS485 or TTY.
Communications between two PLC’s can be carried out by dedicated links
supplied/programmed by the makers (RS232 etc) or via outputs from one PLC to the inputs
on another PLC. This direct link method of communication can be as simple as, if an output
on the first PLC is on then the corresponding input on the second PLC will be on and then
this input is used within the program on the second PLC. If a word of input/outputs (16 bits)
are used then numerical data can be transferred from one PLC to the other (refer back to the
section on numbering systems). There are many other methods of communication between
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PLC’s and also from PLC to PC. Please refer to the manuals supplied with the PLC that you
are using for full details on communications.
2.5 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE USED IN A PLC

While Ladder Logic is the most commonly used PLC programming language, it is not the
only one. The following table lists of some of languages that are used to program a PLC.
Ladder Diagram (LD) Traditional ladder logic is graphical programming language. Initially
programmed with simple contacts that simulated the opening and closing of relays, Ladder
Logic programming has been expanded to include such functions as counters, timers, shift
registers, and math operations.
Fig. 3
Function Block Diagram (FBD) - A graphical language for depicting signal and data flows
through re-usable function blocks. FBD is very useful for expressing the interconnection of
control system algorithms and logic.
Structured Text (ST)– A high level text language that encourages structured programming.
It has a language structure (syntax) that strongly resembles PASCAL and supports a wide
range of standard functions and operators. For example;
If Speed >100.0 then
Flow_ Rate =50.0+ Offset_ A1;
Else
Flow_Rate: = 100.0; Steam:=ON
End_if;
Instruction List (IL): A low level “assembler like” language that is based on similar
instructions list languages found in a wide range of today’s PLC’s. Sequential Function Chart
(SFC): A method of programming complex control systems at a more highly structured level.
A SFC program is an overview of the control system, in which the basic building blocks are
entire program files. Each program file is created using one of the other types of
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programming languages. The SFC approach coordinates large, complicated programming
tasks into smaller, more manageable tasks.
LD R1
MPC RESET
LD PRESS_1
ST MAX_PRESS
RESET: LD 0
ST A_X43
1.6 INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES
INPUTS OUTPUTS
Switches and Pushbuttons – Valves
– Sensing Devices – Motor Starters
Limit Switches – Solenoids
Photoelectric – Actuators
Sensors –
Proximity Sensors – Horns and Alarms
– Condition Sensors – Stack lights
– Encoders – Control Relays
Pressure Switches – Counter / Totalizer
Level Switches – Pumps
Temperature – Printers
Switches – Fans
Vacuum Switches
Float Switches
2.7 CIRCUIT ISOLATION IN PLC

In PLC, isolation is provided using optocoupler in its internal circuit that’s why it is also
known as optical isolation. Optical isolation means that there is no real electrical connection
between the input device and the processor. This eliminates any possibility of the unwanted
(high surge or malfunctioned) input line voltage from coming in contact with and damaging
the low voltage DC section of the processor.
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2.8 SINKING AND SOURCING

PLC input and output terminals are wired based upon the concepts of sinking and sourcing.
In sinking the direction of current flow is inward to PLC I/O module and sourcing, the
direction of current from is outward from PLC I/O module.
Fig. 4
2. SCADA
SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition. It generally refers to an industrial
control system a computer system monitoring and controlling a process.
Leading of SCADA companies
Invensys Wonder ware : In touch
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Siemens : WinCC
Allen Bradley: RS View 32 works
Industrial process include those of manufacturing production, power generation, fabrication, and
refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.
Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and distribution,
wastewater collection and treatment, oil land gas pipelines, electrical power transmission and
distribution, and large communication system.
Facility processes occur both in public facilities an private ones, including building, airports, ships,
and space stations.
3.1 SCADA SYSTEM USUALLY CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING SUBSYSTEMS.

 Human Machine interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to a human
operator and through this, the human operator, monitors and controls the process. A
supervisory, system gathering data on the process and sending commands to the process.
 Remote terminal units (RTU’s) connecting to sensors in the process, converting sensors
signal to digital data and sending digital data to the supervisory system.
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs) used as filed devices because they are more
economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than special purpose RTUs.
3.2 SCADA Architectures

SCADA system have evolved through 3 generations as follows :
 First generation “Monolithic”
In the first generation computing was done by Mainframe system. Networks didn’t exist at
the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA system was independent system with no
connectivity to other system. Wide Area Networks were later designed by RTU vendors to
communicate with the RTU. The Communication Protocols used were often proprietary at
that time. The first generation SCADA system was redundant since a back up mainframe
system was connected at the bus level land was used in the event of failure of the main
mainframe system.
 Second generation “Distributed”
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The processing was distributed across multiple stations which were connected through LAN
and they shared information in real time. Each station was responsible for particular task thus
making the size and coast of each station less than the one used in First Generation. The
network protocols used were still mostly proprietary.
 Third generation “Networked”
These are the current generation SCADA system which use open system architecture rather
than vendor controlled proprietary environment. The SCADA architecture utilizes open
standard and protocols thus distributing functionality across a WAN rather than a LAN. It is
easier to connect third party peripheral devices like printers, disk drivers, tape drives due to
the used of open architecture. WAN protocols such as Internet Protocols (IP) are used for
communication between the master station and communication equipment.
3.3 FEATURES OF SCADA SOFTWARE
3.3.1 Trend in SCADA

Trends means graphical representation of data. You can better look of the parameter through
the trends.
 Real time trends are dynamic. They are update continuously during runtime with
whatever time span give in configuration. You can not scroll the real time trends to
see previous data.
 Historical trends provide you with a “snapshots” of data from a time and data in the
past. They are not dynamic. For example if you batch fails or the plant trips, you can
simply go to the historical trends data and do the analysis.
3.3.2 Alarm
Alarms are the notifications used to inform operator of process activity. Alarms represent
warning of process conditions that could cause problems and require and operator response.
A typical alarm is triggered when a process value exceeds a used defined limit
Use alarms to indicate to the operator when something goes wrong. An alarm can signal that
a device or process has stopped operating within acceptable, pre-defined limits or it can
indicate breakdown, wear, or a step out of sequence.
3.3.3 Recipe Management
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It is additional feature. Some SCADA software support it, some don not. Most of the plants
are manufacturing multi products. When you have different product to manufacture, you just
have to load recipe of the particular product.
A recipe lets you use different sets of values for the tags in a graphic display. You can create a
recipe with the Recipe editor or any text editor that produces an ASCII text file. You can also
create a recipe at runtime by saving the values in input fields in a graphic display, to the file
name specified in the Recipe field.
The operator uses a recipe to send values to the programmable controller for all input fields
in a graphic display, rather than one value at a time. Data can also be uploaded from the
programmable controller into input fields in the graphic display.
3.3.4 Security Management
Security provides the ability to control whether or not specific operators are allowed to
perform specific functions within an application. Security is based on the concept of the
operator “logging on”: to the application and entering a “User Name” and “Password.”
3.3.5 Tags
SCADA system typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred to as a tag
database, which contain data elements called tags. Tag is variable, which used to point to
specific memory location in input/output devices.
In the tag database you define the data you want RSView32 to monitor. You can organize
tags into groups using folders. This speeds up database creation because you can duplicate a
folder and its tags in a single operation. For example, if you have several similar machines
that require the same tags in the database, you can create a folder called Machine1 and define
its tags. To create the tags for Machine2 you would use the Duplicate Folder command and
specify Machine2 as the folder name. This creates a folder called Machine2 containing all the
tags that are in the folder Machine1.
3.4 USED OF ANIMATION IN SCADA

