Technical--R"ePQrt Ito.

RAbbH-822

THmRm'ICAL STUDY OF

vmy HIGH, PRESSURE

FWID powm SYSTOO (U)

Final Report
15 October 1966
by

D. W. Deamer and S. J. Brigham

Prepared under Contract NOw 65-0567:d for

Naval Air Systems Command, Headquarters
Department of the Navy
'by North American Aviation Incorporated
Columbus Division, ColumbUS, Ohio 43216
COLU~BUSDrVISION, OF, NORTI-I , AMEI::ICAN ROCKWELL CORPOH~TION
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;28 December 1967

<) •

,In reply r",fer to:

670L 13.577. !,.J

From: North American Rockwell Corporation

Columbus Division
Columbus, Ohio 43216

To: Commander, N~val Air Systems Command

Department of the Navy
',,-
Washington, D. C. 20360

.Attention: AIR-604Al

Via: Naval Plant Representative Office

North Amf;;rican Rockwell Corporation
Columbus, Ohio 43216

SubJect: Corttract NOw 65-056hcl, "Theoretical

Study of Very High Pressure Fluid Power
Systems" Final Report Errata Sheets,
Transmittal of

Reference: (a) Item 2 of NOw 65~567-d

EnclQsure~ (1) TwentY-~~OPies of Errata

,; Sheets for "Theoretical Study of
Very High Pressure Fluid Power
Syr:'tuns, If dated 15 October 1966

1. ,Enc1osul"t'(l) consists of Errata Sheets for the

final reports of th('. subject contract which were submitted in
a~cordance~ith refe 'once (a). .
1 '
"
NORTH AMERICAN ROCKWELL CORPORATION
Columbus Division"

"
~_'''O/V7'.~
F. M. Ammons
,.1
•. '

Administrator '1
Contract Data Managemertt
.~
H
P'MA : GAS : j a'W

Distribution on Page 2
 ,-
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5_ 4-··'-'AMS 3150B (Phosphate Ester)
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,-80 -60 -40 -20 a 10 50 100 150 200 240 300

Ie mperature OF
MIL-H-27601 (DEEP DEWAXED MINERAL OIL)
MIL-H-19457B (PHOSPHATE ESTER)

Fig.ure8 Viscosity vs Temperature (Sheet 1 of 2)

3-24
 FOREWORD

The research wor.lt in this report was performed by the Columbus Division,
North American Aviation, Incorporated, at Columbus, Ohio 43216, for
the Naval Air Systems Command under Contract NOw 65-0561-d. The
technical prograltD. was administered under the direction of Mr. B. L.
Mettee AIR 53031 Airframe Division, NASC Headquarters.

The report is be:ing published to present the results of an analytical

study of fluid power systems in which operating pressure is increased
incrementally up to a level of 20,000 psi. Performance characteristics
at the various pressures are compared with system designed in accordance
with the general design specification MIL-H-5440.

The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of Messrs, E. Swogger,

R. Robey, J. Sta'llffer and B. Holland. The authors wish also to
acknOWledge the guidance and suggestions obta ined from Messers
B. L. Mettee AIR 53031 and M. H. Smith 530312, NASC Headquarters.

PR~OTECTED UNDER INTERNA TlONAL COPYRIGHT

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
NATIONAL TECHNICAL INFORMATION SERVICE
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

REPRODUCED BY:
U.S. Department of Commerce
National Technical1nformation Service
Springfield, Virginia 22161
 ABSTRACT

This report discusses the results of a research and development

program directed towal~ an analysis of theoretical factors attending
the development of very high pressure fluid power systems, and an
analysis of specific ~lpplications thereof. The program consisted of
four major tasks:

1. Information Sind data search - a survey of leading air-

craft equipmElnt suppliers and chemical and industrial
manufacturers was made to determine the work already
accomplished in the use and development of very high
pressure flu:i.d systems.

2. Baseline datsl and criteria development - existing

formulas and criteria in the areas of (1) power
generation, (2) power transmission, (3) power utiliza-
tion, (4) sye~tem dynamics, (5) pressure surge control,
(6) heat genE!ration and (7) heat rejection, was examined
and adjusted (where necessary) for applicability to very
high pressure! fluid systems.

3. System conce:pts - the data and criteria developed in

task 2 was used to study and identify the p~blem areas
related to v€!ry high pressure fluid systems.

4. Hypothetical system requirements - the requirements for

system components were generated, and a hypothetical
very high pre:ssure system was analyzed.

It was concluded that operating pressures up to 9000 psi are con-

sidered applicable without extensive development.

ii
 TABLE OF COIfrIIffS

Section
FORWARD
ABSTRACT ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iii

LIST OF ILWSTRATIONS v

LIST OF TABLES vii

1.0 S{MrfARY AND R~OMMENDATIONS 1-1
2.0 INTRODUCTION 2-1
2.1 High Pressure System Applications 2-1
2.2 Program Objective 2-2
2.3 Technical Approach 2-2
2.4 Final Report Plan 2-3
BASELJ:NE DATA DEVELOPMmT 3-1
3.1 Heat Rejection, Temperature Level 3-1
and LUbricity
3.2 Hydraulic Fluids 3-2
3.3 Pressure Surges 3-27
3.4 System DYnamics Analysis 3-32
3.5 Stress Analysis and Structural Materials 3-32
4.0 SYSTEM ANALYSIS 4-1
4.1 Technical Approach 4-1
4.2 Analytical Guidelines 4-1
4.3 System Problem Areas 4-2
4.4 VHP System Reaction to Fluid Characteristics 4-4
4.5 Component Design Requirements 4-59
4.6 VHF System Dynamics 4-74
4.7' Hypothetical System Installation Analysis 4-84
REFERENCES 5-1

Appendices
A THE APPLICATION OF LIQUID MErALS AS POWER A-l
TRANSMISSION FLUIDS

B DEVELOPMENT OF A FORMULA FOR PERCENT THIDREnCAL B-1

HYDRAULIC POWER LOSS REEULTIN(} FROM COMPRESSION
OF THE FWID
iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
(continued)

Appendices Page

C DEVELOPMmT OF A FORMULA FOR THE TEMPERATURE C-I

RISE RESULTING FROM CCMPRESSION OF THE FLUID

D. DEVELOPMmT OF A FORMULA FOR THE STIFFNESS OF AN D-I

ACTUATOR UNDER SPECIFIC CONDITIONS

E VISCOUS LEAKAGE THROUGH SMALL CLEARANCE E-1

F DEVELOPMENT OF FLOW AREA COMPARISON FORMULAS F-I

CONSIDERING HIGH PRESSURE EFFECTS OF VISCOSITY
AND DENSITY

G DEVELOPMENT OF A FORMULA FOR PRESSURE-EFFECTED G-I

PUMP VISCOUS LEAKAGE

H DEVELOPMENT OF A FORMULA FOR TEMPERATURE RISE H-l

RESULTING FROM PUMP LEAKAGE

I DEVELOPMENT OF A FORMULA FOR PRESSURE-EFFECTED I-I

PUMP VISCOUS DRAG POWER LOSS

J DEVELOPMENT OF A FORMULA FOR TEMPERATURE RISE J-1

RESULTING FROM LINE FLOW LOSS

K DEVELOPMENT OF A FORMULA FOR LINE COOLING K-1

BY CONVECTION

L DEVELOPMENT OF AN ORIFICE SIZE COMPARISON L-l

FORMULA REU~TIVE TO SYSTEM PRESSURE

M ElCAMINATION OF THE EFFECTS OF SYSTEM PRESSURE M-l

LEVEL ON ORIFICE CONTROL

N FACTORS AFF:EX::TING THE SPRING RATE OF HYDRAULIC N-l

ACTUATORS

P SPECIFIC HEA~~ AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY VS P-l

TEMPERATURE AND SPECIFIC VOLUME VS
PRESSURE FOFt FLUIDS

Q HYPOTHETICAL SYSTEM STIFFNESS CALCULATIONS Q-l

R HYPOTHETICAL SYSTEM NATURAL FR~UENCY CALCULATIONS R-1

iv
 LIST OF ILWSTRATIO:NS

Figure Title Page

1 Isothermlll Secant Bulk Modulus vs Pressure 3-16

2 Isothel"lll811 Tangent Bulk Modulus vs Pressure 3-17
3 Adiabatic Secant Bulk Modulus vs Pressure 3-18
4 Adiabatic Tangent Bulk Modulus vs Pressure 3-19
5 Bulk Modu~usot Liquid with Dissolved Gas 3-20
6 Adiabatic Secant Bulk Modulus vs Pressure with 3-21
Entrained Air
7 Viscosity VB Pressure 3-23
8 Viscosity vs Temperature (2 sheets) 3-24
9 Ettects ot Dissolved Gas on Viscosity 3-26
10 Theoretical Power Loss Due to Fluid Compression 4-6
11 Temperature Rise Due to Fluid Compression 4-8
12 Actuator .Displacement vs Pressure 4-12
13 Actuator ,stroke vs Pressure 4-14
14 Small Clearance Leakage Term 4-16
15 Flow Pressure Loss Ratios - MIL-H-27601 4-19
16 Flow Pressure Loss Ratios - MIL-H-5606 4-20
17 Flow Pressure Loss Ratios - MIL-H-19457B 4-21
18 Flow Pressure Loss Ratios - AMS-315OB 4-22
19 Pressure Coefficient For Viscosity 4 -24
20 Flow Area Ratios - Turbulent Flow MIL-H-5606 & 4-26
MIL-H-27601

21 Flow Area Ratios - Turbulent Flow - AMS-315QB 4-27

22 Flow Area Ratios - Laminar Flow - MIL-H-27601 4-28
23 Flow Area Ratios - Laminar Flow - MIL-H-5606 4-29
24 Flow Area Ratios - Laminar Flow - AMS-3150B 4-30
25 Pump Lea~~ge Ratios 4-33
26 Pump Leaknge Power Loss 4-36
27 Temperatw:oe Rise ot Pump Leakage 4-37
28 Turbulent/Laminar Flow - Change Temperature Curves 4-41
29 Line Flow Loss Temperature Rise Ratios 4-43
30 Pressure ~t'ubing Outside Diameter Ratios 4-44
31 Return Tul)ing Outside Diameter Ratios 4-49
v
 LIST OF ILWSTRATIONS
(continued)

Figure Title

32 Averaged Tubing Outside Diameter Ratios 4-50

33 Pressure Tubing + Oil Weight Ratios 4-51
34 Return Tubing + Oil Weight Ratios 4-52
35 Averaged Tubing + Oil Weight Ratios 4-53
36 Orifice Diameter Ratios 4-56
37 Orifice Flow vs Orifice Diameters 4-57
38 Orifice Diameters For High Pressures 4-53
39 Model For Actua·tor Analysis 4-64
40 Effect of Design Operating Pressure On Actuator 4-68
Proportions
41 Optimized Actuator Proportions - Constant Hinge 4-69
Moment, 70,000 in-lbs
42 Effects of Pres:3ure Level on Actuator Proportions - 4-70
Constant Hinge Moment, 70,000 in-lbs
43 Optimized Actuator Proportions - Constant Hinge 4-'11
Moment, 300,000 in-lbs
44 Effects of Pres:llure Level on Actuator Proportions - 4-72
Constant Hinge Moment, 300,000 in-lbs
45 Actuator Proportions - Constant Output Force 4-73
46 Elementary Fluid Actuator Circuit 4-7'7
47 Resonant Frequency and Damping vs Pressure/Temperature 4-33
48 Hypothetical Utility System 4-87
49 Hypothetical Fl:Lght Control System 4-38
50 Speed Brake Circuit 4-90
51 Landing Gear Circuit 4-96
52 Inflight RefueUng Circuit 4-98
53 Power Circuit Configurations 4-102
54 Block Diagram of Hypothetical System Power Flow 4-105

vi
 LIST OF TABUB

Table Title or Subject Page

I Bulk lflodulus of Fluids 3-3

II Viscos~ity-TemperatureCharacteristics of Fluids 3-4
III Lubric:1ty of Fluids 3-5
IV Fluids,-Classed by Bulk Modulus 3-6
V Intera.cting Effects of High Pressures on 4-3
Fluid.s, System and Equipment

VI Design Constants for Computer Routine 4-65

VII Computation Routine for Optimized Actuator 4-66
VIII Flow Ratios of Various Utility Circuits 4-86
IX Weights of Hypothetical Utility System and 4-107
Components

vii
1.0 StMIARy AND RBCOl44ENDATIOHS

The primary obJective of this program was to analyse the theoretical

factors involved in the use of higher operating pressures in aircraft
fluid power systems. The upper investigative limit on pressure level
was 20,000 psi ,which was purposely set at a value higher than any
expected for a practical application. Using this limit, ,it was
possible to identif:y; throughout a broad pressure range, significant
changes in design parameters that were sensitive to pressure level,
and to establish the trends of the resulting changes. Whenever
meaningful, these changes were related in a comparative manner to
functional characteristics of current 3000 psi systems. Parametric
and quantitative factors were plotted against pressure level for
cross reference :purPOses. These plots are considered to be of great
value to the sys·tams engineer for preliminary design and conceptual
system studies. The work in this program was conducted in six general
phases:

Phase :r - Literature Search -- Various accession documents

were reViewed, and representative suppliers were contacted for in-
formation directly applicable to the program.

Phase II - Baseline Data Development -- All pertinent

formulas, criter:la and specifications were analyzed to determine
their applicabil:lty to VHF system design problems. These data were
adjusted and extrapolated into the higher operating pressure ranges.
It was found that the viscosity of all readily available fluids was
extremely sensit:lve to pressure. MIL-H-5606 fluid was least affected
because of its vjLscosity improver, but this fluid was also very
marginal at pres~;ures above 12,000 psi. The higher bulk modulus type
fluids which werE~ expected to be useful in system stiffness problems
were completely E~liminated by excessive viscosity values at the higher
pressures.

Phase III - Problem Area Identification -- The character-

istics of the datoa devel-oped in Phase II were analyzed to determine
the nature and sE~erity of the functional problem areas associated
with higher: operslting. pressures. The major problem areas were
determined to be: (1) excessive viscous pressure losses, (2)
reduction of syst,em stiffness and its affect on system dYnamic
reactions, (3) difficulty in controlling low flow rates at high
pressures, which limited application on low power circuits, (4)
supplying power at the various pressure levels without numerous
parallel tubing runs, and (5) control of leakage through dynamic
seal elements.

1-1
 Phase IV - System Concepts Development -- System concepts
were outlined and analyzed which most effectively contended with
the problem areas revealed by Phase III. 'rhe problem areas dis-
cussed above were instrumental in a decision to concentrate the
studies to system pressures below a maximum of 12,000 psi and to
use MIL-H-5606 fluid in all system concepts. No major changes in
basic concept were found to be necessary other than more extensive
uses of pressure-increasing and pressure-reducing eqUipment at down-
stream locations in the main power circuits.

Phase V - System Component Design aequirement Development

The effects of higher operating pressures and VHP system functional
demands on representative system components were analyzed. It was
found that equipment suppliers had carried component development
programs into nominally higher pressure levels and were confident of
representative components such as pumps, motors and seals up to
10,000 psi.

Phase VI - ~r.POthetical System Installation Analysis -- A

hypothetical system was defined and analyzed to arrive at a maximum
feasible operating pressure level using the data and system concepts
generated in the previous phases of the program. A pressure range
of 3000 to 12,000 psi was examined for a candidate aircraft system
of 60 hydraulic horsepower. The optimum pressure was determined to
be 6000 psi, although IJne utility circuit was adaptable for a 9000
psi level.

It is concluded that operating pressures for aircraft fluid power

systems could not be extended above the 9000 psi level without
extensive development in components and system configurations. This
pressure limit is not intended to represent an optimum value for all
system applications bec:ause optimum pressures are, of course, de-
pendent upon the specific design configurations and the performance
parameters under study"

A general reduction of system installation space is a direct result

of higher operating pressures, and this design objective can often
be attained at a subst~mtial reduction in weight of the installed
system. Operating preE;sures up to the 6000 - 9000 psi range appear
to offer distinct advantages in space and weight saving, and should
receive additional comdderation.

1-2
Discussions ,with manufacturers have revealed that pumps have reached
a stage of deveJLopment where relatively little effort would be re-
quired to increllse operating pressures to the 10,000-12,000 psi
range. Since the pump is a principal component in every fluid power
system, it is bE!lieved. advisable to encourage development effort in
this area. Endurance life and low leakage, rather than low weight,
should be emphafdzed. •

This study has flhown that pressure drop losses in a fluid power
system increase rapidly at higher pressures due to increases in
fluid viscosityj; and limits the use of operating pressures above
9000 psi. Additional development is needed in fluids, placing more
emphasis on "prElssure resistance".

Computerized sttldies should be conducted on the dynamic reaction of

elementary fluidl power utility and flight control circuits at
elevated pressures. This would generate basic data in an area where
very little firm information is available. These studies should
include 'a thorot~h analysis of pressure-increasers and pressure-
reducers in conjlunction with system dYnamic interactions.

The computer sttdies should be supported by follow-up testing of

representative circuits and components in order to carry theory into
practice.

1-3
Any thorough eJCUl1nation of the various aircraft system research and
development· a~HlS should include consideration of the potential
advantages of higher tluid power sY'stem. pressures. Much work has
been done on hjLgh t~rature systems in response to the obvious
environmental ]~rob18lll8 generated by supersonic speeds, however, the
higher operating pressure ranges, particularly above 5,000 psi, have
not been extendvely examined. The program covered by this report
is concerned primarily with a study ot conceptual fluid power systems
in which opera1.ing pressures up ',to a level of 20,000 psi are used.

2.1 High Pressure System Applications

The low drag CCtunt characteristically required of supersonic air-

planes has inevitably led to small and dense airframes. Accordingly ,
a prime objecM.ve of each succeeding design so far as power systems
were concerned vas to generate and utilize greater power in less
installation BIlace. This trend created the need for more cc.pact
and efficient hydraulic. systems. Coincident with this trend, many
new space util:i.zation problems became apparent. For example the
installation of' actuators and power cylinders in the thin Wings of
supersonic aircraft created a critical load and space problem.
Reduced wing sE!ctions made it extremely difficult to accommodate
standard types of actuators using a 3000 psi maximum pressure limit.
One approach fClr solving thin wing and other small-clearance installa-
tion problems 'W'as use of tandem actuators, and parallel actuators.
Although these, actuators as a class were smaller in transverse
section, they liI"ere significantly heavier due to unfavorable geometric
proportions and. distribution of structural material.

Another approach to the solution of the installation space problem

is the use of' h.igher system. operating pressures. Examp1es of' this
approach are found in the 4000 psi systems of the RS70 airplane.
Engine starting systems often use 4000 psi to generate the required
power for the unfavorable - 650 F starting conditions, using a
combination motor/pump unit that is alternately used to generate
hydraulic power for the hydraulic system. The advantages realized
in such systems are in terms of smaller cpmponents and smaller
system installation volumes. A number of studies have been accom-
plished by industry both formally and informally on the various
aspects of increasing system operating pressure. These have been
concerned with relatively nominal increases above the 4000 psi
level using arbitrary weighing factors on such design parameters as
component size, component weight, system temperature, reliability
and cost.

2-1
The program covered lby this 'report involves the study ofa much larger
range of operating p:resaures using new syst_ concepts to avoid, or
mitigate, the probl811lS uauaJ.1Yassociated with high operating
pressures. The nomenclature used to describe the subject matter of
this report will be 'VHF (very high pressure).
2.2 Program Ob,3ective

The primary objecti v.a of this progrUl vas to analyze the theoretical
factors involved. in j~he use of very high operating pressures for
fluid power systems.

The upper investigat:Lve limit on operating pressure vas 20,000 psi,

Which was an extensic)O beyond any pressure level foreseen ,in a
practical airborne sJrstem installation. Using this upper limit it
was possible to iden1:;ify changes in the characteristics of design
parameters thet were sensitive to high pressure levels, and in turn
provide greater assurance thet system performance characteristics
at higher pressures l10Uld be accurately stated.

2~3 Technical Approach

The program has been conducted in six general pheses as follows:

Phase I - I..iterature Search -- Various accession documents

were reviewed, and rElpresentative suppliers vere contacted for
information directly applicable to the program.

Phese II - Baseline Data Development -- All pertinent

formulae, criteria ar.d specifications were analyzed to determine
their applicability tiOVRP system design problems. These data vere
adjusted and extrapolated into the higher operating pressure ranges
in order to support tihe program analytical tasks.

Phase III .. Problem Area Identification -- The character-

istic s of the data delveloped in Phase II vere analyzed to determine
the nature and severj.ty of the functional problem areas associated
with higher operating pressures.

Phase IV - System Concepts Development -- System concepts

were outlined and ansllyzed vhich most effectively contended with
the problem areas reYealed by Phase III.

2-2
 Phase V - System Component Design Requirement Development
The effects'of lligher operating pressures and VHF system functional
demands on reprl~sentative system components were analyzed. Major
suppliers of hyciraulic. equipment aided. in defining the design changes
required, and arriving at estimates on allowable pressure levels for
various stages of development.

Phase VI - Hypothetical System Installation Analysis -- A

hypothetical sYl3tem was defined and analyzed to arrive at a maximum
feasible operat:Lng pressure level using the data and system concepts
generated in thE3 previous phases of the program.

2.4 Final Report Plan

The report covers the program essentially in the order that finalized
information became available, as briefly outlined in Section 2.3.
Phases I and II were closely related and are both discussed in
Section 3 (Basie Data Development). This section is concerned
specifically with the analysis of the effects of high pressure on
design criteria. Phases III, IV, V and VI were concerned with the
effects of high pressure on power system characteristics. These
phases are all covered in Section 4.0 (Analytical Studies).

In order to simbllifY the presentation of essential information in the

body of the repclrt a large volume of the detail discussion and
formula development has been organized in appendix form. References
. are made to these, and to bibliography items, in Sections 3.0 and
4.0. Although r.~t identified as such, all pertinent information
submitted in progress reports, (Reference 21)J has been included in
this final report.

2-3
3. ° BASELINE DATA DEVELOPMENT

Various indexes and accession lists were reviewed in a preliminary

survey for information, after which a more thorough search was made of
the most promising sources. Equipment and fluid manufacturers were
contacted by correspondence, telephone and conference to discuss
status of in-house development programs in their product lines.
Various sources of information were reviewed on industrial applica-
tions of very high pressure systems. Text book and design manual
information applicable to this program was analyzed in detail.
Formulas and criteria were validated, and quantitative data were
generated therefrom to cover the total operating pressure range under
study.

Much of the technical information covered in the review vas directly

applicable to the analytical tasks and is therefore not discussed in
this section. On the other hand the volume of work required in certain
problem areas required the use of appendix sections to simplify and
clarify discussion in the report body. Additional information sources
are listed in the references (Section 7.0).

Although the in~ormation presented was generated specifically for

support of analytical tasks in this program, it may also be of con-
siderable use in system design. For example, the curves on fluid
properties and s;ystem performance were replotted, where necessary,
and are all baseli on pressure level rather than temperature level
as the independ~nt variable. This simplifies the correlation of
such design crit,eria as viscosity, bulk modulus, for any specific
operating pressu~e up to 20,000 psi level.

3.1 Heat Rejeetion, Temperature Level and Lubricity

The rate of heat transfer in a system is not expected to be directly

affected by the higher pressures and the classic formulas are con-
sidered applicable. Formulas for pertinent secondary effects, such
as caused by ChaJlges in the fluid characteristics, are developed in
Section 4.0 for the specific cases.

