Science

Atomic structure
Atoms consist of electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic
particles, with a negative charge and a negligible mass
relative to protons and neutrons. ] surrounding a nucleus
[nucleus: The central part of an atom. It contains protons
and neutrons, and has most of the mass of the atom. ] that
contains protons [protons: Sub-atomic particles with a
positive charge and a relative mass of 1. ] and neutrons
[neutrons: Uncharged sub-atomic particles, with a mass of
1 relative to a proton. ].
Neutrons are neutral, but protons and electrons are
electrically charged. Protons have a relative charge of
+1, while electrons have a relative charge of -1.
The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic
number. In the periodic table atoms are arranged in
atomic number order.
Electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells, and
different energy levels can hold different numbers of
electrons. The electronic structure of an atom is a
description of how the electrons are arranged, which
can be shown in a diagram or by numbers. There is a
link between the position of an element in the periodic
table and its electronic structure.

The structure of an atom

Although the word 'atom' comes from the Greek for
indivisible, we now know that atoms are not the smallest
particles of matter. Atoms are made from smaller
subatomic particles.
At the centre of an atom is a nucleus [nucleus: The central
part of an atom. It contains protons and neutrons, and has
most of the mass of the atom. ] containing protons
[protons: Sub-atomic particles with a positive charge and a
relative mass of 1. ] and neutrons [neutrons: Uncharged
sub-atomic particles, with a mass of 1 relative to a
proton. ]. Electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with a
negative charge and a negligible mass relative to protons
and neutrons. ] are arranged around the nucleus in energy
levels or shells. Make sure you can label a simple diagram
of an atom like this one.
Both protons and electrons have an electrical charge. Both
have the same size of electrical charge, but the proton is
positive and the electron negative. The neutron is neutral.

The electrical charge of particles

particle relative charge
proton +1
neutron 0
electron-1
The total number of electrons in an atom is always the
same as the number of protons in the nucleus. This means
atoms have no overall electrical charge.
The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic
number [atomic number: The number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom. Also called the proton number. ] - also
called the proton number. Atoms are arranged in the
periodic table in order of increasing atomic number. You
may need to re-visit the section in AQA GCSE Science on
the periodic table to check you recall it.

Energy levels and shells

Electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with a negative
charge and a negligible mass relative to protons and
neutrons. ] are arranged in different shells around the
nucleus [nucleus: The central part of an atom. It contains
protons and neutrons, and has most of the mass of the
atom. ]. The innermost shell - or lowest energy level - is
filled first. Each succeeding shell can only hold a certain
number of electrons before it becomes full. The innermost
shell can hold a maximum of two electrons, the second
shell a maximum of eight, and so on. The table gives the
maximum capacity of the first four shells - which is as
much as you need to know at GCSE.

Maximum capacity of the first four

shells
energy level or shellmaximum number of electrons
first 2
second 8
third 8
fourth 18
A lithium atom, for example, has three electrons. Two are
in the first energy level, and one in the second.
A carbon atom has six electrons. Two are in the first
energy level, and four in the second energy level.
Arrangement of electrons in a lithium atom

Arrangement of electrons in a carbon atom

Electronic structure 1
The electronic structure of an atom is a description of how
the electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with a
negative charge and a negligible mass relative to protons
and neutrons. ] are arranged. For your exam, you need to
be able to describe the electronic structure of the first 20
elements in the periodic table. You may need to re-visit the
section in AQA GCSE Science on the periodic table for
this.
The first 20 elements in the periodic table run from
hydrogen to calcium. Their electronic structures can be
shown either as diagrams or numbers. You need to know
how to do both.
Take lithium, for example. The drawing shows each energy
level as a circle around the nucleus, with each electron
represented by a dot. In the exam, do not worry about
colouring in the electrons. Just make them clear and
ensure they are in the right place. Sometimes you will be
asked to use a cross rather than a dot. The numerical
method is to write the chemical symbol (Li ) followed by the
number of electrons in each energy level, innermost first, Li
2,1.

Electronic structure of lithium

 Periodic
Numeric
Element Electrons table
format
group

Lithium atoms have three electrons.

Two of these fit into the first energy
Li 2,1 Group 1
level, with the third in the second
energy level.

Electronic structure 2
Below are some more electronic structures. Remember -
you need to learn the electronic structures of the first 20
elements.
The number of electrons in the highest occupied energy
level of each atom is the same as the element's group
number.

Electronic structures of elements

Periodic
Numeric
Element Electrons table
format
group

Fluorine atoms have nine electrons.

Two of these fit into the first energy
F 2,7 Group 7
level. The remaining seven fit into the
second energy level.

Neon atoms have ten electrons. Two

of these fit into the first energy level.
The remaining eight electrons fit into
Group 0 -
the second energy level. Because its
that is, the
Ne 2,8 highest occupied energy level is full,
eighth
neon is stable [stable: Atoms are
group
stable if their outer shell contains its
maximum number of electrons. ] and
unreactive.
 Periodic
Numeric
Element Electrons table
format
group

Sodium atoms have 11 electrons. Two

of these fit into the first energy level,
Na 2,8,1 eight into the second energy level. Group 1
The last one fits into the third energy
level.

Calcium atoms have 20 electrons.

Two of these fit into the first energy
Ca level, eight into the second energy
Group 2
2,8,8,2 level, another eight into the third
energy level. The last two fit into the
fourth energy level.

Electronic structure and

the periodic table
As you have seen, there is a link between an atom's
electronic structure and its position in the periodic table.
You can work out an atom's electronic structure from its
place in the periodic table.

Periodic table related to electronic structure

The diagram shows a section of the periodic table, with the
elements arranged as usual in the order of their atomic
number, from 2 to 20. The red numbers below each
chemical symbol show its electronic structure.
Moving across each period, you can see that the number
of occupied energy levels is the same as the period
number.
As you go across each period from left to right, an energy
level gradually becomes filled with electrons. The highest
occupied energy level contains just one electron on the
left-hand side of the table. It is filled by the time you get to
the right-hand side.
Moving down each group, you can see that the number of
electrons in the highest occupied energy level is the same
as the group number.
Each element in a group therefore has the same number of
electrons in its highest occupied energy level. Group 0 is a
partial exception to this rule. Although it comes after Group
7, it is not called Group 8 - and it contains helium, which
has only two electrons in its outer shell.

Working out an element's

electronic structure
Here is how to use the periodic table to work out an
electronic structure:

1. Find the element in the periodic table. Work out

which period it is in, and draw that number of circles
around the nucleus.
2. Work out which group the element is in and draw
that number of electrons in the outer circle - with eight
for Group 0 elements - except helium.
3. Fill the other circles with electrons. Remember -
two in the first, eight in the second and third, and 18
in the fourth.
4. Finally, count your electrons and check that they
equal the atomic number.

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Science
Ionic bonding
Ions are electrically charged particles formed when
atoms [atoms: An atom is the smallest part of an element
that still has the properties of that element, comprising
electrons surrounding a nucleus of protons and neutrons. ]
lose or gain electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic particles,
with a negative charge and a negligible mass relative to
protons and neutrons. ]. They have the same electronic
structures as noble gases.
Metal atoms form positive ions, while non-metal atoms
form negative ions. The strong electrostatic
[electrostatic: An electrostatic force is generated by
differences in electric charge (ie positive and negative)
between two particles. It can also refer to electricity at rest.
] forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions
are called ionic bonds.
Ionic compounds [ionic compound: An ionic compound
occurs when a negative ion (an atom that has gained an
electron) joins with a positive ion (an atom that has lost an
electron). The ions swap electrons to achieve a full outer
shell. ] have high melting and boiling points.

How ions form

Ions are electrically charged particles formed when atoms
lose or gain electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with
a negative charge and a negligible mass relative to protons
and neutrons. ]. This loss or gain leaves a complete
highest energy level, so the electronic structure of an ion is
the same as that of a noble gas - such as a helium, neon
or argon.
Metal atoms and non-metal atoms go in opposite directions
when they ionise:

• Metal atoms lose the electron, or electrons, in

their highest energy level and become positively
charged ions.
 • Non-metal atoms gain an electron, or electrons,
from another atom to become negatively charged
ions.

Positively charged sodium and aluminium ions

Negatively charged oxide and chloride ions

How many charges?

There is a quick way to work out what the charge on an ion
should be:

• the number of charges on an ion formed by a

metal is equal to the group number of the metal
• the number of charges on an ion formed by a
non-metal is equal to the group number minus eight
• hydrogen forms H+ ions

Group Group Group Group Group Group Group Group

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0
Example
Na Mg Al C N O Cl He
element
Charge 1+ 2+ 3+ Note 1 3- 2- 1- Note 2
Symbol of ion Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ Note 1 N3- O2- Cl- Note 2
Note 1: carbon and silicon in Group 4 usually form covalent
bonds [covalent bonds: A covalent bond between atoms
forms when atoms share electrons to achieve a full outer
shell of electrons. ] by sharing electrons.
Note 2: the elements in Group 0 do not react with other
elements to form ions.

