1-Give short notes on the spermatid maturation (spermiogenesis).

Spermatid maturatio(spermiogenesis):
The task of the mature spermatozoon is to carry to
and introduce into the egg the genetic material of the
male parent.
The spermatids undergo complex process
of differentiation to form spermatozoa:
a-Formation of head:
-The nucleus shrinks. The acrosome is derived from Golgi
complex. It appears as a small vacuole containing a small
acrosomal granule.
-The remaining part of Golgi is removed from
sperm together with cytoplasm as residual bodies.
b-Neck region:
-It is a small region that connects the head to the
middle piece. It contains the proximal and distal
centrioles. The distal centriole gives rise to the axial filament
of flagellum (axoneme). The latter consists of two central tubules
surrounded by nine pairs of tubules or “doublets”.
c-Middle piece: It consists of flagellum surrounded by
Mitochondrial element and nine dense fibers.
d-The tail:
The tail is differentiated into two regions:
a-Principal piece: The axoneme is surrounded by seven dense fibers.
b-End piece: The axoneme is covered by a thin layer of cytoplasm and its plasmalemma.
•
 2-Discuss the factors which control spermatogenesis.
The spermatogenesis is controlled by:
1-Hormonal factors:
The formation of mature Spermatozoon does not take
place until the age of puberty. The spermatogenic and
secretory functions of the testis are under the control of
the following pituitary gonadotrophins:

-LH hormone: stimulates the interstial cells to secrete

testosterone which stimulates spermatogenesis and
maintains the sex glands.

-FSH hormone: stimulates spermatogenesis in the

seminiferous tubules.
The negative-feedback effect of testosterone on
hypothalamus regulates the secretion of LH and FSH
2-Non-hormonal factors:
a-Temperature: elevation of body temperature may
destruct the spermatogenic cells.
b-Irradiation: x-rays and gamma rays destruct
spermatozoa.
c-Dietary factors: protein and vitamin A & E
deficiencies depress spermatogenesis.
d-Chemicals: numerous chemicals (lead, cadmium
…etc) destruct spermatogenic cells.
 3-Write on the factors responsible for the male infertility

The factors responsible for male infertility are:

1-Semen volume: The main volume is about 3 milliliters.
There does not seem to be too much relation between
volume and ease of conception.
6
2-Sperm density: American Fertility Society proposed 40 X 10
6
sperm / ml as the normal minimum number. Below 10 X 10
sperm / ml the human should considered infertile.

3-Sperm motility: Motility of the sperm is important when the

sperm reach the ovum, vigorous movement is necessary to
penetrate the membranes surrounding the egg.

4-Sperm morphology: Morphologically, not all spermatozoa are

normal. If the percentage of abnormal spermatozoa exceeds
20% impaired fertility may be expected.
4-Give an account of the previtellogenesis growth period of the oocyte.

Previtellogenesis includes:
a-Growth of nuclear substances:
Simultaneously, with the growth of oocyte its nucleus increases in size. The chromosomes
may increase in length but the amount of DNA does not increase.

b-Growth of cytoplasmic substanses:

The amount of cytoplasm increases in quantity and in quality by the elaboration and regular distribution
of various inclusions.
-Large amount of RNA is present in cytoplasm.
-The mitochondria are increased in number.
-The Golgi complex besides performing its normal function manufactures the cortical granules.

The cortical granules

These are spherical bodies containing acid mucopolysacchrides for the synthesis of fertilization
membrane during fertilization.
 5-Write on the vitellogenesis growth period of the oocyte.
Vitellogenesis:
It is the period of rapid growth in which the cytoplasm
is packaged by reserve food materials as glycogen,
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins all of which called
yolk or vitellin.