3-1
3.2 Hydraulic Flui~

One of the prerequisites of a practical VHP power system is a fluid

capable of retaining desirable properties under severe operating
conditions. It may be expected that no deterioration of chemical
properties would occur as a result of applied high pressure alone, at
least within the range under study in this program. However, the
greater temperature excursions and higher shearing forces in VHF
circuits could lead to chemical deterioration ,over a period of time
if these conditions are disregarded in the design of the systems.
Physical proterties such 88 bulk modulus and viscosity are affected
directly by applied pressure itself, and must be.considered in system
designs. Although no single fluid could possess an ideal balance of
all the needed desirable properties, certain fluids were found, to be
reasonably applicable.

3.2.1 Preliminary Evaluation

Since it was not an rnJjective of this program to develope a new,
idealized hydraulic fluid, existing fluids were surveyed to
identify a usable type. Three of the most suitable were analyzed in
detail with respect to interaction with VHP systems (Ref. Section
3.2.2). In connection with this it is not intended to imply the
remaining candidate fluids are inherently unsuitable for many other
fluid power applications.

General properties of the candidate flu~s as pUblished by the various

suppliers are shown in Tables I, II and III, which categorize basic
types of fluids under bulk modulus, viscosity and lubricity as the
parameters of greates1~ importance to the system.

Stiffness has a major effect on the response and stability of any system.
In hydraulic systems, one of the major factors of total system stiffness
is the fluid. Bulk modulus, the index normally used to define fluid
stiffness, is therefore an important parameter to be considered for
VHP systems. Table I shows this bulk modulus for a variety of fluids.
The viscosity/temperature characteristic of several fluids is
summarized in Table II.

Various information SOurces were studied for quantitative data on the

lubricity of the candi,date fluids. It has not been possible to
numerically rate the fluids for this parameter because various test
methods were used ~hich produced fundamentally inconsistent units of
measure. The ratings noted in Table III are the best estimates
available of the sources revieved.

3-2
 Bulk Moclulus

FluicL Bulk Modulus

{Psi at 0-4000 psi & 77?Fl
NaK 77 JlJ.kali Metal 750,000
PolypheDJrl Ethers 350,000
Aromatic Phosphate Esters

Polyglycclls 270,000
Dibasic JLCid Esters 260,000
NeopeIityJ. Polyol Esters 260,000
Petroleuul Base Oils 250,000
Silicate Esters 240,000
SiliconeE~ 190,000 to 240,000

3-3
 faLl II

Fluid ASDl Slope Value

Silicones 0.24 - 0.39

MIL-H-5606 ·50

Polyglycols 0.55 - 0.64

Silicate Esters 0.55 - 0.72
Dibasic Acid Est.~rs 0·70
Neopentyl Polyol Esters 0·70
Super-refined Milleral Base Oil 0.76 to 0.78

Polyphenyl Ether::3 0.86

Aromatic Phosphate Esters 0.89

3-4
 'l8L1l III

Fluid. Lubricity Rating

-"
Steel on Steel Steel on Bronze

Dibas1c Acid Eaters Eltcellent Good

Neopentyl Polyol Esters Ex:.cellent Good
Super Refi.ned Mineral Base Ex:.cellent Fair to Good

MIL-H-56o(i Excellent Eltcellent

Aromati~ Phosphate Ester Good.

Polyglycols Good.
PolyphenyJ. Ethers Good.

Silicate l~sters Fair Fair to Good

Silicone Poor Fair

3-5
For purposes of analyll1s, the fluids were further d1 vided into three
groups, related to bulk modulus level, as shown in Table IV. Group
(a) comprises fluids having the highest available bulk modulus vi th
fair to good lubr1cit~" but are delinquent in other respects--in
particular, low ViSCOI~ity index or conversely, high AS'Dt slope values.
Group (b) comprises fluids with intermediate built modulus values, good
to excellent lubr1ci t~r, and intennediate AS~ viscosity/temperature
slope values. Group i( c) comprises fluids with low bulk modulus, and
poor to fair lubricit~" although .having excellent properties in other
respects.

TABLE IV
(8) High Bulk Modulul~ Fluids
Liquid Metal NaK 77 Various

Aromatic Phosphate Esters Cellulubes 90

to 1000 Celanese Chemical Co.
Pydraul F-9, 60,
150 and. 625 Monsanto Chemical Co.
Houghto-Safe E.F. Houghton Co.
Polyphenyl EthE~rs VRT Fluid E Sheel Chemical Co.
OS 124 and 138 'Monsanto Chemical Co.
E'!' 378,492 & 540 Dow Chemical Co.
(b) Medium Bulk Modul,us Fluids
Polyglycols Ucon Fluids Union Carbide Co.
Ambiflow Fluids Dow Chemical Co.
Dibasic Acid Esters MIL-L-7808 Q.PL
Neopentyl Polyol Ester MIL-L-23699(Wep) QPL
Super Refined Mineral Oil MIL-H-27601 Humble Oil Co.
California Research Co.
Mineral Oil MIL-H-5606 Q.PL
Silicate Ester MIL-H-8446 Q.PL
(c) Low Bulk Modulus Fluids
Silicone Fluidfl DC-560 Dow Chemical Co.
F-44 General Electric Co.
F-50

3-6
As a direct reSllu.t of catelOria1Dg the candidate fluida into taese
three groups, it, was possible to e11la1nate those of grOUp (c) trom
turther c0l181del'.tion, notwithataud1ng their good viscosity character-
istics. The silicate ester of group (b) was elim1nated on the basis
of poor b1drolyt,ic stability which necessitates storage and operation
uncleI' dry n1 trol:en coyer. Accorc11ngly, the choice of a fluid was
lim1ted to groUJl' <a> and the ~ind.er of group (b).

Of the group <a> fluids, which involves three distinct chemical types,
most favored on the basis of fluid properties is the aromatic phosphate
esters since they possess satisfactory pour points and. are best in
lubricity • One of tlle outs:tand1ng disadvantages of the aromatic
phosphate fluids is the problem of compatibility with elastomeric seal
materials. These fluids are not compatible with Buna "N"or neoprene,
but are compatible with certain foraulations of butyl, and ethylene
propylene elastomers. Compatibility with paints is also poor for the
phosphate esters. Nevertheless, on the assumption that suitable "0"-
rings and sealsd.o exist for the aromatic phosphate esters, they are
considered to be the better choice of fluids falling into group (a).

The selection of a fluid from the four types remaining in group (b) was
a more difficult task since they all have comparable properties. While
the polyglycols :Btand at the top of group (b) in average bulk modulus,
the difference i:B not large, and-- exceptionally high bu1.k modulus has
also been providied, for by the group (a) selection. It will also be
noted that the hlbricity rating is not as good as the esters or super
refined mineral loase oils, and while the ASTM slope number is better
for the polyglyc4:>ls, actual viscosity at low temperatures is higher.
Having eliminateli the polyglycols, the choice was between the esters
and super refineti mineral oils. It will now be noted that both types
of esters conform to MIL Specifications 1808 and 23699, respectively,
and as such, haVi~ been specifically deve10ped as turbine engine oi15.
Problems of elas"t;omeI"ic compa~ibility may exist where they are
substituted for hydraulic use, and since the super refined mineral
base oils have much the same temperature/viscosity properties, the
mineral base oil was the choice of test fluid from group (b) category.
Data generated for the super refined mineral base fluid should also be
characteristic of the MIL-H-5606 type fluids although the former has
much higher templ~rature capability.

3-1
The use of liquid me1ials was found. to be inadvisable largely because
of major problems in confinement, chemical stability and corrosion
effects. Admittedly J' the bulk modulus of liquid metals are of a
high order i and evaluation in test systems, where they have been used
as a working fluid fClr heat transfer, shows that they can lubricate
lightly loaded plain journal bearings at high speeds, but generally
they are poor lubriclltnts. Liquid metal systems such as the alkali
metals require inert atmospheres to prevent oxidation, and they have
proven corrasive to many metals and bearing materials. The hazard
that exists from lea~3ge of the alkali metals, resulting in spontaneous
ignition at high teMi18r8tures, is also a deterrent to their use. A
partial report on extensive work with NaK-77 as a hydraulic fluid for
high temperature, rad.iation resistant power systems is included in
Appendix A.

Some work has been accomplished on a ternary alkali metal alloy,

NaKCs, which has a lo,y melting point (-110°F) and a high boiling
point (13300 F). This work is related to development of heat transfer
fluids, and is reported in Reference 18. NaKCs has a reasonably good
bulk modulus (isothermal secant bulk modulus of 2.4 x 10 5 psi at
258°F) and very low kinematig viscosity (.0045 centistokes at 200~
and .0085 cenistokes at -20 F). More test work and data will have
to be obtained on the fluid to determine its suitability in VHF
systems particularly in regard to lubricity, corrosiveness and
sensitivity to high pressures.

An evaluation of mercury as a possible VHF fluid was not productive.

Although mercury has a very high bulk modulus value and wide operating
temperature range, it was discarded because of major problems of con-
finement, corrosion, amalgamation and accumulative toxicity hazard.
Also, it's high density may be expected to create pump cavitation
during flow transients. Additional information on liquid metals
may be found in References 14 and 15.

It seems apparent that high bulk modulus fluids other than the liquid
metals are more adapt;able to VHF systems, and should be further
evaluated before seriously contending with the problems and hazards
of liquid metals.

3-8
 Properties of Applicable VHP Hydraulic Fluids

The preliminary evaluation indicated that three types of fluids

justified a detail analysis of properties for this program. These
are:

a) Aromatic Phosphate Esters (MIL-H-19457B and AMS-3150B)

Allowable operating temperatures should cover oor
to
400O,ror extended long', term operation, while l1mited
operat:10n can be obtained at 5000,.

b) Super JRefined Mineral Base Oil (MIL-H-2760l)

Operst:ing temperature rsnge is -400, to 5500p0.

c) Standard Mineral Base Oil (MIL-H-5Q06)

Operat:Lng 'temperature range is -650 to 2750p0.

These fluids we:t'e selected to provide a wide range of characteristics,

pertinent to very high pressure operation, SO that the effects of
these character:Lstics coUld ,be given due consideration in the system
analysis. Bulk modulus and viscosity were determined to be the two
fluid propertiel~ which presented the major problems and trade-off
considerations :Ln VHP operation.,

It may be seen from the discussion in the following sections that

the physical pr()perties of the applicable hydraUlic fluids are indeed
fundamentally affected by applied pressure. The changes involved. are
transient in nature, and occur without measurable time delay. Both
viscosity and bulk modUlus will proportionally increase as the level
of applied pressure rises, and decrease as pressure level falls.
Increased viscoedty reduces capillary leakage in the system to a
considerable extent, and increased bulk modulus is beneficial from
the standpoint Clf' system response and. atability • Conversely, an
increase in visc:osityleads tq substantial pressure-drop problems in
the system and 101'111 determine to a large extent the upper usable
pressure limit i,n VHP systems.

The suitability of a given hydraulic fluid depends not only on its

ability to retain desirable properties but also on how these
properties affect VHP system operation as indicated, in part, above.
The major parameters considered in studying the effects Of the three
chosen fluids on system operation were bulk modulUS, Viscosity, heat
capacity, density and lubricity.

3-9
Four kinds of basic l:>ul.k moduli data are described in this report
on each of the prospl!ctive high pressure fluids. The isothermal
secant data, Figure 1, were obtained from various sources which
were in agreement anel expected to be reasonably accurate. The
isothermal tangent, a~iabatic secant and adiabatic tangent data,
Figures 2 to 4, resp4~tively, were derived in a generalized manner
from the isothermal 13ecant data.-

Figure 5 presents da1:;a on the effect of dissolved gas (air) on the

bulk modulus of a licluid. Figure 6 shows the effect of entrained
air in the bulk moduJli of two of the prospective high pressure
fluids. The data in Figure 6 were derived from the basic formulas
on air/liquid mixt~~s previously mentioned.

Bulk modulus is a meElsure of the compressibility of a fluid. It is

defined as the ratio of change in pressure of a fluid to the
resultant change in unit volume.

AP
Bulk modulus =
iJVjv
where: .4. P = change in pressure (psi)

= reductionvolume due to
pressure change (in. 3 )

v = initial volume (in. 3 )

This measurement may be made under several different conditions which

affect the results oCltained: (1) isothermal or isentropic (adibatic),
(2) static or dynamic, (3) at a specific pressure or (4) over a
pressure range with Em average value. The type of bulk modulus used
in a calculation depe,nds upon the specific conditions inVOlved. In
general, the isothermal bulk modulus is considered applicable to
static or slow cycles and the adiabatic (isentropic) bulk modulus
applicable to dynamic conditions. If the operation is over a
pressure range, the secant (average) bulk modulus value is appropriate.
The isothermal secant bulk modulus is often referred to as the "mean
or average" bulk modulus and is normally used in the analysis of
actuators and slow acting (possibly less than 5 cps) components.

3-10
If the pressurtt per't.urbationa are _11, or at a specific pressure,
the tangential bulk -.:luli are applicable. The a4iabatic taDpnt
bulk -.lulua ill alllO referred to as "the adiabatic" bulk .cdulus
and is re~lded. for use in the analysis of servo circuits With
.-11 pressure fluctuations. !be adiabatic secant bulk modulus
should 'be used for servo circuits with large pressure fluctuations.
"The adiabatic" bulk modulus can be calculated directly fre- IOnic
data as f'ollovll:

"The Ad1abatic" :Bulk Modulus • @V

where: ~ • fluid mass density

v • speed of sound in the fluid

More detailed cUscussion of bulk moduli is given in Referen ces 1 and

4.
The ratio of ad.iabatic to isotherul bulk moduli for a specific fluid
is g1yen by the: ratio of the specific heats. The value for this
averages about 1.2 • The following formula presents the relationship
between the tWOI bulk moduli, and was used in generating basic data.

where: BT = isothermal bulk modulus (1'5")

Bs = adiabatic bulk modulus (pSF)
T , II temperature, degrees Rankine
3
d I: density of the fluid ( Ib/.ft )

C~ 1:1 specific heat of the fluid at

constant pressure (8TV/ 11>/ fleJ R)
~ = coefficient of thermal expansion
(:ft'lIt3/J.~.1 R)
~ = thermal to mechanical heat
conversion factor (778 :If-Ih / BTU)

3-11
This formula, given in Reference 6, was derived from the ratio of the
specific heat of the liquid at constant pressure to the specific heat
of the liquid at constant volume.

Effects of Pressure and Temperature on Bulk Modulus

Reference 3 indicates that the slope of the bulk modulus/pressure curve

of fluids decreases gradually with increasing pressure but that the
decrease is so slight that over 10,000 psi increments; it can be
assumed to be a straight line. A plot of the logarithm of the bulk
modulus versus temperuture produces straight lines of negative slope,
as shown in Reference 3.

Effects of Dissolved and Entrained Air on Bulk Modulus

Except by chemical reliction (Le., oxidation) air can enter hydraulic

fluid only by (a) dis1301v1ng in the molecular structure of the fluid,
or (b) entraining as free bubbles of all sizes in randome distribution
throughout the fluid. When dissolved, it has a minimal affect on the
physical properties of the fluid within the temperature and pressure
ranges under study in this program. When entrained, it may result in
a considerable deterioration of bulk modulus.

Dissolved Air

Hydraulic fluid will 19.bsorb air from bubbles and free surfaces, the
amount being a function of pressure, temperature and time. The
volume is only infinitesimally increased by inclusion of this air.
References 2 and 3 iwiicate that the bulk modulus of a fluid
decreases as the dissl:>lved air content increases over a limited low
pressure range, however, representative data on this (given in
Figure 5) shows that above this low pressure range, the bulk modulus
of the fluid is the slame as that for the fluid with no dissolved gas.
The amount of gas whil~h a liquid can dissolve is approximately
directly proportional to the pressure level and can become appreciable
at the higher pressures. (For example, 110 volumes of air at standard
conditions per unit ~olume of oil at 20,000 psi.) Data from various
sources indicate that the solubility of air in oil becomes less as
the temperature is increased. However, at pressures above 14.7 psia
the solubility decrease is very small oVer an appreciable temperature
range, such as that encountered in aircraft hydraulic systems.

3-12
Reterenee 5 indica••. that the rate ot absorption 01' • gas by •
liquid is a direct f\mction ot the pres.ure and an inYerse function
ot the 18s bubble ai_eter. Bubbles 01' approxim8tely .02 or ';03
inches will di.solYe at appron.ately 100 paige Larger bubbles will
not dissolve until the pressure ia proportionately higher.

Entrained Air

Entrained air (or liquid vapor)~is defined as that air which is

suspended in a liquid and normally exists in the torm ot sull
bubbles. One ,ot the maJor etfects of entrained air in a hydraulic
fluid is that 1;)1' drastically reducing the bulk lIIOdulus of the air/
liquid mixture. This occurs since the bulk modulus of air is very
law. Following is a formula tor calculating the adiabatic bulk
modulus of an lsir/1i quid mixture, as obtained from Reference 5.

8M II bulk modulus of mixture

eo II bulk modulus of the oil

.d P II change in pressure (P2.- p,)

tN'.. II change in air volume due to
pressure change

AV(1 II change in oil volume due to

pressure change

~ = total volume of mixture at

reservoir conditions

Vo = volume of oil at reservoir

conditions

V4l II volume of air at reservoir

conditions

P, II pressure in reservoir, psia

P2. == operating pressure, psia

3-13 .
 ,," .. polytropic exponent (1.1 is used in
many cases for practical air can-
pression problems; see Figure II of
Reference 5)

Adiabatic conditions were considered in the above formulas.

Isothermal bulk modulus values could be derived using the proper

isothermal values folC' the incremental volume changes. The isot.hermal
bulk modulus for the· oil would also be used. Air may become entrained
in the fluid of an installed system in various ways, for example:
initial entrapment in system, turbulent liquid flow in areas of free
surface contact, pump inlet exposure during aircraft maneuvers, low
liquid level in reselrvoir and dissolved air released from solution
in low pressure zonel3 and high temperature zones. Proper system
design will aid to a large extent in controlling this operational
problem; however, dUJring certain transient Or extreme operating
conditions, entrainml~nt of air in the hydraulic fluid in appreciable
amounts can occur.

3-14
3.2.2.2 Effec'cs of Pressure and !aperature on Viscosity
The vi.cosity ()f a liquid incr.ses vith pressure and decreases vi th
tcperature. ~lfue following basic t01'lluJ.a 18 used to relate viscosity
to pressure i af; shown in Reference 8:

where: }A • absolute viscosity at pressure P

,)A 0 • absolute viscosity at zero pressure

.p • pressure of fluid

b • pressure coefficient for viscosity

e • natural logarithm base (2.718)

The formula ind.icatea that the natural logarithm of the viscosity of

a liquid vill increase directly aa the pressure at a rate determined
by the pressure' coefficient, b . Review and analysis of data obtained
during the lite'rature search reveals that above a lov pressure level
the preasure coefficient for viscosity remains essentially constant
as the pressure is increased. The pressure coefficient does vary
vith temperature, becoming smaller as the temperature increases.
These characteristics are shown as basic data in Figures 7, 8 and 19.

Effects of Dissolved Air on Viscositl

Results of the effects of dissolved gas on the viscosity of a II1neral

based oil is given in Figure 9. This vas obtained from Reference 3.
It is assumed that this data is also characteristic of air dissolVed
in oil. The da-ta indicate that the viscosity of a liqUid decreases
vith an increasle in dissolved gas but that the rate of decrease
becomes less as the amount of dissolved gas becomes greater.

3-15
· .)

:'TOIJOF f .
200°F

;_ ..

36

;.,
I
1 " ,
tso~hermbISe~ar.i't-Bott<fMQdufl1~ 'is Pressure
,
i·'

,_:~:: _:":" I... "',""' _.... , • . • . ,_.-. ,~_. ~+, . ,.

i_: ]~~t.h~~rt.lo.JjC2n~~~f]t~lK . M~9~ I~.tvs

3-17
 ,- . ....- -~ ;

,,
{'

.+0
c:
o
U
;'(1).,
Vl .

;U
.:z:
o
. .&1
o
:-0
.. ;'«
'~'--"'- i ".. -.-.,,,,. , .-;.

2;8 32 316
"f
!

Pres5(jr~PSI

AdiCJboticSecant Bul~"'J - M6dulus

'."" ': .' ; __1.. ; ,". ' .,
.'~\o
\1S Pressure
• • ~ . . . . ,,; ,'., - ;"',.

.3-18
 -H--I-
-t-

~;. \.:

3-19
 '100°j: I EqU'i HhriumConditlbns
1
Air Volume DIssolved Given at Stcmdard Conditions
Fluid: MI L-H-·5606
Reference 5
100% MIL-H-5606A
-'I /. - ,. ~
,

I /
I .I
I
- /
I
'/
'f

lO4t .5/1 1/1 2/1 Air/Liquid Volume Ratio

V)
a..
4_

3_'

2_

600

Pressure - PS I G

1_, Figure 5 Bulk Modulus of Liquid with Dissolved Gas

3-20
". ~ :'!

.' ,
.•<, X
.il ,·
 Viscosity Data Sow~

Viscosity vs. pressUJC'e/temperature data for the selected fluids are

given in Figures 7 and 8. These data were established by using data
from References 3, 7., 8, 9 and 10 as follows:

a) For deep dewaxed oil, the 1000, Viscosity/pressure relationship

was derived by Ulling the aforementioned viscosity/pressure
formula and a prt!ssure coefficient which was determined by test
at the lower prellsures (to 4000 psi). This coefficient is
considered to rellll8in constant at the higher pressures. The
viscosity/pressw~e data at the other temperatures were obtained
by using (1) the basic formula with readilY available test data
at zero pressure;, (2) pressure coefficients determined by using
the lOO~ value, and (3) the shape of the pressure coefficient
vs. temperature c:urve obtained from another mineral oil,
MIL-H-5606.

b) For the high bullt modulus phosphate ester (MIL-H-19!t.57B), test

data were availal,le from the manufacturer over the entire
pressure range at lOO~ and 200C:F. The 3000p0 data was
extrapolated. from the zero pressure and the 1000F and 200°F
data using the busic viscosity/pressure formula.

c) For the low viscosity phosphate ester (AMS 3150B), the same
method. was emplo~red as for the deep dewaxed oil except the
pressure coefficjLent vs. temperature curve shape ·was obtained
from the Cellulw,e 220 data.

d) For the conventional MIL-H-5606 fluid complete data, covering the

temperature rangE! and pressures up to 5000 psi, were obtained from
Reference 10. From this, the wessure coefficient values were
derived and the higher pressure Viscosity data calculated.

3-22·
 ,,,"'. ':-.. :: "::\:-_.. ;
B:'
7._\.
':':c,:·:,::::':~:r·:··'

,',~Mt~:tti?!6Qt·l(Q~~~.1?!W(jx.ct.Mi "eraI
'L-..j,
- ;~ ~ 1141 L.. H"194S7'· (PRoSfthat•.,Ester) i
'---.0 ~,MS' 3 t508 (Phospnate' Ester) .
~ ~MI1-H";5606'
3...-

2_

VI
0.
o
o
o
M

200°F
200°F
........ 200°F
.....-

-- -- ----
__ 300°F

o 2 4 8 10 12 14 16 18

1- Pressure - PS IG
9_
8_
7_ Figure ;7 Viscosity vs Pressure
6_
5_
4_

3_

2_

1-
3-23
 ~,
..
c::
(I)
u,
.....
'ID~
e"
U'
" Q)',
t..
:>
B}'
Q)
t..,
0..