Metal ions
You need to be able to show the electronic structure of
some common metal ions, using diagrams like these:

Lithium, Li

Lithium is in Group 1. It has one electron [electron: An

electron is a very small negatively-charged particle found in
an atom in the space surrounding the nucleus. ] in its
highest energy level. When this electron is lost, a lithium
ion Li+ is formed.

Sodium, Na

Sodium is also in Group 1. It has one electron in its highest

energy level. When this electron is lost, a sodium ion Na+ is
formed.

Neon atom
Note that a sodium ion has the same electronic structure
as a neon atom (Ne).
But be careful - a sodium ion is not a neon atom. This is
because the nucleus [nucleus: The central part of an atom.
It contains protons and neutrons, and has most of the
mass of the atom. ] of a sodium ion is the nucleus of a
sodium atom and has 11 protons - but the nucleus of a
neon atom has only 10.

Magnesium, Mg

Magnesium is in Group 2. It has two electrons in its highest

energy level. When these electrons are lost, a magnesium
ion Mg2+ is formed.
A magnesium ion has the same electronic structure as a
neon atom (Ne).

Calcium, Ca

Calcium is also in Group 2. It has two electrons in its

highest energy level. When these electrons are lost, a
calcium ion Ca2+ is formed.
A calcium ion has the same electronic structure as an
argon atom (Ar).

Non-metal ions
You need to be able to show the electronic structure of
some common non-metal ions, using diagrams like these:
Fluorine, F

Fluorine is in Group 7. It has seven electrons [electrons:

Sub-atomic particles, with a negative charge and a
negligible mass relative to protons and neutrons. ] in its
highest energy level. It gains an electron from another
atom in reactions, forming a fluoride ion, F-.
Note that the atom is called fluorine, but the ion is called
fluoride.

Neon atom
Note that a fluoride ion has the same electronic structure
as a neon atom (Ne).
Once again, a fluoride ion is not a neon atom, because the
nucleus [nucleus: The central part of an atom. It contains
protons and neutrons, and has most of the mass of the
atom. ] of a fluoride ion is the nucleus of a fluorine atom,
with 9 protons, and not of a neon atom, with 10.

Chlorine, Cl
Chlorine is in Group 7. It has seven electrons in its highest
energy level. It gains an electron from another atom in
reactions, forming a chloride ion, Cl-.

Oxygen, O

Oxygen is in Group 6. It has six electrons in its highest

energy level. It gains two electrons from one or two other
atoms in reactions, forming an oxide ion, O2-.

Ionic compounds and ionic

bonding
When metals react with non-metals, electrons [electrons:
Sub-atomic particles, with a negative charge and a
negligible mass relative to protons and neutrons. ] are
transferred from the metal atoms to the non-metal atoms,
forming ions [ions: Electrically charged particles, formed
when an atom or molecule gains or loses electrons. ]. The
resulting compound is called an ionic compound [ionic
compound: An ionic compound occurs when a negative ion
(an atom that has gained an electron) joins with a positive
ion (an atom that has lost an electron): The ions swap
electrons to achieve a full outer shell. ].
Consider reactions between metals and non-metals, for
example,

• sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride

• magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide
• calcium + chlorine → calcium chloride

In each of these reactions, the metal atoms give electrons

to the non-metal atoms. The metal atoms become positive
ions and the non-metal atoms become negative ions.
There is a strong electrostatic [electrostatic: An
electrostatic force is generated by differences in electric
charge (ie positive and negative) between two particles. It
can also refer to electricity at rest. ] force of attraction
between these oppositely charged ions, called an ionic
bond. The animation shows ionic bonds being formed in
sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and calcium chloride.
There are many ionic bonds in an ionic compound such
as sodium chloride, arranged in giant lattice [lattice: A
lattice is a regular grid-like arrangement of atoms in a
material. ] structures. Ionic compounds have high melting
and boiling points.

Dot-and-cross diagrams
You need to be able to draw dot-and-cross diagrams to
show the ions [ions: Electrically charged particles, formed
when an atom or molecule gains or loses electrons. ] in
some common ionic compounds [ionic compound: An ionic
compound occurs when a negative ion (an atom that has
gained an electron) joins with a positive ion (an atom that
has lost an electron). The ions swap electrons to achieve a
full outer shell. ].

Sodium chloride, NaCl

Sodium ions have the formula Na+, while chloride ions have
the formula Cl-. You need to show one sodium ion and one
chloride ion. In the exam, make sure the dots and crosses
are clear, but do not worry about colouring them.

Magnesium oxide, MgO

Magnesium ions have the formula Mg2+, while oxide ions

have the formula O2-. You need to show one magnesium
ion and one oxide ion.

Calcium chloride, CaCl2

Calcium ions have the formula Ca2+. Chloride ions have the
formula Cl-.
You need to show two chloride ions, because two chloride
ions are needed to balance the charge on a calcium ion.
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Science
Covalent bonding
A covalent bond is a strong bond between two non-
metal atoms [atoms: An atom is the smallest part of an
element that still has the properties of that element,
comprising electrons surrounding a nucleus of protons and
neutrons. ]. It consists of a shared pair of electrons
[electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with a negative charge
and a negligible mass relative to protons and neutrons. ]. A
covalent bond can be represented by a straight line or
dot-and-cross diagram.
Hydrogen and chlorine can each form one covalent
bond, oxygen two bonds, nitrogen three, while carbon
can form four bonds

Sharing electrons
You will need to understand what covalent bonding is, and
to remember some of the properties of molecules
[molecules: a collection of two or more atoms held together
by chemical bonds. The fundamental unit of compounds ]
that are formed in this way.
A covalent bond forms when two non-metal atoms [atoms:
An atom is the smallest part of an element that still has the
properties of that element, comprising electrons
surrounding a nucleus of protons and neutrons. ] share a
pair of electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with a
negative charge and a negligible mass relative to protons
and neutrons. ]. The electrons involved are in the highest
occupied energy levels - or outer shells - of the atoms. An
atom that shares one or more of its electrons will complete
its highest occupied energy level.
Covalent bonds are strong - a lot of energy is needed to
break them. Substances with covalent bonds often form
molecules with low melting and boiling points, such as
hydrogen and water.
Example - the animation shows a covalent bond being
formed between a hydrogen atom and a chlorine atom, to
form hydrogen chloride.
After bonding, the chlorine atom is now in contact with
eight electrons in its highest energy level - so it is stable
[stable: Atoms are stable if their outer shell contains its
maximum number of electrons. ]. The hydrogen atom is
now in contact with two electrons in its highest energy level
- so the hydrogen is also stable.

How many bonds?

Atoms may form multiple covalent bonds - that is, share
not just one pair of electrons but two or more pairs. Atoms
of different elements will form either one, two, three or four
covalent bonds with other atoms.
There is a quick way to work out how many covalent bonds
an element will form. The number of covalent bonds is
equal to eight minus the group number (you can brush up
on group numbers by reading through the section in AQA
GCSE Science on the periodic table). The table below
gives more detail on this rule:

Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7

example carbon nitrogen oxygen chlorine
number of bonds8 - 4 = 48 - 5 = 38 - 6 = 28 - 7 = 1
Hydrogen forms one covalent bond. The noble gases in
Group 0 do not form any.

Representing covalent
bonds
Covalent bonds [covalent bonds: A covalent bond between
atoms forms when atoms share electrons to achieve a full
outer shell of electrons. ] can be represented in several
different ways.

Straight lines and models

Straight lines are the most common way to represent
covalent bonds, with each line representing a shared pair
of electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with a
negative charge and a negligible mass relative to protons
and neutrons. ]. 2-D or 3-D molecular models are
especially useful for showing the relationship between
atoms in multiple covalent bonds. Below are some
examples of straight lines and images of 3-D models.

Models for covalent bonds

element formulachemical structureball-and-stick model

hydrogenH2

water H2O

ammonia NH3

methane CH4

Double and triple bonds

Note that molecules can have a double covalent bond -
meaning they have two shared pairs of electrons - or a
triple covalent bond - three shared pairs of electrons. A
double covalent bond is shown by a double line, and a
triple bond by a triple line.
A molecule of oxygen (O2) consists of two oxygen atoms
held together by a double bond, like this:
A molecule of nitrogen (N2) has two nitrogen atoms held
together by a triple bond, like this:

Dot-and-cross diagrams
Dot-and-cross diagrams are another way to represent
covalent bonds. The shared electron from one atom is
shown as a dot, while the shared electron from the other
atom is shown as a cross.
When drawing dot-and-cross diagrams for covalent bonds,
you only need to show the electrons in the highest
occupied energy level, as only these are involved.
The animations show covalent bonds represented by both
straight lines and dot-and-cross diagrams:
Above - covalent bonding between hydrogen atoms to
form a molecule [molecule: A molecule is a collection of
two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. It is
the smallest part of a substance that displays the
properties of the substance. ] of hydrogen gas (H2)
Below - covalent bonding between oxygen atoms to form a
molecule of oxygen gas (O2). The lowest energy level is not
shown.