Colure, %fill, Size Control, Position, Orientation/Rotation, Visibility.
3.5 LIBRARY IN RSVIEW

Library contains symbols which can be readily used in the application. The symbols include
various Tanks, Reactor, Pipes Icons, buttons and indicators.
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Three data types used in tag of SCADA
 Digital - stores simple on/off information
 Analog - stores numerical values
 String - stores alphanumeric characters
The data sources for a tag can be:-

 Device - receives its data from a programmable controller through a direct driver via RSLinx
or a DDE server or an OPC server. It can also receive data from another Windows program
through a DDE or OPC server.
 Memory - data comes only from the value table rather than a programmable controller or
another program.
3.6 DDE and OPC

 DDE which is stand for Dynamic Data Exchange is the facility developed by
Microsoft for exchanging the data between various programs.
DDE has three important settings
Application / Server name, Topic Name and Item Name
 OPC which stands for Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) for Process
Control. This is specifies the communication of the real time plant data between
control devices from different manufacturers,.
3.7 Application of SCADA

 Industrial automation
 Electric power generation, transmission an distribution.
 Water management
 Manufacturing
Example of SCADA:-
DELHI METRO and Oil and Gas Plant
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Fig. 5 (a) & (b)
Above diagram is the animation of oil and gas plant.
ELECTRICAL BASICS
4.1 CHARGE
It is the fundamental property of matter. Electric charges are to two general types positive an
negative. For example, electrons have negative charges and protons have positive charge but
neutrons have zero charge.
4.2 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (VOLTAGE)
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The electric potential difference is the difference in electric potential (V) between the final
and the initial location when work is done upon a charge to change its potential energy. In the
equation form, the electric potential is
V = VB-VA =
Rate of flow of current strength depends upon the potential difference.
The unit of potential difference is the volt.
Vs V
R1
R2
4.3 ELECTRIC CURRENT

An electric current is a flow of microscopic particles called Electrons flowing through wires
and electronic components. It can be linked to the flow of water through pipes and radiators
etc. as water is pushed trough pipes by pump, electric current is pushed through wires by a
battery
Lamp
A
Vs R1
R2
Battery
4.4 RESISTANCE
Resistance may be defined as that property of substance which oppose the flow of an electric
current through it.
The unit of the resistance is the ohm (Ω)
R
R
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4.5 CAPACITOR
Capacitor or condenser are manufactured as electronic components for use in electrical
circuits. The two conducting plates separated by an insulating material (called dielectric)
forms a capacitor. The asic purpose capacitor is store the charge. The capacity of capacitor to
store charge per unit potential difference is called its capacitance. The unit of the capacitance
is farad (F)
A capacitor is a component which offers low impedance to a.c. but vey high impedance (resistance)
to d.c. The function of the capacitor is to block the d.c. voltage but pass the a.c. signal voltage.
Dielectric
0 
Area A
Area A
+Q -Q
+Q -Q
d d
V + - V + -
Fig. 6a Fig. 6b
4.6 INDUCTORS
An inductors is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a magnetic filed
created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor’s ability to store magnetic
enery is measured by its inductance, in units of Henries. The electronic component which
oppose the change of current in circuit is called inductor.
The function of an inductor, in the electronic circuit, is to block a.c. signal but to pass d.c.
signal(or voltage).
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+ -
L
4.7 DC ELECTRIC POWER

The electric power in watts associated with a complete eclectic circuit or a circuit
components represents the rare at which energy is converted from the electrical energy of the
moving charge to some other form, e.g. heat, mechanical energy, or energy stored in electric
fields or magnetic fields. For a resistors in a DC circuit the power is given by the product of
applied voltage and electric current.
P = VI
Power = Voltage x Current
4.8 VOLTAGE DIVIDER CIRCUITS
Let’s analyze a simple series circuit, determining the voltage drops across individual
resistors. R1
5KΩ
+
45V
10KΩ R2
-
7.5K
R3
Fig. 7
From the given values of individual resistance, we can determine a total circuit resistance,
knowing that resistance add in series.
R = r1 + r2 + r3
We can use Ohm’s Law (I=V/R) to determine the total current, which we know will be the
same as each resistor current, currents being equal in all parts of a series circuit.
R1 R2 R3 Total
VR1 = = V 10 20 15 45 Volts 10V
I 2m 2m 2m 2m Amps
VR2 = = R 5k 10k 7.5k 22.5k Ohms 20V
45V
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VR3 = = 15V
4.9 CURRENT DIVIDER CIRCUIT

Let’s analyze a simple parallel circuit, determining the branch current through individual
resistors.
+
+ + +
6V R1 R2 R3
-
- 1kΩ - 3kΩ - 2kΩ
Fig. 8
Knowing the voltages across all components in a parallel circuit are the same, we can fill in
our voltage/current/resistance table with 6 volts across the top row knowing that branch
current add up in the parallel circuits to equal total current, we can arrive at total current by
R1 summing
R2 R6mA,
3 2mA,
Total and 3mA. R1 R2 R3 Total
V 6 6 6 6 Volts V 6 6 6 6 Volts
I 6m 2m 3m 11m Amps I 6m 2m 3m 11m Amps
R 1k 3k 2k Ohms R 1k 3k 2k 545.45 Ohms
4.10 ALTERNATING CURRENT

An alternating current (AC) is an electric current of which magnitude and direction vary.
4.11 AC POWER
As in the case with DC power, this instantaneous electric power in an AC circuit is given by
P=VI, but these quantities are continuously varying. Almost always the desired power in an
AC circuit is the average power, which is given by Pavg = VI cos
4.12 POWER FACTOR
For a DC circuit the power is P=VIU, and this relationship also holds for eth instantaneous
power in an AC circuit. However, the average power in an AC circuit expressed in terms of
the rms voltage and current is
Page 21of 64
Pavg = VI cos
Where is the phase angle between the voltage and current. The additional term is called
power factor
Power Factor = cos = Z

X
R
4.13 FARADAY’S LAW
Faraday’s First Law :- This law states that when the flux linking with the coil or circuit
changes an emf is induced in it or whenever the magnetic flux is cut by the conductor an emf
is induced in the conductor.
Faraday’s second Law :- this law states that the magnitude of emf induced is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage or to the product of number of turns and
rate of change of flux linking the coil.
i.e. induced emf, e N
4.14 LENZ’S LAW

This law status that the direction of induced emf is such that the current produced by it sets
up a magnetic filed opposing the motion or change producing it.
4.15 TRANSFORMER
Transformer is an ac machine that (i) transfer electrical energy from one electric circuit to
another (ii) does so without a change of frequency (iii) does so by the principle of electro-
magnetic induction and (iv) has electric circuits that are linked by a common magnetic
circuit.
When the output voltage of a transformer is higher than its input voltage, it is called the step-
up transformer and when it lowers the voltage it is called the step down transformer.
Transformers consist of a soft iron or silicon steel core and two windings placed on it.
The are insulated from both the core and each other. The core is built up of thin soft iron or
silicon steel lamination to provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux. The
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windings connected to the supply man is called the primary and the windings connected to
the load circuit is called the secondary. In case of step-up transformer, low-voltage windings
is the primary and high voltage windings is the primary and high voltage windings is the
secondary while in case of step-down transformer the high-voltage windings the primary and
low-voltage windings is the secondary.
The action of a transformer is based on the principle that energy may be efficiently
transferred by induction from one set of coils to another by means of a varying magnetic flux
provided that both the sets coils are on a common magnetic circuit.
Mutual Inductance is where the magnetic flux of two or more inductors are “linked” so that
voltage is induced on one coil proportional to the rate of change of current in another.
A transformer is a device made of two or more inductors, one of which powered by AC,
inducing an AC voltage across the second inductor. If the second inductor is connected to a
load, power will be electromagnetically coupled from the first inductor’s power source to that
load.
Result
Fig. 9 VS
Secondary
Primary
Ip Magnetic Field Is NS
Vp VP
Vs R
∼
NP
Np Ns
Iron Core
5. DIFFERENT STARTING METHODS OF MOTOR
The following is a short description the most common starting method for squirrel cage motors.
An overview of common problems when starting and stopping a motor with different starting
methods.
 Direct-On- Line Start (D.O.L.)
 Start –delta start
 Autotransformer
 Soft starter
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 Drives(VFD)
5.1 DIRECT –ON-LINE START (D.O.L.)