~ : M.l-H-l~457B (ESl!)
/\10s '3J~OB (EST) " '
'I !
1:

,,0 L.- ---'- ----.;...-I-,;..+-..+-_-----'--..;.....- ..;.....---.;. ~

,-lOR , ,0 L, ,,-i-
,j ! . i
• .! . • -- -0 !
".'
-. Te~atlJr-e--·f i'---'
i " ,
Figvre '19 Pr~ssu~e -doeffic ient' f~~! \/i;cosilty
,L",.L'_- _"24
4
 r-'--

1,000
500

VI
LLI
~:
(: Press
1-'
!:!:! PSI
1-'
2: 20,000
LLI
U 20,000

~:
VI
(: 10,000
LI
VI

>
~!
1-'
<t:
~:
LLI
2:
~',

.-80 -60 -40 - 20 o 10 50 100 150 200 240 300

Temperature of
MIL-H-5606
AMS-3150B (PHOSPHATE ESTER)

Figure 8 Viscosityvs Temperature (Sheet 2 of 2)

;

3-25
 30
i
Vplume DryG~VVobmeOil

'~ffe!cts of DissqlvedGas on Viscosity

3.3 Pressure Surges

The term "pressure surge" as used in this report applies to the

pressure rise resulting from a "step" type event such as a rapid
valve opening, valve closing, or load application.

3.3.1 Rapid ~alveOpening

Investigation I:>f the pressure sUrges generated as a result of a sudden

valve opening 1lhich releases high pressure fluid into a full, closed
low pressure fluid volume, vas one of the obJectives of tvo test and
analytical programs reported by References 11 and 12. Theoretical
developments a11d test results indicate that, in general, the following
formula is applicable:

vhere: Pm = maximum pressure surge generated

after valve opening

Po = normal pressure of the high

pressure portion of the system
before valve opening

Valve opening 1;;imes and system lengths, within the ranges normally
encountered, ~lve very little effect on the surge-pressure level
generated. Very long valve opening times, very short systems, large
system vo:l:umes and increases in Po tend to decrease the surge effects.
Increased systE,m damping due to added flow resistance, decreases the
surge pressure level appreciably. The following formula was analytically
developed in RE'ference 11 to qualitatively express these other
variables. It is based on system energy loss due to the fluid flow.

Pm. :: 2. Po - AP
where: .1P = pressureloss due to fluid
resulting from the valve opening

3-27
 and is develope<i to -
~ _ 2. _ l<Po A1
-
Po - f&

where:: A :: cross-sectional area of the

. low pressure volume

~ = fluid mass density

e :: fluid bulk modulus

K :: constant which involves orifice

coefficient, valve opening time,
area of valve ports and viscosity
of the fluid

It was found also th~ltthe presence of entrained air in amounts of

2 to 3 percent can C~lUse pressure peaks 5 or 6 times the normal
operating pressure lE~vel. These surges, caused by entrained air,
appear as highfrequEmcy waves.added to the basic pressure wave.
Their magnitude deperlds on the amount of entrained air. Data from
a representative cODmlercial equipment installation indicate that the
maximum surge pressUl'e under conditions of an instantly opened valve
is 1. 5 F:. and it normally is approximately L 15 Po • It is significant
that this system included a high-response energy source in the form
of a close coupled ac:cumulator. Tests data in a system using air-
craft variable VOlumE: pumps without an accumulator resulted in
ratios of about 1.20 to 1.35 •.

3-28
3.3.2 Rapid <~alve Closing

Surge pressur,! generated. from the instantaneous closing of a valve

in a line is ,expressed. by the following commonly used. formula; as
obtained from Reference 11.
P", - ~ = fYc.
where: Pm = maximum surge pressure generated

Po = normal system pressure

~ = fluid mass density

c = velocity of the pressure wave

v = velocity of the fluid

this can be presented as:

where: B = effective b~ modulus of the system

which includes the fluid, lines,
entrained air, etc.

The velocity of the pressure wave in a "thin-wall" container is less

than that of l!l "hard" system because of the flexibility of the con-
tainer. The '~elocity of the pressure wave in a thin-wall container
is as follows: .

c= 12 r~ + e~-i = 12 [f]~ [I + t:)~r~

where: c = velocity of the pressure (speed of
sound), ft/sec.

e = mass density of the fluid, Ib;/:,C,

2-

8 s = adiabatic tangent bulk modulus of

the fluid, psi

3-29
 c:l • inside dismeter of container (tubing),
inches

e • thickness of container wsll, inches

E • modulus of elasticity of the container

"material, psi

Reference 2 indicatefJ that line size and fluid viscosity also have
effects on the velocjLty of the pressure wave. In small tubes of
less than about 1/2 jLnch inside diameter, with fluids having a
viscosity greater tWin about 200 centistokes, the velocity decrease
is significant. The smaller the tUbe, or the more viscous the fluid,
the greater the attentuation. These functional conditions are
therefore favorably cLisposed for VHF systems. In the 2 to 10
centistoke range, an approXimate reduction of 3 to 5 percent occurs
in a 1/2 inch inside diameter tube.

3-30
3.3.3 Load AppJ.ication
A pressure SurgEI is generated as result of a sudden, momentary
application of II load to an actuator. The following cOllllDOn formula
is applicable:

\rhere: L • momentary load on the actuator

output rod

A III effective working area of the

piston in the actuator

Considering the following conditions:

1) A conve:ntional utility system, linear, piston type

actuatclr;

2) Fixed s:troke and fixed maximum design output force

requirements;

3) Piston area varied inversely with system operating

pressure, A ~ ~/p , to meet fixed output force requirement
(K III constant) .

then:
and since L is constant

3-31
3.4 System Dynam1c:s Analysis

No fundamental ChangE~S were found to be required in standard analytical

approaches for the st;udy of VHP system dynamics. The depth of study
in this area was limd.ted by the requirement for quantitative dynamics
analysis basic data, that is, a fi~ definition of system configura-
tion and oPerating ccmditions. A generalized algebraic analysis is
covered in Section 4.6 which indicates trends in resonant frequency
and damping factor aSI a function of system pressure level. A more
thorough analysis waSI performed on a hypothetical system configura-
tion in Section 4.7. Most of the analytical procedures were based
on approaches and cr:i.teria found in References 17 and 19.

3.5 Stress Analysi.s and Structural Materials

In general, the basic: stress formulas are applicable in the design

of components for high pressure systems. In certain instances some
of the design procedt~es were modified to be more applicable in the
analysis item, such as, reducing the factor of safety in VHP tubing
below that used for ",rall thicknesses of tUbing in 3000 psi systems.
Also, it may be expected that the components in high pressure systems
would use high strength materials where applicable. Although more
costly, the use of high strength materials should result in appreciable
saVings in size and ,,'eight along with high resistance to the more
severe environmental conditions encountered in high performance air-
craft. These factors. are more fully developed in Section 4.0.

3-32 .
4.0 SYS'l'Dl JUiALYSIS

4.1 Technic.'l Approach

The general apl)X'Oach in this program wa. to first determine the
incremental ef~~ects of higher operating pressures on the perform-
ance of current.ly used, compensated single pressure, fluid paver
systems. Next J varioue system and equipment concepts were
analyzed with tihe objective of e11ldnating the more critical
functional proc,lem areas attendant with the use of these pressures.
Using informat1.on generated in the above tasks, a hypothetical
system was schematically defined, and was quantitatively analyzed
to establish the highest feasible operating pressure level. Much
conjecture was inherent in this process. The decision on the
system pressure level was greatly influenced by variOUS trade-offs
between several design, operational, cost and maintenance factors.
The need for eq,~~Dt size reduction, as discussed in Section 2.0,
was given the greatest relative weight as a trade-off factor in
the analysis.

4.2 Analytical Guidelines

Early in the program it became apparent that quantitative guide-
lines would be :necessary to simplifY the analytical tasks, reduce
the amount of cross-referencing and allow a more direct approach
in final report coverage. The guidelines and limits were finalized
as follows:
1. ~ae performance characteristics of a 3000 psi,
clJmpensated pressure system shall be used as a
bl!lsis for comparison.
2. Tf!mperature range shall be between the lim!ts of
-650 F and 300~, with full rate capability at _20°F.

3· Power level shall be held constant in computations

involving flows and operating pressures; in other
WC)rds, as design pressure is arbitrarily increased,
tile design flow will be proportionately decreased.
4. Only one type of flUid, considered to be most
adlaptable, shall be used in system analysis.

5· Analytical tasks shall be pursued only to the point

of' establishing those trends and quantitative values
neicessary for feasibility' decisions.
4-1
4.3 System ProblellrL Areas

Many of the system dedgn and operational problems associated

specifically with the use of higher applied pressures may be
intuitively identified; for example, (1) actuator column strength,
(2) actuator static stiffness, (3) adaptation to small loads and
(4) control of the relatively low flow rates in sub-systems. Other
leas obvious problems are found in the areas of (1) system dynamics,
(2) increased viscous pressure losses and (3) characteristic changes
in the properties of tihe working fluids. It is emphasized that
these problems would "be involved in current types of fluid power
systems if operating :pressure levels were arbitrarily increased and
no basic change was rnetde in circuit configuration.

For purposes of discussion, current systems are defined as those

using pressure compensated pumps as a power source and using a
network of distributicln lines throughout the vehicle to supply
variOUS subsystems and actuators. An arbitrary increase in pump
output pressure would directly affect the design requirements of
all transmission lines., valves and actuators. Conversely, the only
equipment items not affected would be those involved with return
flow and reservoir circuits.

HydraUlic fluid as the power transmitting medium must be considered

as a primary factor in fluid power system analysis. In VHP systems
it takes on increased significance because (1) a much larger stress
range is imposed on the fluid, and (2) the physical characteristics
of the fluid are significantly affected by increased pressure level.
As shown in Figures 1 and 7, both the bulk-modulus and viscosity
values increase as a function of pressure.

The general effects of these characteristics are shown in Table V.

This table reflects conditions in a system where power level is held
constant and flow rate is chan~d as a function of operating pressure
as in the formula -
Q == K(7f-)
It was not within the scope of this program to quantitatively analyze
in detail all of the problem areas indicated in Table V because
factual results would depend on specific system applications. Several
of the more important areas are analyzed in the following sections
which develop quantitative data to support decisions on new system
concepts and the gener,al analysis of a hypothetical system installation.

4-2
 CHANGES RESULTING
FROM INCREASED
AFFECTED
DESIGN PRESSURE
PARAMErERS
& ~UIPMENT IT:EMS

System Stiffnes.s a 0 a 0

System Stability a a a b
System Response a a a b
Efficiency a a a b
Fluid Temperature a a a b
Pressure Drop 0 a 0 0

Internal Leakage a a 0 0

External Leakag,e 0 0 0 0

Pump a a a a
Pressure Lines a a 0 0

Selector Valves a a b a
Servo Valves a a b a
Pressure Regulators a a 0 a
Flow Regulators a a 0 a
Restrictors a b 0 0

Return Lines a a 0 0

Actuators
Column Strength a 0 b 0

Piston Seal :t-1otion a b b b

Friction a a 0 a
Reservoir a 0 0 0

Suction Lines a b 0 0

LEGEND
o = No effect
a = Direct effect
b = Indirect effect

Interacting Effects of High Pressures

on Fluids, Systems and Equipment

TABLE V
--4-3
4.4 VHF System Reaction to Fluid Characteristics

It was shown in Section 3 that the physical properties of hydraulic

fluids are directly a.ffected by applied pressure. These changes
are transient in natu.re and respond to pressure fluctuations without
measurable time lag. The most significant of these properties, with
respect to VHF system requirements, are bulk modulus and viscosity.
Both will increase in absolute value as pressure rises. Viscosity
level is very sensitive to pressure in the upper range and leads to
excessive pressure drop throughout the system with attendant
reduction of overall system efficiency. Conversely, bulk modulus
will increase in an essentially linear manner in relation to
pressure level, and is therefore beneficial to system operation.

Section 4.4 is concerned with a more thorough analysis of three

fluids, which were selected from a large group of candidate fluids
by preliminary evaluation in Section 3.2.2. These were Phosphate
Ester (MIL-H-19457B), Deep Dewaxed Mineral Base (MIL-H-27601) and
Red Fluid (MIL-H-5606B). Additional information on these fluids
is contained in Appendix P.

4-4 .
4.4.1
The .bulk -.lulus of 1ihe -rt:l.DI fluid nas a tunda=ental effect on
syst. perfOlWIDCe, _re specifically on 8yst_ reaponse a .
8'ta'bill1iy. 1'btt following. are ual.y8.. ot various areas of a ftry
high preS8ure lIircraft ~ulic q8t_ reletive to the effects of
flui4 bullt .acllll1us.

4.4.1.1 ~. Generation

The effects of bullt lIIOd.ulus on power generation area -.y be pal.yzed

on a theoreticI,l power basis considering only the loss re8ulting
from coapresaiolD of the f'lui4 at various pressures. Regardless of'
the design of' s hydraulic pump, the pressurization of' the f'luid
passing through, it will result in a reduction of' the volume of' the
f'lui4 due to f'luid ctBpressibility:. Since the f'low through a p1.Rp
is .-de up of the cyclic discharge from a series of identical
individual cylinders, the problem of fluid compression may be
lim!ted to a consideration of events occurring in a single cylinder.
A formula for the proportional power loss of' a hydraulic f'luid due
to fluid cOillpression is 8S follows:
~p 100
0,4 L. c .- ~~--::­
... ~(&~$-Ap)
'where: ~ L c: a 10 theoretical hydraulic power loss
as the result of fluid compression
only

AP ... pressure increase (across pump), psi

!lAS a adiabatic secant bulk modulus of
fluid, psi

The developnent of this formula is given in Appendix B. Figure 10

presents the refJults calculated from this formula on the selected
fluids. Although power loss does increase with pressure, these
values are not (~onsidered to be excessive even with the lower bulk
modulus f'luid.

4-5
\ ...
L..

ou
+-
...
(I)
o(I)
...l:
1-.
C

c
o

.....c
(I).
u...
~ ::1'.0

).
""r

o 15

Pressure -PSIG'

Figur~ 10 theoretical PoWer loss Due to FhJid <:ompression

..
4-6
Aa :I.D41catecl b;, the tol"lNlas, the tluid cOlipression loss rill be
-mtestad. as II ftl-.tric JMIf1. loss. Althou&h not 41rect17
shcM1 by the ftltlWllas, this loas will alao add. heat to the syostea.
r:raa the staDll]pe1llt .t eMrD' trauter 111 the c..,lete power cir-
cuit, the tlu1cl wl\llitric lo.s Will be reco.,ered. at the act.tors
as the pres.\11"4. grMi_t drops. !be h.t generated a. a result ot
the c.,re••ioll ot the nui4 i. equiftlent in energy to the power
lost due to tlwt tlu1d. cClipressiOl1. Adiabatic coapression is
assWled to be Ilpplicable becaus. ot the rap1d.ity of the cOllpres8ion
cycle. filii toJLlov1D8 is a toraula for calculating the coarpres8ion
t8llperature rie.e 111 the fluid:

wherez T • teaperature rise in fluid due to

cOilpression of the fluid only, O:F

%Le • percent theoretical hydraulic paver

loss due to fluid compression

AP II pressure increase across pump, psi

(l II specific gravity of the fluid

t" I: specific heat of the fluid

(constant pressure)

This formula is developed in Appendix c. Figure 11 is a plot of

the results cal,cUlated from the formula.
It appears from Figure 11 that the compression temperature rise is
relatively noadJ[ual at the higher system pressures. However, this
rise is additiv4! to that normally resulting from fluid viscosity
and mechanical friction. These factors are analyzed elsewhere in
the report.

4-7
('.

c:
o
.~'.'
Q)

····1·
U1
~
.;
u...
o
.. loofooo!.,~ ,._.

4>
.J:1
Cl
.v.
lI>

!;.....

10 15

·P-re5Sure PSI~

Figure 11

4-8
Since the lNl1I: -oclulus ot a lqd.raUl.ic fluid i8 not changed by
di8solved. air abO... a l1a1tecl low pressure range (reterence Section
3.a.2.l), it D18y be d1sregard.ecl in a practical syetem. Intact,
this cbaracteristic is beneficial il1 aiding the VHP syst_ :1.11
purging itself' of raDdoll trapped air. The entrainment of air in a
fluid drastics.lly reduce8 the bulk Mdulus of • fluid. A plot of
percent paver loss with 5~ entraiDtld air is included in Figure 10.
Although entreined air would appreciably increase compre8sion power
loss, it _1' be concluded that entrained air as such would not be
a major problem at higher pressures because a well designed system.
should 'be reasonably free of entrained air.

In View of the above, it is believed that the effects of fluid

cOlllpression at the higher pressures would be a relatively small
problem in power generation.

4-9
4.4.1.2 Resonant Fr4~quency in Power Transmission

Bulk modulus is an im]portant factor in distribution system resonance

frequency and surge pressures. The effect of bulk modulus on surge
pressures is given in Section 3.3 of this report. The effect of
bulk modulus on the rl:!sonance frequency of a tube section is indicated
by the following basis formula given in Reference 20:

=-
c
4L
where: r= fundamental frequency of the pressure
wave in a closed and tube system

C = velocity of the pressure wave

L= tube section length

also from Reference 20,

C '" (1)~
(J .
where: ~ = bulk modulus of the fluid. (For more
accurate results, the effective bulk
modulus of the fluid and container
should be used.

tJ = mass density of the fluid

It is evident from the above formula that the fundamental frequency

of oscillation of the transmission line is proportional to the
square root of the bQLk modulus of the fluid. As shown in Section
3.2.2.1 of this report, bulk modulus increases with increasing system
pressure, therefore, the fundamental frequency of oscillation will
increase as a function of increasing operating pressure. For the
purposes of this analJrsis, the mass density of the fluid is considered
to be a constant. Ac1:iually, it will increase slightly with increasing
pressures but the effect on the fundamental frequency will be slight
compared to the effect of bulk modulus. The effect of the magnitude
of the resonant frequEmcy on servo system performance is discussed in
Section 4.6 of this report.

4-10
4.4.1.3 J§l!tem Stiffness inPover Utilization
The -.1Or etfeats of the bulk MClulWl ot a fluid on the perfomance
ot an actuator' concern static stiffness and dynamic response. Static
stiffness of alo. actuator is defined. by the following ratio:

Stif':f'nes8 : K L
=7
where: L .ibacl applied to actuator output
msaber, Ibs.

cl. • displacement of the output ..-ber

relative to the fixed aeaber, inches

The following j~ormula was developed. (Appendix D) to determine the

effects of sys1~em operating pressure level on 'actuator stiffness for
a conventional utility syst., linear, piston type actuator (and.
valve) with a given stroke and force output:
K·~~ ,
where: 8., = isothermal secant bulk modulus
. of the fluid

p = system design pressure

This formula indicates a direct reduction in stiffness with pressure

which would be attenuated to a certain extent by the increase in
bulk modulus. Figure 12 is a plot of the displacement vs. actuator
average pressure which shows this trend. (In order to represent
installation conditions, the piston was considered to be in mid-
stroke, and 25" of actuator fluid volume was added for plumbing.)
One obvious means of obtaining the same stiffness at these pressures
is to use a higher bulk modulus fluid. However, in comparing the
deep dewaxed mineral base fluid with the high bulk modulus phosphate
ester in Figure 12, it is seen that a pressure increase of only
approximately 2 times can be achieved going this route.

4-11
~ .",
;.! .

).

. ~.) .,

.'

......
z
.... W',
. ~ .
. LU
.U
<r:
-'
D-
In .

01-,--'---'-..J-. +-.__--------"------....;.------------~-----'-----
o 1:0 'c'; 15 '~ 20 ·25 (X1{)3)

i · · · · , ·
'Figure 12' r+f?t~!l?r~pi~BlSJP~~~Ys-~f:l1ssvre
4-12
Another IDMDIS l:)t obtaining equivalent stiffness is evident tram a
review of the llNls1c stiffness torllUla 111th aU the factors included:

where: $ • stroke

To maintain th.t stiffness constent I. L.. a" would have to equal P S •

In this appl'08c:h LandS are the only parameters which can be
varied. ConsicLering a change in linkage relationships while still
maintaining thE: same output energy 1 then

LS ... constant or l
,
= -S
8 1s
so PS ... 1.. BU~ = S
I
or
S• ~~'1Y
10nsidering a,S constant:
5 =(~Yl .
Using this relationship, a plot comparing the actuator stroke at
3000 psi operating pressure to those required at the higher pressures
(to maintain a constant stiffness and output energy) is given in
Figure 13. It is to be noted that the parameter "stroke" is actually
concerned With the volume under compression so possibly some reduction
in this volwne :lIlight be accomplished by means other than shortening
the stroke.

Reducing the stroke in many applications would be lim!ted by the

design requirements of practical sizes and proportions, so this method
would be applicillble only in certain cases. It appears that actuator
stiffness would be a definite problem at the higher pressures.
(See Section 4.6)

4-13
~ ... ..
-

15

"i' ,....

FigIJre13 A$tuqtolrStrokevsPreS$ure
:1
4.4.2
Viscosity is an important factor in the performance of any hydraulic
system because of its ettect on flow pressure losses and leakage
rates. These, 1:n turn, d.1ctate the sizes of components aDd trans-
mission lines. Since the viscosity of hydraulic fluids increase
with pressure, 1"Ii is a factor of ~ t importance in very
high pressure sYlitems. The following are general analyses of
various basic ancl specifi-c functiorial areas in VHF systems relative
to the effects of the increased viscosity.

4.4.2.1
The classical fOlEula for leakage through small clearances (capillary
leakage) is outl:tned and briefly discussed in Appendix E. A leakage
term in the formula establishes the relationship between pressure.,
and leakage flow rate. It is obvious that a hyPothetical condition
of steady state V'iscosity would result in a directly proportional
increase of leaks,ge with pressure. A plot of the leakage term for
various applicable fluids is given in Figure 14. The straight-line
relationship for steady state viscosity condition is shown as a
reference. It may be seen from these curves that the pressure
induced viscosity has a definite beneficial effect in reducing the
amount of leakage that would be expected at the higher 'pressure
levels. In a practical sense, this means that the fits in valve
elements do not require extremely small clearances to avoid
excessive leakage rates.

4-15
-I); -
+f.· I
·;::tr
4.4.2.2 !2:!!!J\U'tt Lo...s

The fol.lov1ng ClOWC"ly used h1draulic tol'llu1as give the pressure

loss relationsbips for straight, &MOth tubes:

Turb\l1ent Flow

-,----Flow
LamiIll8r
.......

4P
where: T ... pressure lOBS per unit length

K • constant for the units

e • density of the fluid
-V == kinematic Viscosity of the fluid

~ III volume flow rate

D • inside diameter of the tube

(Turbulent flow considered to exist when the Reynolds

Numb<er is greater than 1190 and laminar flow when
the Heynolds Number is less than 1190)

Considering the previously noted basic viscosity~pressure fO~ula,

1
ft. =}J.oe 'P or y= ~ e"
"here: )A absolute viscosity at high pressure

~D absolute viscosity at zero psig

~ = kinematic viscosity at high pressure

~ ... kinematic viscosity at zero psig

4-17
 • • pressure coe~~icient ~or viscosity
of fluid

P • pressure o~ the fluid

e • natural logerithm base

Then, comparing the ])ressure loss at very high pressures to that et
standard pressure:

_ A"/I.:ftl._ ~(P)~ e hP _ e(p} e,hP

RL,.- AP/tC4 - ef»,i; - e(o)

where: .4P/L~} I: pressure loss per unit length . .

pressure

I!:.tjL(o) = pressure loss per unit length at

standard atmospheric pressure

R = pressure loss ratio

Plots of these ratio!:1 for the variOUS fluids are given in Figures
15, 16, 17 and 18. 'l~ese plots indicate that a considerable increase
in flow pressure 10SEI must be expected at the higher pressures.
~is condition is es:pecially critical at low temperatures under
laminar flow conditiclns, and it i8 obviaus that MIL-H-19457B fluid
would not be suitablEl for low temperature, high pressure usage.

