MOLECULES, COMPOUNDS

AND NOMENCLATURE
 HYDROGEN, OXYGEN AND WATER

• Properties of compounds are in most cases very

different from those of elements that form the compound.
• This was illustrated by the reaction of Na and Cl we have
seen in Chap 1
• It can also be seen from the table below illustrating some
selected properties of H2, O2 and H2O.
 COMPOUNDS

• Are formed when elements chemically combine.

• Their properties are totally different from those of the
element they are made from
• The elemental composition is always definite for any
pure compound (water from any source would have a
ratio two H atoms to 1 O atom (8:1 mass ratio)
• Mixtures on the other hand could have the elements
combined in any ratio.
 CHEMICAL BONDS

• Chemical bonds is the “glue” that holds atoms together

in compounds
• Results from interactions between the charged particles
i.e protons and electrons in the atom.
• Two broad types of bonds exist
1. Ionic bonds:- occurs in ions. One atom (metallic) loses
electrons to form positive ion and the other atom (non-metallic)
gains electrons to form negative ions. Opposite charged ions
attract, resulting in an ionic bond
2. Covalent bonds:- formed by sharing of electrons between two
non-metals. Shared electrons interact with nuclei from both
atoms forming a molecule
 TYPES OF CHEMICAL FORMULAS

Chemical formulas can be categorized into three different

types:-
1. Empirical formula: Defined as the simplest whole
number ratio for the elements that make up the
compound.
2. Molecular formula: The actual formula for the
compound representing the exact number of each type
of atoms present. The molecular formula is always a
whole number multiple of the empirical formula

molecular mass
Molecular formula  empirical formula x
empirical mass
 CHEMICAL FORMULAS

• 3 (a). structural formula shows the individual bonds between atoms and
the nature of bond. Bonds are indicated by lines.
 CHEMICAL FORMULAS
• 3. (b)Condensed structural formula is
a simpler way to show how atoms are
connected but does not give as much
information about bonds. E.g CH3COOH
or CH3CO2H is acetic acid showing three O
H attached to first C atom and two O and
one H attached to the second C atom.

• 3. (c) line-angle formula. Mostly used OH

for organic compounds. Lines are used
to represent bonds and whenever 2 lines
meet, it is assumed to be a C atom.
Also, we assume each C atom has
enough H atoms to satisfy its need for 4
covalent bonds.
CLASSIFICATION OF PURE SUBSTANCES
 IONIC COMPOUNDS
• For these type of compounds we talk of formula unit
instead of molecular formula. Formula unit is the
smallest set of ions that make the compound electrically
neutral. E.g NaCl is a formula unit and is used to
calculate the formula mass of an ionic compound.
• Formula mass is the mass of a formula unit (ionic
compounds) whereas molecular mass is the mass of a
molecule (covalent compounds)
• Formula mass for NaCl = atomic mass Na + atomic
mass Cl = 22.9898 + 35.4527 = 58.4425u.
• One mole of a compound or an atom has a weight in
grams equal to the atomic weight in amu. E.g 1 mol of
NaCl has a weight of 58.4425 g
WRITING FORMULAS FOR IONIC COMPOUNDS

1. Write the symbol for the metal cation and its

charge ( for main Gp metals use Gp#)
2. Write the symbol for the nonmetal anion and
its charge
3. Charge (without sign) becomes subscript for
other ion
4. Reduce subscripts to smallest whole number
ratio
5. Check that the sum of the charges of the
cations cancels the sum of the anions
 EXAMPLE

• Write the formula of the compound formed between

calcium and oxygen atoms
1. Write the symbol for the metal cation
and its charge followed by the
symbol for the nonmetal anion and its
charge. Obtain charges from the Ca2+ O2−
element’s group number on the
periodic table.
2. Adjust the subscript on each cation
and anion to balance the overall CaO
charge.
3. Check that the sum of the charges of cations: +2
the cations equals the sum of the anions: −2
charges of the anions. The charges cancel.
 PRACTICE

• Write the formula of the compounds

formed between the following elements
1. potassium and sulfur
2. Sodium and nitrogen
3. Aluminum and oxygen
4. Strontium and bromine
 NAMING COMPOUNDS

• Originally common names were used for

compounds
• Names had no relationship to the type or formula of
compound
• Examples of such common names are:
– Caustic potash (KOH)
– Dry ice CO2 (s)
– Mineral white (BaSO4(s))
– Muriatic acid (HCl (aq))
– Aqua fortis (HNO3(aq))
• Such names were very difficult to recall
 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