Dot-and-cross diagrams -
elements
For your exam, you need to be able to draw dot-and-cross
diagrams representing the covalent bonds [covalent bonds:
A covalent bond between atoms forms when atoms share
electrons to achieve a full outer shell of electrons. ] in the
molecules [molecules: a collection of two or more atoms
held together by chemical bonds. The fundamental unit of
compounds ] of some common gaseous elements
[elements: All atoms of an element have the same atomic
number, the same number of protons and electrons, and
so the same chemical properties. ]. Remember: you only
need to show the electrons in the highest energy level.

Hydrogen, H2
Hydrogen atoms can each form one covalent bond. One
pair of electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with a
negative charge and a negligible mass relative to protons
and neutrons. ] is shared in a hydrogen molecule (H2).

Chlorine, Cl2

Chlorine atoms can each form one covalent bond. One pair
of electrons is shared in a chlorine molecule (Cl2).

Oxygen, O2

Oxygen atoms can each form two covalent bonds. Two

pairs of electrons are shared in an oxygen molecule (O2) -
a double bond [double bond: A double bond is a covalent
bond resulting from the sharing of four electrons (two pairs)
between two atoms. ].

Dot-and-cross diagrams -
compounds
You will also need to be able to draw dot-and-cross
diagrams representing the covalent bonds [covalent bonds:
A covalent bond between atoms forms when atoms share
electrons to achieve a full outer shell of electrons. ] in the
molecules [molecules: a collection of two or more atoms
held together by chemical bonds. The fundamental unit of
compounds ] of some common compounds [compounds:
Substances formed by the chemical union (involving bond
formation) of two or more elements. ]:

Hydrogen chloride, HCl

Hydrogen atoms and chlorine atoms can each form one

covalent bond. One pair of electrons [electrons: Sub-
atomic particles, with a negative charge and a negligible
mass relative to protons and neutrons. ] is shared in a
hydrogen chloride molecule (HCl).

Water, H2O

Hydrogen atoms can each form one covalent bond, while

oxygen atoms can each form two covalent bonds. Two
pairs of electrons are shared in a water molecule (H2O).

Ammonia, NH3

Hydrogen atoms can each form one covalent bond, while

and nitrogen atoms can each form three covalent bonds.
Three pairs of electrons are shared in an ammonia
molecule (NH3).

Methane, CH4

Hydrogen atoms can each form one covalent bond, while

carbon atoms can each form four covalent bonds. Four
pairs of electrons are shared in a methane molecule (CH4).
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Science
Different substances and their properties
Ionic substances form giant ionic lattices [lattice: A
lattice is a regular grid-like arrangement of atoms in a
material. ] containing oppositely charged ions. They
have high melting and boiling points, and conduct
[conduct: To allow electricity, heat or other energy forms to
pass through. ] electricity when melted or dissolved in
water.
Simple molecular substances consist of molecules
[molecules: a collection of two or more atoms held together
by chemical bonds. The fundamental unit of compounds ]
in which the atoms are joined by strong covalent
bonds [covalent bonds: A covalent bond between atoms
forms when atoms share electrons to achieve a full outer
shell of electrons. ]. Their molecules are held together
by weak forces, so these substances have low melting
and boiling points. They do not conduct electricity.
Giant covalent structures contain many atoms joined
together by covalent bonds to form a giant lattice.
They have high melting and boiling points. Graphite
and diamond have different properties because they
have different structures. Graphite conducts heat and
electricity well because it also has free electrons.
Nanoparticles are 1-100 nm in size, typically the size of
small molecules - far too small to see with a
microscope. They have remarkable properties that are
different to the same substance in bulk form.
Metals form giant structures containing free electrons
[electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with a negative charge
and a negligible mass relative to protons and neutrons. ],
making them good conductors of heat and electricity.

Ionic compounds
Ionic bonds form when a metal reacts with a non-metal.
Metals form positive ions; non-metals form negative ions.
Ionic bonds are the electrostatic [electrostatic: An
electrostatic force is generated by differences in electric
charge (ie positive and negative) between two particles. It
can also refer to electricity at rest. ] forces of attraction
between oppositely charged ions.

Positively charged Na ions and negatively charged Cl ions

The oppositely charged ions are arranged in a regular way
to form giant ionic lattices [lattice: A lattice is a regular
grid-like arrangement of atoms in a material. ]. Ionic
compounds [compounds: Substances formed by the
chemical union (involving bond formation) of two or more
elements. ] often form crystals as a result. The illustration
shows part of a sodium chloride (NaCl) ionic lattice.

Properties of ionic compounds

• High melting and boiling points - Ionic bonds are
very strong - a lot of energy is needed to break them.
So ionic compounds have high melting and boiling
points.
• Conductive when liquid - Ions are charged
particles, but ionic compounds can only conduct
[conduct: To allow electricity, heat or other energy
forms to pass through. ] electricity if their ions are free
to move. Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity
when they are solid - only when dissolved in water or
melted.

Properties of ionic compounds

Ionic
Properties
compound
High melting point: 800ºC
Non-conductive in its solid state, but when dissolved in water
Sodium
or molten [molten: Molten means reduced to liquid form by
chloride, NaCl
heating. It is mainly used to describe rock, glass or metal. ]
NaCl will conduct electricity.
Higher melting point than sodium chloride: around 2,800ºC.
This is because its Mg2+ and O2- ions have a greater number
of charges, so they form stronger ionic bonds than the Na+
Magnesium and Cl- ions in sodium chloride.
oxide, MgO
Because magnesium oxide stays solid at such high
temperatures, it remains non-conductive. It is used for high-
temperature electrical insulation.

Covalent compounds -
simple molecules
Covalent bonds [covalent bonds: A covalent bond
between atoms forms when atoms share electrons to
achieve a full outer shell of electrons. ] form between non-
metal atoms. Each bond consists of a shared pair of
electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with a negative
charge and a negligible mass relative to protons and
neutrons. ], and is very strong. Covalently bonded
substances fall into two main types:

1. simple molecules [molecules: a collection of two

or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. The
fundamental unit of compounds ] and
2. giant covalent structures.

Simple molecules

A molecule of carbon dioxide

These contain only a few atoms held together by strong
covalent bonds. An example is carbon dioxide (CO2), the
molecules of which contain one atom [atom: All elements
are made of atoms. An atom consists of a nucleus
containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by
electrons. ] of carbon bonded with two atoms of oxygen.

Properties of simple molecular

substances
• Low melting and boiling points - This is because
the weak intermolecular forces break down easily.
• Non-conductive - Substances with a simple
molecular structure do not conduct [conduct: To
allow electricity, heat or other energy forms to pass
through. ] electricity. This is because they do not have
any free electrons or an overall electric charge.

Higher Tier only

Hydrogen, ammonia, methane and water are also simple
molecules with covalent bonds. All have very strong bonds
between the atoms, but much weaker forces holding the
molecules together. When one of these substances melts
or boils, it is these weak 'intermolecular forces' that break,
not the strong covalent bonds. Simple molecular
substances are gases, liquids or solids with low melting
and boiling points.
The animation shows how the weak intermolecular forces
between water molecules break down during boiling or
melting:

Covalent bonding - giant

covalent structures
Giant covalent structures contain a lot of non-metal atoms,
each joined to adjacent atoms by covalent bonds
[covalent bonds: A covalent bond between atoms forms
when atoms share electrons to achieve a full outer shell of
electrons. ]. The atoms are usually arranged into giant
regular lattices [lattice: A lattice is a regular grid-like
arrangement of atoms in a material. ] - extremely strong
structures because of the many bonds involved. The
graphic shows the molecular structure of diamond and
graphite: two allotropes [allotropes: Allotropes are
structurally different forms of an element. They differ in the
way the atoms bond with each other and arrange
themselves into a structure. Because of their different
structures, allotropes have different physical and chemical
properties. ] of carbon, and of silica (silicon dioxide).

From left to right - graphite, diamond, silica

Properties of giant covalent

structures
• Very high melting points - Substances with giant
covalent structures have very high melting points,
because a lot of strong covalent bonds must be
broken. Graphite, for example, has a melting point of
more than 3,600ºC.
• Variable conductivity - Diamond does not
conduct [conduct: To allow electricity, heat or other
energy forms to pass through. ] electricity. Graphite
contains free electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic
particles, with a negative charge and a negligible
mass relative to protons and neutrons. ], so it does
conduct electricity. Silicon is semi-conductive - that is,
midway between non-conductive and conductive.

Graphite
Graphite is a form of carbon in which the carbon atoms
form layers. These layers can slide over each other, so
graphite is much softer than diamond. It is used in pencils,
and as a lubricant [lubricant: A substance used to reduce
the friction between two solid surfaces. ]. Each carbon
atom in a layer is joined to only three other carbon atoms.
Graphite conducts electricity.