~e pressure coeffic:J.ent for viscosity of a fluid is very important

in the flow pressure loss determination at pressure, especially in
the laminar flow range. Values of this parameter for the various
fluids over the nornulll temperature range are difficult to find in
the literature, and DI8Y never have been determined. All of the

4-18
 \ ..... :.... ,,,...."'.. ~~ ........,..•• "':""' .• , ~ .... ' ............ ,~ . . .; .• r· .'.',',",' .." " , ." ~.-\t •.. """..,...'..'.'.;..,... ~ .... "",,;,,,.,,, .•..

",~::::::.~:..~:. ;:..:: . ::.. :.:; :~ t:.:,:~:~:;~t·, .

PreSSUrEl Loss in, Smooth,
,.. ...
Straight Tuping
. . ,,.,. .. ,.... ..... ,.,
~.''''''''''' ' " ... :'~ ,_ ... ".~., ",,,,,,,, ' ',. ,.,., .,.' '. '"
: " f

,-r.essu-rl~'LossRatio ·Pressur~ toss Per Uni~ LengfhatP~utj=TI::·

" ·· Pressur$ Loss Per Unit LengthatStahdard Atmospheric Pressure

2_
.....-.~- ,1lJ,l:hJJinufito*'
1
- - - laminarFlow'
1

<: 3_,
•..i:
l:
0:

.'.'
<: VI
a..
Q
L, g
o·
.'.'
Q,
L,
1-
9_
8_
10 M

a, 7_
6_

4_
5_

3
-
2_

:1

~4---1
3
0 5 10 15 20 (xlO )

Pressure - PSlc;
3

Figure '15 Flow Pressure Loss Ratios - MIL-H-27601

4-19
2
Pressure loss i'n Smooth, Straigbt Tubing
£\P/L(Pl
I Pres. loss Ratio = £\PIL )
9
8
rs
£\-p .. • "
7 ~.::: Press. loss Per Unit length at Pressure
•
5
(el:

.. ~P = Press .• loss Per Unit length at Standard Atmosfiheric Pressure

(5)
3 - - - Turbul~nt Flow
- _ ..... Laminar Flow
2 MIL~H-5606 Fluid

I
102
..
9
7 of
6
5

:j I /
.;< 0
I ~
2---J .-....c
0 V)
a..
e:::: 0 ;X 50
<I)
0 , / .>c 100
<I) 0
(") ,/ ./
1-
.9 10
9_ Q)"
8_ I-
1_ ::>
<I)
<I)
6_ Q)
1-
5_ a..
4_

3-

2
-

J~ o 5
~~
6_
5_
4---'; Pressure "- PSIG

3-----i

I Figure 16 Flow Pressure Loss Ratios - MIL-H-5606

I

I---!
4-20
7. ,-,
, ..... _ .. ).-~ .. ,~"
-~
""<", --' .,... .. ,'. - " ,-" • •.• •• ,- " .••' , .•.;; -
'"'0_._ .. , ... ~ .. ,i•. " ....... ,~-

,.-~.~,_.,.~_ ....". ," ·1··-

-

', in SmootHl' SfraightTubi'ng""

'Pressure "Loss
Pressure Loss FtciHo';" AP/L(l')' .''''
" ' " " .. r:,P/Us),

At(p)= Pressulie Loss Per Unit

Length at Pressure
I
9
8
7
6~ (S)=Pressul'e Loss Per Unit .
6 Length at Standard.$tmospbed.c .:' " Turbulent Flow
5 Pressure - - - Laminar Flow
4 MIL-H-19457B Fluid
3

I
102
9
8
7
6-----< 100° F
5 i
-----I /
4-----<
0 / 50°F
3_ /
2_ /
.Q
....
/
1-
9_
~
0 '10 /
/
lI)
lI)
8_
7_ ..s
/ ....... 200°F
6- ~
..,..,.. .....-
5_ :::>
lI)

4_
lI)
Q)
.... / ..,..,.. ........ °
...- 300 F
0-
3_ ..,..,..
..,..,.. lOOOF
2 - 200°F
300°F
1.0
J-
8
7_
6_
o 5 10 15
5_
4_ Pressure - PSlc;
3_

2_

Figure 17 Flow Pressure Loss Ratios - MIL..H-19457B

1-
4-21
.!3 .. .; '~'y'

Pressurelossiri SmOOfh
• "''<~''

.'~".,<.'. "~'"

.•. ,Stroight 1i"~in9

Pres5urEf loss Ratio =!jP It.; ( p) \
.. ,,~.,.
..., ......

5---J.
. .P/L(S)
L.-..:
L.....,
6P/L (P) = Pressure loss Per Unit
lLength at Pressure

J_.
~P/L(S) = Pressure Loss Per Unit
"tl~erigth atStatldar<;f
8-
7_ A tmosphel'ic Pressure
'-
5_
4_
Turbulent Flow
3_ - - - Laminar Flow
AMS-3150B, fluid
2-.1

i_
9_
8_
7_
~F °
6_
5_
4_

3_
0
~
2_ 0
0:::: (j "/
en
en V)
/
°
..J
0-
/
,-
9_
Q)
'-
::>
10 0
0
0 /' -20°F
8_ en
7_
en
Q) (JOOoF
6_"
....
0-
5_
OOF
4_

3_

2_

1-
9_
8_
7_
6_
o 5 10 15
5_
4_ Pressure - PSIG
3_

2_

Figure 18 Flow Pressure Loss Ratios - AMS-3150B

,- 4-22
applicable rertarenc•• listed :1D. the staDd.ard sources were s..rehed.
From the valuell found, and throUlh extrapolation (using curve shapes
of s1ll1lar 't1Jt1 fluids) the curYe. in Figure 19 were established.
'!'hese values ¥fIre used in subsequent analysis. The values tor
the MIL-H-56~ flui4 are considered to be the IDOst accurate,
although at SOllie t..,eratures they were determined by averaging.

4.4.2.3 Flow Area Ratios

In determining the ettects ot pressure on flow-pressure loss from

the standpoint ot general system design, it is reasonable to con-
sider that both the system power level and the power loss due to
flow pressure-loss remain constant relative to design pressure
level. With these constant, the flow areas can be determined. tor
a given fluid under turbulent and laminar flow conditions. As a
means of comparison, the ratio of the flow area at a given high
pressure to tha't at standard pressure can be used. Appendix F
presents the de'Y'elopmentof the following flow area formulas,
which consider 'the effect of pressure on the Viscosity and density
of the fluid:

Laminnr Flow

ApI -
-·-I<a-
A.
-
t s Pp
tt tPs~1.
p
e bPJ ~
li'here: A p = inside area of flow passage
established by the selected pressure

As I: inside area of floY passage

established by the standard pressure
(3000 ps1g)

K = formula constant

4-23
L
 (lp • de.sity of fluid at the .elected
pressure

eS • deuity of fluid at stendard pressure

Pp • selected pressure

Ps • standard pressure
e • netural logarithm base

b • pressure coefficient for viscosity

of the fluid

(Power level of the system is held

constant.)

(Power loss due to flow pressure

loss is held constant.)

Plots of the flow area ratios for MIL-H-27601, MIL-H-5606 and

AMS-3l50B fluidu at high and low temperatures are given in Figures
20 to 24, inclwlive. Turbulent flow would be considered applicable
to a warm Systelll at fairly high flow rates. Laminar flow would be
applicable to a cool system or low flow rates. It is obvious from
the general fl~r pressure loss data presented herein that the
pressure-viscosi.ty characteristic (indicated by the pressure
coefficient of viscosity) of the fluid is of major importance in VHP
systems.

In order to givE~ substance to the flow pressure loss analyses,

pressure-viscosi.ty values must be selected which are favorable while
still being reas,onably attainable. A large number of variables are
involved in the problem and the relationships are most clearly
expressed by use, of specific examples as discussed in Section 4.4.5.

4-25
 J •• "
" :... •• ' _... ~ i._~ •. ~:. ~

f~ 20' .Flg~ ..Areb·.Rritio~ Turhulent Flow (MIL""H-S606 &MIL-H;-27601)

.- ,.,.. ~ .~.,,,.,
4~26"'" ' .....' .,," .'.. .-. .. .
 i~:
, .:
(',~ ,-.

' 0 '.
-20: f

,. . 'i .. ~~ ..
,_F-(owAr~g Rbtjps :- Ivrbvlent flow (AMS-3tSOB)
..:..; ~. _'! : !,..: .J ~. ~ '. I :

"4~~f
'j
,
 1
+

"4
(

'"iF
...A

rrtr!
~, .~:

0
~< .J
"
" ~~
(~ "

.,
".:'\": ol
ri", ~
~. "-
''L, ()
"
\-'

~;;

,•.... ,
,

" .
: . 3
20 (x 10,)

.:.J .
 : :,. .'"
..
- - - -~~-.~~~i.'~=-~
o "
,
t ·3
b 5 20 (xlQ )

;p r~sur'e ., PSf,G··

Lami,nar Flow (AMS-3150B)

4~30
4.4.3 ijfdra\uic Fluid Selection

It may be seen from a review of the foregoing discussion that no

single hydraulic: fluid possessed an optimum combination of the
properties desired for VHF· system design. The choice of a fluid
required a compl"Om1se between desirable and undesirable properties.
Bulk modulus values of all applicable fluids increase with pressure
which was a benuficial trend.

Viscosity also :Lncreases with pressure. Its rate of change for

each fluid was by far the most significant of the fluid design para-
meters. It alsc) exhibited the greatest spread in absolute values
among the basic fluid types. The pressure/viscosity properties of
MIL-H-5606B wer.~ found to be the most favorable of the applicable
VHF fluids.

The major probll:!m with MIL-H-5606 fluid is one of stabilizing the

viscosity-index··improver additive since it has been found by
experience to dl:!teriorate under system operating conditions.
The pUblished information on this subject indicates that with
intermittent sy:stem operation the loss of the improver function
is temporary, bJWever , it is also shown by Reference 16 that the
loss could be p1ermanent. This means that MIL-H-5606 fluid would
revert to the characteristic Viscosity of MIL-H-27601 super refined
fluid which is shown in Figure 8 to have a higher AS'lM. slope value.
In other words the viscosity excursion of MIL-H-5606 fluid WOuld,
in a deteriorat,ed condition, be greater over the system operating
pressure range, and therefore less desirable. It should be noted
at this point that the shearing forces will be considerably greater
in VHF systems, and would require close monitoring of fluid condition
if the desirable viscosity characteristics of MIL-H-5606 are to be
maintained over a reasonable period of system operation. More
frequent sampling, testing and replacement of the fluid would be
necessary.

Although MIL-H-5606 does not possess all of the properties of an

ideal fluid for VHF systems, it was considered to be the most suitable
of those available and was used exclusively for the remaining
analYtical tasks discussed in this report.

4-31
4.4.4 GeDe~ation
Power
-
The major effects of !(IL-H-5606 fluid viscosity increases on pumping
equiplent were initially visualized as concerning pump leakage and
viscous friction, aDd the resultant power losses. Analyses of these
areas were made.

The following comparil30n formula developed in AppendiX G relative to

the pump leakage, whil::h is effected by viscosity increases due to
higher pressures:

I
4?PL(P) = LPs~'r
QPL(S) 'PI' 7
where: QPL(p}c leakage at a given high pressure
(pump discharge)

QPL(~ =leakage at standard pressure

Ps ." standard pressure (3000 psig)

Pp ." given high pressure

b = pressure coefficient of viscosity

of the fluid

e ." natural logarithm base (2.718)

Plots of this ratio over a pressure range are given in Figure 25 for
MIL-H-5606 fluid at 200~ and - 65Or. From a fluid flow standpoint
the increase indicated is negligible; however, it must be reviewed
from a power loss bas:Ls.

4-32
 / 3000 PSIG Le_Ve-I----- Fluid
Temp of
I .
I 200 '
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

65

5 10 15 20

Pressure - PSIG

Figure 25 Pump Leakage Ratios

4-33
 Leakage Power Lo••

The percent power 1088 due to pump lUkege flow based on the pump
rated output can be represented as follows:

P Q'l K ~PL
%PI. = - = x '00
l. PQRK (lR

where: "PLL = percent power due to pump leakage

P IS pressure

QPL III pump leakage flow

QR IS rated pump discharge flow

K .. conversion constant

Considering a constant power output.J Q R =. C.Oh $ t 4n. "6

p ,

then Yo Pt. L = ~PL PK

Comparing the percent power loss due to leakage at a given pressure

to that at standard pressure with a given fluid at a given tempera-
ture:

Data averaged from production aircraft hydraulic pumps of various

manufacturers in the power range of 25 to 70 horsepower indicate a
leakage flow of approximatell 2.3 percent of rated flow at 3000 psi
with MIL-H-5606 fluid. at 200Op. Estimating that one -half of this
leakage is "built-in" for cooling purpOses at low discharge flows,
the resUltant true le,akage is taken as 1.15 percent rated flow.
Using this value as the standard pressure pump leakage, the percent
power loss at standard pressure is:

~'1. - I,IG'
%PLl.(S) = CiiR
•
- 700)(. /00 =/.lS"
% PL L Q» :: I[~PL(P)J Pp 0.15)
then
l-QpL(s) J Ps

4-34
A plot of this power los. due to pu.p leakage over the pressure
range is &1ven in Figure 26. It show. that the increase in power
loss is approx:lu.telyproportional to the pressure increase and
that it is appJ:-eciable. It is believed that these leakage losses
can be reduced somewhat through design changes and can be reduced
.ore by leakagt' clearance reductions. 'l'h1s latter change is
expected to imrolve cost increases which could be appreciable.

Leakage Temp!,rature Rise

The heet aeneriltion and temperature rise aspects of pump leakage

losses will be considered. The following formula is developed in
AppendiX H for the temperature rise of the leakage case drain flow
of a pump:

wherf': A Tl = temperature rise of the leakage

fluid, <>po
p a pump discharge press~e, psig

e a specific gravity of the fluid

Cp = specific heat of the fluid,

BTU/lb-(OF)

A temperature rise plot for MIL-H-5606 fluid at 2000 F is given in

Figure 21. ThjLs temperature rise is approximately proportional
to the pressurf~ increase and reaches an undesirable level at the
higher pressurE~s. It could be a limiting factor in the selection
of a system deflign pressure. A possible solution for the high
temperature is to incorporate in the pump a low pressure pumping
circuit for coc)ling flow.

As a result of these functional conditions, it is concluded that

pump leakage ldll be a trade-off item in the design of VHF systems
and that it shc)uld be investigated IOOre extensively with the pump
manufacturers 1iO determine all the ramifications.

4-35
.' f"JEJr
·:".""".:;'-'1 '.~.'.T ;"-'.'-'~ ~-.'.'.'.-"
•............T7:.',.-'•. ..,·f'•
•. •.':.. I.: .. : 'j :-::I1~\!
r~pw-~:Crl$.:,:·'"t\,'it";i:-"'r~Tii"'~
i,~l ·~I·.;
.:~~;~::;I.:
'•.'. • ·-;-'•." ~ -'.-.'.:.'.~'.". !~QIIl5j[Qn;L.;.
~.;._.· · .-.·.'~'t'.·.r. "--.,".--;T
. ,.•.-'•:LU:jt:';"~j~i.t>1l:
•. •..,•.-.r•..•.•.C'T.i".•..-••.•' ',.:r . . . '.·. •.. .".',.-.;.,;.:-T.:-. . ".'·I- .•
, t ..·,_. .. ..•''. ,i..'
',l '

'.: . . . . . i:et.
'....:,.. . :.,_...•..'1..
;:
;.j' ~,.l,~.~ ~ :.'.~.'t ?_.~. ~:.'.~ .b.:.:.~.l.'
. :.th,._..O.'.U.
< . : ! ' :'il:f'feets""'ViMQ$ityincilud,d:! , .' .
. . c,'.. E!S,. ~h_.~. '.~ ~.:.I,e.,~.ri:m
he._,
. ..·.... Press~re
'';: - ' ;.. ~r(3)f,li~~age :t;Jt!i~ciJ#~soh¢l teh9t~s C¢hS tant: .
,.",.: l(4)!A)urnp- ~-tr~ Co~stant(RatedFilow) ,.. , . ,.
,'(5) JsA'kffl-5~6at2000F .
'(6), I:~hludes ,"Built-:in ll ' Leakage for Coofing Purposes
(7): Pufup Leakage RotffTciken as L15% ofRofea .
. f>.ump Flow,af3QPO psi,

r.. 3000 PSIG

". Le!vel
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

o :L.-_ _ --J..'
V I
I
_
Ox 103 fo 15 20
Pressure - PSIG

Figure 26 Pump Le'Jkage Power Loss

4-36
 ~ 3000 pSIG Level

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
r
I
I
I

/ .:
5 10 15 20
Pressure - PSIG

Figure 27 Temperature Rise of Pump Leakage

4-37
4.4.4.2 Viscous Fr1c:tion

Power is lost in the l)UIIIp as a result of viscous drag between the

IIIOV1ng plarts that are lubricated by pressurized. fluid, 805. pistons,
thrust plates and valve eleentl. This lOIS is additive to those
shawn in Figures 10 al~ 26.
It was attempted by Wile of test data to establish criteria defining
the power losses attr:J.butable to. viscous friction in pumps. As
with the leakage 10SSElS, the drag loss increase due to higher
pressures _inly involves the pumping pistons and cylinders and the
valve port surfaces. Review of pump test data produced little
applicable informatioIL so a purely theoretical approach was taken.
AppendiX I presents this approach which resulted in the following
comparison formula:

where: PL D(P) = power loss due- to viscous friction

at the given pressure (pump dis-
.charge)

P L DCS) a power loss due to viscous friction

at standard pressure

Qs = pump leakage at standard pressure

Q p = pump leakage at the given pressure

This is the reciprocal. of the pump viscous leakage results.

A calculation of the ~~scous friction in a pump at standard pressure

with MIL-H-5606 fluid at 2000r indicates a relatively low power loss,
approximately 1/4 percent of the pump output power. In view of this
low value and the small power loss changes due to pressure, indicated
by the above formula, it was concluded that pump viscous friction
power losses could be disregarded as a critical factor.
4.4.5
The -.1or etfec::t8 ot increased rtsc:oaity on the tnDaiasion of
h;ydraU11c power were anticipated to involve flow 108S, t~rature
rise aD4 beat cL1sai,at1on.

4.4.5.1
-Flow Loas in Lines
The pressure lel8S data developed' in Section 4.4.2.2 is directly
applicable to t;hia analysis. !be flow area comparison-ratios
developed. under the selected ccabiD8d conditions of constant system
power level, ax:lC1 constant percentage of :flov-loas power of the
syst_ paver le!vel are given in Figures 2G to 2", inclusive.

An analysis is made of the effects ot pressure on the turbulent/

laminar flow change point to deteraine more accurately the
applicable flOtir condition (laa1nar or turbulent) taking into
account the ob"'iously large d1vergence between laminar flow and
turbulent flow cond1tions . The following formula is obtained by
equating the tClrmulas tor flow loss for turbulent flow and for
laminar flow in smooth, straight tubes: '

where: ~ = criticalchange kinematic viscosity,

which is that viscosity at which the
flow changes from laminar to turbulent
with other conditions remaining con-
stant

Q = flow, gpm

1) = tube inside diameter, inch

(~ can also b,e determined by using the Reynolds number formula

with a Reynold.s number of 1190.)

Using a viscosi,ty/temperature/pressure plot for the flUid, the

corresponding "critical change" temperature can be determined.

4-39
Plota of the tl... cblD(pt t . . . . .ture v• •Y'at_ operating preaaure
for tour leta ot cODll1t1ona with IIIL-H-5606 tluid are given in
Figure 28. All the IcondJ:t1ctD8 are baaed on a conatant a7.t_
power lnel and a c••tat pe1"CeDt t1.ft' power loa.. !be atuUrd
pre.sure (3000 psig) cOnd1tiOD of one let of conditions (ODe CurTe)
are t110se of a -Jor distribution pre.aure line in a current, high
perfo~ce, militar,r aircratt. fWo· seta ot conditiona are of
distribution lines v:lth higher aDd lover fluid velocities (aDd
power levels) than t1... frcathe currant aircraft. The fourth
set of conditiona i8 based on the hJpothetical case of DO viscosity-
change-with-pressur8 to illustrate the extent of the pressure (and
ViscositY') effect on the turbulent/laa1nar flow change t.,erature.
For each curve, the :region to lett i. turbulent flow and. the region .
to the right is lamiJaar.
It is quite evident :f'roa a study of the curves in Figures 20 to
2q. ad 28, that because of fluid visco.ity effects specifically,
the size reductions 4)f transmission lines at the higher operating
pressures are not as great as wul.d. be anticipated frca a con-
sideration of flow %'late onlY. !he use of MIL-H-5606 fluid (with its
viscosity improver 84Wtive) will result in .. possible ~ reduction
in flow area at 10,OJO pai a8 indicated in Figure 20. It may also
be seen that relatiV4!ly little 'flow area reduction is gained by
increasing pressure -to 20,000 psi. These relationships are strictly
true only for turbulent flow conditiona. The percentage size
reductions under lam:Lnar flow conditions are even less impre.sive.
This design factor must be considered for those circuit installa-
tions where operatiI14~ temperature levels are normally held by ambient
conditions to low 11lnits where laminar flow conditions would IlOst
likely prevail.

4-40
 ....... '_..,t-_:'"r;""i- ~ - L", i-c -t
,;..-.-- '

l.,(lffiinar FI~:Region'
" o
r7Tr:,,~·~·~_J-_--"i--------'---_""""'_-""""'----~_-'-';'-------- ...
o 10

Pressure ~ PS IG '
.TVi'btt I~~t/h¢ttffinCilf:F+~;!l!#~.ttlTJtm~;rOfure Cu rVes
. '4'::41 ' .. '.' ' . . .
 ~erature Rise

The following is a fCllrmula (developed in Appendix J) comparing the

temperature rise at given high pressures to that at standard pressure
using constant paver level and constant percentage flow-loss power:

L1"U(p)
A~(s)

Where: 4TA. J'p) :: temperature rise per unit length

~ of line at the design high pressure

ATicI'
I~ ~
.. of
temperature rise per unit length
line at standard pressure

Pp :: given high pressure

Ps :: standard pressure
(> p :: fluid density at the given high
pressure

es = fluid density at standard pressure

A plot of this ratio using MIL-H-5606 fluid at 200°F as given in

Figure 29.

In order to obtain some representative values, consider a 50 horse-

power system with pre!ssure of 3000 psig, flow rate of 28.6 gpm,
1.00 inch O.D. x .06~j inch wall steel tubing and MIL-H-5606 fluid
at 2000,. Calculaticlins for this system give a temperature rise
(4T/1. ) of .0042 OF/ ft. (turbulent flow). Using Figure 29, this
value would increase to (5.99 x .0042) :: .025 Or/ft. at a system
pressure of 20,000 pElig. On a single pass basis, this temperature
rise is considered tel be relatively low. In a continuously flowing
system the temperature would, of course, increase to some equilibrium
value as modified by many specific system variables, including
cooling area, cooling air flow rate, ambient air temperature and
ambient air density.

4-42
 6.0·.

.
Q)
:>
~
~
Q.;

cO
(I) -
>V'l
5.0
. - Q.;
0 0
(1)0
-£g
......
CC
..r::. ..r::.
..c m
c
4.0.
(I) (I)
...J ...J
Q) Q)
C c
:..:::i:..:::i
........
cc
..
::> ::>
Q)
Q.;
Q)
Q.;
3.0

(I) (I)
.-
'" .-
~~
'"
Q.
E Q)E
(I)
1-1-
2.0
'"U '"U
.- .-
:> :>
u. u.