Vitellogenesis begins after the oocyte enters the

first prophase stage of maturation division.
In cephalochordates, most of the yolk is
proteinaceous. By contrast, less than 50% of the
dry weight of mature egg cell is yolk protein and
lipid costitute 25% of the dry weight of amphibian
egg.
Avian yolk is a combination of proteins (16.6%),
phospholipids (32.6%), carbohydrates(1%) and
vitamins.
The precursors of protein yolk are
manufactured outside the primary oocyte. The
vitellogenin is synthesized and secreted by liver
cells and transformed by blood to the follicle cells.
It passes through follicle cells and is incorporated
into the oocyte by micropinocytosis. The vitellogenin is
cleaved into two major yolk proteins, lipovitellin and
phosvitin.
 6-Write on the different kinds of egg membranes.
Oogenesis is followed by the formation of some
protective membranes around the plasma membrane of egg.

1-Primary egg membranes:

These are membranes which are formed by the egg.
a-Vitelline membrane:The primary envelop surrounds
eggs of insects, amphibia and birds.It is composed
of mucopolysacchrides and fibrous proteins
b-Zona radiata: it is a striated envelops surrounding the
eggs of shark, some bony fishes, amphibians and reptiles.
c-Zona pellucida: it is unstriated layer and is formed by joint
efforts of ova and follicle cells (e.g. mammalian egg).

2-Secondary egg membranes:

These membranes are formed by the follicle cells.
They are chitinous shells surrounding the eggs of
insects (chorion), ascidians and cyclostomes.

3-Tertiary egg membranes:

These membranes are formed by the oviduct and
other genital organs.
a-In oviparous shark: the egg is surrounded by
albumen and horny capsule secreted by shell gland.
b-In amphibian forms: the eggs are surrounded by jelly
coats secreted from oviduct.
c-In avian forms: the albumen, shell membranes and the
calcareous porous shell are formed by the oviduct.
 7-Give a brief account of the hormonal control of ovulation.
In mammals, both the growth of follicle and the formation
of corpus luteum are controlled by the following hormones:
a-Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): stimulates the
growth of ovarian follicles and their secreting of estrogen.
b-Lutenizing hormone (LH): induces ovulation of mature
ovum and conversion of a Graafian follicle into a corpus
luteum. The pituitary gland, in turn, is influenced by two ovarian
hormones, estrogen and progesteron. The feedback from
the ovary to the pituitary gland may be positive (resulting in
an increase in the release of trophic hormones) or negative
(resulting in a decrease).
FSH, with a little LH, stimulates follicular growth
and production of estrogen in the ovary. The estrogen acts
upon the pituitary to secrete LH & LTH and to decrease
secretion of FSH. When corpora begin to regress, the
amounts of ovarian hormones are reduced and pituitary
again produces FSH to initiate reproduction of the ovarian
cycle. During pregnancy, the corpus luteum persists and there
is no follicular growth or ovulation and placental hormones
replace the ovarian hormones.
8-Give short notes on the following: a-Capacitation . B-Fertilizin-antifertilizin reaction.
A-Capacitation:
In mammalian forms, spermatozoa undergo a process called capacitation before they are fully capable of fertilizing the egg
i.e. the capacity of spermatozoa to fertilize eggs of the same . As spermatozoa pass through the male reproductive