Diamond
Diamond is a form of carbon in which each carbon atom is
joined to four other carbon atoms, forming a giant covalent
structure. As a result, diamond is very hard and has a high
melting point. It does not conduct electricity.

Silica
Silica, which is found in sand, has a similar structure to
diamond. It is also hard and has a high melting point, but
contains silicon and oxygen atoms, instead of carbon
atoms.
The fact that it is a semi-conductor makes it immensely
useful in the electronics industry: most transistors are
made of silica.

Buckminsterfullerene

Structure of a buckminsterfullerene molecule - a large ball

of 60 atoms
Buckminsterfullerene is yet another allotrope of carbon. It
is actually not a giant covalent structure, but a giant
molecule in which the carbon atoms form pentagons and
hexagons - in a similar way to a leather football. It is used
in lubricants.

Nanoparticles
Measurements
The table shows some of the units used to measure length.
As you go down the table, each unit is 1,000 times smaller
than the one above it.

Units used to measure length

Unit name Unit symbolMeaning
gigametre Gm one billion metres
megametreMm one million metres
kilometre km one thousand metres
metre m one metre
millimetre mm one thousandth of a metre
micrometre µm one millionth of a metre
nanometre nm one billionth of a metre

Nanotubes like this could be used to make tiny mechanical

devices, molecular computers or extremely strong
materials
Nanoparticles range in size from about 100 nm down to
about 1 nm. They are typically the size of small molecules,
and far too small to see with a microscope.
Working with nanoparticles is called nanotechnology.

Uses of nanoparticles
Nanoparticles have a very large surface area compared
with their volume. So they are often able to react very
quickly. This makes them useful as catalysts to speed up
reactions. For example, they can be used in self-cleaning
ovens and windows.
Nanoparticles also have different properties to the same
substance in normal-sized pieces. For example, titanium
dioxide is a white solid used in house paint and certain
sweet-coated chocolates. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles
are so small they do not reflect visible light, so cannot be
seen. They are used in sunblock creams to block harmful
ultraviolet light without appearing white on the skin.
Nanoscience may lead to the development of:

• new catalysts
• new coatings
• new computers
• stronger and lighter building materials
• sensors that detect individual substances in tiny
amounts.

Metallic bonding - higher

Giant structures with free
electrons
Metals form giant structures in which electrons [electrons:
Sub-atomic particles, with a negative charge and a
negligible mass relative to protons and neutrons. ] in the
outer shells of the metal atoms [atoms: An atom is the
smallest part of an element that still has the properties of
that element, comprising electrons surrounding a nucleus
of protons and neutrons. ] are free to move. The metallic
bond is the force of attraction between these free electrons
and metal ions [ions: Electrically charged particles, formed
when an atom or molecule gains or loses electrons. ].
Metallic bonds are strong, so metals can maintain a regular
structure and usually have high melting and boiling points.
Atomic structure of a metal
Metals are good conductors [conductor: An electrical
conductor is a material which allows an electrical current to
pass through it easily. It has a low resistance. A thermal
conductor allows thermal energy to be transferred through
it easily. ] of electricity and heat, because the free electrons
carry a charge or heat energy through the metal. The free
electrons allow metal atoms to slide over each other, so
metals are malleable [malleable: the ability of a material to
permanently deform, or lose its shape, in all directions
without cracking. ] and ductile [ductile: able to deform,
usually by stretching along its length. ].
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Science
Chemical calculations - both Tiers
The mass number of an atom is its total number of
protons and neutrons.
The relative formula mass of a compound [compound:
A compound is a substance formed by the chemical union
(involving bond formation) of two or more elements. ] is
found by adding together the relative atomic masses of
all the atoms in the formula [formula: A formula is a
combination of symbols that indicates the chemical
composition of a substance. ] of the compound.

Mass number

Structure of an atom
Each atom consists of a nucleus [nucleus: The central part
of an atom. It contains protons and neutrons, and has most
of the mass of the atom. ] containing protons and neutrons,
with electrons arranged around it.
Protons [protons: Sub-atomic particles with a positive
charge and a relative mass of 1. ] and neutrons [neutrons:
Uncharged sub-atomic particles, with a mass of 1 relative
to a proton. ] both have a relative mass of 1 unit.
Electrons [electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with a negative
charge and a negligible mass relative to protons and
neutrons. ] have a very small mass compared to protons
and neutrons. Generally when working out the mass of
atoms and molecules we can ignore the mass of the
electrons.
Notice that most of the mass of an atom is found in its
nucleus:

• the mass number of an atom is the total number

of protons and neutrons it contains
• the atomic number (also called the proton
number) is the number of protons it contains.

The mass number of an atom is never smaller than the

atomic number. It can be the same, but is usually bigger.

The full chemical symbol for an element [element: A

substance made of one type of atom only. ] shows its mass
number at the top, and atomic number at the bottom. Here
is the full symbol for carbon.
It tells us that a carbon atom has six protons. It will also
have six electrons, because the number of protons and
electrons in an atom is the same.
The symbol also tells us that the total number of protons
and neutrons in a carbon atom is 12. Note that you can
work out the number of neutrons from the mass number
and atomic number. In this example, it is 12 - 6 = 6
neutrons.

Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of an element with the normal number
of protons and electrons, but different numbers of
neutrons. Isotopes have the same atomic number, but
different mass numbers.
The different isotopes of an element have identical
chemical properties. However, some isotopes are
radioactive [radioactive: A substance that emits radiation is
said to be radioactive. ].
Isotopes of hydrogen
Most hydrogen atoms consist of just one proton [proton: A
proton is a small particle with a positive charge found in the
nucleus of the atom. ] and one electron [electron: An
electron is a very small negatively-charged particle found in
an atom in the space surrounding the nucleus. ], but some
also have one or two neutrons [neutrons: Uncharged sub-
atomic particles, with a mass of 1 relative to a proton. ].

Isotopes of hydrogen
Isotope protonselectronsneutrons

1 1 1-1=0

1 1 2-1=1

1 1 3-1=2

Isotopes of chlorine
Chlorine atoms contain 17 protons and 17 electrons. About
75 per cent of chlorine atoms have 18 neutrons, while
about 25 per cent have 20 neutrons.

Isotopes of chlorine
Isotope protonselectronsneutrons

17 17 35 - 17 = 18

17 17 37 - 17 = 20

Relative atomic mass

Different atoms have different masses. Atoms have such a
small mass [mass: production method for making hundreds
of identical products, usually on a production line. Also
called repetitive flow production. ] it is more convenient to
know their masses compared to each other. Carbon is
taken as the standard atom and has a relative atomic mass
(Ar) of 12.
Atoms with an Ar of less than this have a smaller mass
than a carbon atom. Atoms with an Ar which is more than
this have a larger mass than a carbon atom.
The table below shows some Ar values (you do not need to
remember them: you will be given them in the exam if you
need them to answer a question).

Ar values of elements
ElementAr
H 1
C 12
O 16
Mg 24
Cl 35.5
These values tell you that magnesium atoms are twice as
heavy as carbon atoms, and 24 times heavier than
hydrogen atoms; while hydrogen atoms are 12 times lighter
than carbon atoms. They also allow you to work out that
three oxygen atoms weigh the same as two magnesium
atoms.
Chlorine's Ar of 35.5 is an average of the masses of the
different isotopes [isotopes: Atoms of an element with the
same number of protons and electrons but different
numbers of neutrons. ] of chlorine.

Relative formula mass

For your exam, you will need to know what relative formula
mass is - and be able to work out the relative formula mass
of a compound [compound: A compound is a substance
formed by the chemical union (involving bond formation) of
two or more elements. ] when given its formula.
To find the relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound, you
just add together the Ar values for all the atoms in its
formula.
Examples
• Example 1: Find the Mr of carbon monoxide (CO).
• The Ar of carbon is 12 and the Ar of oxygen is 16.
• So the Mr of carbon monoxide is 12 + 16 = 28.

• Example 2:Find the Mr of sodium oxide (Na2O).

• The Ar of sodium is 23 and the Ar of oxygen is 16.
• So the Mr of sodium oxide is (23 x 2) + 16 = 62.

The relative formula mass of a substance, shown in grams,

is called one mole of that substance. So one mole of
carbon monoxide has a mass of 28g, and one mole of
sodium oxide has a mass of 62g.
The table shows some more examples of relative formula
mass calculations, using the relative atomic mass values
given at the bottom of the page.

Relative formula mass

calculations
Compound Formula Calculation Mr
Water H2O 1 + 1 + 16 = 18
Sodium
NaOH 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
hydroxide
Magnesium 24 + 16 + 16 + 1 + 1 = (remember that there
Mg(OH)2 58
hydroxide are two of each atom inside the brackets)

• Ar of H = 1
• Ar of O = 16
• Ar of Na = 23
• Ar of Mg = 24

Percentage composition
Percentage composition is just a way to describe what
proportions of the different elements [elements: All atoms
of an element have the same atomic number, the same
number of protons and electrons, and so the same
chemical properties. ] there are in a compound [compound:
A compound is a substance formed by the chemical union
(involving bond formation) of two or more elements. ].
If you have the formula of a compound, you should be able
to work out the percentage by mass of an element in it.