-- Q.."
....................
1.0
V
...J ...J
~.~ I
3000 PSIG Level
<I <I

I
o I
1...-_,,--_.1- _

'0 x 10 5 10 15 20
Pressure - PSIG

Figure 29 Line Flow Loss Temperature Rise Ratios

4-43
 .-

0 1•.4 ,.
~

2
0
~
1.2.
"'0 I
Q)
I
... >=
0
1.0
I
l'------- ..
---..-. . . -------x
th X
2 0..

~
0

co...
Q)
8 .8 J ""-x
> ~ I
0 ~ .... I
..c
.... 3: .6 I
3: "U I
C
"U 0 I
C Q) .4 l Laminar Flow -
0 ~

Q)
~
:::l
VI I Fluid Temperature I -20°F
VI
:::l
VI
Q)
~
I
VI
_2 I
V
Q) 0..
~
0.. "U
~

C
Q) "U
0 3000 PSIG Level
> 0c Q
t)
....
V>
....0 ....0
1.0

.~
Q Q

0 0
Q)
..0 ..0
Q)
.a . .
I
------
:::l
:::l x
l- I-

II .6 :I '~~•.
>e-- _
Q~O I ->e
x
.4 I
I
I
.2 I Turbulent Flow -
I Fluid Temperature, -20°F to 200°F
I
0
0 5 10 15
Pressure - PSIG

Figure 30 Pressure Tubing Outside Diameter Ratios

4-44
 Heat ReJectic~

The following 'brief analysis shows the trend and aapitUille 01' line
cooling over the pressure range for conditions of constant power
level and const;ant flow power 10s8 in the line. An applicable
formula (develCllpe(1 in AppendiX K) is as follows:
,
H p::. (-),p~ 1"
Hs J\s)

where: Hp • heat rejected fraa the line per

unit length at 8 given high pressure

HS ... heat rejected from the line per

unit length at standard pressure

Ap = flow area of the high pressure line

As = flow area of the standard pressure
line

For an approxinl8tion, considering MIL-H-5606 fluid under selected

conditions, the: flow area ratios given in Figure 23 ~an be used..

The convection coefficient ( C, ) for the transfer of heat from 4

oil in stee~ tUbing to the ambient air is approximated at 1.0 x 10-
f[3TU/min. lin /0-,') for still, ambient air and 5.8 x 10- 4 , as an
average, for moving air in a typical air cooled compartment o~ a
high performance aircraft. The average of these, (3.41 x 10- ) can
be used for general estimating purposes.

In order to obtain some cooling values, the following standard

pressure conditions are assumed: 3000 psig line pressure, 28.6 gpm,
1.00 inch O.D. x .065 inch wall steel tUbing, MIL-H-5606 fluid at
200~, oil to cooling air temperature differential (AT) of 2000 F
and the average convection heat transfer coefficient (C, ) of
3.4 x 10-4 • Then, using a basic heat transfer formula, the standard
pressure heat transfer from the line per unit length is:
Using the appropriate APiA, value from Figure 20, it is seen that
at 20,000 psi, the heat transrerred from the lines will decrease
to 0.96 "lain.
The percentage reduction of heat transferred frcm the lines at the
very high pressures is appreciable • However, the actual 8IIOunt of
heat transferred is directly proportional to the length of line
involved and would be of little consequence in a qst. with
reletively short lines. In an installation with long lines, this
heat transfer rate reduction could necessitate the addition of a
heat exchanger.

4-46
4.4.5.2 ~ and Weight
Size and weigh.1~ of pressure and return lines are determined over the
range of systelll pressures 'Wlder the previously selected conditions
of constant sYfltem power level, constant percent flow loss power
and the use of MIL-H-5606 fluid. COrrosion-resistant steel of the
conventional tubing specification MIL-T-6845B and high-strength,
350 alloy, corI~8ion-resistant steel are used with minimum yield
strengths for t;he MIL-T-6845B ttlbing and for the 350 alloy tubing
of 15,000 psi .nnd 140,000 psi , respectively.

The inside dian~ters of the pressure lines are determined from the
flow area data of Section 4.4.2.3. The outside diameters of the
lines are detennined frem the inside diameter values and the con-
ventional heay;y' wall vessel stress formula (Reference 13) which is
revised to incc,rporate a factor of safety as follows:

0= cI. (S t-5P_1I
6-fP I
/

where: D = outside diameter of tube

d = inside diameter of tube
5 = minimum yield strength of tube
material

~ = factor of safety
In comparions l!l'ith the factors-of-safety used for hydraulic equipment
the value used for lines is large. This is based to a large extent
on service experience with their wall tUbing which is more vulnerable
to mechanical damage, induced vibration and surge pressure stresses.
Tubing wall thicknesses for VHF systems will be much heavier and
more resistant to mechanical abuse as a pressure vessel, and on this
basis the factors-of-safety are reduced in the following analysis.

4-41
A value of 3.75 is dE~fined for 3000 psi service. This was generated
from averaged data fl~ IIorth .American Aviation, Inc. design standards
for MIL-H-6845B tubing in sizes ranging from .250 to 1.0 inch diameter.
At 20,000 psi the F.S. limit is set at 2.0, and at intermediate
pressures proportionlilll levels are used.

The inside diameters of return lines are determined from the flow
areas developed in Section 4.4.2.3 except that a line pressure of
approximately 700 psi. is used for all the operating pressure levels.
In effect, this results in the inside diameter varying inversely as
the square root of the system operating pressure. The outside
diameters of the return lines are determined from the inside diameters
and a constant wall thickness of 0.20 inch. This minimum wall criteria
is based primarily Qn standard practice and results in a minimum
factor-of-safety of approXimately 4.0 using MIL-T-6845B tube material,
a line pressure of 700 psi, and a 1.000 inch (inside) diameter line.
This return line size would be applicable to system power levels to
50 horsepower at a system operating pressure of 3000 psi. In higher
power level systems the wall thickness would be determined from stress
and lower return line size (and weight)-to-power ratios would be
obtained.

Calculations for the '~eights of the lines and included oil were
determined from the previously generated line diameter data.

The diameter and weight values were averaged between the pressure and
return lines to provicie more generalized system information.
Compan.soIlSof tube outside diameters at the given conditions to that
at the standard conditions are given in Figures 30, 31 and 32 for
pressure lines, return lines and "averaged" lines. From Figure 32,
it can be seen that, in general, the largest space savings occur
at pressures to approximately 10,000 psig.

Comparisons of tube plus included oil weight at given system pressures

to that at standard pressure are given in Figures 33, 34 and 35 for
pressure lines, return lines and "averaged" lines. Figure 35
indicates that in genE~ral, only relatively small reductions in
weight will be obtainE~ with the conventional steel tubing material
but that appreciable weight reductions will occur with high strength
materials at pressure to apprOXimately 6000 psig.

4-48
; ~~
I;,:
; .

• J..__

.. 3)
20 (xlO

.(S¥~t~~·cOperdt·in9)Ple~~ur~L P~IG
31 RES,furnTubTng Qutsrd~~piamef~r Rittti!#'s.
. . , .. ~~.!~'"

4-49
 , j .: ~
pdO . •... . , . .
-~(SY~1.em-(~erdthT9) Pressure- ,p$te . ,,:
. ~-i '~.- .j
;
. \.•. ,

Figure' . " IAverqg~eq

...... . _..'32 _ ",_ , _TupitlS
· ·.· Outsipe ."..
Diameter Ratios
.
··4·~·50
 .!

Fig~re 33
...., .. '"
4-51
:.'

,0".

15 • (}<lO·')
20 . 3

. (Sys,tem' Operating): Press ur,e .PS IG

. . Figure 34 Refurn~T,ubi~g
, .
+ Oil
':
Weight Ratios: ""

'4~52
 ,
1. 1

.. '~,

.. :'

l5

.{Sys:~~· dpe~ati~g)Pressl.J~~r~i#.slG
... ,.. ,'''' .'~' • ,:., ._, :. "'._ " ,.L .' . ' .,J. j.. . .

.fl.a~.re~?A.":~~ge.:~.T~b. in9. +: q~ .1.XVbi g~~_ Rat i9~ .

4-53
4.4.5.3 Flow Rate Control (Orifices)
Since orifices are used extensively in hydraulic system components,
particularly in restrictor fittings, a brief analysis was made of the
effects of VHF fluid characteristics on their performance. All
theoretical and exper~~ental data reviewed in relation to flow
through sharp edge, plate oI:'ifices indicated that fluid viscosity has
very little effect on its basic function in a system. Fluid density,
on the other hand, is directly involved in orifice performance. The
characteristic flow of a non-compressible fluid flow through a sharp-
edge, plate orifice is as follows:

Q =

where: Q = flow rate - cu. in/sec.

C = orifice coefficient
p = pressure drop through orifice - psi
W = weight density of fluid - lbs/cu.in.

9 = gravitational constant

D, = tube diameter - inches

Dz.= orifice diameter - inches

From this formula it can be seen that the volume flow through an
orifice will decrease as the inverse of the square root of the fluid
density. Because of pressure/densitY changes in MIL-H-5606 fluid
at 200~, for example, the discharge rate of a given orifice will be
reduced approximately ~) percent between pressure levels of 3000 and
20,000 psi.

4-54
The following fl:>rmula, developed in Appendix L, identifies this orifice
size relationship:

t~~ .7~ (::)'2S

where: Dp = diameter of orifice at the given pressure

DS = diameter of orifice at standard pressure
Ps = standard pressure (3000 psig)
Pp = given pressure
Wp = density of fluid at the given pressure

Ws = density of fluid at the standard pressure

A plot of these orifice diameter ratios for MIL-H-5606 fluid at 2000 F

is shown in Fi~lre 36. The quantitative relationship of various
orifice design factors is plotted in Figure 37.

Orifice sizes become extremely small in high pressure circuits. In

the landing gear system of one modern high performance Navy airplane,
thirteen orificE~-type restrictors are used, ranging in design flow
rates of 0.2 to 9.0 gpm. Corresponding orifice diameters range from
.013 to .105 inches. In order to absorb an equivalent amount of
power in a 20,000 psi system, a .013 inch diameter orifice would be
reduced to .003 inch diameter. This is far below a practical size
for accurate machining. JUdgment is required on the part of the system
designer regarding the use of simple restrictors in low power, high
pressure circuits. Some of the orifice diameter relationships for
sub-system appUcations are plotted in Figure 38. The orifice
pressure drop hSls been arbitrarily set at 33 percent of total system
pressure, and represents only a transient point in a normal work
cycle of an elerr~ntary sub-circuit.

In Appendix M an examination is made of the effects of system pressure

on orifice control for a constant power level. From this examination,
it is concluded that system pressure has no effect on orifice control.

4-55
Orifice Diameter Rciltios
_",~_L _ .....• ,,' . ..\., ..
4-56
 ,
- . ---J,
\
"f,
_-'-;-_~.+. J.

Orjfj~eAP
.._.. PSID

,.
) ',',

to-OOO-
., '.

5,000

~
o
u..
3,000

.;.8 1,500

.060 .100

brif:iceiDiameter i- IN.
Orifi'ce Flow V$ Orifice Diameters
........ _" .. , ~ _ .. ".'.",_~""" !. _.:.,· .. ~_L. ,''0,' .'

4-57
4.5 Component Design Requirements
A generalized specification of design requirements for components may
be made, but thE~se would of course be SUbject to many adjustments on
specific system applications. Many design trade-offs are involved,
which are fund~lentally influenced by the level of power transmitted
in the system and the level of design pressure used to generate the
output forces of the actuators. It has been shown in previous sections
of this report that fluid viscosity level critically rises at pressures
above the 10,000 psi range. This has the effect of increasing the
pressure losses in lines and valve passages, and is considered to be
a valid reason for limiting the component design requirements to the
lower pressure levels in this discussion.

4.5.1 Hydraulic: Pumps and Motors

It is the consensus of major pump manufacturers that output pressures

up to 10,000 psi are attainable using relatively minor extensions of
current pump and motor design practice. This is based on the growth
potential of production designs of piston type units and on the trades
that are available between flow and pressure in the pumping elements.
At a constant design power level the major bearing loads in a given
pump may be held constant by reducing piston area proportionally with
increase in output pressure. This means that a given pump structure
is relatively urdisturbed by increases in operating pressure since it
is essentially necessary only to reduce the cylinder bore diameters
in an existing cylinder block, the additional wall thickness between
the cylinders providing structural rigidity for the higher internal
pressures.

Other potentially favorable design factors in VHP pumps are:

(a) Increased L/D ratios in the engagement of pistons and

cylinders and increased percentage of swept volume in
the cylinders.

(b) Decreased viscous leakage through the piston/cylinder

fit and valve surfaces as a result of increased pressure-
viscosity of the pressurized fluid.

(c) Lower net windage losses and less tendency for cavitation.
These are a function of lower flow rate.

4-59
Design problems are involved in the following functional areas because
of high pressure effects:

(a) More critical pressure balancing requirements for piston

shoes and cylinder porting valve.

(b) Fluid compression losses.

(c) Fluid trapping and heating in the cylinders.

(d) Column deflection of pistons. Unit bearing pressure on piston.

(e) Power losses due to leakage as discussed in Section 4.4.4.

The design requirements for pumps up to operating pressures of 10,000 psi

involve a relatively straightforward application of current practices and
more accurate machining of critical parts. Pump designs capable of
operating reliably at higher pressures than these would require extensive
development.

4.5.2 Control Valve Elements

The control valves used in VHF systems will be required to operate under
much more severe conditions because, as discussed in Section 4.3, the
design flow rate at constant power is inversely proportional to pressure
levels. One of the major limitations in a general application of higher
operating pressures is the problem of manufacturing spool and sleeve
assemblies of the small sizes needed for stable control of VHF subsystem
flow rates. As shown in Table VIII these flow rates are extremely small
in most applications. With regard to effects on valve elements, this
means porting sizes are smaller and design pressure-drops through the
ports are greater in proportion to the increase in system pressure.
Port area is a function of spool diameter and spool travel. If a minimum
practical diameter is reached as a result of manufacturing limitation,
the spool travel, as the only remaining variable, must be operated at
smaller displacements, or bleed notches must be incorporated in the spool
to reduce flow gain to reasonable levels.

Spool reaction forces are not considered critical at the higher pressure
levels because smaller spool areas are involved. Solenoid forces in
direct acting valves would normally be proportionally greater due to
scale effects. In pilot operated valves the spool end area/groove area
ratio would remain constant.

4-60
The performance of servovalves at high pressures is difficult to predict
in quantitative values. It may be expected that performance in all
parameters would progressively decay as a function of increasing pressure
drop, particularly through the first stage of the valve. Current aero-
space practice Elxtends into the range of 4000-5000 psi and projected
development seeD1S not to be in the direction of higher pressures. How-
ever, it is belj.eved to be feasible to operate at higher pressures
through the powElr stage of a servovalve, using a nominal pressure in the
first stage. This would eliminate the major functional problems noted
above but would require incorporation of enlarged end areas on the power
spool to reduce errors from flow reaction forces.

Other valve tYPE~S including pressure regulators, pressure reducers and

flow regulators also use spool and sleeve assemblies and an essential
design requireme:nt in all such units is the elimination of excessive
leakage through the valve laps. As shown in Figure 14, the tendency
for such leakage! would be substantially reduced by favorable and con-
current changes in fluid Viscosity. Similar conditions are also present
in the viscous leakage paths of hydraulic pumps and motors. If de-
flections in the working parts are controlled to prevent excessive growth
of leakage paths the leakage losses at reasonably elevated working pres-
sure should not be excessive. A balance must therefore be obtained
between the necessary wall thicknesses and the allowable leakage rates
at the pressure level being investigated.

As discussed in Section 3.3 the absolute value of surge peaks in VHF

systems will be higher if adverse valve operation is present. Solenoid
operated valves should include means for controlling the rate of port
opening to avoid initiation of pressure surges. This can be accomplished
by use of spool snubbers or bleed slots in the valve lap zone.
In those valves using poppet elements a functional problem exists in the
seating stresses that result from unbalanced hydraulic loads. These
stresses increasle proportionally with hydraulic pressure, and will re-
quire the use of stronger materials in the poppets and seats. Snubbers
will also be re~~ired to prevent high velocity contact and chattering.

The use of orifi/::e elements to control operating speeds will be limited

by the reduced flow rates and high pressure differentials that are
characteristic of VHF systems. It is shown in Figure 36 that for a
given power drop an orifice diameter for a 9000 psi circuit would be
reduced 55% from that required for 3000 psi service. Based on size
used in a typical utility system the orifices required for a 9000 psi
pressure level would approach minimum machinable dimensions. Recently
developed restrictors, incorporating multiple orifices in a series
relationship, allow use of larger orifice diameters and will simplify
the machining process, as well as helping to alleviate the problem
of contamination.
4-61
4.5.3 Reservoirs and Filters

Currently used airless type reservoirs are developed to a point of

being directly usable for VHP systems. VHP systems will tend to
accumulate air in the reservoir as discussed in Section 4.4.1.1.
In view of the necessi1.y of eliminating this air and to prevent
introduction of air dw~ing servicing operations, a reliable filling
and air bleeding circwLt is required. Fluid cleanliness as a reqUire-
ment is expected to be more exacting in VHP systems because the
working clearances in l~umps, motors and valves will be smaller and
more vulnerable to d8DH!lge from contaminants. The size of the filter
elements and housing should be small to avoid excessive wall thick-
nesses and weight penalty.

4.5.4 Sealing Elemen1,s

Internal leakage may dE~grade the overall efficiency of a fluid power

system but would not nc)rmally cause a precipitous failure. The
progressive temperaturEl rise in such a condition allows time for
correction of the malfunctioning equipment item. External leakage on
the other hand is much more likely to cause a precipitous failure.
In a VHF system the number of external leakage points must be reduced
to the minimum number :possible. Two factors operate adversely with
respect to external le~~ge, that is, (1) less fluid is carried in
the system, and (2) thel increased pressure level in the system would
expell the leakage flw.d at a higher rate.

This condition dictates; that piston rod seals be extremely reliable in

addition to meeting the other normal design reqUirements. The most
obvious solution to this problem is to design redundancy into the gland
assembly. The primary seal would be exposed to full system pressure,
and leakage fluid would, be collected in a sump and returned to the
reservoir. The secondslry seal would be a composite type consisting of
a low pressure seal and. rod scraper. This arrangement would insure
lubrication of the rod and primary seal. However, a sump bleed valve
is necessary to remove air and assure lubrication of the rod. The
bleed valve allows inspection for leakage from the primary seal during
routine inspection. A check valve in the sump return port prevents
back-flow from the res€irvoir. Recent developments in composite
elastomeric seals appear to upgrade such seals to higher allowable
operating pressures both for external and internal applications.
Depending on size and d.esign pressure levels, metallic seals may be
required, but the leakslge rates normally found with these seals
would have to be greatly reduced to avoid functional problems in the
system.

4-62
The problem of fJlvoid1ng excessive piston seal axial motion will be
more critical ilL VHP actuators *1nce, as discussed in Section 4.4.1.3,
system sti:f'1'neslil is adversely affected by pressure increase. This
cond1tion will x'equire the use of metallic seals or some type of
groove-filling c:om.posite elastomeric seal.

Static seals arEI not expected to be marginal below 15,000 psi, based
on current developments in metallic and fused joint elements. Further
development is required to reduce the weight, size and cost of 20,000
psi static seals:, however, the design criteria are well established
and in routine use in the chemical industry.

4. 5•5 Actuators~

As discussed in Section 2.1, the confined space in wing structures

often compromisels the installation design and detail design of
actuators used i.n this area of an airplane. The use of higher
operating press~~es will reduce the envelope size of an actuator
and simplify the: installation problem, however, the design problem
includes many interacting factors that complicate a general statement
on design requirements. Fluid power actuators are among the more
critical compone:nts in airborne hydraulic systems from the standpoint
of stress analys:is. Installed in the airplane they become integral
parts of the linkages used to drive the various mechanical loads of
the airplane, bClth in flight and on the ground. As part of a linkage
(and with limite,tions on suitable attachment points on the linkage)
an actuator ofte:n deviates substantially from the ideal proportions
required for a favorable balance of stress levels in its load carrying
elements. This problem involves primarily the relationship between
available operat,ing pressure, maximum load reacted and the column
strength of the actuator.

A study was conducted using a digital computer to determine basic

trends in certain actuator data over the VHF system pressure range
and using conven.tional aircraft actuator design formulas. The
actuator was con.sidered to drive its load through an arm with
the load (hinge moment) maintained constant.

An actuator of given installed length will become smaller in diameter

as operating pressure is increased. This is true for any reasonable
pressure range, particularly where steels are used as the structural
material. As the relative diameter is reduced, the actuator becomes
weaker in column strength, therefore, the primary criterion in this
analysis was that the reacted load at proof pressure be equal to the
critical buckling strength of the actuator in a fully extended,
unbottomed position. To counteract loading eccentricities that are
introduced by rod and piston clearances in standard actuators (With
adverse effect on column strength) a tamden rod design was inCOrPOrated
in the mathematical model. This is illustrated in Figure 39. Also
shown is the simplified geometric shapes used for the mathematical
model.
4-63
 ll~------""

13r---+-f/~~v"'- CD
I

--~

I
I
o
_L
@0

NOTE: This drawing does

not represent scale
or proportion.

FIGURE 39 MODEL FOR ACTUATOR ANALYSIS

4-64
The computer routine closely followed conventional stress analysis
procedures for cylindrical actuators using the constants listed in
table VI and. solving for the parametric values listed in table VII.
This involved reiteration with various arm lengths until the total
actuator buck.l.ing load value closely approximated the critical
value. The data developed results in the smallest and. lightest
actuator of its type for a g1ven hinge moment with a given system
pressure. In general, this actuator is heavier than the standard
unbalanced tyPe, but the size and weight trends obtained from the
study are consid.ered to be generally applicable to all piston
actuators.

TABLE VI

Design Constants for Computer Routine

Arm length (at start of routine) 30"

Hinge moment arbitrary

Maximum arm angle 1.047 rad.

Modulus of elasticity (steel) 29 x 106

Modulus of elasticity (aluminum) 10.5 x 10
6

Bending enliurance limit (steel) 71,000 psi

Tensile eruiurance limit (steel) 57,000 psi

Shear strel'3S ultimate (steel) 109,000 psi

Tensile st:ress ultimate (steel) 180,000 psi

Bearing stress allowable (pin joint) 30,000 psi

Operating pressure arbitrary

Axial strueture (piston thickness, etc.) 5.5 inches

4-65
 'l'ABLI VII
computation Routine for Opt1m1zed Actuator
(IBM Model 7090 Equipment)

).M.
A. Select hinge moment (actuator extended)

B. Select arbitrary arm length (,R)

C• Solve for:

1. Column load
2. Piston stroke
3. Rod end pin diameter
4. Rod end width
5. Radial thick.ness of lug
6. Rod end. bore
7. Rod end. O.D.
8. Rod column 11!!l1gth
9. Column length of actuator
10. Friction radius of pin joint
11. Rod end undercut
12. Piston rod I.D.
13. Piston rod O.D.
14. Piston area
15. Cylinder IoD ..
16. Cylinder O.D ..
17. Section moduli of rod ·and cylinder
18. Ratio of section moduli
19. Cylinder col\unn length
20. Ratio of cyljLnder and rod column lengths
21. Critical colmnn strength
22. Compare valuE~s of 1 and 21

D. Iterate routine "C";. changing nil. " by ± L:::.£ for each

iteration until 1 e~luals 21 and A~ < .001.
4-66
Results from the optimum actuator study are given in Figure 4Q It is
shown that appreciable reductions in actuator size and weight are
achieved with increases in system pressure up to approximately
10,000 psi. Above this region the size and weight trends are reversed.