tract, they are exposed to the decapacitating factor (DF) in the epididymis fluid or seminal plasm. Capacitation thus
involves the removal of DF imposed on the sperm in the male reproductive tract.
The decapacitation factor performs the following functions:
a-prolongs the life of the spermatozoa.
b-Prevents the spermatozoa from penetrating the lining cells of male and female reproductive tracts.
c-Prevents sperm agglutination.
d-Prevents phagocytosis of sperm in the female reproductive tract. Recently, it has been found that the uterus secretes a
uterine factor (glycosaminoglycan) which capacitated the sperm and make them capable of fertilizing ova.
B-Fertilizin-antifertilizin reaction: It has been found that
The egg water of unfertilized eggs has agglutinating
effect on spermatozoa from respective species.
There are two reacting substances namely fertlizin &
antifertilizin in eggs and spermatozoa respectively. The
fertilizin is a glycoprotein or mucopolysacchrides. Both
monosaccharides and aminoacids of fertilizin vary from
one species to another. The surface layer of cytoplasm
of the sperm (plasma membrane) contains another
species-specific protein called antifertilizn. Hence, the egg
fertilizin of one animal species will react and forms a
“chemical lock” only with antifertilizin of the sperm of
the same species.
 9-Write on the acrosomal reaction and mechanism of sperm penetration in mammalian egg.
The penetration of the sperm through the egg membranes is achieved by certain enzymes in the acrosome. The egg
membranes constitute barriers to prevent fertilization by more than one sperm or by sperm of alien species. In case of
eggs with very thick membranes (e.g. insects and fishes), the sperm penetrates the resistant envelop through a special
canal (micropyle) left in the egg membranes.
In mammals, the egg is surrounded by the plasma membrane outside of which there is a zona pellucida and a number of
follicle cells forming the cumulus ooforus. The inner layer of the follicle cells are columnar in shape and form the
corona radiata. During fertilization, the sperm must pass these membranes:
a-The outer follicle cells of cumulus oophorus are interspersed in a ground
substance that is a mucopolysaccharides containing hyaluronic acid.
Release of hyaluronidase from the acrosome breaks down the intercellular
connections of cells and allows the sperm to penetrate between them
b-Sperm in turn penetrates the corona radiata by releasing a second
enzyme called corona-penetrating enzyme (CPE) which also attacks
the ground substance.
c-The sperm penetrates zona pellucida by the action of another
enzyme secreted by the acrosome called trypsin-like enzyme
(TLE) or acrosin.
 10- Give a detailed account of the cortical reaction.
2-The cortical reaction and formation of fertilization membrane:
When the eggs of sea urchin are inseminated, the first change
is the rupture of cortical granules and the discharge of their
contents at the egg surface. This is followed by the elevation
of the vitelline membrane and the formation of fluid-filled
perivitelline space.
The contents of thecortical granules swell and are then
discherged at the egg surface. The contents of the cortical
granules include enzymes, proteins and mucopolysacchrides.
The enzyme vitelline delaminase dissolves away the protein
that binds the vitelline