Example
The formula for sodium hydroxide is NaOH. It contains
three different elements: Na, O and H. But the percentage
by mass of each element is not simply 33.3 per cent,
because each element has a different relative atomic
mass. You need to use the Ar values to work out the
percentages. Here is how to do it:
Question
What is the percentage by mass of oxygen (O) in
sodium hydroxide (NaOH)?

1. First, work out the relative formula mass of

the compound, using the Ar values for each
element. In the case of sodium hydroxide, these
are Na = 23, O = 16, H = 1. (You will be given
these numbers in the exam.)
2. Next, divide the Ar of oxygen by the Mr of
NaOH, and multiply by 100 to get a percentage.

Answer

1. Mr of NaOH is 23 + 16 + 1 = 40
2. (16 ÷ 40 ) × 100 = 0.4 × 100 = 40%

So the percentage by mass of oxygen in sodium

hydroxide is 40%.
Remember, if there is more than one atom of the element
in the compound, you need to multiply your answer by the
number of atoms. If your answer is more than 100%, you
have gone wrong!

Conservation of mass
Mass is never lost or gained in chemical reactions. We say
that mass is always conserved. In other words, the total
mass [mass: production method for making hundreds of
identical products, usually on a production line. Also called
repetitive flow production. ] of products [product: A product
is a substance formed in a chemical reaction. ] at the end
of the reaction is equal to the total mass of the reactants
[reactants: substances present at the start of a chemical
reaction ] at the beginning.
This fact allows you to work out the mass of one substance
in a reaction if the masses of the other substances are
known. For example,
In practice, it is not always possible to get all of the
calculated amount of product from a reaction:

• reversible reactions may not go to completion

• some product may be lost when it is removed
from the reaction mixture
• some of the reactants may react in an unexpected
way

Atom economy
The atom economy of a process tells you the proportion of
atoms in the reactants that become part of a useful
product. Sustainable development means meeting our
needs without damaging the chances of future generations
meeting their needs. Processes with high atom economies
are more efficient and produce less waste. They are
important to sustainable development.

Summary
Watch this illustrated podcast for a summary of chemical
calculations at foundation level.
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Science
Chemical calculations - higher
You should be able to calculate the masses of
reactants and products from balanced equations, and
the formula of a compound from information about
reacting masses.

Concentrations and
volumes
Concentrations
You will not be asked to calculate any concentrations of
solutions in GCSE Additional Science, but you need to
know certain things about concentration.
The concentration of a solution is measured in moles per
cubic decimetre, mol/dm3. The greater the concentration,
the more dissolved particles there are in the solution:

• Equal volumes of different solutions that have the

same concentration contain the same number of
particles of dissolved solute. For example, a solution
at 2 mol/dm3 is twice as concentrated as a solution at
1 mol/dm3.

Volumes of gases
You will not be asked to calculate any volumes of gases in
GCSE Additional Science, but you need to know certain
things about them.
Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and
pressure contain the same number of molecules. For
example:
 • 50cm3 of hydrogen contains twice as many
molecules as 25cm3 of oxygen at the same
temperature and pressure.
• One mole of any gas at room temperature and
normal pressure occupies about 24 dm3.

Empirical formulas
You can use information about reacting masses to
calculate the formula of a compound [compound: A
compound is a substance formed by the chemical union
(involving bond formation) of two or more elements. ]. Here
is an example:
Question
Suppose 3.2g of sulfur reacts with oxygen to produce
6.4g of sulfur oxide. What is the formula of the oxide?
Use the fact that the Ar of sulfur is 32 and the Ar of
oxygen is 16.

Answer

• Find the mass of each element.

Conservation of mass tells us that the mass of
oxygen = the mass of sulfur oxide - the mass of
sulfur.
• The mass of oxygen reacted = 6.4 - 3.2 =
3.2g
• So we have 3.2g of sulfur and 3.2g of
oxygen.
• Now divide the mass of each element by its
Ar value.
• sulfur: 3.2 ÷ 32 = 0.1
• oxygen: 3.2 ÷ 16 = 0.2
• Finally, find the ratio of the elements.
• You can do this by dividing the results by
the smallest of the numbers to give you the
number of atoms of each element in the
compound.
 • In this case the smallest value is 0.1, so
divide both results by that.
• S = 0.1 ÷ 0.1 = 1
• O = 0.2 ÷ 0.1 = 2
• (If one of the numbers ends in 0.5, multiply
all the numbers by 2 - this is because you cannot
have half-atoms in a compound.)
• So the ratio of sulfur to oxygen is 1:2

The number of atoms tells you that the formula for

sulfur oxide is SO2
Here is the calculation again in tabular form to help you
remember the steps:

Steps to calculation the formula of

a compound
stepaction S O
1 find masses 3.23.2
2 look up given Ar values32 16
3 divide masses by Ar 0.10.2
4 find the ratio 1 2
Result: the formula for the oxide = SO2

Reacting masses
If you have a balanced equation for a reaction, you can
calculate the masses of reactants [reactants: substances
present at the start of a chemical reaction ] and products
[product: A product is a substance formed in a chemical
reaction. ].

Sample question
Look at this equation: CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
If we have 50g of CaCO3, how much CaO can we make?
First, work out the Mr values for the two compounds:

• Mr of CaCO3 is 40 + 12 + 16 + 16 + 16 = 100
• Mr of CaO is 40 + 16 = 56
This means that 100g of CaCO3 would yield 56g of CaO in
this reaction. In the question we are told we have only half
of that amount of CaCO3, 50g. So we will get half the
amount of CaO, 28g.
So the mass of CaO we can make = 28g
Notice in this that 22g of CO2 would also be produced, as
50 - 28 = 22

Percentage yield
In practice, it is not always possible to get the calculated
amount of product in a reaction:

• reversible reactions may not go to completion

• some product may be lost when it is removed
from the reaction mixture
• some of the reactants may react in an unexpected
way

The yield of a reaction is the actual mass of product

obtained. The percentage yield can be calculated:

For example, the maximum theoretical mass of product in

a certain reaction is 20g, but only 15g is actually obtained.
percentage yield = 15⁄20 × 100 = 75%
The maximum theoretical mass of product itself can be
calculated using a reacting mass calculation, such as the
one on the previous page.

Atom economy
The atom economy of a chemical reaction is a measure of
the amount of starting materials that become useful
products. Inefficient, wasteful processes have low atom
economies. Efficient processes have high atom
economies, and are important for sustainable
development, as they use fewer natural resources and
create less waste.
The atom economy of a reaction can be calculated:

Note that, because the total mass of products equals the

total mass of reactants, you can put that into the bottom of
the fraction in the calculation like this:

For example, what is the atom economy for making

hydrogen by reacting coal with steam?
Write the balanced equation:
C(s) + 2H2O(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2(g)
Write out the Ar and Mr values underneath:
C(s) + 2H2O(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2(g)
12 2 × 18 44 2×2
Remember that the Ar or Mr in grams is one mole, so:

• total mass of products = 44 + 4 = 48g (note that

this is the same as the reactants: 12 + 36 = 48g)
• mass of desired product (H2) = 4g

% atom economy = 4⁄48 × 100 = 8.3%

This process has a low atom economy and is therefore an
inefficient way to make hydrogen. It also uses a non-
renewable resource: coal.

Summary
This illustrated podcast explains how to work out a
balanced equation for a chemical reaction.
This illustrated podcast shows how to work with moles in
chemical calculations.
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Science
Rates of reaction
The rate of a reaction can be measured by the rate at
which a reactant [reactant: substances present at the
start of a chemical reaction ] is used up, or the rate at
which a product [product: A product is a substance
formed in a chemical reaction. ] is formed.
The temperature, concentration, pressure of reacting
gases, surface area of reacting solids, and the use of
catalysts, are all factors which affect the rate of a
reaction.
Chemical reactions can only happen if reactant
particles collide with enough energy. The more
frequently particles collide, and the greater the
proportion of collisions with enough energy, the
greater the rate of reaction.

Measuring rates
Different reactions can happen at different rates. Reactions
that happen slowly have a low rate of reaction. Reactions
that happen quickly have a high rate of reaction. For
example, the chemical weathering of rocks is a very slow
reaction: it has a low rate of reaction. Explosions are very
fast reactions: they have a high rate of reaction.

Reactants and products

There are two ways to measure the rate of a reaction:
 1. measure the rate at which a reactant [reactant:
substances present at the start of a chemical reaction
] is used up
2. measure the rate at which a product [product: A
product is a substance formed in a chemical reaction.
] is formed

The method chosen depends on the reaction being

studied. Sometimes it is easier to measure the change in
the amount of a reactant that has been used up;
sometimes it is easier to measure the change in the
amount of product that has been produced.