Figures 41, 42, 43 and 44 show more clearly the relative proportions
of two representative actuators. These are designed to react constant
hinge moment loads of 70,000 lb. inches and 300,000 Ib inches at
various operating pressure levels.

Data from the above study were used to establish values for actuators
with a constant output force, and essentially constant total length
and stroke to illustrate the space saving possibilities of increasing
pressure in an existing installation. The results are shown in
figure 450 Appreciable reductions in the size and weight of the con-
stant force actuator are achieved by increasing system pressure up to
approximately 10,000 psi. These reductions are similar to those
obtained with the optimized actuators.

Although the above analysis applies to a specific actuator configura-

tion (incorporating a tandem rod for improved column strength), it
is not intended to recommend this configuration for general use. The
shape of the installation envelope, linkage arrangement output force
and design operating pressure are primary considerations in the
choice of an actuator type.

4.5.6 Miscellaneous Equipment

The remaining system components and elements required in an installa-
tion are not expected to be sensitive to high pressures from the
standpoint of' stress levels, endurance and reliability. These
include lines (350 CRES steel) fittings (current new developments)
manifolds and vi91ve bodies (stress levels nominal) and modules.

4-67
 -_ ...... _-
.A .2 v,': ,r.; ~-f. ..- ',,;'R~~'e," ~'J;~'"~l,i;~ ~';~j!

L
,1--<

L
 -1;

,..
c

Z
~~ ......... :
.(1, u: 12t
c
Q)
...J

11 E
«
~
c
WE
U

9~

. ·2.8

2.4
Z
--
,.

..
2.0 .......-
.
Ii::::

0
1.6 -g
Ii::::

:LJ
j-- 1.2
c6
I-
Q)
-0
C

>-.
___ .c .. -~ i' . r .8 U
10 15 20
, , ;

'~-Pf'ess'Ure ,- ·PSI G····

O~timizeQ Actudtor Proportions - ConStant Hinge Moment

_._" . 4~~~,OOO'h,,"lbs '
NOTES: Hinge MOment 70,000 inch-pounds
All.steel construction

1Cy~~ U..
inside 2.455
Cy1. wall thickness • • 052
3-]~M===-=-=-==.
3000 PSIG

-<t-==a
Cy1. inside dis. = 2.100
Cyl. wa.ll thickness • •075 ~
5000 PSIG 71
7 I

+- Cy1. iI1lside dis. = 1. 70

Cy1. wall thickness = .125/
10,000 PSIG ?f

~Cyl. ~-:=-3
- inside dis. = 1.442
Cyl. walll thickness = .169 /
15,000 PSIG ~
. ~
I'
1i---=+=: =
Cyl. inside dis.
Cy1. WEIll thickness=
1.313
.212 /
/
*
20,000 PSIG ~

FIGURE 42 EFFECTS OF PRESSURE LEVEL ON ACTUATOR

PROPORTIONS - CONSTANT HINGE MOMENT
70,000 IN-LBS
4-70
",) --
( ,

-
16~_;,

z
3.0
'-o
'-.
2.5 o•
""'0
o
Q:::

2.0 06

+
, ,JiQ 20
,
,~ '.

"Ptt1ss~re':--'p'SIG'

Fi9u~~.4~,Q~tif12i2!.~d A~,~lJ.pto~ P~p()rti()Qs- Constant Hinge Moment

300,000 In-Lbs
4-71
 NOTES: Hinge Moment 300,000 inch-pounds
All s'l:ieel construction

EJ--I~- -I=====~
Cyl. inside dia. = 3.314 /
Cyl. wall thickness • .128

5000 PSIG

~ ---~------t=~==:::;@
Cyl. inside dia. = 2.651 ~
Cyl. wall thickness = .198 /'
10,000 PSIG -.1<-/

~ E-
~
r=
Cyl. inside dia. = 2.260
Cyl. wall thickness = .270 /'

15,000 PSIG */

~---1-----b=======/===;JI~
Cyl. inside dia. = 2.086
Cyl. wall thickness = .336 . /'

20,000 PSIG /
FIGURE 44 EFFECTS OF PRESSURE LEVEL ON ACTUATOR
PROPORTIONS - CONSTANT HINGE MOMENT
300,000 IN-LBS
4-72
 . +
"
ofT T
I.·..

L _ .... 11_ .j.1...... I

T"" ~ ~ H· -'r"
I
f-'+-U
Itl+r .-
H~-
n
i,pi crt
tii ,·rf;·r:ft, i;Jj,

--,
~,
'

c;

W
IU
OJ

'". :

l... .•
!
4.6 VHP System Dyna~
Another major investi8stive area involves the analysis of the effects
of higher operating pressures on the dynamic forces of installed VHP
systems. Where operating pressure level is increased in a system a
corresponding loss of actuator stiffness will occur, as discussed in
Section 4.4.1.3. This functional condition resUlts from the increased
stress range imposed on the working fluid by the reacted loads.

The inertial reactions of the loads on the actuator piston are also
reflected in tenDS of greater fluid stress ranges. This condition
has the net effect of reducing the resonant frequency of the installed
system, and is an undesirable trend because response and stabiUty of
the system are in turn decreased. Various means are available for
counteracting these problems and are discussed in the following
general analysis of servo valve/actuator combinations, and in Appendix N.

4.6.1 Analytical Approach

The first prerequisite to a mathematical description of a physical
system is the formulat:ion of a transfer function describing the input-
to output relationship. Usually it is preferable to analyze the
transfer function in tenDs of frequency response. Even if the final
use of the hardware will be in tenDS of time history, or response
to step inputs, ramp inputs or randome inputs, the most powerfUl
analytical tools are geared to the frequency domain. Most physical
systems tend to dimini:3h in output for a constant input as the
frequency is increased, and there is also a concurrent tendency for
the output to lag the :Lnput by an increasing amount. This basic
trend is complicated at the natural frequencies of the various system
elements where output lamplitudes tend to peak at values which may be
much higher than the input amplitudes. At the same time, the output
is gaining or losing phase with the input.

A basic stability critl:lrion is that any system element, closed by

a feedback loop, must have attained an output-to-input amplitude
ratio equal-to or less··than one before the output sinusoid lags the
input sinusoid by 1800 (cross-over point). Normal procedure is to
compare output of the feedback to the input to the system before
the feedback is phySiClllly connected to the system (open loop
condition). In a systE,m where the output amplitude decreases grad-
ually as a function of frequency, and the phase is equally well-
behaved, the cross-over frequency may be tailored to operating
requirements simply by adjusting the gain of the system.

4-74
In more complex systems, artificial-lead networks are frequently
incorporated to increase the phase margin, and assure that adverse
tolerances on th.e numerous components will not become critical.
Also, a well-placed lag network may force the output to remain below
a desired cross-over frequency. In complex physical systems, there-
fore, a juggling act is continuouslY being performed between gain and
phase to attain a stable system of specified performance. Good.
design requires techniques to insure that the innermost loop of a
system crosses over at the highest practical frequency. This is
accomplished by increasing the gain as much as feasible while
maintaining a satisfactory phase-margin at the cross-over frequency.
Even if a stable crossover is accomplished, a resonant peak at a
slightlY higher frequency may cause a second crossover in a region
of rapidlY deteriorating phase, again producing instability. There-
fore, in general,it is desirable to keep the resonant frequency as
high as practical. The numerical value required for stability is
dependent upon the overall system requirements, i.e., the resonant
frequency should be outside the overall system bandwidth. If the
resonant frequency is low enough to be close to the system bandWidth,
sufficient damping is required to reduce the amplitude of the resonant
peaks to prevent a second crossover.

In view of the above, it was believed that the greatest insight to

the problems of VHP system dynamics would be found by examining the
effects of incre,ased operating pressure on gain, resonant frequency
and damping. The nature of the subject was such that only parametric
results could be obtained; however, the full range of operating
pressures was covered.

4-75
4.6.2 Valve and Actuator Equation
"The hydraulic valve·actuator circuit, shown by Figure 46, is used
to investigate very h18h pressure effects on a hydraulic servo unit.
This t1]M! of circuit is considered one of the BIOst COlB)n type of
hydraulic servo units. The circuit consists of a four-way control
valve, a piston aDd an inertia lOlli. The valve is supplied with a
source of constant pressure hydraulic fluid at the center land.
With the valve in the null, or centered position, no flow is
supplied to the piston. If the valve is displaced in one direction,
the piston and. load moves with a velocity proportional to the dis-
placement of the valve. If the valve is displaced. in the opposite
direction, the pressure across the actuator is reversed; hence, the
velocity of the load is counter-acted. The differential control
pressure supplied by 'the valve to the piston proVides the force
required to force conformance of the load to the input signal of
the valve.

An open loop transfer function from Reference 19 describes the

response characterist:ic of the circuit shown in Figure 46 as follows:
C,

Where: x. = increment of valve displacement, in.

~ I: increment of load and piston travel,

in.

c, =: Qo/A I : servo velocity gradient,

in/ (sec. )(in.)

0( I: viscous friction of load and piston,

, lb./(in. )(aec.)

Qo =: flow gradient of valve at zero

differential pressure, in. 3/(sec.)(in.)

~2 a servo force gradient, Ib./in.

S a d/dt. I: differential operator =J W

A1 I: massof load and piston, lb./(in.)(sec 2 )

4-76
 OUTPUT VALVE

t TRAVEL
f
DISPLACEMENT

L ~ RETURN

[ PISTON
C
.. CONSTANT
PRESSURE

C--.. RErURN

LOAD

FIGURE 46 ELEMENTARY FLUID ACTUATOR CIRCUIT

4-77
 ~ • piston area, in. 2

V • effective entrained. fluid volume, in. 3

(one-half of the total entrained volume
between valve and piston)

P • valve pressure gradient, psi/in

8 • bulk modullllS of fluid, psi

W II • resonant frequency, rad./sec.

6 • damping factor (a numeric)

k, = gain

The above eq1ation was: derived on the basis of very smell valve
openings from steady s,tate and linear valve characteristics.

The transfer function ~;:c , may be expressed as follows:

(2)

where:

(3) • resonant frequency

(4) 6 : =damping factor

(5) K, c

4-78
1t..6.3 Resonant Frequency and D!Iap1Da

"In order to c~pare the response characteristics of a high pressure

system With a 31000 psi &Ystem., the following design parameters are
held constant:

1. OUtput power required

2. OUtput stroke of piston

3. Input litroke to the control valve

To take full ad'lI'ant8ge in reduction of size and weight of the valve-

actuator, the fc)llowing design changes can be made (compared to a
3000 psi system).

1. The effective entrained fluid volume (V) is reduced

as a f\mction of !/R- ' where 11- is equal to 11/3000

2. The pil~ton area (A) is reduced as a function of !/P...

3. The velocity gradient (e,) and the force gradient (Cz)
are truated as constants. (This is accomplished by
redesign of the valve orifices for a particular
operatj.ng pressure.)

Past experience indicates that the presence of viscous friction in

a hydraulic ser'~ system increases the resonant frequency and damping.
However, in most systems and in flight control systems in particular,
the effect of vi.scous friction is slight and can be neglected. For
the purposes of this investigation, it will be assumed that the
viscous friction is zero. This assumption is considered to be a
valid one since this will represent the worst possible case with
respect to systeim stability.

Equat1o'n (5) now becomes:

K. :: C, = constant

This result is to be expected since valve-piston redesign was allowed

in the assumptions to reduce the size of the hardware.

4-79
 Equation· ( 3.> beeoaes

w,.'.:: 1 Z8AI (IT

VIlA
0 C, )
Cz ~

since VVNP. V~f#J(I/P..)

AVH'= A:I'ooo(l/PJ..)
6... • s.,rlP/8~ooo
(7) Wnvup'll: OJn'IOOO\ I B.. (I/~)Z =. Wn~o;dl B}'1;p
~ I/P.. ..v~ r
The change in bulk mociulus a8 a function of pressure and temperature
is given by Figure 4. Adiabatic tangent bulk modulus is considered
to be applicable in this case. A curve as shown by Figure 47 may
be drawn showing the l!ffect of high operating pressures on the
resonant frequency (W'/\.) •

Equation (4) becomes

e,MC).)",
z. C~~

since VVJ(P:: V'3••• -/s;

AYIt P A~..oo ~".
..

and C, and C2 are constants;

(8) bVN' ~ J.oe4 ~: 1

By comparing Equation:3 (7) and (8) l i t can be seen that the effect
of very high operating pressures on the resonant frequency ( Wit )
and damping ( 0 ) is :Ldentical. Figure 47 then also illustrates
the effect on 6 as well as Wit. •

4-80
This is an undesirable trend from 8 design standpoint since it is
always an obJec'cive to keep both the resonant frequency and damping
as high as practical. It may therefore be concluded that unless
some method. is utilized to compensate for these changes, the de-
crease in resorulnt frequency and damping could become a problem
area in the des:Lgn of hydraulic servo systems wi th high operating
pressures.

As the resonant frequency decreases, reducing the amplitude of the

resonant peaks 'by damping or other means becomes a critical item in
the design of a stable servo system.

Several methods are available for improving the damping characteristics

of a hydraulic slervo system. The implementation of these techniques
may be electricsil or hydraulic depending upon the configuration of the
servo system, re!liability considerations, etc. In general, electrical
systems permit greater flexibility in choosing the type and va lues of
compensation to be employed, especially if complex "shaping" is
indicated.

Two examples of methods used to increase the damping around a servo

system are:
Static pressure feedback, ,,~or leakage across the load (the
same, schematically). This method. has the advantage of
simplicity, but introduces position error into the system
and increases power losses. It reduces the actuator time-
constant (increases natural frequency), but also reduces
the steady-state gain.

Dynamic pressure feedback provides damping at the resonant

frequency w:ithout introducing position error, or causing
additional J~er losses. This method may be'accomplished
hydraulically by connecting relatively small accumulators
into each c~rlinder port through restrictors. The accumulator/
restrictor 13ystem must be properly "tuned" to the desired
frequency and sized for the desired load damping. Electrically,
both static and dYnamic pressure feedback is accomplished with
virtually the same hardware: pressure transducers on the
cylinder ports and electrical summing with the valve command.
The only difference is that instead of a static gain in the
feedback path, a "waShout", or frequency-sensitive gain
network is €ldded with the appropriate characteristics.

4-81
Several additional methods are available; flow compensation techniques
are sometimes used in conjunction with the valve design, or applied
across the cylinder external to the valve. Variations of the above
methods of pressure compensation are periodicallY described in the
literature, and different methods of mechanization are available.
See Reference 17 for a more detailed accounting of methods and
techniques.
Although the valve-actuator combination previously discussed plays
a major role in hydraUlic servo systems, it is but one of the control
system elements involved in a total servo system. Any investigation
on the comparative merits of system designed at various pressure
levels must include the characteristics of all of the control system
elements, for example, the pumps, transmission lines, kinematics and
structural deflections. QualitativelY, it may be said that increased
operating pressures will increase the severity of the problem of
attaining satisfactory control system performance. The reduction
in actuator area, in proportion to the increase in operating pressure,
decreases the fluid column spring rate (See Section 4.4.1.3). Higher
pressure drops across control valves may accentuate axial flow
reaction forces and lateral spool-locking forces.
There is little doubt, however, that an acceptable VHF system
can be designed. The system might be very similar to those
in current use, but would. include additional frequency com-
pensating devices. The use of digital type actuators appears
also to be compatible 'with VHP operation. If the fluid under com-
pression could be restricted to "bit_size lt , considerable stiffness
could be regained. The zero null-leakage feature of digital actuation
adds to the stiffness, and also reduces system heat rejection. The
on/Off-type valving should satisfactorilY by-pass any accentuated
non-linearities inherent in very high pressure operation. The
possibility of excessive pressure surging must be'considered in
digital actuation, however, there are several compensating factors
involved as discussed in Section 3.3.

4-82
 J ·r:,
i

J;r+~
,'1.. '

J(~
~~
1111

:'1 .;
>(
f i_;
:) !l! ..,
-
J '"".;
•C
·Ii

S.
:"1
J:

,J
l) ~~

lJ ~

-... N

I
.~..:..,)"...
4.7 Hypothetical System Installation Analysis

4.7.1 Design Factors

The information and pElrformance data presented so far in this

report is of general nature. The data is related to operating
pressure level as an :I.ndependent variable, so that cross-
referencing is simplified during consideration by the designer
of the numerous inter~cting factors present in a given power
system design project. Two basic objectives are implied where
the possible use of h:l.gher operating pressure is to be considered.
These are (1) to reduce the physical size of actuators for use in
smaller installation flpace, and (2) to reduce the flow rate in
large sub-systems.

4.7.1.1 Size Reduction

It has been shown in Section 4.5.5 that as a design objective the
size of an actuator mElY be reduced in diameter by using increased
operating pressure. ~~he advantages gained in size and weight
reduction in this manner are subject to many design trade-offs
that are closely related to the specific application and there-
fore cannot be arbitrl:lrily normalized to a single parameter or
slll811 group of related parameters. However, it is believed that
the broad guide-lines shown in the Figures and Tables of preceding
sections are useful for the system concept evaluations and pre-
liminary design studiE~S.

4.7.1.2 Flow Reduction

In a fluid power system installation it is often 'found that the

power demand of the ll~rgest sub-system is much greater than a07
one of the remaining sub-systems. An example of this condition
may be the in-flight refueling pump drive of "buddy-tanker" air-
craft. The hydraulic system must be designed for this power
level, and it is logical that as long as the largest sub-system
dictates the design p()Wer requirements for the installed system
it is individually responsible not only for its own weight and
space but also for a major portion the weight and space of the
total power generating system. Much weight may be saved by
increasing the operating pressure for large SUb-systems, as dis-
cussed in later sections of this report.

4-84
4.7.1.3 Operating Pressure Range
The pressure level of 20,000 psi has been shown in previous sections
of this report to be well above feasible limits for aircraft system
applications. The most significant limitations on operating pressures
are as follows:

System Func~ Estimated Maximum Notes Report

Qperatin~ Pressure Section

Hydraulic Fluid 12,000 psi III 4.4.2

Pumps 10,000 psi 121 4.5.1

Actuators 10,000 psi III 4.5.5

Control Valves * 121 4.5.2

Tubing 9,500 psi 131 4.4.5

Fittings 30,000 psi 121 4.5.6

Dynamic Seals 10,000 psi 121 4.5.4
Static Seale; 20,000 psi 12/ 4.5.4
Flow Areas 10,000 psi 131 4.4.2

(* 5,000 - 10,000 psi depending on type of valve)

Design Criteria

III Pressure above which the high reduction rate

(i.n size or weight) noticeably decreases.

121 Ma.ximum pressure obtainable without extensive

product development.

131 Pressure at which the greatest reduction is

achieved.

The major components and the hydraulic fluids are seen to be

characteristically limited to a maximum operating pressure of
approximately 10,000 psi, as determined by the general design
criteria noted above. The pressure levels used for analysis in
the remainder of the report are therefore placed in the range of
3000 to 12000 psi where applicable. The 3000 psi level is used
as the reference baseline.
4-85
4.7.2 VHF ApplicatiG~

For the hypothetical Elystam installation it is expedient to select

applicable sub~systemsl for use of very high pressure by an intuitive
approach, using a 3,OClO psi, Type II system schematic layout, and
retaining constant l06d-stroke conditions for the power actuators.
'l'he selected sub-systelJD8 are then analYzed, as applicable, for size,
weight, stiffness, lux'les, dynamics, flow rates and flow control.
An estimate foroptim\ilm. operating pressure level is then determined
for the hypothetical system, each of which is in the 50 HP range.

The candidate systems used. in this analYsis are illustrative of

those in a carrier-boI'n attack airplane. Simplified schematic
diagrams are shown by Figures 48 and 49. Flow rates of the various
utility circuits for nominal 3,000 psi operation are listed in Table
VIII. Also listed are the variations of flow rate arising
from changes in sUb-s;y'stem operating pressure levels. A large number
of utility circuits are catagoricallY eliminated from further con-
sideration at this stage of analYsis because of the minuscule flow
rates developed in thE! circuits at the higher operating pressures.
The difficulty of controlling these flow rates under the VHP high-
gain conditions in selector valves, servo-valves, flow regulators
and restrictors is thE! basis for the rejection of sub-circuits under
line XX in Table VIII.

TABLE VIII

UTILITY SERVICE DESIGN FLOW RATE - GPM.

SUB-SYSTl!M [3000 PSI 6000 PSI 9000 PSI 12000 PSI
EXT REI' EXT REI' EXT REr EXT REI'
SPEED BR.AKES 28.0 22.0 14.0 1.0 9·3 7.3 7·0 5·0
INFLIGHT REFUELING UNIT 24.0
LANDING GEAR 12.0
- 12.0 -
8.2 6.0 4.2
8.0
4.0
-
::S.O
6.0 -
3 ..0 2.0 x
WING FLAPS 5.5 4.2 2.8 2.1 1.8 1.4 - -
LEADING EDGE CAMBni: 5.0 5.0 2.'" 2.5 1.7 - 1.7 -
NOSE GEAR STIFFENING 4.2 - 2.1 - 103 -
- - -
- -
WING FOLD 2.8 2.8 1.4 1.4 --
RAM AIR TURBINE 2.0 - - - - - -
WHEEL BRAlC&S 2.0 - - - - - - -
AIRCOO'RESSOR 1.6 - - - - - - -
ARRESTING HOOK 1.'1 - - - - - - -
NOSE WHEEL STEERING, 1.1 1.1 - - - - - -
TAIL FOLD ·7 .7 - - - - - -
VARIABLE INLEr DUC~~ .1 .1
x
- - - - - -
EXT - EX:TEND
REr - Rl!1.L'RACT
4-86
 PalER
SYSTEM

,I'" 1"\
SPEED BRA.KE5
(2 PRIM., 2 AUX. ACTUATORS)
,I'" ~
INFLIGHT REFUELING SYSTlM
(1 MOTOR)
/~ 1"\ LANDING GEAR
(3 PRIM., 12 AUX. ACTUATORS)
,I" :"\
LEADING EDGE CHAMBER
(4 MOTORS)
I~

" WING FLAPS

(2 ACTUATORS)
I~ ""\
NOSE GEAR STIFFENING
(1 ACTUATOR)
,~
""\ WING FOW
(2 PRIM., 4 AUX. ACTUATORS)
I~ ""\
RAM AIR WRBINE
(1 ACTUATOR)
,'" ""\ WHEEL BRAKES

"
1'-
AIR COMPRESSOR
(1 MOTOR)

"
1'-
ARRFSTING HOOK
(1 ACTUATOR)
/ ... 1"\
NOSE GEAR STEERING
(1 ACTUATOR)
/ ... "\
TAIL FOW
(1 PRIM., 2 AUX. ACTUATORS)
/" "\
VARIABLE INLEl' DUCT
(2 ACTUATORS)

FIGURE 48 HYPOTHEI'ICAL UTILITY SYST:EM

4-87
 POWER
SYSTFM

R ]~

I' 1'\
LATERAL CONTROL
SUBSYSTEM
I I
r t"'\
LONGITUDINAL CONTROL
SUBSYSTEM

I' t"\
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL
SUBSYSTEM

FIGURE 49 nYPOTHNrICAL FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

4-88
4.7.3 Utility System Circuits
Based on the above tabulation, the utility circuits most applicable
for high pressure operation are found to be 1) the Speed Brakes,
2) Landing Gear and 3) In-flight Refueling Unit. In order to relate
the results with practical system design problems, the three sub-
systems to be arlalyzed are based on data from 3000 psi Type II
systems that ha,re reached flight status.

4.7.3.1 S~eed Brake Circuit

The schematic arrangement of this utility circuit is shown in
Figure 50, and ~IS one of the heavily loaded circuits, is a good
candidate for VHP power application. The speed brake panel is
faired into the fuselage bottom surface and is extended by two
large actuators ..