membrane to the plasma membrane of unfertilized egg.

As the mucopolysaccharides of the perivitelline space
swell, the vitelline membrane to lift away from the egg
surface.
The protein derived from contents of cortical granules
harden the vitelline membrane and transform it into the
fertilization membrane. Peroxidase and glucanase of
cortical granules may function in the hardening process.
 11-Discuss the metabolic and synthetic activities after fertilization.
3- Metabolic and synthetic activities: If fertilization occurs, the eggs undergoes a series of rapid changes.
The fertilized egg shows changes in utilization of oxygen, permeability of plasmalemma, activities of enzymes and
synthesis of proteins.
A- It was found that oxygen consumption in sea urchin eggs increases after fertilization up to 600%.
B- An important change that occurs after fertilization is rapid increase of the calcium ions in the egg cytoplasm. This leads
to the change of permeability of the plasmalemma of the egg membrane. Sodium ions pass from outside into the
cytoplasm and hydrogen ions pass to the outside medium so that the surrounding medium becomes acidic and the egg
cytoplasm shifts to the alkaline side which is the real stimulus to development. The rise of the PH of the cytoplasm
initiates the synthesis of proteins and DNA in the egg, which are
needed for the increased nuclei during cleavage.
C-Among the metabolic changes that take place after fertilization
is the synthesis of proteins. In the sea urchin, the rise in protein
synthesis is rapid, about 30 fold increase in the rate of synthesis
occurs within 10 minutes after insemination. By contrast, studies
with mouse eggs show little significant increase in protein
synthesis upon insemination. Since amino acids and ribosomes are
present in both the unfertilized and fertilized eggs, the increased
protein synthesis after fertilization was thought to be due to new
quantities of messenger RNA emitted by the nucleus. However, it
was found that non-nucleated fragments of the egg can be
activated to parthenogenic development and such fragments show
an increase protein synthesis as in normal fertilized eggs. Thus
messenger RNA must be presnt, but inactive, in the unfertilized eggs.
 12-Give short notes on migration and fusion of male and female pronuclei.
A-Migration:
At the time of penetration of spermatozoon inside the egg cytoplasm, the sperm nucleus remains compact and its
mitochondria and centriole remain situated behind it. To perform the process of fusion, the sperm nucleus performs
two activities:
(I) it has to become pronucleus.
(ii) it has to migrate from the site of fertilization to the site of fusion.
As the sperm nucleus moves inward from the site of fertilization cone, it
soon rotates through the angle of 180*, so that its mitochondria and
centriole assume the leading position. The sperm nucleus starts swelling
and its chromatin which is very closely packed, becomes finely granular.
It ultimately becomes vesicular and has an appearance like the interphase
nucleus and is called male pronucleus. At the same time, the sperm aster
forms in the egg cytoplasm around the proximal centriole of the sperm.
As the male pronucleus develops and migrates towards the site of fusion,
the sperm aster seems to lead it. The site of fusion lies either near the
center of microlecithal and mesolecithal eggs or in the center of cytoplasm
at the animal pole of macrolecithal and telolecithal eggs.
Before fusion , the nucleus of the egg also undergoes certain changes like the s
sperrm nucleus. After the completion of second meiotic division, the haploid nucleus of the egg occurs near the
surface of the egg in the form of several vesicles, known as karyomeres. In a fertilizing egg, these karyomeres fuse
together to form a female pronucleus which swells, increases in volume, and becomes vesicular. It also migrates
towards the site of fusion.
Fusion of pronuclei:
The actual fusion of the male and female pronuclei may differ in details in different animals. In most animals, the two
pronuclei actually fuse together, that is, the nuclear membrane of both pronuclei degenerates at the point of their
contact and the contents of both pronuclei unite into one mass which is bounded by a common nuclear membrane.
 13-Mention the characterestics of the cleavage.
The splitting of an activated egg by a series of mitotic divisions into a multitude of cells which
become the building units of future organism, is called cleavage. The cleavage is characterized by
the following:
1-It divides the egg into an increasing number of cells of progressively decreasing size. The divisions
continue until the average cell size is similar to that of the differentiated cells of the parental
organism. The number of successive divisions depends on the volume of the egg compared with
the volume of typical somatic cells and on the availability of reserves, such as yolk.
The resultant cells are called blastomeres.
2-The shape of the embryo does not greatly change.