• A system for naming compounds was developed

• Naming starts with classifying the compounds
into the following categories:

– Binary compounds (only 2 elements)

– Compounds containing polyatomic ions
– acids (formula starts with H)
 BINARY COMPOUNDS TYPE 1

• Contain a positive ion (cation) from a metal that

can only form one possible charge and a
negative ion (anion)
• The following rules apply to naming the
compounds
– Cation is always named first and the anion second
– The cation takes its name from the name of the element.
E.g Na+ is called sodium in its compounds
– The anion is named by taking the first part of the element
name and adding –ide e.g Cl- is chloride
 TYPE 1 COMPOUNDS

• Below are listed some examples of type 1

compounds
• Since the metals in these compounds only form one
type of cation, Roman numerals are not used in the
names
• Examples:
– Nacl Sodium chloride
– KI potassium iodide
– CaS Calcium sulfide
– Li3N Lithium nitride
• Monocationic ions are formed by metals in GP 1, 2
and 12 as well as a few other ions shown in the
table below
 BINARY COMPOUNDS TYPE II

• These are ionic compounds that contain metal atoms

that form more than one type of positive ion with a given
anion
• In this case the charge on the cation must be specified
• The charge is specified by using Roman numerals in
parenthesis
• EXAMPLE:
– FeCl2 iron(II) chloride
– FeCl3 iron(III) chloride
• Note: there is no space between iron and the Roman
numerals
 BINARY COMPOUNDS TYPE III

• Made up of two non-metals

• Less electronegative element is named first and uses the
element name.
• Second element named as if it was an a anion
• Prefixes (mono- di- tri- etc) are used to denote the
number of each type of element
• Never use mono for first element
– e.g CO2 is carbon dioxide not monocarbon dioxide
– CO carbon monoxide not carbon mono-oxide
– But N2O4 is dinitrogen tetroxide
• Very few compounds still use common names e.g
– H2O water
– NH3 ammonia
COMPOUNDS CONTAINING POLYATOMIC IONS

• Polyatomic ions are composed of more than one type of

atom joined by covalent bonds. These ions have non-
systematic names that have to be memorized
• Oxyanions: polyatomic anions with one atom of a given
type with different numbers of oxygen atoms
• Named according to number of O atoms
• Hypo ….ite, ….ite, ….ate, per …..ate
– ClO- hypochlorite
– ClO2- chlorite
– ClO3- chlorate
– ClO4- perchlorate
• Br and I follow same series
 POLYATOMIC IONS

• When there are only two ions in a series, the

one with fewer oxygen atoms is named with the
ending –ite and the one with more has the
ending -ate
• NO3- nitrate
• NO2- nitrite
• SO42- sulfate
• SO32- sulfite
NAMING COMPOUNDS WITH POLYATOMIC IONS

• These are named in the same manner as binary

compounds
• The metal is named first and if it forms ions of different
charges, charge is indicated.
• Always determine charge of metal from the charge on the
ion based on the concept of charge neutrality
– NaNO3 sodium nitrate
– Fe(NO3)2 iron(II) nitrate
– Pb(SO4)2 lead(IV) sulfate
– KMnO4 potassium permanganate
• Some commonly encountered polyatomic ions are shown
in the table below. A more complete list is available on
Blackboard
SOME COMMON POLYATOMIC IONS
 HYDRATES

• Hydrates are ionic compounds containing a

specific number of waters for each formula
unit
• Water of hydration often “driven off” by
heating
• In formula, attached waters follow ∙
• CoCl2∙6H2O
• In name attached waters indicated by
prefix+hydrate after name of ionic compound
• CoCl2∙6H2O = cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
• CaSO4∙½H2O = calcium sulfate hemihydrate
 ACIDS

• Compounds that release H+ ions when dissolved in water.

Composed of H+ attached to anion. Named as acids only
when in aqueous solution
1. Acid does not contain oxygen (Binary Acid): In this case
its is named with the prefix hydro and the suffix –ic e.g
hydrocyanic acid (HCN(aq)). Hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq))
2. Anion contains oxygen (oxyacids): acid name is derived
from the root name of the anion with ending –ic or –ous
a) If the anion ends with –ate , the acid ends in –ic
e.g. SO42- sulfate anion, H2SO4 (aq) sulfuric acid
b) If anion ends in –ite , the acid ends with –ous
e.g. SO32- sulfite, H2SO3 (aq) sulfurous acid
 NAMING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

• A few carbon containing compounds are inorganic. e.g.