4.7.3.1.1 Restrictors
Opening speed is controlled by a .156 diameter restrictor in the
common "door opEm" line from the control valve. The orifice diameter
would decrease EIS follows with increased pressures: .156/3000 psi,
.100/6000 psi, .,090/9000 psi, and .070/12000 psi.
4.7.3.1.2 Control Valve

The installed control valve incorporates a spool and sleeve assembly

with a full-open port area of .2 square inches. The orifice pressure
drop through the valve ports is a design controlled variable of
small magnitude and, if designed to a constant ratio of total system
pressure, will vary inversely and proportionately with the pressure
increments under consideration. On this basis the spool diameter
and axial movememt could be fixed at the following values:

Supply Pressure Port ~rea Spool Diameter Axial Movement

(psi) (in ) (inches) (inches)

3000 .2 .562 .115

6000 .1 .375 .061
9000 .06 .312 .078
12000 .05 .250 .065

4-89
 ~
SP~ B~AK1i
C NTROL
VALVE

[U

SPEED BRAKE:
ACTUATOR (~~) A
~

SPEED BRAKE:
LOCK ACTUATOR (2

FIGURE 50 SPEED BRAKE CIRCUIT

4-90
4.7.3.1.3 ~~tor Proportions
Since the actuatiors are loaded in compression, the piston diameters
are sized by sYEltem pressure (actuator stalled) and full piston area.
The installed ac:tuators have a bore and stroke of 4. 5 inches and 15
inches respectiyely. The piston diameter will decrease as follows
with increased :pressures: 4.5/3000 psi, 3.2/6000 psi, 2.6/9000 psi and
2.25/12000 psi. The piston rod diameter of the installed actuator is
2.0 inches, whic:h has been determined by standard design procedure.
Using this pistcm rod size for the list of actuators the retraction
net area appears: to be ample on all but the last (12,000 psi) design.
An upper operat:1.ng pressure limit could therefore be used, although
it is obvious tt~t an improved installation is attainable with a
shorter actuator stroke and moment arm.

The door lock actuators are of such small size that increased operating
pressure is not justified. Since only two are involved, it is more
feasible to use mechanical linkage actuation for locking with the
higher pressure systems.

4.7.3.1.4 Speeo. Brake Hydraulic Stiffness

The stiffness of the speed brake system was calculated using the
following basic formula:
2
Stiffness = A Be
V

lirhere: A = actuator piston area

Be = effective system bulk modulus

V = volume of fluid
The compliance V/B e of each section of the system was determined and
combined and use!d in the stiffness formula. The calculation details
are presented in Appendix Q.

System Pres,sure (psi) System Stiffness (lb/in. x 10-4 )

3000 5.06
6000 2.56
9000 1.638
12000 1.093

4-91
It is quite apparent that the stiffness of the system decreases
appreciably at higher pressure, however, this is based on w1de-open
control valve operation and uses all the system compliances back
to the pump. With the control valve closed, the stiffness at the
higher pressures would be considerably higher since much of the
system volume is eliminated. In this system, the closed-valve
stiffness would be approximately 1-1/2 times the open-valve stiff-
ness.

The lower stiffnesses at the higher pressure is probably adequate

for this type of system. However, if greater stiffness is required,
a reduction in the trapped fluid volume is necessary. This might
be accomplished through design by:

a) Using actuator/linkage combinat~ons to obtain a more

favorable load stroke relationship.

b) Locating the sub-system control valve as close as

possible to the actuator, and installing a check valve
in the supply Line.

c) Sequencing sub-system operation to avoid simultaneous

operation with other sub-systems.

Based on closed valve conditions, the calculated stif~ness at

9000 psi pressure level would be 24,000 Ib/inch which is considered
to be adequate for this service. At higher pressure the stiffness
would be marginal.

4.7.3.1.5 Speed Brake Natural Frequency

The speed brake circuit was analyzed to determine the effect on the
natural frequency of the pressure wave form as a function of supply
pressure. Due to the complexity of the analysis taking all branch
lines of the system into acctount, it was assumed that an infinite
hydraulic "bus" existed at the control valve. The control valve
characteristics were also ignored since Reference 12 indicates that
the natural frequency of this type of system is relatively indepen-
dent of the valve parameters. The lines involved were analyzed as
compliant springs made up of fluid and line expansion. An addi-
tional frequency generator, the tuned resonant fluid column, was
not included in this analysis. For short lengths of tubing, the
standing wave frequencies are high enough to neglect in most systems
analysis.

4-92
The following frequencies were obtained using the lumped parameter
concept developed by Reference 12. The calculation details are
shown in Append:i.x R.

System Pres,sure (psi) Natural Frequency CPS

CPS Percent Change

3000 fl = 126.5 0
f2 = 128.1 0
f3 = 124.8 0

6000 fl = 95.8 - 24
f2 = 114.2 - 11
f = 131.0 + 5
3
9000 fl = 83.2 - 34
f2 = 108.8 - 15
f3 = 135.8 + 9
12000 fl = 73.8 - 41
f 2 = 115.6 - 10
f = 139·5 +12
3

As evidenced by the above table, complex frequencies are present in

the system. This is attributed to the number of branch lines in the
system. Additional frequencies can be expected as the number of
branch lines is increased. The two lowest frequencies obtained
(fl and f2) decreased with increased pressure and the highest
frequency (f 3 ) increased with increasing pressures. The increase
in f2 between 9000 and 12000 psi is the result of an increase in
tube inside diameter. To fully evaluate the significance of the
natural frequency variations, the damping at each natural frequency
would have to be determined. This creates a complex analytical
problem and is considered to be beyond the scope of this report.
However, it can lbe assumed that for this type of air loaded system,
sufficient damping is normally available to prohibit sustained os-
cillations in the range of frequencies obtainild. The problem be-
comes more acute in a large mass loaded system where the damping of
the load is inherently low and the natural frequency can be expected
to be lower due to the effect of increased load inductance.

4-93
The natural frequency of the system could be expected to be lower
if the upstream dynalltLcs were included in the analysis. During_.
tests reported by RefE~rence 12, unstable pump performance was .
observed under certain flow conditions and system configurations.
This unstable perfonw,nce was characterized by low frequency
oscillations (30 CPS or less), and was attributed to the effect of
the pump unloading de1'ice on the frequency response characteristics
of the sytem. The higher the system natural frequency with respect
to the pump response frequency, the less likely that unstable pump
operation will occur.

Although two of the mltural frequencies decreased with increased

pressure, no serious problem is expected. However, if reduced
natural frequencies de> create stability problems, several corrective
measures can be taken::

1. Provide additional artificial load damping.

2. A trade-off [>etween actuator size and natural frequency may
be necessary.. Close examination of the characteristic
equation of i;he transfer function will disclose that the
reduced natural frequency is not a direct result of de-
creased actUfltor piston area, i.e., decreased actuator
capacitance. In fact, increased pressure with constant
system volumE~ results in increased natural frequency due
to favorable changes.

3. Decreasing the number of branch lines in the system. Tests

conducted by Reference 12 indicates that increased number
of branch lines result in lower natural frequencies.

4. Sequencing SUb-system operation to shut off the other

systems during operation of the selected system.

4-94
4.7.3.2 Landing Gear Circuit
·The schematic ,arrangement for this utility circuit is shown in
Figure 51. Two solenoid control valves mounted on a common manifold
are used to allow electrical sequencing of gear retraction and door
operation. Very little power is required for the door SUb-circuit.
For example, one door lock actuator as now designed for 3000 psi
service, has a piston diameter of .625 inches and a stroke of 1.25
inches. The rE~strictor orifice diameter is .013 inc hes • At an
operating pressure of 6000 psi , the piston diameter and restrictor
orifice diameters for this unit would be .438 inches and .008 inches
respectively, llhich are much below practical machining size. Because
of this general problem, the door SUb-circuits are not applicable
for VHF system application.

Transient flow rate in the gear retraction SUb-circuit reaches

ten gpm and is controlled by a separate solenoid valve as noted
above. The lock actuators are in parallel with the primary actuators
and operate in proper sequence by use of pressure differentials.
Since they are approaching minimum practical size at 6000 psi opera-
tion, this is St limiting design pressure for the gear actuation
sub-circuit. R:etraction and extension speeds for the landing gear
are controlled by two restrictors. The main gear restrictor orifice
diameter would decrease as follows in response to increased design
pressure: .056/3000 psi, .040/6000 psi, .031/9000 psi, and .025/
12000 psi. The nose gear restrictor diameter varies as follows:
.048, .035, .030, and .023 respectively. None of these restrictor
sizes prevent use of higher operating pressures.

The effect of increased pressure on actuator sizes is as follows:

3000 psi 6000 psi

Main gear 2.375 dia 1.875 dia
Nose gear 2.000 dia 1.438 dia
Main gear uplock .812 .562
Main gear downlo'ck .875 .625
Nose gear uplock 1.125 .812
Nose gear downlock .750 .532
From a fabricaUon standpoint, it is not feasible to further reduce
the sizes of the lock actuators, therefore, 6000 psi would be the
limiting pressure for the landing gear utility circuit.

4-95
 - LANDING GEAR
CONTROL VALVE

PRIORITY
VALVE

NOSE GEAR NOSE GEAR DOOR

ACTUATOR LOCK ACTUATOR

NOSE GEAR DOWN NOSE GEAR DOOR

LOCK ACTUATOR AC'IUATOR

NOSE GEAR UP MAIN GEAR DOOR

LOCK ACTUATOR ACTUATOR (2)

MAIN GEAR MAIN GEAR DOOR

ACTUATOR (2) ~ ~LOCK~TUATOR(~

MAIN GEAR UP
LOCK ACTUATOR (2
1=======+==41
,
• I

MAIN GEAR DOWN

LOCK AC'lUATOR (2
.I--~====""'"

FIGURE 51 LANDING GEAR CIRCUIT

4-96
4 .7.3. 3 In-fl:lght Refueling Circuit

The schematic arrangement of this utility circuit is shown in

Figure 52. The production version of the ~quipment consists of
auxiliary fuel c:ells, fuel transfer equipment (hydraulically
driven reel, hoEle and drogue) and hydraulically driven fuel
transfer pump. The integrated equipment assembly is carried in
the bomb bay, attached to the airplane systems by Q.D. fittings
and is carried Clnly on special missions. Its power demand from
the hydraulic s;)I'stem reaches 24 gpm during fuel transfer to the
receiving airplslne. This utility circuit is easily adapted to
VHF operation 'bercause its load is highly damped, response require-
ments are nomine,l and motors, rather than actuators, used for the
system output.

The flow to the motor is modulated by a valve such that fuel

transfer pressure is maintained constant regardless of fuel
transfer rate. Oil flow to the reel motor is intermittent.
Peak flow rates are relatively low, not concurrent with fuel pump
flow and are not considered to be a critical VHF design requirement.

The fuel pump and reel shut-off valves are identical in port size
to the speed brake valve, and will not be a limiting factor from
the standpoint of machinability.

The maximum and relatively steady flow rate for the fuel pump drive
motor would be 8 gpm at 9000 psi operating pressure which is an
acceptable operating condition for this specific utility circuit.

4-97
 ___________ J~ELTANK
r- --I FUEL LINE
II WITEr. ITlCI\1\Ta.....
= I N'TTRT. "Oo.....aa ~;----------.,.r
I PUMP :4'HYD:A:&U r SENSINGUOL'UNE "
I MOTOR DRIVEN
HYD. FLOW REFUELING
I CONTROL VALVE PACKAGE
I R M SOL. OPERe
+:-
I I SHUT-OFF
'g VALVE SOL. OPERe
I SHUT-OFF
PRIORITY VALVE VALVE
I
I DRIVEN
.
I REEL
.......M OTOR/
L-- __ _ _ ---.J

R P
--
FIGURE 52 INFLIGHT REFUELING CIRCUIT
4.7.4 Flight Control System Circuits
The purpose of this discussion is to briefly examine the effects of
higher operating pressure on a flight control system, Figure 49.

The hypothetical flight control system. under consideration is used

on a supersonic airplane and is therefore a full power rather than
a booster type. Slide type selector valves are incorporated
directly in the actuator bodies to reduce trapped fluid volume to
a minimum for increased hydraulic stiffness. These valves are
mechanically operated through linkages which in turn are operated
by master actuators. The master actuators are dual input, servo
type, and receive both electrical and mechanical signals from
several sources as functions of pilot inputs and airframe reactions.
The master actuators operate at ~500 psi since they function only
as generators of high resolution mechanical signals of low force
level. These are shown in Figure 54.

4.7.4.1 Flow Rates

The flow rates required at various operating pressure levels are as
folloWS:

Sub-circUit 3000 6000 .9000 12000

Lateral 8 Actuators (gpm) 16 8 5.6 4.0
Control per actuator (gpm) 2.0 1.0 .7 .5
Longitudinal 2 Actuators (gpm) 21.0 10·5 7.0 5.0
Control per actuator (gpm) 10·5 5·2 3·5 2.6
Directional l Actuator (gpm) 8.0 4.0 2.6 2.0
Control

It will be noted that although the total flow rate in the lateral-
control sub-circuit is relatively high the rate per actuator is low.
At 6000 psi operlating pressure this rate would be 1.0 gpm, and is
considered to be the minimum allowable for individual actuator con-
trol and for indc3xing the actuators attached to the same aerodYnamic
control-surface 13tructure.

4-99
Neither of the other sub-circuits would be critical for flow-rate
control up to operating pressures of 9000 psi. Actuators are of
tandem configuration lmd accept power from two hydraulic systems,
each system carrying l::>ne-half of the applied load. These actuators
are structurally adaptable for higher pressure operation since the
through-rod design reduces column bending tendencies • Furthermore,
the only effect of higher operating pressures in this case would be
to reduce the diameter of the pistons.

4.7.4.2 System Stiffness

Although stiffness de,creases proportionally as operating pressure

is increased, (Section 4.4.1.3), its effects can be counteracted in
a servo control system by feedback-loop characteristics that are
designed into the system. Nevertheless any large loss of inherent
stiffness tends to complicate the design problem and is a limiting
factor on a design operating pressure that would otherwise be
acceptable.

System stiffness is fundamentally involved in considerations of

system dynamic reactions such as response and stability. In view
of the above, no exhaustive analysis of these areas was advisable
for the hypothetical flight control system. A preliminary analysis
indicates that the lateral-control circuit would be suitable for a
pressure level of 6000 psi in view of its highly damped load.
However, both the horizontal and directional systems would be more
critical in this respect since inertia forces are more predominant.
This condition would require additional damping characteristics in
the control loops. The answers to these problems require com-
puteriZed studies and laboratory testing of elementary high pressure
flight control equipment under system conditions to generate basic
design data.

4-100
 VHF P01ler Generating Systems

As discussed in :3ection 4.1.3.1, relatively few circuits in the

hypothetical sys"tem are adaptable for VHF type power. In general,
it was found tha"t the power levels in most of the circuits were so
low that the sizc!:ts of many components were unreasonably small.
These circuits aiS a class must be operated at 3000 psi pressure.

4.1.5.1 Press~re Levels

The operating prc!tssures chosen for the applicable VHP circuits

were:

Speed Brake Circuit 6000 psi

Landing Gl:!ar Circuit 6000 psi
In-flight Refueling Circuit 9000 psi
Lateral Flight COntrol Circuit 6000 psi
Longitudinal Flight COntrol Circuit 6000 psi
Directionl!l Flight Control Circuit 6000 psi

Since the in-flight refueling duty is non-concurrent with the other

three duties, it 'tfould not add to system design flow and could be
operated at 6000 psi pressure. This would allow the use of only
two operating prE~ssure levels and would simplify the overall design
of the system.

4.1.5.2 Power Circuit Concepts

Where two operat:lng pressure levels are required the choice of a

circuit confi~ntion depends in many respects on the specific
airplane installntion, and a detailed analysis of the many approaches
is considered to be outside the scope of this study. General
approaches to thjLs problem are shown by block diagrams in Figure 53.

Figure 53a
A single high pressure pump is used which includes a dual
range compensator. The pump operates in the low pressure
range for aJ_l applicable circuits. When a high pressure
circuit is flelected, the pump compensator shifts to high
pressure range operation.

Advantages~. The power circuit remains at low pressure

level eXcE~t on demand, thus reducing stress levels,
leakage and heating. Design principles are current
practice.

4-101
 L.P.
CIRCUITS

(8)

L.P.
CIRCUITS

TO 1ST STAGE

(b)

PREBSURE ~ ......j

INCREASER

SERVO VALVE
L.P.
CIRCUITS
TO 1ST STAGE
(c)
-------

PREBSURE L.P.
REDUCER CIRCUITS

(d)

FIGURE 53 Power Circuit Configurations

4-102
 Disadvan1~.ges. The total system, including sUb-eircuits,
must be (iesigned for the higher pressure level. Demand
signal c:lrcuits are required. Step pressure increases
affect s~rstem stability, and also create pressure surges.

Figure 53b
Separate pumps are used for low pressure and high pressure
circuits.

AdvantagE:!. More flexible for matching to system require-

ments. If a single reservoir is used, low pressure fluid
may be rc)uted to servo-valve first stages for improved
flapper ()peration and lower null leakage losses.

Disadvantages. Two complete circuits required to the pump

installation area.

Figure 53c
A single lc~ pressure pump is used in conjunction with a
pressure ir~re8ser for selected high pressure circuits.
The pressure increaser unit is a simplified motor/pump
unit which uses differential piston areas to increase
pressure. For example, 3000 psi at 2 gpm input furnishes
6000 psi at. 1 gpm output.

Advantage~s•A major part of the system remains at the

lower pressure level. Low pressure fluid may· be routed
to servo-valve first stages for improved flapper operation
and lower null leakage losses. A different fluid may be
used in the high pressure circuits.

Disadvantages. The pressure increaser and circuitry weight

is not a trade-off item, unless the downstream circuit is
relatively large. Additional circuitry required to supply
fluid to the pressure increaser pumping element. The
pressure increaser may disturb the dynamic stability of
servo-systems.

4-103
 Figure 53d

A single high px'essure pum,p is used. for the heavy-load circuits.

A pressure red.uc:er unit powered by the high pressure circuit
is used. for the light-load circuits. The pressure reducer is
a simplified motor/pump unit which uses differential piston
areas to reduce pressure. For example, 2 gpm at 6000 psi input
furnishes 4 gpm at 3000 psi output.

Advantages. F'ressure is reduced without excessive loss

of energy as i.n orifice type pressure reducers, therefore,
system heating is reduced. Reducer unit location is
flexible since: drive shaft power is not used. Low pressure
circuits cannolt be over-pressurized by failure of unit.
This allows Ulil,e of lower design loads in downstream systems
thus saving we:ight. A different fluid may be used in the
low pressure circuit.

Disadvantages.Additional circuitry is required to supply

fluid to the :pressure reducer pumping element and this
may require a separate reservoir. However, a single
reservoir may be used for both the system pump and the
pressure reducer and still maintain system separation.
The pressure reducer may disturb the dynamic stability
of servo-systems. .

4.7.5.3 Power Appli,cation

Anyone of the power circuits shown in Figure 53 would be acceptable

for use in the hypothetical system, the final choice being dependent
on a detailed analysi.s of the power level and duty cyles of the major
utility circuits. In a 50 HP production installation of current design
these elementary powell' circuits would be integrated into a redundant
arrangement for system reliability and would also include flight control
circuits. The block diagram, Figure 54, illustrates the use of two
parallel integrated ]iOW'er systems in which two, Figure 53d, pressure
reducers are used. :Power is ge~erated from the basic 6000 psi pressure
level for two additiolnal pressure levels, at 3000 and 1500 psi. This
arrangement provides much fleXibility for optimizing actuator pro-
portion and therefore: reducing sub-circuit weight. Additional
circuitry is involved" but whether or not a penalty would result is
a function of detail design in the specific installation.

4-104
 SPED> 6000 PSI
- - - - " . CIRCUITS
BRA.KE

LANDING
GEAR

INFLIGHT
REFUELING

2:1 3000 PSI

PRmSURE UTILITY
REDUCER CIRCUITS

ISOLATION
VALVE
SYSTEM
NO. 1
(6000 PSI) PRIORITY
VALVE

T. CONTRO .C. MASTER

UAt POWER ACTUATORS
CIRCUITS
___ S. V. 1ST STAGES
.- (REF. S:ex=T•
4.5.2)
4:1
PRESSURE 1500 PSI
. UTILITY
REDUCER CIRCUITS
SYSTEM
NO.2
(6000 PSI) LT. CONTRO
INGLE PATH
CIRCUITS

FIGURE 54 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF HYPOTHEI'ICAL SYSTEM POWER FLOW

4-105
4.7.6 S1!tem Weight and Installation Space Estimates

Weight estimates for 1ihe hypothetical system are shown on Table IX.
These estimates cover only those cireuits that are affected by the
6000 psi pressure leVEtl, rather than the complete system installa-
tion. A comparison ifI made with system weights at 3000 psi, the
purpose being to show trends rather than absolute value for this
parameter. The weigh1is of components such as pumps, motors, valves
and actuators, as sh~m in Figures 50, 51 and 52, were obtained from
3000 psi system equipalent specifications. Line sizes and weights
for the high pressure system were determined from Figures 33 and
34. Fittings and res1irictors were included in the line weights.
The actuator weights for the high pressure· system were determined
from Figure 45 by intElrpolation. A general summary of results is
as follows:

3000 psi 6000 psi

Speed b rake Sl (lbs) 96 78
Landing gear (lbs) 47 44
In-flight rElfueling (lba) 54 52
Power section (lbs) 102 ...IL
Total wej.ght (lbs) 299 251

.It may be concluded from the above tabulation that a SUbstantial

weight saving can be realized in utility systems of this general
type by increasing thEl operating pressure from 3000 psi to 6000 psi,
and that the most productive components in this respect are reservoirs,
actuators and tubing. Since the power levels of individual circuits
in this system were relatively lOW, the applications for VHP were
limited. In larger s~rstems it may be expected that a proportionately
larger weight saving would be possible. In view of the close relation-
ship between component weight and volume a comparative reduction of
installation space is also possible.