Things to measure
The measurement itself depends on the nature of the
reactant or product:

• the mass of a substance - solid, liquid or gas - is

measured with a balance
• the volume of a gas is usually measured with a
gas syringe, or sometimes an upside down
measuring cylinder or burette

It is usual to record the mass or total volume at regular

intervals and plot a graph. The readings go on the vertical
axis, and the time goes on the horizontal axis.

For example, if 24cm3 of hydrogen gas is produced in two

minutes, the mean rate of reaction = 24 ÷ 2 = 12cm3
hydrogen / min.

Factors affecting the rate

You will be expected to remember the factors that affect
the rate of reactions, and to plot or interpret graphs from
rate experiments.
How to increase the rate of a
reaction
The rate of a reaction increases if:

• the temperature is increased

• the concentration [concentration: The
concentration of a solution tells us how much of a
substance is dissolved in water. Concentration is
measured in moles per dm3. The higher the
concentration, the more particles of the substance are
present. ] of a dissolved reactant [reactant:
substances present at the start of a chemical reaction
] is increased
• the pressure of a reacting gas is increased
• solid reactants are broken into smaller pieces
• a catalyst [catalyst: A catalyst changes the rate
of a chemical reaction without being changed by the
reaction itself. ] is used

Rate of reaction and changing conditions

The graph above summarises the differences in the rate of
reaction at different temperatures, concentrations and size
of pieces. The steeper the line, the greater the rate of
reaction. Reactions are usually fastest at the beginning,
when the concentration of reactants is greatest. When the
line becomes horizontal, the reaction has stopped.

Collisions and reactions

You will be expected to explain, in terms of particles and
their collisions, why changing the conditions of a reaction
changes its rate.

Collisions
For a chemical reaction to occur, the reactant [reactant:
substances present at the start of a chemical reaction ]
particles must collide. Collisions with too little energy do
not produce a reaction.
The collision must have enough energy for the particles
to react. The minimum energy needed for particles to react
is called the activation energy.

Changing concentration or
pressure
If the concentration of a dissolved reactant is increased, or
the pressure of a reacting gas is increased:

• there are more reactant particles in the same

volume
• there is a greater chance of the particles colliding
• the rate of reaction increases

Changing particle size

If a solid reactant is broken into small pieces or ground into
a powder:

• its surface area is increased

• more particles are exposed to the other reactant
• there is a greater chance of the particles colliding
• the rate of reaction increases

Changing the temperature

If the temperature is increased:

• the reactant particles move more quickly

 • more particles have the activation energy or
greater
• the particles collide more often, and more of the
collisions result in a reaction
• the rate of reaction increases

Using a catalyst
Catalysts increase the rate of reaction without being used
up. They do this by lowering the activation energy needed.
With a catalyst, more collisions result in a reaction, so the
rate of reaction increases. Different reactions need
different catalysts.
Catalysts are important in industry because they reduce
costs.
Science
Energy changes and reversible reactions
Exothermic [exothermic: Heat energy is released in an
exothermic reaction. We know this because the
surroundings get warm. ] reactions transfer energy to
the surroundings. Endothermic [endothermic: In an
endothermic reaction, energy is taken in from the
surroundings. The surroundings then have less energy
than they started with, so the temperature falls. ] reactions
take in energy from the surroundings.
Reversible reactions are where the products [product:
A product is a substance formed in a chemical reaction. ]
can react to remake the original reactants [reactants:
substances present at the start of a chemical reaction ]. If
the forward reaction is exothermic, the reverse
reaction is endothermic.

Exothermic and
endothermic reactions
When a chemical reaction occurs, energy is transferred to,
or from, the surroundings - and there is often a
temperature change. For example, when a bonfire burns it
transfers heat energy to the surroundings. Objects near a
bonfire become warmer. The temperature rise can be
measured with a thermometer.

Exothermic reactions
These are reactions that transfer energy to the
surroundings. The energy is usually transferred as heat
energy, causing the reaction mixture and its surroundings
to become hotter. The temperature increase can be
detected using a thermometer. Some examples of
exothermic reactions are:

• burning
• neutralisation reactions between acids and alkalis
• the reaction between water and calcium oxide

Endothermic reactions
These are reactions that take in energy from the
surroundings. The energy is usually transferred as heat
energy, causing the reaction mixture and its surroundings
to get colder. The temperature decrease can also be
detected using a thermometer. Some examples of
endothermic reactions are:

• electrolysis [electrolysis: Electrolysis is the

decomposition (separation or break-down) of a
compound using an electric current. ]
• the reaction between ethanoic acid and sodium
carbonate
• the thermal decomposition [thermal
decomposition : A reaction in which substances are
broken down by heat. ] of calcium carbonate in a
blast furnace

The animation shows an exothermic reaction between

sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, and an
endothermic reaction between sodium carbonate and
ethanoic acid.
 Reversible reactions
Many reactions, such as burning fuel, are irreversible - they
go to completion and cannot be reversed easily. Reversible
reactions are different. In a reversible reaction, the
products [product: A product is a substance formed in a
chemical reaction. ] can react to produce the original
reactants [reactants: substances present at the start of a
chemical reaction ] again.
When writing chemical equations for reversible reactions,
we do not use the usual one-way arrow. Instead, we use
two arrows, each with just half an arrowhead - the top one
pointing right, and the bottom one pointing left. For
example,
ammonium chloride ammonia + hydrogen chloride
The equation shows that ammonium chloride (a white
solid) can break down to form ammonia and hydrogen
chloride. It also shows that ammonia and hydrogen
chloride (colourless gases) can react to form ammonium
chloride again.
The animation below shows a reversible reaction involving
white anhydrous copper(II) sulfate and blue hydrated
copper(II) sulfate, the equation for which is:
anhydrous copper(II) sulfate + water hydrated copper(II)
sulfate
The reaction between anhydrous copper(II) sulfate and
water is used as a test for water. The white solid turns blue
in the presence of water.

Ammonia and the Haber

process
Ammonia
Ammonia (NH3) is a compound [compound: A compound
is a substance formed by the chemical union (involving
bond formation) of two or more elements. ] of nitrogen and
hydrogen. It is a colourless gas with a choking smell, and a
weak alkali which is very soluble in water.
Ammonia is used to make fertilisers, explosives, dyes,
household cleaners and nylon. It is also the most important
raw material in the manufacture of nitric acid.
Ammonia is manufactured by combining nitrogen and
hydrogen in an important industrial process called the
Haber process.

An ammonia production plant. Photo courtesy of WMC

Resources Ltd

The Haber process

The raw materials for this process are hydrogen and
nitrogen. Hydrogen is obtained by reacting natural gas -
methane - with steam, or through the cracking of oil.
Nitrogen is obtained by burning hydrogen in air. Air is 80
per cent nitrogen; nearly all the rest is oxygen. When
hydrogen is burned in air, the oxygen combines with the
hydrogen, leaving nitrogen behind.
Nitrogen and hydrogen will react together under these
conditions:

• a high temperature - about 450ºC

• a high pressure - about 200 atmospheres (200
times normal pressure)
• an iron catalyst

The reaction is reversible.

nitrogen + hydrogen ammonia
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
The (g) indicates that the substance is a gas.
The flow chart shows the main stages in the Haber
process. The reaction is reversible, and some nitrogen and
hydrogen remain mixed with the ammonia. The reaction
mixture is cooled so that the ammonia liquefies and can be
removed. The remaining nitrogen and hydrogen are
recycled.

The Haber process for making ammonia

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Science
Reversible reactions - higher
When reversible reactions reach equilibrium the
forward and reverse reactions are still happening but
at the same rate, so the concentrations of reactants
and products do not change.
The balance point can be affected by temperature, and
also by pressure for gasses in equilibrium.

What is a chemical
equilibrium?
If a chemical reaction happens in a container where one or
more of the reactants [reactants: substances present at
the start of a chemical reaction ] or products [product: A
product is a substance formed in a chemical reaction. ] can
escape, you have an open system. If a chemical reaction
happens in a container where none of the reactants or
products can escape, you have a closed system.
Reversible reactions [Reversible reactions: Reversible
reactions are chemical reactions which can go both ways.
The direction of the reaction depends on the condition of
the reactants. ] that happen in a closed system eventually
reach an equilibrium.
Chemical equilibrium
In a chemical equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants
and products do not change. But the forward and reverse
reactions have not stopped - they are still going on at the
same rate as each other.
Imagine walking the wrong way on an escalator - at the
same speed as the escalator, but in the opposite direction.
Your legs would still be walking forwards, and the escalator
would continue to move backwards. However, the net
result would be that you stay in exactly the same place.
This is what happens in an equilibrium.