3-No growth occurs.
4-Chemical conversion of reserve food materials ( yolk, glycogen, etc.) into active cytoplasm containing
pool of amino acids, monosaccharides, lipid molecules and variety of enzymes, takes place. The
active cytoplasm ultimately transforms into nuclear substances ( molecules of DNA, RNA and
nucleoproteins) and those chemical molecules ( proteins, phospholipids, enzymes, etc. ) which are
needed as the building blocks in the formation of spindle, and nuclear and plasma membranes.
5-The constituent parts of ooplasm remain comparatively unaltered during cleavage, i.e. the
internal organization of ooplasm of the cleaved egg remains same as in the fertilized egg.
6-The ratio of nucleus to cytoplasm remains very low at the beginning of cleavage, but, at
the end of cleavage (blastula stage) it is brought to the level found in ordinary somatic cells.
7-The cleavage converts the egg into a compact mass of blastomeres called morula stage which
ultimately transforms into blastula, having unilayered thick blastoderm around a central
space called blastocoel.
14-Write an essay on the different patterns of cleavage.
1-Radial cleavage:
The radial cleavage occurs when the successive cleavage
planes cut straight through the egg, at right angles to one
another and the resulting blastomeres become
symmetrically disposed around the polar axis. When such
an egg is viewed from either pole, the blastomeres are found
to be arranged in a radially symmetrical form (e.g. all animals
having holoblastic cleavage).
2-Spiral cleavage:
The spiral cleavage is found in those forms in which there is a
rotational movement of cell parts around the egg axis. Hence, the upper
blastomeres come to lie not over the corresponding vegetal blastomeres
but over the junction between each two of the vegetal cells. In successive
cleavages, the rotational movements are characterized by a regular alternation
in clockwise or anticlockwise direction (e.g. annelids and molluscus).
3-Bilateral cleavage:
In some nematodes (Ascaris), the first division produces two unequal
cells: a slightly larger cell and a smaller one, thus establishing a plane
of bilateral symmetry in the developing embryo.
4-Superficial cleavage:
In centrolecithal egg of insects, the mitotic division of centrally located
nucleus is not followed by division of cytoplasm. The resulting nuclei,
each surrounded by a halo of cytoplasm, spread out in the undivided
layer of cytoplasm just beneath the surface.
 15-Write an essay on the cleavage in placental mammals.
Cleavage in mammals is initiated in the upper end of the
oviduct, 24 hours after insemination. The mammalian egg
lacks synchronization of mitosis of blastomeres from the
two-celled stage onwards. Hence, the blastomeres are
divided into two types; blastomeres divide rapidly and
those divide slowly. The more rapidly dividing cells form
the trophoblast and the more slowly dividing cells form the
inner mass cells. Before entrance into uterine portion of
the oviduct the morula gradually becomes transformed
into the blastocyst and a large cavity or blastocoel is
formed with displacement of the inner cell mass toward
the future dorsal side of the embryo.
 16-Write on the cleavage and blastulation in amphioxus.
In amphioxus, the first cleavage divides the egg
Into two equal blastomeres in a meridional plane
that extends from animal pole to the vegetal pole.
The second cleavage is also meridional but at the
right angles to the first furrow to form four equal
blastomeres. The third cleavage is horizontal and
slightly above the equator to form slightly smaller
four blastomeres(micromeres) toward the animal
pole and slightly larger four blastomeres
(macromeres) toward the vegetal pole.The fourth
cleavage is meridional with two furrows to form
sixteen blastomeres.The fifth cleavage is horizontal
dividing the eight micromeres and the eight
macromeres semultaneneously into a total of 32
blastomeres. During successive cleavages, the
larger macromeres in vegetal hemisphere tend
to divide more slowly than the smaller micromeres.
By the end of cleavage, the embryo is organized
as a hollow sphere ( blastula) whose cells enclose
a fluid-filled cavity, the blastocoel.
 17-Discuss the cleavage and blastulation in amphibians.
The yolk is distributed along the animal-vegetal
axis with the greatest concentration at the vegetal
pole. Cleavage is initiated at the animal pole after
two hours of fertilization. The first two furrows are
meridional and at the right angles to each other
producing four cells of approximately equal size.
The first furrow passes through the grey crescent
so that each of resulting blastomeres contains a
portion of this cytoplasm. The unequal distribution
of the yolk within the egg leads to displacement of
third cleavage toward the animal pole. The
macromeres are confined to vegetal pole and the
micromeres to the animal pole. After about the 4th
or 5th cleavage, the regularity of segmentation