This is by far the most common starting method available on the market. The starting
equipment consists on only a main contractor and thermal or electronic overload relay. The
disadvantage with this method is that gives the highest possible starting current. A normal value is
between 6 to 7 time the rated motor current but values of up to 9 or 10 times the rated current exists.
Besides the starting current there also exists a current peak that can rise up to 14 times the rated
current since the motor is not energized from the first moment when starting. The values are
dependent on the design and size of the motor, but in general, s smaller motor givers higher values
than a larger one. During a direct –on-line start, the starting torque is also very high, and is higher
than necessary for most applications. The torque is the same as the force, and an unnecessary high
force gives unnecessary high stresses on coupling and the driven application. Naturally, there are
cases where this starring method works perfectly and in some case also the only starting method that
works.
Fig. 10
5.2 STAR-DELTA START
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Fig. 11
This is a starting method that reduces the starting current and starting torque. The device normally
consists of three contractor, an overload relay and a time for setting the time in the star-position
(starting position). The motor must be delta connected during a normal run, in order to able to use
this starting method. The received starting current is about 30% of the starting current during direct
on line start and the starting torque is reduced to about 25% of the torque available at a D.O.L. start.
This starting method only works when the application is light loaded during the start. This starting
method only works when the application is light loaded during the start. It the motor is too heavily
loaded, there will not be enough torque to accelerate the motor up to speed before switching over to
the delta position. When starting up pumps and fans for example, the load torque is low at the
beginning of the start and increase with the square of the speed. When reaching approx.80-85% of
the motor rated speed the load torque is equal to the motor torque and the acceleration ceases. To
reach the rated speed, a switch over to delta position is necessary, and this will very often resul t in
high transmission an current peaks. In some case the current peak can reach a value that is even
bigger than for a D.O.L. start. Application with a load torque higher than 50% of the motor rated
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torque will not be able to start using the start using the start-delta starter.
Fig. 12
5.3 AUTOTRANSFORMER
In this transformer , the variable voltage can be obtained. Adjustment of starting voltage by
proper tap on the Autotransformer. So, we can reduced the starting voltage is obtained by
tapping on Auto transformer. An autotransformer starter enables the start of squirrel cage
motors using a recued starting current, since the voltage is reduced during start. Contrary to a
star-delta connection is particularly widely used in English-speaking countries. During start-
up, the motor is connected to the autotransformer’s tapping. This means that the motor starts
Page 26of 64
up with a reduced voltage and a correspondingly low current. The autotransformer reduces
the current in the mains supply line further and in accordance with its ratio. Like the start
delta connection, the autotransformer starter has a favourable torque-current take-up ratio. In
order to adapt the motor start characteristics to the torque requirement.
5.4 SOFTSTATER
A softstater has different characteristics to the other starting methods. It has thyristors in the
main circuit , and motor voltage is regulated with printed circuit board. The softstater makes
use of the fact that when the motor voltage is low during start, the starting current and
starting torque is also low, during the first part of the start the voltage to the motor is so low
that it is only able to adjust the play between the gear wheels or stretching driving belts or
chains etc. in other words, eliminating unnecessary jerks during the start. Gradually, the
voltage and the torque increase so that the machinery starts to accelerate. One of the benefits
with this starting methods is the possibility to adjust the torque to the exact need, whether the
application is loaded or not. In principle the full starting torque is available, but with the big
difference that the starting procedure is much more forgiving to the driven machinery, with
lower maintenance coasts as a result. Another feature of the softstarter is the softstop
function, which is very useful when stopping pumps where the problem is water hammering
in the pipe system at direct stop as for star-delta starter and direct-on-line starter. The
softstop function can also be used when stopping conveyor belts t prevent material from
damage when the belts stop too quickly
5.5 INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR DRIVE
A drive is a system or a device which is used to control the amount of power provided to a
load without wasting energy.
Motor drives:
 Saves Energy
 Controls Motor speed
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 Control Motor direction
 Control Motion profile
The frequency convertor is sometime also called VSB(Variable Speed Drive), VFD (Variable
Frequency Drive) or simply Drives, which is probably the most common name. the drive consist
primarily of two parts, one which converts AC (50 or 60 Hz) to DC and the second part which
converts the DC back to AC, but now with a variable frequency of 0-250 HZ. As the speed the
motor depends on the frequency this makes it possible to control the speed of the motor by
changing output frequency from the drive and this is a big advantage if there is a need for speed
regulation during a continuous run.
Number of drives are used in industries but most common used of AC Drives.
An AC Drives is a device for controlling the speed of an AC motor by controlling the frequency
of the voltage supplied to the motor. It does this first converting 3 phase 50 Hz AC power to DC
power. Then, by various switching mechanisms, it inverts this DC power in to pseudo sine waver
3 phase adjustable frequency alternating current for the connected motor. Because of this, some
people call AC drives “inverters,” although this technically incorrect.
The frequency coming in to the converter has a fixed frequency of 50Hz. However, the
adjustable frequency coming out of the inverter and going to the motor can be varied to suit the
application. There are two general types of solid state frequency control system available: six
step an pulse width modulated (PWM) control. All AC drives use the pulse width modulation
(PWM) method of frequency control, and that is the one we will concentrated on here.
AC Lines
Low Pass
Convertor Inverter
Filter
Fixed Variable
Frequency Frequency
Fig. 13
Page 28of 64
Three phase 50 Hz AC power is coming into the converter. The converter typically uses a rectifier
(which is solid state device that change AC to DC) to change the incoming 50Hz into a rectified DC
voltage.
Rectifier
DC Voltage
AC Line voltage (rectified)
(non –rectified) V
V
t
t
Fig. 14
AC Voltage
DC voltage (inverted)
(non inverted)
V V
Inverter
t t
Fig. 15
The inverter section produces an AC output which is fed to the motor. Positive and negative
switching occurs within the inverter which produces group of voltage pulses. The output frequency
of an PWM drive is controlled by applying positive pulses in one half cycle, and negative pulses in
the next half cycle. The pulses within each group have varying widths that correspond to voltage
values. Notice on the output side of the inverter that the narrow voltage pulses represents the lower
voltage values on the sine wave and that the wider voltage pulses represent higher voltage sine wave
values. The varying of the pulse width gives this method its name of Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM).This diagram is only showing 6 pulsed per half cycle. For each specific frequency, there is
an optimum number of pulses and pulse width that closely simulate a pure sine wave.
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6. COMPONENTS
6.1 RELAY
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical
circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one
or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835
Fig. 16
6.2 CONTACTORS
When a relay is used to switch a large amount of electrical power through its contacts, it is
designated by a special name: contactor. Contactors typically have multiple contacts, and those
contacts are usually (but not always) normally-open, so that power to the load is shut off when
the coil is de-energized. Perhaps the most common industrial use for contactors is the control of
electric motors. The top three contacts switch the respective phases of the incoming 3-phase AC
power, typically at least 480 Volts for motors 1 horsepower or greater. The lowest contact is an
"auxiliary" contact which has a current rating much lower than that of the large motor power
contacts, but is actuated by the same armature as the power contacts. The auxiliary contact is
often used in a relay logic circuit, or for some other part of the motor control scheme, typically
switching 120 Volt AC power instead of the motor voltage. One contactor may have several
auxiliary contacts, either normally-open or normally-closed, if required.
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 A contactor is a large relay, usually used to switch current to an electric motor or other high
power load.
 Large electric motors can be protected from over current damage through the use of overload
heaters and overload contacts. If the series-connected heaters get too hot from excessive
current, the normally-closed overload contact will open, de-energizing the contactor sending
power to the motor.
Fig. 17
6.3 SOLID-STATE RELAYS