CO2, Na2CO3
• Most carbon containing compounds are called organic
compounds
• Most of these compounds have long chains of carbon
atoms attached to each other
• Organic compounds that contain only carbon and
hydrogen are called hydrocarbons
 HDROCARBONS

• Hydrocarbons may be saturated or unsaturated

• In saturated hydrocarbon each carbon atom in the chain
forms 4 bonds to other atoms.
• If there are multiple bonds (double, triple) between any
two or more carbon atoms the hydrocarbon is
unsaturated
• Saturated hydrocarbons are also known as alkanes
• alkanes can have straight chain, branched chain or
ring structures
• Straight Chain alkanes are called normal alkanes and
when naming them the letter n is used before the name
e.g n-hexane
STRUCTURES OF HYDROCARBONS
 USATURATED ALKANES

• In some cases neighboring C atoms forms more than

one bond between them.
• If such bond is double, the hydrocarbon is called alkene
• If triple it is alkyne
 FUNCTIONALIZED HYDROCARBONS

• These are hydrocarbons in which a functional group –

a characteristic atom or group of atoms- is incorporated
into the hydrocarbon. Typical example of a functional
group is alcohol.
• Alcohols are organic compounds in which the –OH group
is attached to the carbon chain.
• In general, alcohols are represented as R-OH, where R-
designates the hydrocarbon portion of the molecule. An
example of an alcohol are is shown below.
Hydrocarbon
(R) group CH3OH
methanol OH functional group
 NAMING ALKANES

• Alkanes are named according to the number of carbon

atoms in the chain
• The simplest member of the alkanes is methane CH4
and has only one C atom.
• The next three members of the family are ethane
C2H6, propane C3H8, and butane C4H10 (note the
general formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2 )
• After butane a systematic naming system is used
• The names are derived from adding the suffix –ane for
the Greek root for the number of carbon atoms
– Five = pent, alkane is pentane
– Six = hex, alkane is hexane etc.
 RULES FOR NAMING ALKANES
1. Determine base name from C atoms in longest chain.

2. Name each substituent attached to longest C chain.

3. Assign position numbers to substituents to keep the numbers as

low as possible.

4. name the compound using the format:

(substituent number)–(substituent name)(base name)

5. For multiple substituents list each alphabetically.

6. Where substituents are identical use di–, tri–, tetra–…

(substituent name still determines alphabetical order)
 NAMING ALKENES AND ALKYNES

• Hydrocarbons that contain at least one C=C are called alkenes

• Alkenes are named by adding substituting the –ane in the alkane by
–ene
• The longest sequential chain is numbered with the position of the
alkene being given lowest possible number.
• Alkynes contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond and are
named by substituting –ane in alkyne by –yne
• Again the position of the triple bond is given the lowest number
when numbering the carbon atoms in the chain. Example:
(4-methylpent-2-yne)
CH3
CH3 C C CH
CH3
 HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVES

• A large number of organic molecules contain elements

other than carbon and hydrogen
• These molecules can be viewed as hydrocarbons with
additional groups, hence hydrocarbon derivatives
• These groups are referred to as functional groups
• Functional groups drastically alter the physical and
chemical properties of the hydrocarbon.
• The compounds are named based on the chain of the
hydrocarbon from which it is derived
• CH4 –methane, CH3-OH, methanol
• Below are some common functional groups.
SOME FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
 EXAMPLES OF NAMING QUESTIONS

• Name the following compounds

• (a) Cu(CN)2 (b) SrCrO4 (c) N2F4 (d) HIO4 (aq) (e)
TlIO4 (f) Sr3P2 (g) NaHO2 (h) CsTe (i) HI(g) HBr(aq)
H2SO3(aq)

• You should also be able to write the formula of the

compound given the name.
e.g write the formula for (a) lead(II) nitrate, (b)
sodium nitrate (c) magnesium bromide (d)
manganese(IV)oxide (e) potassium nitride
 NAMING ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

• 1.What is the name of the following organic compounds

• (a) CH3NH2 (b) CH3CH2OH (C) CH3CH2OCH3

• Draw the structure of (a) 2-methylpentanal (b)

propanone (c) ethanoic acid (d) methyl ethanoate
 PERCENT COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS

• Mass percent is mass of a given element divided by

mass of 1 mole of the compound expressed as a
percentage.
• What is the mass % of carbon in ethanol C2H5OH?
• Molar mass ethanol = (2 x 12.011) + 6 x 1.008) + (1
x 15.999) = 46.069 g
mass % C = mass of C /mass of ethanol x 100% =
24.022g/ 46.069g X 100 % = 52.144 %
• This means that in 100 g of ethanol, 52.144 g is
made up of carbon
 CONVERSION FACTORS BASED ON %
COMPOSITION

• % composition of a compound can be used as a

conversion factor
• This is illustrated in the questions below.
1. If someone consumes 22 g of NaCl(s) per day, what
mass in grams of sodium does this person
consume? Sodium chloride is 39% sodium by mass.
2. Butane (C4H10) is the liquid fuel in lighters. How
many grams of carbon are present within a lighter
containing 7.25 mL of butane? (density of liquid
butane is 0.601 g/mL)
 PRACTICE PROBLEMS

• Lead metal can be extracted from a mineral called

galena, which contains 86.6% lead by mass. A particular
ore contains 68.5% galena by mass. If the lead can be
extracted with 92.5 % efficiency, what mass of ore, in
Kg, is required to make a lead sphere of radius 7.00cm?
( Density of lead = 11.4 g/cm3)
• 29.8 Kg
• A metal (M) forms a compound with the formula MCl2. If
the compound contains 52.73% Cl by mass, what is the
identity of the metal
• Cu
DETERMINING THE FORMULA OF A COMPOUND

• Determining the formula is one of the first analytical

techniques done on new compounds.
• In a procedure known as combustion analysis, a known
mass of the compound is burnt In oxygen to form oxides
.
• The oxides are then collected and weighed
• From the masses of the oxides, the mass of constituent
elements, and hence formula of the compound can be
determined.
• Apparatus for such analysis are shown next slide
DETERMINING FORMULA FROM COMBUSTION
DATA
• Example: A 0.1227 g sample of a compound containing only C, H
and O was completely burned in excess O2(g). It yielded 0.1676 g
H2O and 0.1636 g CO2. The molar mass of the compound was
determined to be 99.150 g/mol. What are the empirical and
molecular formulae of the compound?
• First determine mols of each element in the compound. This can be
done by determining mass of element from mass of its oxide and
then converting mass to mols.

1 molCO 2 1 molC
Mol C  0.163 g CO2 X X  0.00372 molC
44.011 g CO2 1 molCO2

1 molH2O 2 molH
Mol H  0.1676 g H2O X X  0.01861 molH
18.015 g H2O 1 molH2O
How do we find mol O? Cannot use O from CO 2 and H 2 O
because some O 2 is added from air.
Calculate the difference . We know the mass of original sample and
can calculate the mass
of C and H and subtract from original mass.
12.0107 g C
mass C  0.003722 mol C x  0.04470 g C
1 mol C
1.00794 g H
mass H  0.01861 mol H x  0.01875 g H
1 mol H
mass O  mass of sample - mass C - mass H
 0.1227 g - 0.04470 g - 0.01875  0.05925 g O
We go back to moles since we want to calculate mole ratios :
1mol O
mol O  0.05925 g O x  0.003703 mol O
15.994 g O
C 0.003722H 0.01861O 0.003703
• Next divide by the smallest number of moles
C1H5O1

• Next calculate the empirical formula mass

(1 x 12.011) + (5 x 1.008) + (1 x 15.999) = 33.01 g

• Molecular formula = (empirical formula)n

n = molecular formula/ empirical formula
= 99.150/ 33.01 = 3
Molecular formula = C3H15O3
 IN CLASS PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. A 0.77-mg sample of nitrogen reacts with chlorine to

form 6.61 mg of the chloride. Determine the empirical
formula of nitrogen chloride
2. The molar mass and empirical formula of some
compounds are listed below. Find the moleclar formula
of each compound
a) C4H9, 114.22 g/mol b) CCl, 284.77 g/mol
3. 2-deoxyribose is a sugar that is basic constituent of
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). The mass percent
composition of 2-deoxyribose is 44.77% C, 7.52% H,
and 47.71% O. determine the empirical formula of 2-
deoxyribose. What is its molecular formula if the mass
is determined to be 134 amu?