process is lost. Blastomeres containing yolk tend
to divide more slowly than those with less yolk.
After a short period, blastomeres are packed
together to form morula stage. The narrow cavities
between cells united to form a large cavity, the
blastocoel. In T.S., the cells of animal pole are
small and organized into two or more layers to form
the roof of blastocoel. The cells at the vegetal pole
are larger and form the floor of blastocoel.
 18-Write on the meroblastic cleavage in birds.
In birds, the first cleavage is meridional and bisects the blastodisc
into partially separated blastomeres. The second cleavage
consists of two meridional furrows each one is at a right angle to
the first cleavage. The third set of cleavages are also vertical
parallel to the first cleavage furrow. The fourth set of cleavages
are vertical furrows to form eight central cells separated
from eight marginal cells. The centrally located cells have upper
and lateral surfaces but lacking a lower surface, so they are
continuous with yolk below. The marginal cells are incomplete
peripherally. From this point onward the succession o f cleavage
becomes irregular. In this cleavage, three types of furrows are
usually recognized:
a-Vertical furrows that extend peripheral toward the margin of
blastodisc.
b-Vertical furrows that cut across the inner ends of radiating furrows,
thereby producing peripheral boundaries to marginal cells; these
blastomeres then become part of centrally located cells.
c-Horizontal furrows that occur parallel to the surface and
established lower boundaries to the cells.
Horizontal cleavages begin after 32-celled stage.
By the time the embryo is organized as a mass of centrally located cells that lie over a fluid-filled cavity.
 19-Write an essay on the superficial cleavage.
• Superficial cleavage:
In the centrolecithal eggs, the nucleus is located at
the central part of egg and is surrounded by small
Amounts of cytoplasm. At first, division of nucleus
in the centre is not followed by division of the
cytoplasm so that a number of nuclei is produced
in the undivided central cytoplasm.
The nuclei migrate to the surface, each nucleus is
surrounded by a smaller portion of the central
cytoplasm which fuses with the superficial cytoplasm.
A syncytium is formed on the surface which then
becomes subdivided into cells or blastomeres.
These blastomeres are connected to the yolk
some time and then separated leaving a
compact yolk mass which is used up as a food
reserve by the developing embryo (e.g. insects)
 20-Give a brief account of catabolic and anabolic activities during cleavage.
• -Catabolic activities of cleavage:
• The cleavage requires large amount of chemical energy in the form of ATP molecules for its completion. For example, in
each mitosis of cleavage, the microtubules of centrioles and mitotic spindle requires many ATP molecules to spend in
the movements of chromosomes. These ATP molecules are manufactured in ooplasm and mitochondria during
enzymatic anaerobic (glycolysis) and aerobic (Krebs cycle) oxidation of yolk, glycogen and other energy yielding
chemical molecules of egg. The increased oxidation of a cleaving egg is correlated with increased input of oxygen
molecules by the latter.
• B-Anabolic activities of cleavage:
• The qualitative growth during cleavage involves the biosynthesis of following kinds of macromolecules:
• i-Biosynthesis of DNA:
• During cleacage, the number of nuclei is doubled with every new division of the blastomeres and this increase is
accompanied by an increase of nuclear substance , which in its turn involves an increase of DNA amount. The amount
of DNA, however, remains constant per nucleus. In the S phase of interphase of each mitosis of cleavage, the DNA
duplication occurs in the presence of an enzyme, called DNA polymerase. The precursor substances, such as,
deoxyadenylate, deoxyguanylate, deoxycytidilate and thymidilate, all of which are deoxyribonucleotides, move from
the cytoplasm to the egg nucleus and assemble into new polynucleotide strands of DNA polymerase enzyme.
• ii-RNA synthesis:
• During early cleavage, the chromosomal DNA remains hurriedly busy in its own duplication . The result is that no or
little transcription of any kind of RNA occurs during this period. Hence, the messenger RNA and transfer RNA ,
however, are synthesized during cleavage or at least in the later stages of cleavage.
• iii-Protein synthesis:
• The cleaving egg requires different species of structural, enzymatic and regulator proteins for its diverse mode of
functions. For example, the structural proteins are required as building blocks for different cellular membranes, egg
cortex, microtubules, ribosomes etc. The enzymatic proteins are needed at different steps of cleavage for controlling
the metabolism of cleavage as a whole. The regulator proteins (such as histone and non-histone proteins)remain
associated with DNA molecule and are responsible for differential behavior of the latter during embryonic
development.