Many relay manufacturers offer "solid-state" relays, which use an SCR, TRIAC, or transistor
output instead of mechanical contacts to switch the controlled power. The output device
(SCR, TRIAC, or transistor) is optically-coupled to an LED light source inside the relay. The
relay is turned on by energizing this LED, usually with low-voltage DC power. This optical
isolation between input to output rivals the best that electromechanical relays can offer.
Page 31of 64
Fig. 18a Fig.18b

Being solid-state devices, there are no moving parts to wear out, and they are able to switch
on and off much faster than any mechanical relay armature can move. There is no sparking
between contacts, and no problems with contact corrosion. However, solid-state relays are
still too expensive to build in very high current ratings, and so electromechanical contactors
continue to dominate that application in industry today.
One significant advantage of a solid-state SCR or TRIAC relay over an electromechanical
device is its natural tendency to open the AC circuit only at a point of zero load current.
Because SCR's and TRIAC's are thyristors, their inherent hysteresis maintains circuit
continuity after the LED is de-energized until the AC current falls below a threshold value
(the holding current). In practical terms what this means is the circuit will never be
interrupted in the middle of a sine wave peak. Such untimely interruptions in a circuit
containing substantial inductance would normally produce large voltage spikes due to the
sudden magnetic field collapse around the inductance. This will not happen in a circuit
broken by an SCR or TRIAC. This feature is called zero-crossover switching. One
disadvantage of solid state relays is their tendency to fail "shorted" on their outputs, while
electromechanical relay contacts tend to fail "open." In either case, it is possible for a relay to
fail in the other mode, but these are the most common failures. Because a "fail-open" state is
generally considered safer than a "fail-closed" state, electromechanical relays are still favored
over their solid-state counterparts in many applications.
6.4 TERMINAL BLOCKS

Terminal blocks are modular, insulated blocks that secure two or more wires together.
Terminal blocks consist of an insulating body and a clamping device. Their flexibility allows
wiring to be centralized and makes it easier to maintain complex control circuits. Terminal
blocks can be single feed through, dual level, dual level bridged, three level, three level
bridged, ground circuit terminals, disconnect or switch blocks, fuse holder or fuse blocks,
thermocouple blocks, I/O blocks, sensor specific blocks, or electronic circuit blocks. A single
feed through terminal block is a type of basic terminal block used for wire-to-wire
connections where the wire feeds through one side and out the other. Single feed through
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terminal blocks have one input and one output contact. Dual level blocks are also called
double level and two tier, these terminal blocks have two levels of contacts.
They are used to save space and simplify wiring. Dual level bridged are also called double
level and two tier, these terminal blocks have two levels of contacts. They are used to save
space and simplify wiring. Bridged terminal blocks use a "bridge" to connect one level to
another for increased circuit flexibility.
Fig. 19
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical
circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and
then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to
resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that
protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage
circuits feeding an entire city.
1) Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of
the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if
the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or
"positive trip" operation.
2) Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.
3) Contacts - Allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart.
4) Terminals
5) Bimetallic strip
6) Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after
assembly.
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7) Solenoid
8) Arc divider / extinguisher
6.5 MOTOR PROTECTION CIRCUIT BREAKERS (MPCB)

Motor Protection Circuit Breakers provide overload and short circuit protection for your
motor control applications and saves panel space.
6.6 EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER (ELCB)

An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical installations
with high earth impedance to prevent shock.
Many electrical installations have a relatively high earth impedance. This may be due to the
use of a local earth rod (TT systems), or to dry local ground conditions.
These installations are dangerous and a safety risk if a live to earth fault current flows.
Because earth impedance is high,
1) not enough current exists to trip a fuse or circuit breaker, so the condition persists uncleared
indefinitely
2) the high impedance earth cannot keep the voltage of all exposed metal to a safe voltage, all
such metalwork may rise to close to live conductor voltage.
6.7 RESIDUAL CURRENT CIRCUIT BREAKERS

An RCCB provides protection against earth faults occurring in equipment and reduces the
effects of electrical shock on human beings and thus saves lives. An RCCB measures the
current flowing in the live and neutral cables and if there is an imbalance, that is current
flowing to earth above the RCCB sensitivity, the RCCB will trip and cut off the supply.
6.8 CIRCUIT BREAKER

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit
6.9 MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER (MCB)

MCB rated current not more than 100A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable.
Thermal or thermal magnetic operation.
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6.10 MOLDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKER (MCCB)

MCCB rated current up to 1000 A. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation. Trip current may be
adjustable in large ratings.
7. SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTS
A basic instrument system consists of three elements:

i SENSOR or INPUT DEVICE
ii SIGNAL PROCESSOR
iii RECEIVER or OUTPUT DEVICE
This tutorial is devoted to input devices but you can never separate it from the rest of the system as
in many cases they are all integral (e.g. a mechanical pressure gauge incorporates all of these
elements). A block diagram of a basic system is shown but they are usually more complex.
Fig. 20
Page 35of 64
Most modern analogue equipment works on the following standard signal ranges.
Electric 4 to 20 mA
Pneumatic 0.2 to 1.0 bar
Older electrical equipment use 0 to 10 V. Increasingly the instruments are digital with a binary
digital encoder built in to give a binary digital output. Pneumatic signals are commonly used in
process industries for safety especially when there is a risk of fire or explosion. The advantage of
having a standard range or using digital signals is that all equipment may be purchased ready
calibrated. For analogue systems the minimum signal (Temperature, speed, force, pressure and so on
is represented by 4 mA or 0.2 bar and the maximum signal is represented by 20 mA or 1.0 bar.
This tutorial is an attempt to familiarise you with the many types of input sensors on the market
today. Usually such sensors are called PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS.
Things that we commonly measure are:
Temperature Pressure
Speed Flow rate
Force Movement, Velocity and Acceleration
Stress and Strain Level or Depth
Mass or Weight Density
Size or Volume Acidity/Alkalinity
Sensors may operate simple on/off switches to detect the following:
Objects (Proximity switch) Empty or full (level switch)