Other factors
If we remove the products from an equilibrium mixture,
more reactants are converted into products. If a catalyst
[catalyst: A catalyst changes the rate of a chemical
reaction without being changed by the reaction itself. ] is
used, the reaction reaches equilibrium much sooner,
because the catalyst speeds up the forward and reverse
reactions by the same amount. The concentration of
reactants and products is nevertheless the same at
equilibrium as it would be without the catalyst.

Effect of temperature on
an equilibrium
For the Higher Tier, you need to know what happens to the
amount of product in an equilibrium mixture if the
temperature is changed.

• If the forward reaction is exothermic [exothermic:

Heat energy is released in an exothermic reaction.
We know this because the surroundings get warm. ]
and the temperature is increased, the yield of
products is decreased. If the temperature is
decreased, the yield of products is increased.
 • If the forward reaction is endothermic
[endothermic: In an endothermic reaction, energy is
taken in from the surroundings. The surroundings
then have less energy than they started with, so the
temperature falls. ] and the temperature is increased,
the yield of products is increased. If the temperature
is decreased, the yield of products is decreased.

Haber process - effect of temperature change on yield of

ammonia
This is important to industrial processes such as the Haber
process. The forward reaction, which makes ammonia for
fertilisers, is exothermic. So the yield of ammonia is better
at lower temperatures. You might think that chemical
engineers would choose a low temperature for the Haber
process - but the reaction runs much faster at higher
temperatures. So a compromise temperature is chosen -
one that is high enough to get a reasonable rate of
reaction, but not so high that the yield of ammonia is low.

The Haber process -

choosing a temperature
A compromise temperature
The forward reaction in the Haber process is exothermic
[exothermic: Heat energy is released in an exothermic
reaction. We know this because the surroundings get
warm. ]. This means that if the temperature is increased,
the position of equilibrium moves in the direction of the
reverse reaction, and less ammonia is formed.

The effect of varying the

temperature in the Haber process
You might think that a low temperature would be a good
choice for the Haber process: if the forward reaction is
exothermic, the yield of product at equilibrium
[equilibrium: If the rate of the forward reaction and the rate
of the back reaction in a reversible reaction are equal, the
reaction is in equilibrium. ] is increased at lower
temperatures. However, if the temperature is too low the
rate of reaction will be too low. This would make the
process uneconomical. So a compromise temperature is
chosen: low enough to get a good yield of ammonia but
high enough to obtain a reasonable rate of reaction.

An iron catalyst
The presence of a catalyst [catalyst: A catalyst changes
the rate of a chemical reaction without being changed by
the reaction itself. ] does not affect the position of the
equilibrium, but it does increase the rate of the reaction.
This means the ammonia is produced in a shorter time,
reducing the cost of the process. Iron is a cheap catalyst.

Effect of pressure on an
equilibrium
For the Higher Tier, you also need to know what happens
to the amount of product [product: A product is a
substance formed in a chemical reaction. ] in an
equilibrium mixture of gases if the pressure is changed.

Count the molecules in the

equation
Changing the pressure has little effect on an equilibrium
mixture without gases - but can have a big effect on an
equilibrium mixture containing gases. If the pressure is
increased, the position of equilibrium moves in the direction
of the fewest molecules [molecules: a collection of two or
more atoms held together by chemical bonds. The
fundamental unit of compounds ].
Look again at the Haber process, which makes ammonia
(NH3):
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
On the left, there are 1 + 3 = 4 molecules of gas. On the
right, there are two molecules of gas. If the pressure is
increased, the position of equilibrium will move to the right
and more ammonia will be made. If the pressure is
reduced, the position of equilibrium will move to the left and
less ammonia will be made.

Look at the graph. You can see that for any given
temperature the yield of ammonia increases as the
pressure increases. You can also see that, for any given
pressure, the yield goes down as the temperature
increases. This is because the forward reaction is
exothermic [exothermic: Heat energy is released in an
exothermic reaction. We know this because the
surroundings get warm. ].
The Haber process:
choosing a pressure
You will be expected to explain the choice of a high
pressure for the Haber process.
Look at the symbol equation for the reaction in the Haber
process:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
There are 1 + 3 = 4 molecules [molecules: a collection of
two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. The
fundamental unit of compounds ] of gas on the left of the
equation, only two molecules of gas on the right. In an
equilibrium [equilibrium: If the rate of the forward reaction
and the rate of the back reaction in a reversible reaction
are equal, the reaction is in equilibrium. ] involving gases,
an increase in pressure favours the reaction which
produces the smallest number of molecules. In this case,
an increase in pressure favours the forward reaction, and
more ammonia is produced.
There is a limit to the pressure that can be used
industrially, because very high pressures require very
strong and expensive equipment. This means a
compromise pressure is chosen - high enough to get a
good yield of ammonia, but not so high that it would add
too much to the costs of the process. The pressure chosen
is usually about 200 atmospheres - equivalent to about half
the pressure of the water around the wreck of the RMS
Titanic.
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Science
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the process by which ionic substances
are broken down into simpler substances using
electricity. During electrolysis, metals and gases may
form at the electrodes.

Electrolysis
To understand electrolysis, you need to know what an ionic
substance is.
Ionic substances form when a metal reacts with a non-
metal. They contain charged particles called ions [ions:
Electrically charged particles, formed when an atom or
molecule gains or loses electrons. ]. For example, sodium
chloride forms when sodium reacts with chlorine. It
contains positively charged sodium ions and negatively
charged chloride ions. Ionic substances can be broken
down by electricity.
Electrolysis is the process by which ionic substances are
decomposed (broken down) into simpler substances when
an electric current is passed through them.
For electrolysis to work, the ions must be free to move.
Ions are free to move when an ionic substance is dissolved
in water or molten [molten: Molten means reduced to liquid
form by heating. It is mainly used to describe rock, glass or
metal. ] (melted). For example, if electricity is passed
through copper chloride solution, the copper chloride is
broken down to form copper metal and chlorine gas.

Electrolysis
Here is what happens during electrolysis:

• Positively charged ions move to the negative

electrode during electrolysis. They receive electrons
and are reduced [reduction: Reduction is a reaction
in which oxygen is removed from a substance.
Reduction also means a gain in electrons. ].
• Negatively charged ions move to the positive
electrode during electrolysis. They lose electrons and
are oxidised [oxidation: Oxidation is a reaction in
which oxygen combines with a substance. Oxidation
also means a loss of electrons. ].

Predicting the products of

electrolysis
Ionic substances in solution break down into elements
during electrolysis. Different elements are released
depending on the particular ionic substance.

At the negative electrode

At the negative electrode, positively charged ions gain
electrons. This is reduction, and you say that the ions have
been reduced.
Metal ions and hydrogen ions are positively charged.
Whether you get the metal or hydrogen during electrolysis
depends on the position of the metal in the reactivity
series:

• the metal will be produced if it is less reactive

than hydrogen
• hydrogen will be produced if the metal is more
reactive than hydrogen

The reactivity series of metal - carbon and hydrogen are

not metals, but they are shown for comparison
So the electrolysis of copper chloride solution produces
copper at the negative electrode. But the electrolysis of
sodium chloride solution produces hydrogen.

At the positive electrode

At the positive electrode, negatively charged ions lose
electrons. This is oxidation, and you say that the ions have
been oxidised. The table summarises some of the
elements you should expect to get during electrolysis.
negative ion in solutionelement given off at positive electrode
chloride, Cl– chlorine, Cl2
bromide, Br– bromine, Br2
iodide, I –
iodine, I2
sulfate, oxygen, O2

Putting it together
The table shows some common
ionic compounds, and the
elements released when their
solutions are electrolysed.
ionic substance in element at the negative element at the positive
solution electrode electrode
copper chloride, CuCl2 copper chlorine
copper sulfate, CuSO4 copper oxygen
sodium chloride, NaCl hydrogen chlorine
hydrochloric acid, HCl hydrogen chlorine
sulfuric acid, H2SO4 hydrogen oxygen
Purification of copper
Copper is a good conductor of electricity, and is used
extensively to make electrical wiring and components.
The extraction of copper from copper ore [ore: An ore is
a rock containing enough quantities of a mineral that it is
profitable to extract it. ] is done by reduction [reduction:
Reduction is a reaction in which oxygen is removed from a
substance. Reduction also means a gain in electrons. ]
with carbon. However, the copper produced is not pure
enough for use as a conductor, so it is purified using
electrolysis [electrolysis: Electrolysis is the decomposition
(separation or break-down) of a compound using an
electric current. ].
Electrolysis of copper
In this process, the positive electrode (the anode
[anode: The positive electrode during electrolysis. ]) is
made of the impure copper which is to be purified. The
negative electrode (the cathode [cathode: A cathode is
the electrode (electrical conductor) attached to the
negative terminal of a battery. ]) is a bar of pure copper.
The two electrodes are placed in a solution of copper(II)
sulfate.
The animation shows what happens when electrolysis
begins. Copper ions leave the anode and are attracted
to the cathode, where they are deposited as copper
atoms. The pure copper cathode increases greatly in
size, while the anode dwindles away. The impurities
left behind at the anode form a sludge beneath it.
The chlor-alkali industry
Brine is concentrated sodium chloride solution. If an
electric current is passed through it, hydrogen gas
forms at the negative electrode [electrode: Electrodes
are conductors used to establish electrical contact with a
circuit. The electrode attached to the negative terminal of a
battery is called a negative electrode, or cathode. The
electrode attached to the positive terminal of a battery is
the positive electrode, or anode. ] and chlorine gas forms
at the positive electrode. A solution of sodium
hydroxide forms.
You might have expected sodium metal to be
deposited at the negative electrode. But sodium is too
reactive for this to happen, so hydrogen is given off
instead.