Hot or cold (thermostat) Pressure high or low (pressure switch)
The block diagram of a sensor is shown below.
Page 36of 64
Figure 2
8. TRANSDUCERS
8.1 THERMOCOUPLES
When two wires with dissimilar electrical properties are joined at both ends and one junction is made
hot and the other cold, a small electric current is produced proportional to the difference in the
temperature. Seebeck discovered this effect. It is true no matter how the ends are joined so the cold
end may be joined at a sensitive millivolt meter. The hot junction forms the sensor end.
Fig. 21
Peltier showed that heat is absorbed at the hot end and rejected at the cold end. Thompson showed
that part ofthe e.m.f. is due to the temperature gradient in the wire as well as the temperature
difference between the junctions. Most thermocouple metals produce a relationship between the two
temperatures and the e.m.f as follows.
The relationship is nearly linear over the operating range.The actual characteristic and suitable
operating temperatures depends upon the metals used in the wires. Thevarious types are designated
in international and national standards. Typical linear operating ranges are shown for standard types.
It is important that thermocouples are standard so that the same e.m.f will always represent the same
temperature.
Type J 0 to 800oC
Type K 0 to 1200oC
Type T -199 to 250oC
Page 37of 64
Type E 0 to 600oC
Type R/S 0 to 1600oC
Type B 500 to 1800oC
Type N 0 to 1200oC
Type L 0 to 800oC
Thermocouples come in several forms. They may be wires insulated from each other with plastic or
glass fibre materials. For high temperature work, the wire pairs are put inside a
tube with mineral insulation. For industrial uses the sensor comes in a metal enclosure such as
stainless steel.
8.2 RESISTANCE TYPE SENSORS
Fig. 22
These work on the principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor change with temperature. If
a constant voltage is applied to the conductor then the current flowing through it will change with
temperature. The resistivity of the conductor change with temperature. A basic temperature sensor is
made by winding a thin resistance wire into a small sensor head. The resistance of the wire then
represents the temperature. This has an advantage over a thermocouple in that it is unaffected by the
temperature of the gauge end. The main type of wire used is PLATINUM. The sensors are usually
manufactured to have a resistance of 100 at 0oC and the value of is 0.00385 to 0.00390. A
typical operating range is -200 to 400oC.
A special type of resistance sensor is called a THERMISTOR. They are made from a small
piece of semiconductor material. The material is special because the resistance changes a lot for a
small change in temperature and so can be made into a small sensor and it costs less than platinum
wire. The temperature range is limited.
Page 38of 64
They are only used for a typical range of -20 to 120oC and are commonly used in small hand held
thermometers for every day use.
Fig. 23
8.3 LIQUID EXPANSION and VAPOUR PRESSURE SENSORS
These are thermometers filled with either a liquid such as mercury or an evaporating fluid such as
used in refrigerators. In both cases the inside of the sensor head and the connecting tube are
completely full. Any rise in temperature produces expansion or evaporation of the liquid so the
sensor becomes pressurized. The pressure is related to the temperature and it may be indicated on a
simple pressure gauge. Ways and means exist to convert the pressure into an electrical signal. The
movement may also directly operate a thermostat. These instruments are robust and used over a wide
range. They can be fitted with electric switches to set off alarms.
Fig. 24
8.4 BIMETALLIC TYPES
It is a well-known principle that if two metals are rigidly joined together as a two-layer strip and
heated, the difference in the expansion rate causes the strip to bend.
Page 39of 64
Fig. 25
In the industrial type, the strip is twisted into a long thin coil inside a tube. One end is fixed at the
bottom of the tube and the other turns and moves a pointer on a dial. The outward appearance is very
similar to the pressure type. They can be made to operate limit switches and set off alarms or act as a
thermostat. (e.g. on a boiler).
8.5 GLASS THERMOMETER
The ordinary glass thermometer is also a complete system. Again the bulb is the sensor but the
column of liquid and the scale on the glass is the processor and indicator. Mercury is used for hot
temperatures and coloured alcohol for cold temperatures.
Fig. 26
The problems with glass thermometers are that they are
 Brittle
 Mercury solidifies at -40oC.
 Alcohol boils at around 120 oC.
 Accurate manufacture is needed and this makes accurate ones expensive.
 It is easy for people to make mistakes reading them.
Page 40of 64
Glass thermometers are not used much now in industry but if they are usually protected by a shield
from accidental breakage. In order to measure the temperature of something inside a pipe they are
placed in thermometer pockets.
8.6. PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

Pressure sensors either convert the pressure into mechanical movement or into an electrical output.
Complete gauges not only sense the pressure but indicate them on a dial or scale. Mechanical
movement is produced with the following elements.
 Bourdon Tube.
 Spring and Piston.
 Bellows and capsules.
 Diaphragm.
8.6.1 BOURDON TUBE
Fig. 27
The Bourdon tube is a hollow tube with an elliptical cross section. When a pressure difference exists
between the inside and outside, the tube tends to straighten out and the end moves. The movement is
usually coupled to a needle on a dial to make a complete gauge. It can also be connected to a
secondary device such as an air nozzle to control air pressure or to a suitable transducer to convert it
into an electric signal. This type can be used for measuring pressure difference.
8.6.2 PISTON TYPE
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The pressure acts directly on the piston and compresses the spring. The position of the piston is
directly related to the pressure. A window in the outer case allows the pressure to be indicated. This
type is usually used in hydraulics where the ability to withstand shock, vibration and sudden pressure
changes is needed (shock proof gauge). The piston movement may be connected to a secondary
device to convert movement into an electrical signal.
Fig. 28
8.6.3. CAPSULES AND BELLOWS

A bellows is made of several capsules. These are hollow flattened structures made from thin metal
plate. When pressurised the bellows expand and produce mechanical movement. If the bellows is
encapsulated inside an outer container, then the movement is proportional to the difference between
the pressure on the inside and outside. Bellows and single capsules are used in many instruments.
They are very useful for measuring small pressures.
Fig. 29
Page 42of 64
8.6.4 DIAPHRAGMS
These are similar in principle to the capsule but the diaphragm is usually very thin and perhaps made
of rubber. The diaphragm expands when very small pressures are applied. The movement is
transmitted to a pointer on a dial through a fine mechanical linkage.
Fig. 30
8.6.5 ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

There are various ways of converting the mechanical movement of the preceding types into an
electric signal. The following are types that directly produce an electric signal.
 Strain Gauge types.
 Piezo electric types.
 Other electric effects.
Strain Gauge Types
Page 43of 64
Fig. 31a Fig. 31b
The principles of electric strain gauges are covered later. Strain gauges are small elements that are
fixed to a surface that is strained. The change in length of the element produces changes in the
electrical resistance. This is processed and converted into a voltage. A typical pressure transducer
would contain a metal diaphragm which
bends under pressure.
Piezo Electric Types

The element used here is a piece of crystalline material that produces an electric charge on its surface
when it is mechanically stressed. The electric charge may be converted into voltage. This principle is
used in the pick up crystal of a record player, in microphones and even to generate a spark in a gas
ignitor. When placed inside a pressure transducer, the pressure is converted into an electric signal.
Other Electric Effects
Other electric effects commonly used in transducers are CAPACITIVE and INDUCTIVE. In these
cases, the pressure produces a change in the capacitance or inductance of an electronic component in
the transducer. Both these effects are commonly used in an electronic oscillator and one way they
may be used is to change the
frequency of the oscillation. The frequency may be converted into a voltage representing the
pressure.
8.7 SPEED TRANSDUCERS

Speed transducers are widely used for measuring the output speed of a rotating object. There are
many types using different principles and most of them produce an electrical output.
8.8 OPTICAL TYPES
Page 44of 64
Fig. 32
These use a light beam and a light sensitive cell. The beam is either reflected or interrupted so that
pulses are produced for each revolution. The pulses are then counted over a fixed time and the speed
obtained. Electronic processing is required to time the pulses and turn the result into an analogue or
digital signal.
8.9 TACHOMETERS
There are two types, A.C. and D.C. The A.C. type generates a
sinusoidal output. The frequency of the voltage represents the speed
of rotation. The frequency must be counted and processed. The D.C.
type generates a voltage directly proportional to the speed. Both types
must be coupled to the rotating body. very often the tachometer is
built into electric motors to measure their speed. Fig. 33
8.10 FLOW METERS

There are many hundreds of types of flow meters depending on the make and application. They may
be classified roughly as follows.
 POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT TYPES
 INFERENTIAL TYPES
 VARIABLE AREA TYPES
 DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE TYPES
Positive Displacement Types
Page 45of 64
These types have a mechanical element that makes the shaft of the meter rotate once for an exact
known quantity of fluid. The quantity of fluid hence depends on the number of revolutions of the
meter shaft and the flow rate depends upon the speed of rotation. Both the revolutions and speed
may be measured with mechanical or electronic devices. Some of the most common listed below.
Inferential Type Meters
The flow of the fluid is inferred from some effect produced by the flow. Usually this is a rotor which
is made to spin and the speed of the rotor is sensed mechanically or electronically. The main types
are:
Variable Area Types
There are two main types of this meter
 Float type (Rotameter)
 Tapered plug type.
Float Type
The float is inside a tapered tube. The fluid flows through the annular gap around the edge of the
float. The restriction causes a pressure drop over the float and the pressure forces the float upwards.
Because the tube is tapered, the restriction is decreased as the float moves up. Eventually a level is
reached where the restriction is just right to produce a pressure force that counteracts the weight of
the float. The level of the float indicates the flow rate. If the flow changes the float moves up or
down to find a new balance position. When dangerous fluids are used, protection is needed against
the tube fracturing. The tube may be made of a non-magnetic metal. The float has a magnet on it. As
it moves up and down, the magnet moves a follower and pointer on the outside. The position of the
float may be measured electrically by building a movement transducer
into the float.
A typical load cell consists of a metal cylinder with strain gauges fixed to it. When the cylinder is
stretched or compressed, the strain gauges convert the force into a change in resistance and hence
voltage. Since the elements require a supply voltage, the cell usually has 4 wires, two for the supply
and two for the output.
8.11 POSITION SENSORS
Page 46of 64
Position sensors are essential elements in the control of actuators. The position of both linear
and rotary actuators is needed in robotic type mechanisms. There are three principle types.
 RESISTIVE
 OPTICAL
 INDUCTIVE
Resistive Types
Fig. 34
Figure 28
A potentiometer is a variable electrical resistance. A length of resistance material has a voltage
applied over its ends. A slider moves along it (either linear or rotary) and picks off the voltage at its
position or angle. The tracks may be made from carbon, resistance wire or piezo resistive material.
The latter is the best because it gives a good analogue output. The wire wound type produces small
step changes in the output depending on how fine the wire is and how closely it is coiled on the
track.
Optical Types
Fig. 35
Optical types are mainly used for producing digital outputs. A common example is found on machine
tools where they measure the position of the work table and display it in digits on the gauge head.
Page 47of 64
Digital micrometers and verniers also use this idea. The basic principle is as follows. Light is emitted
through a transparent strip or disc onto a photo electric cell. Often reflected light is used as shown.
The strip or disc has very fine lines engraved on it which interrupt the beam. The number of
interruptions are counted electronically and this represents the position or angle. This is very much
over simplified and you should refer to more advanced text to find out how very accurate
measurements are obtained and also the direction of movement.
Inductive Types
Fig. 36a Fig. 36b

The most common of these is the Linear Variable Differential transformer or LVDT. The transformer
is made with one primary coil and two secondary coils, one placed above and the other below the
primary. The coils are formed into a long narrow hollow tube. A magnetic core slides in the tube and
is attached to the mechanism being monitored with a non magnetic stem (e.g. brass). A constant
alternating voltage is applied to the primary coil. This induces a voltage in both secondary coils.
When the core is exactly in the middle, equal voltages are induced and when connected as shown,
Page 48of 64
they cancel each other out. When the core moves, the voltage in one secondary coil grows but
reduces in the other. The result is an output voltage which represents the position of the core and
hence the mechanism to which it is attached. The output voltage is usually converted into D.C. With
suitable electronic equipment for phase detection, it is possible to detect which direction the core
moves and to switch the DC voltage from plus to minus as the core passes the centre position. These
can be very accurate and are widely used for gauging the dimensions of machined components.
8.12 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

One of the problems with strain gauges is that the resistance also changes with temperature
and so it is vital that each pair of resistors is maintained at the same temperature. If one active gauge
is used, say R1, then the other resistor R2 must be placed near to it and this is best done by using a
DUMMY GAUGE fixed close to the active gauge but in a position where it is unstrained. Better
still, make R2 another active gauge and so double the output from the bridge. For example, if a beam
is used to produce the strain, one gauge is placed on top and the other on the bottom as shown. Let
R1 increase and R2 decrease by R. The voltage at point 1 becomes:-
8.13 ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL SENSORS
Analogue Sensors
Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally proportional to
the quantity being measured. Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure,
Displacement, Strain etc are all analogue quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature. For
example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a thermometer or thermocouple which
continuously responds to temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.
Page 49of 64
Digital Sensors
As its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a discrete output signal or voltage that is a digital
representation of the quantity being measured. Digital sensors produce a Binary output signal in the
form of a logic "1" or a logic "0", ("ON" or "OFF"). This means then that a digital signal only
produces discrete (non-continuous) values which may be outputted as a single "bit", (serial
transmission) or by combining the bits to produce a single "byte" output (parallel transmission).
8.14 INDUCTIVE SENSORS
One type of positional sensor that does not suffer from mechanical wear problems is the "Linear
Variable Differential Transformer" or LVDT for short. This is an inductive type positional device
which works on the same principle as the AC transformer. It is a very accurate device for measuring
linear distances and whose output is proportional to the position of its moveable core. It basically
consists of three coils wound on a hollow tube former, one forming the Primary coil and the other
two coils forming identical Secondaries connected electrically together in series but 180 o out of
phase either side of the primary coil. A moveable soft iron ferromagnetic core (sometimes called an
"armature") which is connected to the object being measured, slides or moves up and down inside
the tube. A small AC reference voltage called the "excitation signal" (2 - 20V rms, 2 - 20kHz) is
applied to the primary winding which inturn induces an EMF signal into the two adjacent secondary
windings (transformer principles).
If the soft iron magnetic core armature is exactly in the centre of the tube and the windings, the two
induced emf's in the two secondary windings cancel each other out as they are 180 o out of phase, so
the resultant output voltage is zero. As the core is moved slightly to one side or the other the induced
voltage in one of the secondaries will be become greater than that of the other secondary and an
output will be produced with the polarity of the output signal depending upon the direction of the
moving core. The greater the movement of the soft iron core from its central position the greater will
be the resulting output signal and the result is a differential voltage output which varies linearly with
the cores position. Therefore, the output signal has an amplitude that is a linear function of the cores
displacement. The phase of the output signal can be compared to the primary coil excitation phase
enabling suitable electronic circuits such as the AD592 LDVT Sensor Amplifier to know which half
of the coil the magnetic core is in and thereby know the direction of travel.
Page 50of 64
The Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Fig. 37
When the armature is moved from one end to the other through the centre position the output
voltages changes from maximum to zero and back to maximum again but in the process changes its
phase angle by 180 degs. This enables the LVDT to produce an output AC signal whose magnitude
represents the amount of movement from the centre position and whose phase angle represents the
direction of movement of the core. A typical application of this type of sensor would be a pressure
transducers, were the pressure being measured pushes against a diaphragm to produce a force. The
force moves the inner core of the LVDT and thus produces an output voltage or a displacement
transducer where the movement or position of a system is monitored. Linearity, that is its voltage
output to displacement is excellent and LVDT´s offers good accuracy, resolution and sensitivity as
well as frictionless operation.
8.15 ROTARY ENCODERS.
Rotary Encoders resemble potentiometers mentioned earlier but are non-contact optical devices
used for converting the angular position of a rotating shaft into an analogue or digital data code. All
Page 51of 64
optical encoders work on the same basic principle. Light from an LED or Infrared light source is
passed through a rotating high-resolution encoded disk that contains the required code patterns,
either binary, grey code or BCD. Photodetectors scan the disk as it rotates and an electronic circuit
processes the information into a digital form as a stream of binary output pulses that are fed to
counters or controllers which determine the actual angular position of the rotating shaft.
There are two basic types of rotary optical encoders, Incremental and Absolute Position.
8.16 INCREMENTAL ENCODER
Incremental Encoders are the simplest of the two devices. Their output is a series of square wave
pulses generated by a photocell arrangement as the code disk, with evenly spaced transparent and
dark lines (slotted types are also available) on its surface, moves or rotates past the light source. The
encoder produces a stream of square wave pulses which, when counted, indicates the angular
position of the rotating shaft. The number of transparent and dark lines or slots on the disk
determines the resolution of the device and increasing the number of lines in the pattern increases the
resolution per degree of rotation. Typical encoded discs have a resolution of up to 256 pulses or 8-
bits per rotation.
The simplest incremental encoder is called a tachometer. It has one single square wave output and is
often used in unidirectional applications where basic position or speed information only is required.
The "Quadrature" or "Sine wave" encoder is the more common and has two output square waves
commonly called Channel A and Channel B. This device uses two photodetectors, slightly offset
from each other by 90o thereby producing two separate Sine and Cosine output signals. By using the
Arc Tangent mathematical function the angle of the shaft in radians can be calculated. Also the
direction of rotation is determined by noting which channel produces an output first, channel A or
channel B. This arrangement is shown below.
Page 52of 64
Example of a simple Incremental coded disc
Fig. 38
One main disadvantage of incremental encoders is that they require external counters to determine
the absolute angle of the shaft within a given rotation. If the power is momentarily shut off, or if the
encoder misses a pulse due to noise or a dirty disc, the resulting angular information will produce an
error. One way of overcoming this disadvantage is to use Absolute Position Encoders.
8.17 LIGHT SENSORS