Electrolysis
Electrolysis of sodium chloride solution
These three products - hydrogen, chlorine and sodium
hydroxide - have important uses in the chemical
industry:
Hydrogen

• making ammonia
• making margarine

Chlorine

• killing bacteria in drinking water

• killing bacteria in swimming pools
• making bleach
• making disinfectants
• making hydrochloric acid
• making PVC
• making CFC's - limited production

Sodium hydroxide

• making soap
• making paper
• making ceramics

Electrolysis - higher
A half-equation shows you what happens at one of the
electrodes during electrolysis. Electrons are shown as
e-. A half-equation is balanced by adding, or taking
away, a number of electrons equal to the total number
of charges on the ions in the equation.
At the negative electrode
Positive ions gain electrons at the negative electrode,
so are reduced.

• In aluminium extraction: Al3+ + 3e- → Al

• In copper purification: Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
• Electrolysis of sodium chloride solution: 2H+ +
2e- → H2

At the positive electrode

Negative ions or neutral atoms lose electrons at the
positive electrode and are oxidised. For example,
chlorine is produced during the electrolysis of sodium
chloride solution:
2Cl- - 2e- → Cl2
This half-equation can be rewritten as 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-

• In aluminium extraction: 2O2- → O2 + 4e-

• In copper purification: Cu → Cu2++ 2e-

The simulation below shows what happens during the

purification of copper by electrolysis.
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Science
Acids, bases and salts
Acids [acids: Corrosive substances which have a pH lower
than 7. Acidity is caused by a high concentration of
hydrogen ions. ] have a pH of less than 7. Bases [bases:
Substances with a pH higher than 7, and which have a
high concentration of hydroxyl ions. Bases react with acids
to form a salt and water (called neutralisation). Metal
hydroxides, oxides and carbonates are all bases. ] have a
pH of more than 7. When bases are dissolved in water,
they are known as alkalis [alkalis: Bases which are
soluble in water. ].
Salts [salts: class of chemical compounds, mostly metallic
oxides. Examples are sodium chloride, potassium chloride,
and magnesium sulphate ] are made when an acid reacts
with a base, carbonate or metal. The name of the salt
formed depends on the metal in the base and the acid
used. For example, salts made using hydrochloric acid
are called chlorides.

Acids and bases

You will have already learnt quite a lot about acids and
bases in Key Stage 3 Science. If you feel a bit rusty on this
topic, have a quick look at KS3 Bitesize Chemistry Acids
and bases. Here are the bare bones of what you need to
know:

Acids
Substances with a pH of less than 7 are acids. The
stronger the acid, the lower the pH number. Acids turn blue
litmus paper red. They turn universal indicator red if they
are strong, and orange or yellow if they are weak.

Bases
Substances that can react with acids and neutralise them
to make a salt and water are called bases. They are
usually metal oxides or metal hydroxides. For example,
copper oxide and sodium hydroxide are bases.

Alkalis
Bases that dissolve in water are called alkalis. Copper
oxide is not an alkali because it does not dissolve in water.
Sodium hydroxide is an alkali because it does dissolve in
water.
Alkaline solutions have a pH of more than 7. The stronger
the alkali, the higher the pH number. Alkalis turn red litmus
paper blue. They turn universal indicator dark blue or
purple if they are strong, and blue-green if they are weak.

Neutral solutions
Neutral solutions have a pH of 7. They do not change the
colour of litmus paper, but they turn universal indicator
green. Water is neutral.

Reactions of acids
You need to be able to describe the reactions of acids with
bases, carbonates and metals. You should be able to work
out the particular salt formed in the reaction.

Acids and bases

When acids react with bases, a salt [salt: A compound
formed by neutralisation of an acid by a base (eg a metal
oxide) - the result of hydrogen atoms in the acid being
replaced by metal atoms or positive ions. Sodium chloride -
common salt - is one such compound. ] and water are
made. This reaction is called neutralisation. In general:
acid + metal oxide → salt + water
acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
Remember that most bases do not dissolve in water. But if
a base can dissolve in water, it is also called an alkali.

Carbonates
When acids react with carbonates, such as calcium
carbonate (found in chalk, limestone and marble), a salt,
water and carbon dioxide are made. In general:
acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Notice that an extra product - carbon dioxide - is made. It
causes bubbling during the reaction, and can be detected
using limewater. You usually see this reaction if you study
the effects of acid rain on rocks and building materials.

Reactive metals
Acids will react with reactive metals, such as magnesium
and zinc, to make a salt [salt: A compound formed by
neutralisation of an acid by a base (eg a metal oxide) - the
result of hydrogen atoms in the acid being replaced by
metal atoms or positive ions. Sodium chloride - common
salt - is one such compound. ] and hydrogen. In general:
acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
The hydrogen causes bubbling during the reaction, and
can be detected using a lighted splint. You usually see this
reaction if you study the reactivity series of metals.

Acids, alkalis and

neutralisation - higher
When atoms [atoms: An atom is the smallest part of an
element that still has the properties of that element,
comprising electrons surrounding a nucleus of protons and
neutrons. ] or groups of atoms lose or gain electrons
[electrons: Sub-atomic particles, with a negative charge
and a negligible mass relative to protons and neutrons. ],
charged particles called ions are formed. Ions can be either
positively or negatively charged.
For the Higher Tier, you need to know which ions are
produced by acids, and which are produced by alkalis. You
will also need to know the ionic equation for neutralisation
[neutralisation: Neutralisation is the reaction between an
acid and a base to form a salt plus water. ].

Acids
When acids dissolve in water they produce hydrogen ions,
H+. For example, looking at hydrochloric acid:
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Remember that (aq) means the substance is in solution.

Alkalis
When alkalis dissolve in water they produce hydroxide
ions, OH-. For example, looking at sodium hydroxide:
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Ammonia is slightly different. This is the equation for
ammonia in solution:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → (aq) + OH-(aq)
Be careful to write OH- and not Oh-.

Neutralisation reaction
When the H+ ions from an acid react with the OH- ions from
an alkali, a neutralisation reaction occurs to form water.
This is the equation for the reaction:
H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
If you look at the equations above for sodium hydroxide
and hydrochloric acid, you will see that there are Na+ ions
and Cl- ions left over. These form sodium chloride, NaCl.

Salt preparation
You need to be able to work out which particular salt [salt:
A compound formed by neutralisation of an acid by a base
(eg a metal oxide) - the result of hydrogen atoms in the
acid being replaced by metal atoms or positive ions.
Sodium chloride - common salt - is one such compound. ]
is made in a reaction. You may be asked to describe how
to make a salt.

Naming salts
The name of a salt has two parts. The first part comes from
the metal in the base [base: A substance with a pH higher
than 7, and which has a high concentration of hydroxyl
ions. Bases react with acids to form a salt and water
(called neutralisation). Metal hydroxides, oxides and
carbonates are all bases. ] or carbonate, or the metal itself
if a reactive metal like magnesium or zinc is used.
The second part of the name comes from the acid used to
make it. The names of salts made from hydrochloric acid
end in -chloride, while the names of salts made from
sulfuric acid end in -sulfate.

Formation of salts
Metal Acid Salt
sodium hydroxidereacts withhydrochloric acidto make sodium chloride
copper oxide reacts withhydrochloric acidto make copper chloride
sodium hydroxidereacts withsulfuric acid to makesodium sulfate
zinc oxide reacts withsulfuric acid to make zinc sulfate
Ammonia forms ammonium salts when it reacts with acids.
Therefore:
ammonia reacts with hydrochloric acid to make ammonium
chloride

Making salts
If the base dissolves in water, you need to add just enough
acid to make a neutral solution - check a small sample with
universal indicator paper - then evaporate [evaporate:
Evaporation is a change in state in which a liquid becomes
a gas (vapour); molecules near the surface of a liquid may
leave the liquid to become a vapour. ] the water. You get
larger crystals if you evaporate the water slowly.
Copper oxide, and other transition metal oxides or
hydroxides, do not dissolve in water. If the base does not
dissolve in water, you need an extra step. You add the
base to the acid until no more will dissolve and you have
some base left over (called an excess). You filter the
mixture to remove the excess base, then evaporate the
water in the filtrate [filtrate: Filtrate is fluid that has passed
through a filter. ] to leave the salt behind.
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