Light Sensors are used to measure the radiant energy that exists in a very narrow range of
frequencies basically called "light", and which ranges in frequency from "Infrared" to "Visible" up to
"Ultraviolet" light. Light sensors are passive devices that convert this "light energy" whether visible
or in the infrared parts of the spectrum into an electrical signal output. Light sensors are more
commonly known as "Photoelectric Devices" or "Photosensors" which can be grouped into two main
categories, those which generate electricity when illuminated, such as Photovoltaics or
Photoemissives etc, and those which change their electrical properties such as Photoresistors or
Photoconductors. This leads to the following classification of devices.
 Photo-emissive Cells - These are photodevices which release free electrons from a light
sensitive material such as caesium when struck by light.
 Photo-conductive Cells - These photodevices vary their electrical resistance when
subjected to light. The most common photoconductive material is Cadmium Sulphide
 Photo-voltaic Cells - These photodevices generate an e.m.f. in proportion to the radiant
light energy received. The most common photovoltaic material is Selenium.
Page 53of 64
 Photo-junction Devices - These photodevices are mainly semiconductor devices such as
the photodiode or phototransistor which use light to control the flow of electrons and holes
across their PN-junction.
The Photoconductive Cell.

Photoconductive light sensors change their physical properties when subjected to light energy. The
most common type of photoconductive device is the Photoresistor which changes its electrical
resistance in response to changes in the light intensity. Photoresistors are Semiconductor devices that
use light energy to control the flow of electrons, and hence the current flowing through them. The
commonly used Photoconductive Cell is called the Light Dependant Resistor or LDR.
The Light Dependant Resistor.

As its name implies, the Light Dependant Resistor is a resistive light sensor that changes its
electrical resistance from several thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few hundred Ohms when light
falls upon it. The net effect is a decrease in resistance for an increase in illumination. Materials used
as the semiconductor substrate include, Lead Sulphide, (PbS) Lead Selenide, (PbSe) Indium
Antimonide, (InSb) which detect light in the INFRARED range and the most commonly used of all
is Cadmium Sulphide (Cds), as its spectral response curve closely matches that of the human eye
and can even be controlled using a simple torch as a light source. Typically it has a peak sensitivity
wavelength (λp) of about 560nm to 600nm in the visible spectral range.
Page 54of 64
The Light Dependant Resistor Cell
Fig. 39
The most commonly used photoresistive light sensors is the ORP12 Cadmium Sulphide
photoconductive cell. This light depedant resistor has a spectral response of about 610nm in the
yellow to orange region of light. The resistance of the cell when unilluminated (dark resistance) is
very high at about 10MΩ's which falls to about 100Ω's when fully illuminated (lit resistance). To
increase the dark resistance and therefore reduce the dark current, the resistive path forms a zigzag
pattern across the ceramic substrate. The CdS photocell is a very low cost device often used in auto
dimming, darkness or twilight detection for turning the street lights "ON" and "OFF", and for
photographic exposure meter type applications.
One simple use of a Light Dependant Resistor, is as a light sensitive switch as shown below.
Page 55of 64
Fig. 40
This basic light sensor circuit is of a relay output light activated switch. A potential divider circuit is
formed between the photoresistor, LDR and the resistor R1. When no light is present i.e. in darkness,
the resistance of the LDR is very high in the Mega ohms range so zero base bias is applied to the
transistor TR1 and the relay is de-energized or "OFF". As the light level increases the resistance of
the LDR starts to decrease causing the base bias voltage at V1 to rise. At some point determined by
the potential divider network formed with resistor R1, the base bias voltage is high enough to turn
"ON" the transistor TR1 and thus activate the relay which inturn is used to control some external
circuitry. As the light level falls back to darkness again the resistance of the LDR increases causing
the base voltage of the transistor to decrease, turning the transistor and relay "OFF" at a fixed light
level determined again by the potential divider network.
By replacing the fixed resistor R1 with a potentiometer VR1, the point at which the relay turns "ON"
or "OFF" can be pre-set to a particular light level. This type of simple circuit shown above has a
fairly low sensitivity and its switching point may not be consistent due to variations in either
temperature or the supply voltage. A more sensitive precision light activated circuit can be easily
made by incorporating the LDR into a "Wheatstone Bridge" arrangement and replacing the transistor
with an Operational Amplifier as shown.
Photojunction Devices
Photojunction Devices are basically PN-Junction light sensors or detectors made from silicon
semiconductors and which can detect both visible light and infrared light levels. This class of
photoelectric light sensors include the Photodiode and the Phototransistor.
Page 56of 64
The Photodiode.
The construction of the Photodiode light sensor is similar to that of a conventional PN-junction
diode except that the diodes outer casing is transparent so that light can fall upon the junction. LED's
can also be used as photodiodes as they can both emit and detect light. All PN-junctions are light
sensitive and can be used in a photoconductive (PC) mode with the PN-junction of the photodiode
always "Reverse Biased" so that only the diodes leakage or dark current can flow. This reverse bias
condition causes an increase of the depletion region which is the sensitive part of the junction.
Photo-diode Construction and Characteristics
Fig. 41
The photodiodes dark current (0 lux) is about 10uA for geranium and 1uA for silicon type diodes.
When light falls upon the junction more hole/electron pairs are formed and the leakage current
increases. The leakage current increases as the illumination of the junction increases. Diode current
is directly proportional to light intensity. One main advantage of photodiodes when used as light
sensors is their fast response to changes in the light levels, but one disadvantage of this type of
photodevice is the relatively small current flow even when fully lit.
Photodiodes are very versatile light sensors and are commonly used in cameras, light meters, CD
and DVD-ROM drives, TV remote controls, scanners, fax machines and copiers etc, and when
integrated into operational amplifier circuits as infrared spectrum detectors for fibre optic
Page 57of 64
communications, burglar alarm motion detection circuits and numerous imaging, laser scanning and
positioning systems etc.
The Phototransistor.
An alternative photojunction device to the photodiode is the Phototransistor which is basically a
photodiode with amplification and operates by exposing its base region to the light source.
Phototransistor light sensors operate the same as photodiodes except that they can provide current
gain and are much more sensitive than the photodiode with currents are 50 - 100 times greater than
that of the standard photodiode.
Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar NPN Transistor with the collector-base PN-junction
reverse-biased. The phototransistor´s large base region is left electrically unconnected and uses
photons of light to generate a base current which inturn causes a collector to emitter current to flow.
Photo-transistor Construction and Characteristics
Fig. 42
In the NPN transistor the collector is biased positively with respect to the emitter so that the
base/collector junction is reverse biased. therefore, with no light on the junction normal leakage or
Page 58of 64
dark current flows which is very small. When light falls on the base more electron/hole pairs are
formed in this region and the current produced by this action is amplified by the transistor. The
sensitivity of a phototransistor is a function of the DC current gain of the transistor. Therefore, the
overall sensitivity is a function of collector current and can be controlled by connecting a resistance
between the base and the emitter but for very high sensitivity optocoupler type applications,
Darlington phototransistors are generally used.
Photodarlington transistors use a second bipolar NPN transistor to provide additional amplification
or when higher sensitivity of a photodetector are required, but its response is slower than that of an
ordinary NPN phototransistor. It consists of a normal phototransistor whose emitter output is coupled
to the base of a larger bipolar NPN transistor. Because a darlington transistor configuration gives a
current gain equal to a product of the current gains of two individual transistors, a photodarlington
device produces a very sensitive detector.
Typical applications of Phototransistors light sensors are in opto-isolators, slotted opto switches,
light beam sensors, fibre optics and TV type remote controls, etc. Infrared filters are sometimes
required when detecting visible light.
Another type of photojunction semiconductor light sensor worth a mention is the Photothyristor.
This is a light activated thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier, SCR that can be used as a light
activated switch in a.c. applications. However their sensitivity is usually very low compared to
photodiodes or phototransistors, as to increase their sensitivity to light they are made thinner around
the gate junction which inturn limits the amount of current that they can switch. Then for higher
current applications they are used as pilot devices in opto-couplers to switch larger more
conventional thyristors.
Photovoltaic Cells.
The most common type of photovoltaic light sensor is the Solar Cell. This device converts light
energy directly into electrical energy in the form of a voltage or current. Solar cells are used in many
different types of applications to offer an alternative power source from conventional batteries, such
as in calculators and satellites. Photovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon PN junctions,
the same as photodiodes with a very large light sensitive region but are used without the reverse bias.
Page 59of 64
They have the same characteristics as photodiodes when in the dark. When illuminated the light
energy causes electrons to flow through the PN junction and an individual solar cell can generate an
open circuit voltage of about 0.58v (580mV). Solar cells have a "Positive" and a "Negative" side just
like a battery.
Individual solar cells can be connected together in series to form solar panels which increases the
output voltage or connected together in parallel to increase the available current. Commercially
available solar panels are rated in Watts, which is the product of the output voltage and current (VxI)
when fully lit.
Characteristics of a typical Photovoltaic Solar Cell
Fig. 43
The amount of available current from a solar cell depends upon the light intensity, the size of the cell
and its efficiency which is generally very low at around 20%. To increase the overall efficiency of
the cell commercially available solar cells use Polycrystalline Silicon and Amorphous silicon, which
has no crystalline structure and can generate currents of between 20 to 40mA per cm 2. Other
materials used include Gallium Arsenide, Copper Indium Diselenide and Cadmium Telluride. These
different materials each have a different spectrum band response, and so can be "tuned" to produce
an output voltage at different wavelengths of light.
10 IMPORTANT CIRCUITS
DIRECT –ON- LINE (DOL)
Page 60of 64
Fig. 44
STAR- DELTA
Page 61of 64
Fig. 45
Page 62of 64
11. BILL OF MATERIAL (BOM)
It is list of the raw material, sub-assemblies, intermediate assemblies, sub-components, components,

parts and quantities of each needed to manufacture an end item (final product) it may be used for
communication between manufacturing partners, of confined to a single manufacturing plant.
A BOM can be defined products as they are designed (engineering bill of materials),a s they ordered
(sales bill of materials), as they are built ( manufacturing bill of materials), or as they are maintained
(service bill of materials).
Bill of material
S.NO. DESCRIPTION RATING

1. Panel Enclosure
760(H) x760(W) x300(O)
2. MCB 1 DP 10Amp
3. MCB 2 DP 6Amp
4. MCB 3 DP 2Amp
5. MCB 4 DP 4Amp
6. Fuse with base 4amp
7. Power supply 5amp
8. Relay Board 8CH
9. 24 VDC Terminal (24VDC, 0VDC) 2.5 Square MV
10. 110 VAC Terminal 2.5 Square MV
Power Terminal 6/4/40 Square width
Page 63of 64

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Industrial Automation

A PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC) is an industrial computer control system that

Micrologix 1100 Siemens S7 200

2.3 OPERATION OF PLC

PLC SCAN CYCLE

Check input status

Update output status

2.5 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE USED IN A PLC

1.6 INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES

2.7 CIRCUIT ISOLATION IN PLC

2.8 SINKING AND SOURCING

3.1 SCADA SYSTEM USUALLY CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING SUBSYSTEMS.

3.2 SCADA Architectures

3.3 FEATURES OF SCADA SOFTWARE

3.3.1 Trend in SCADA

3.4 USED OF ANIMATION IN SCADA

3.5 LIBRARY IN RSVIEW

The data sources for a tag can be:-

3.6 DDE and OPC

3.7 Application of SCADA

Fig. 5 (a) & (b)

Above diagram is the animation of oil and gas plant.

4.2 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (VOLTAGE)

4.3 ELECTRIC CURRENT

4.7 DC ELECTRIC POWER

4.8 VOLTAGE DIVIDER CIRCUITS

4.9 CURRENT DIVIDER CIRCUIT

4.10 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Power Factor = cos = Z

i.e. induced emf, e N

4.14 LENZ’S LAW

5. DIFFERENT STARTING METHODS OF MOTOR

5.1 DIRECT –ON-LINE START (D.O.L.)

5.5 INTRODUCTION TO MOTOR DRIVE

6.3 SOLID-STATE RELAYS

Fig. 18a Fig.18b

6.4 TERMINAL BLOCKS

6.5 MOTOR PROTECTION CIRCUIT BREAKERS (MPCB)

6.6 EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER (ELCB)

6.7 RESIDUAL CURRENT CIRCUIT BREAKERS

6.8 CIRCUIT BREAKER

6.9 MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER (MCB)

6.10 MOLDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKER (MCCB)

7. SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTS

A basic instrument system consists of three elements:

Sensors may operate simple on/off switches to detect the following:

Objects (Proximity switch) Empty or full (level switch)

The block diagram of a sensor is shown below.

8.2 RESISTANCE TYPE SENSORS

8.5 GLASS THERMOMETER

8.6. PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

8.6.3. CAPSULES AND BELLOWS

8.6.5 ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

Piezo Electric Types

Other Electric Effects

8.7 SPEED TRANSDUCERS

8.8 OPTICAL TYPES

8.10 FLOW METERS

8.11 POSITION SENSORS

Fig. 36a Fig. 36b

8.12 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS

8.13 ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL SENSORS

8.14 INDUCTIVE SENSORS