4-106
 TOLl JX

WEIGH'J.'S 0., HYPO'1'HE'l'ICAL U'l'ILI'l'Y SYSTIM AND CCJ4POIUXrs

Component We:1ghts
elbs) Total References
Speed Brake (3000 PSI) Figure 50
1 Control Valve (Solenoid) 5.40
2 Main Actuators 85·40 Steel Construction
2 Lock Actuators See Note (1) below used in all large
Pressure Lines ,F:lttings actuators.
Restrictors and Fluid
O.D. I.D. Total
(in) (in) Length(in)
.750 •652 2!~ 1.12 All tubes MIL-T-
.625 .527 ~) 3·48 6845B type steel
.500 .430 ~) 1.60 for all pressures
6.20 throught this table
Total Weight - - - - - - - - - -95·70
NOTE: (1) No gain realized by going to very high pressure for
thElse; so overcenter lock is used with the higher
opElrating pressures. The 3000 psi hydraulic locks
anOl the mechanical locks are considered to be equal
in weight and are not listed hereafter.
Speed Brake (6000 psi)

lControl Valve
2 Main Actuators Figure 45
Pressure Lines,Fittings
Restrictors and fluid Figure 33
(Weights based on -20'7
laminar flow design
conditions and MIL-H-5606
for all cases in this Table
Total Weight - -- - 77.84
Landing Ge~r (3000 psi) Figure 51
1 Control Valve 8.20
2 Main Gear Actuators 14.94
1 Nose Gear Actuator 5·25
4 Gear Lock Actuators 4.48
1 Priority Valve .60
Pressure Lines, F:ittings
Restrictors and Fl1il.id
O.D. I.D. Total
(in) (in) Length(in)
.500 .430 4130 8.00
·375 .319 192 2.38
.250 /210 4~30 2.88
13.22
TOtal Weight - - - - - - - - -46.69

4-107
 '.rOLl IX
(continued)

Component Weights
-<!.bs) Total bf'erences
Landing Gear (6000 psj~

1 Control Valve 8.20

2 Main Gear Actuators 11.38 Figure 45
1 Nose Gear Actuator 4.00 Figure 45
4 Gear Lock Actuators 4.48 Figure 45
1 Priority Valve .60
Pressure Lines, FittiIlgS
Restrictors and Fluid 15.84
Total Weight - 44.50

In-flight Refueling (;~OOO psi) Figure 52

1 Fuel Pump Motor 6.00 See Note (2) below
1 Reel Motor 7.00 See Note (2) below
2 Valves 2·50 See Note (2) below
Pressure Lines,Fittings
and Fluid
O.D. I.D. 'fatal
(in) (in) Length(in)
.750 .652 120 5.24
.625 .527 120 4.09
·375 ·319 240 2.89
.250 .210 240 2.80
15.02
Return Lines,Fittings
and Fluid
1.000 .960 120 5·09
.750 .710 120 3.26
.500 .460 240 3.49
.375 .355 240 2.30
14:'14
Total Weight - - - - - - - - - 54.66
NOTE:(2)The weight of the hydrualic motors are dependent, to a
great extent, on bearing loads which are the same for all
pressures, hemce, the motor weights are considered the same.
Also, 8S in other circuitsJthe valve weights are considered
constant over the pressure range being investigated.
Inflight Refueling (6000 psi)
1 Fuel Pump Motor 16.00 See Note (2)
1 Reel Motor 7·00 See Note (2)
2 Valves 2·50 See Note (2)
Pressure Lines, Fittings
and Fluid 18.01 Figure 33
Return Lines,Fittings
and Fluid 8.48 Figure 34
Total Weight - - - - - - - 51·99

4-108
 ( TABLE 1X
(Continued)

Component Weights
(lbs) Total References

Power System (3Q.00 psi)

2 Pumps 24.00
1 Reservoir, Incl. Fluid 52.00
Pump Inlet Line,Fittings
and Fluid Figure 34
O.D. I.D. ~Dtal
(in) (in) Length (in)
1.00 .960 50 2.12
Pressure Lines,Fittings
and Fluid Figure 33
.150 .652 108 4.10
.625 .521 2)4-0 8.24
12.94
Return Lines,Fittings
and Fluid Figure 34
1.000 .960 108 4.58
. 150 . 110 2J.j.0 ~
l~
Total Weight - - - - - - - - 101.02

Power System (6000 psi)

2 pumps 24.00
1 Reservoir, Incl Fluid 26.00
1 Air/Oil Cooler 2·50
Pump Inlet Line, Fittings
and Fluid 2.54
Pressure Lines, :E~ittings
and Fluid 15.62
Return Lines, Fittings
and Fluid 6.58
Total Weight. - - - - - - - - -

4-109
 System Operatiion

4.7.7.2 Temperature Level

For several reasons, the operating temperature in the hypothetical

system would be higher unless cooling equipment is included in the
reservoir or pump suction line. The volume flow of fluid required
to transmit power at a given rate will be inversely proportional
to the operating pressure level as discussed in Section 4.3. The
total system fluid volume, including the reservoir contents, is
approximately proportional to the total flow rate. Not only is
the heat capacity of the fluid and structure reduced in this manner
but the radiating areas of the system components are aiso reduced.
Somewhat more heat is generated as a function of increased leakage
and viscous pressure drop in the lines and component passages as
discussed in Section 4.4.5. In general, the VHF hydraulic system
reacts in a manner similar to any other high density, heavily loaded
mechanism, and should be cooled by auxilliary means. The higher
operating temperature is a result of compact arrangement rather
than lower efficiency :power transmission, and for this reason the
heat transfer capacity and the cooler enveloJ;2would be of nominal
size.

The VHF system would react more quickly to the heat rejection from
malfunctioning components since less heat sink capacity is available.
Examples of this condi'tion are worn pumps and leaking valves. Loss
of fluid must be prevented because of the relatively small amount
carried in the system.

These operating condit:ions will require more careful monitoring of

the installed system both in flight and on the ground. Operating
temperature level would be a sensitive and reliable indicator for
simplifying this proceiure.

4-110
The personal safety of mechanics and other personnel in the
vicinity of an ctperating VHF system is not expected to be
endangered if n(ilrmal precautions are taken during check-out and
testing proceduz·es. The mechanical outputs of the system are of
the same power l.evel as standard systems in terms of velocity and
force. Although the working fluid is at a higher pressure, the
flow rate and q\ll.8ntity are proportionally smaller. The emission
velocity of flu1,d from a cracked tube or leaking fitting would be
greater but whether it is more inJurious than 3000 psi fluid is
doubtful. The u.se of air type accumulators at high pressures would
be dangerous, however, these components are functionally not suit-
able for the high pressure circuits of VHF systems because of
unfavorable spring rate.

4.7.7.4 Testing EqUipment

Components of hydraulic ground test carts must be designed to the

seme requirements as the aircraft components. Two of the most
significant areas will be filtration and heat removal. The finer
filtration in the aircraft systems and the smaller working clearances
in the test cart pumps will require 3-5 micron filters. Much atten-
tion must be given to filter system integrity and filter maintenance
as a routine procedure. The lack of airflow around system components
and lines during check-out will require larger heat exchangers to
sub-cool the tes't cart output fluid.

4.7.7.5 Endurance Life and Reliability

The endurance life of a fluid power system is related to the cyclic

stress variations in structural material and the bearing conditions
of moving parts. As a function of increased operating pressure,
the piston dieme'ters of pumps, motors and actuators are reduced;
but the loads on these elements remain constant since system power
level remains constant as a design requirement. The unit bearing
pressures there~)re normally increase between the cylinders and
pistons. Accord:lng to the various pump manufacturers consulted,
this is not expe(::ted to be a critical service problem at pump output
pressures below 10,000 psi. Other pump bearing loads are practically
unaffected by oU1~put pressure. Actuator design is primarily affected
by column loading requirements and these tend to generate bearing
areas proportiOnlll to system pressure. Very few methods are presently

4-111
available for reducinE~ the stre.. levels and wear forces imposed
on dynamic seals by system pressure. If pressure is increased,
seal life is likely tel be shortened. Certain design approaches
have been discussed in Section 4.5 that are applicable to the
endurance life probleDl. Recent progress in metallic seal designs
promise to reduce high pressure leakage to an extent that actuator
piston applications would not leak excessively and would have
satisfactory endurancEI life. The problem of valve lap wear will
tend to increase because of higher flow velocities at near zero
port opening. This sl)ecific problem will require clean fluid to
avoid erosion effects ..

Fluid stresses will bE' greater because of "wire-drawing" through

valve laps, partiCUlarly in servo valves. This will require closer
monitoring of fluid ccmdition, and more frequent replacement may be
required.

These problems are strictly a function of increased operating

pressure, but are not considered to be critical at nominally in-
creased levels. The ondurance life of the installed system is
expected to react in ~lccordance with the above operating conditions
and should be respondve to design control.

System reliability is also expected to respond to design control

and to be equivalent 1.0 present systems after development of
components is completE'.

4-112
 Monsanto Relsearch Corporation, The Bulk Modulus of Liquids,
HSD-TDR-62-995, for AF Materials Laboratory, Wright-Patterson
Air Force BUBe, Ohio, May 1963. Unclassified

2. L. H. Smith;, R. L. Peeler and L. H. Bernd "Hydraulic Fluid Bulk

Modulus - Its Effect on System Performance and Techniques for
Physical Meflsurement" (Proceedings of the 16th National Conference
on IndustriEll Hydraulics, 1960). Unclassified

3. PennsylvaniEI State University, Fluids,Lubricants, Fuels and Related

Materials, 'by Klaus, Fenske and Tewksbury, WADD TR60::a9B, Part III,
February 1963. Unclassified

4. Midwest ReSElarch Institute, Isothermal Secant and Tangent Bulk

ModuluS of Selected HydraUlic - Type Fluids to 750°F and 10,000 psig,
ASD-TDR-63-539, Kansas City, Missouri, for AF Material Laboratory,
Wright Patte!rson Air Force Base, Ohio, July 1963. Unclassified

5. Seaton - Wilson Manufacturing Co., Inc., The Effects of Air on

Hydraulic Control Systems, by V. G. Majorien. Unclassified

6. California Chemical Company, Oronite High Temperature Hydraulic

Fluids. Unclassified

7· Celanese Chemical Company, Cellulube Hydraulic Fluid Booklet, 1961.

8. P. G. Exline, "Leakage in Capillary Seals of Hydraulic Valves and

Pumps", ~uct Engineering, April 1946. Unclassified

9· R. E. Hatton, Introduction to Hydraulic Fluids, Reinhold Publishing

Corp., 1962. Unclassified

10. Pennsylvania State University, Fluids, Lubricants, Fuels and Related

Materials, b;f M. R. Fenske, PRL 5.8, September 1953. Unclassified

11. North AmeriCian Aviation, Inc., Investigation of the Fundamental

Characterist:lcs of High Performance Hydraulic Systems, by James F.
Campbell, USAF TR5997, June 1950. Unclassified
5-1
 RirlRmcm·
(continued)

12. North American AV:l.ation, Inc., Investigation of Pressure Surges in

Aircraft Hydraulic! Systems, by E. A. Housel, WADC TR52-37.
Restricted

13. R. S. Roark, I1ForULulas For Stress and Strain" McGraw-Hill, 1943.

Unclassified

14. General Electric Co., Study of Liquid Metal NaK-77 for Application
in Flight Control Systems, ASD-TDR-62-597, Johnson City, N.J.
Unclassified

15. Oakridge National Laboratory, Liquid Metals Handbook, Second

Edition, by R. N. Lyons, NAVEx:OS-P-733, January 1964, Unclassified

16. F. N. Deane, I1NewBydraulic Fluid: Shear Stability Up, Contamination

Down l1 , Hydraulics ,and Pneumatics, October 1964, pp. 130-133.
Unclassified

l7. J. Blackburn, G. Reethof and J. S. Shearer, ed., Fluid Power

Control, Technologr Press of M.I.T. and John Wiley &Sons, Inc.,
1960. Unclassifieli

18. MBA Research Corpo:ration, Multicomponent Alkali Metal Alloys,

AFAPL-TR-65-73, for Air Force Aero PropUlsion Laboratory, Wright
Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, JulY 1965. Unclassified

19. J. G. Truxal, ~rol Engineer's Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1958.

Unclassified

20. Franzle, "Correcting Servo System Instability" !W"draulics and

Pneumatics, June 1962. Unclassified

21. North American Avi~ltion, Inc. Theoretical Analysis of VHF Fluid

Power System, Quarterly Progress Reports, No's. 1 through 5,
Contract NOw 65-0567-d,Columbus, Ohio, dated 27 September 1965,
17 December 1965, 16 March 1966, 16 June 1966 and 16 September 1966.
5-2
 AlP_IX A

THE APPLICATION OF LIQUID METALS

AS POWER TRANSMISSION FLUIDS

By R. C. KUMPITSCH
and
J. R. GRANAN
Armament and Control Section. light Military Electronics Depart_t
, 'General Electric CompollY, Schenectady, New YDrk

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
The conl~ept of controlling an aircraft with a flying solder pot seems rather
far-fetched, but actually it is a rather practical approach to a very :real prob-
lem. If 'we substitute liquid metal for the solder and a properly designed hy-
draulic sYlstem for the solder pot, we will have come a long way in solving
one of today's critical control problems - continuous high-temperature
operation. ,
Weare all familiar with the relation between Mach number and tempera-
ture. When you combine high Mach number with a guided flight time of
hours or even days, the control problem becomes formidable.
There hi a tremendous amount of effort being spent in the development of
organic and inorganic hydraulic fluids, and the advances are highly encourag-
ing. However, we do not know of any such fluid which can now operate suc-
cessfully 2.t over 1400 of.
Pneumatic systems, on the other hand, do not suffer from fluid deterioration
with temperature, but do have other unique problems. Missiles, for example,
would be seriously penalized if they were required to carry high-pressure,
high-temp1erature gas storage bottles. Hot gas servos, operating from powder
grain, are presently limited to several minutes of operation.
The inherent advantages of a hydraulic system; high-response, stiffness,
high powE!r-to-weight ratio, good efficiency, and compactness make this type
of transmiission particularly desirable for long flights at temperatures in the
lOOO°F reg'ion, if a satisfactory fluid is available. For this reason the Material
Laborator;r of W ADD has sponsored the present investigation of liquid metals
as power transmission fluids.

St·leclion of a Suitable Liquid 1\letal

By definition, liquid metals are those having a melting point below 1220°F.
This is not a very practical definition for our purposes. In selecting a liquid
metul for h~'draulic control, we' are primarily interested in materials with a
low melting point, wide operating range, and reasonable availability. Other
comliderations are: cost, density, stabilit~·, toxicity, and compatibility with
other materials.
The development of nucleur power plants has been accompanied by a con-
tinuing stud~' of the alkali metals, particularly Na arid Na-K alloys. While
most of this work has been in connection with heat exchanger loops, much of
the data are dirl'Ctly applkable to power transmission s~·stems.
Cht'lllical and physical properties of these metals have been studied exten-
sh'ely and handling' procedures have been established. The phenomena of

A-l
 APr_IX A

Liquid Metals as Power Transmission Fluids

"~-f­

mass transfer and corrosion have been investigated and are well documented.
Practical thermal systems have been built at several locations~ .
A review of this ma.terialled to the conclusion that the liquid metal having
the best possibilities was the euteetic alloy of sodium and potassium, com-
monly known as NaK·77. This alloy is available in unlimited quantities and
is reasonable in cost.

Fluid Characteristics·
Table I shows some of the properties of NaK-77 which would influence its
use as a power transmission lluid.

TABLE I
Na K as a Hydraulic Fluid
LimitatioD8 Advantages
Limited Low Tem.perature Wide Temperature Range
Low Viscosity High Bulk Modulus
Poor Lubricity Good Chemical Stability
Reactivity with Materials Low Density
High Friction Fnctor High Thermal Conductivity

NaK-77 melts at around 10° F and boils at about l450°F. Its melting point
is somewhat higher than ideal, but the high boiling point makes this a minor
limitation for many a.pplications.
The viscosity of NaK-77 is very low. It is somewhat below that of water
at room temperature, and drops to about 0.20 centistokes at 1400°F. On the
other hand, it has a very flat viscosity index over its liquid range.
The lubricating value of NaK is generally considered to be very poor. The
fluxing action of NaK tends to remove any oxide coating which might con-
ceivably act as a lubricating medium. Under certain conditions NaK oxides
may be generated, and these have a mild abrasive action. On the other hand,
tests have been conducted which indicate that it is possible to maintain a
hydrodynamic film in NaK lubricated bearings.
NaK, like other alkali metals, reacts with moisture and oxygen. This has
been considered as a major deterrent in utilizing NaK as a hydraulic fluid.
Actually, however, it would be more fair to say that NaK requires special
techniques and precautions in order to take advantage of its other outstanding
qualities. Some of the high energy fuels are extremely toxic, but techniques
for their use are being developed. We already know a great deal about the
corrosive action of liquid metals and we have materials which give excellent
service in such an environment. Handling procedures require care but they
are not in the nature of bomb disposal as many people think.
Bearing tests indicate that NaK lubricated bearings have a relatively high
coefficient of friction. There is some evidence to show that this may be due to
the high shearing strength of a NaK film, as well as the fluxing action of
the metal. Some representative values which have been measured will be
discussed later in the paper.
On the other side of the ledger NaK has some very unique properties.
~ aK-77 has the widest operating temperature range of any hydraulic fluid
now a\·ailahle. It can operate successfully from 10°F to about l450°F.
 APPIIDIX A

National Conleren~e on bldustrial Hydrauli~B

The compressibility of a hydraulic fluid is a vital factor in the design of a

servo system. Here, NaK-77 should -be an outstanding performer. With a bulk
modulus of 750,000 psi at 100°F, it still retains a value of 225,000 psi at
1000°F. MIL-:O-5606, for comparison, ranges from 250,000 at 100°F to about
30,000 8,t 500°F.
With protection against oxygen contamination, NaK is one of the most
chemically stable hydraulic fluids. It undergoes no deterioration or degrada-
tion over its entire liquid range, and it maintains this stability at continuous
high temperatures. Its resistance to nuclear radiation has been well established
by actual use over long periods.
The density of NaK-77 is comparable with other hydraulic fluids. It has a
specific gravity of 0.88 at 10°F and 0.70 at 1400°F.
The high thermal conductivity of NaK is a definite advantage in liquid
metal lubricated bearings. Figure 1 demonstrates this very graphically. These
are test specimens run in our friction and wear tester. The cylindrical member
on the lleit was rotated, under heavy load, against V-notched pieces such as
those on the right. The upper specimen is M-2 tool steel operated in NaK at
350°F, while the lower specimen is the same material operated in SAE-20
oil at 90°F. Note that the wear scar on the NaK lubricated piece is much
smaller. We feel that this is largely the result of a reduction in localized
heating due to the superior thermal conductivity of NaK.

Problem Area.
The behavior of liquid metals in high-temperature systems gives rise to
many ulilique problem -areas related to mass transfer, diffusion welding, corro-
sion, thermal gradients, and protective atmosphere.
By no means insurmountable, these do require careful design and a judici-
ous selE!ction of materials. Perhaps the most important problem is that of
mass transfer. This involves the physical transport of materials, by means
of the liquid metal, from one part of the system to another. Mass transfer
may be present as
1. Thermal gradient transfer, in which the solubility of a material in
lliquid metal varies with temperature.
2. ChemICal gradient tram,fer, in which the principal factor is the reac-
tion of a solute in the liquid metal with a solid in contact with the
solution.
Ob\'iously, there is not sufficient space to discuss this in detail. We might
mention in passing that the so-called "plugging" in liquid metal systems is

Fi~. 1 E:camplt'$ 01 wear test

sp"cim"ns.

A-3
 Liquid MetalB as Power Transmission Fluids

a result of mass transfer. Dissolved oxides which are in solution at some

elevated temperature may precipitate out if the temperature drops below
that corresponding' to a saturated solution. When this occurs in a cold spot
in the loop, plugg'ing may result. Chemical mass transfer can usualIy be
minimized by a proper selection of materials.
Diffusion welding is the result of the fluxing action of NaK which removes
oxides and thus promotes intermolecular bonding. Temperature and materials
are both factors illl welding. It is not particularly troublesome below lOOO°F
and above that temperature it can be eliminated by the use of dissimilar
materials in contac:t areas.
Corrosion in liquid metals is a complex subject. We generally think of cor-
rosion as a removall of stock. Here, however, it may involve transfer of mater-
ials, alloying betwl~en liquid and solid metals, simple solution, intergranular
penetration, and iI1npurity reactions. ,
In all of these, t.emperature and temperature gradients play an important
part. Fortunately, corrosion is receiving widespread attention and as its na~
ture becomes known, more and more design criteria are being established.
It can be seen thElD, that the ideal liquid metal system would have no thermal
gradients. In fact, we prefer to keep a system as uniformly hot as possible.
Actually, a perfectly clean and perfectly sealed system would have little
trouble with gradients. But since it is impossible to remove all oxygen from a
system, it is particularly important to maintain a temperature above the
saturation temperature of the oxide content.
The requirement for an inert gas cover comes about largely because of the
affinity of NaK for O2 and because practical hydraulic systems cannot be
hermetically' sealed. Dry nitrogen or, preferable, argon, is generally used to
filI the space above the liquid metal in reservoirs and drain tanks. In our final
loop design we have endeavored to reduce this requirement to a minimum,
recognizing that such protection is not possible in a practical operating sys-
tem. At present however, we still require some protection largely to facilitate
disassembly, and because of limitations in reciprocating and rotary seals. In
space applications this requirement would be greatly relaxed because of the
absence of atmosphere.

B4.SIC INVESTIGATIONS
The various physical properties and characteristics of NaK-77 as a hydrau-
lic fluid have been outlined above. In this section we shall outline the prelim-
inary investigations which have been and are being conducted to determine
the feasibility of using NaK-77 as a hydraulic fluid over a 10°F to lOOO°F
temperature range.

Liquid :Metal Pump Tester,

A single-piston pump tester was designed to pump fluid at a pressure of
:WOO psi at a temperature of lOOO°F. It consisted of a simple plunger pump
driyen by a hydraulic actuator. A ball check valve allowed NaK to flow into
the pump from the reservoir. Pressure was developed by forcing the fluid
through an orifice. Provisions were made to measure leakage past the piston
and at various statically sealed joints. The reservoir, which surrounded the
pump, was encased in an insulated jacket containing heating elements. Since

A-4
 APPEll A

National Confere.ce on ])Idustruu Hydraulic,

the reservoir was open, the entire assembly was enclosed in an inert atmo-
sphere dry box.

Tesl Areas
The areas investigated with this single-piston pump teBt.er were
1. NaK pumped at 3000 psi and 1000°F.
2. Orifice coefficient.
3. Capillary leakage.
4. Pump efficiency.
5. Springs.
6. Static seals.
7. Check valves.
The capability of pumping NaK to pressure and temperature was deter-
mined. NaK was pumped to 3000 psi at 1000°F. Flow rates were low since
the primary objective was to develop the high pressure at temperature.
The lorifice coefficients were calculated from the test data taken at tempera-
ture and pressure. The discharge coefficient for these orifices was found to
be app:roximately O.G with NaK-T'I.
Capililary leakage between the pump piston and sleeve was both calculated
and mE!asured and good correlatiOD was obtained.
Pump efficiencies at lOOO°F and 3000 psi were calculated from the test data
and results indicated a volumetrie efficiency of 25 percent arid an over-all effi-
ciency of 20 percent. These were not considered representative, however, be-
cause of inconsistent sealing of the check valve during the pumping stroke.
Chec'k valve springs made of both stainless steel and Inconel "X" were
evaluated. Results showed extensive relaxation of stainless steel springs. The
Inconel "X" springs performed well. The relaxation which occurred in these
~pringl!, was slight.
Static seals of both the metal "0" rings and boss type were of Inconel "X"
and M·,2 tool steel material demonstrated acceptable performance.
The check valve design employed in this tester caused continual difficulty.
Performance was erratic, probably due to NaK oxide contamination in the
fluid not allowing the valve to seat effectively. This valve was also located in
a "cold zone" in this tester.

Test Results
In general, the results of the single-piston pump tests indicated the need
for the following
1. A closed s.ystem with inert gas cover to pre\'ent oxide contamination
of the fluid.
2. Positive t~'pe valving whenever valves are fl'quired.
a. The system must be kept free of oxide contamination.
The selt'dion of structural materials for high temperllture ~aK s~'stems
was gn>atly f:ll:ilitated by the w('alth of information made :I\'ailable by de-
siglH.'l·s of nudt>ar heat transfer :<yst<'ms. However, little of this material deals

A-5
 g.paDIXA

Liquid Metals as Power Transmission Fluids

FiB. !-Hohman friction

and wear tester.

with heavily loaded liquid metal lubricated machine members. For this reason,
material compatibility and wear tests were made a part of this program.
Investigation of material compatibility and wear resistance in NaK-77 at
1000° F was conduded on friction and wear test equipment. Figure 2 shows
the wear tester and configuration of the specimens used in this test. The
cylinder was rotated and the load applied to the V blocks while both were sub-
merged in 1000°F NaK.
The materials eva.luated were primarily carbides since the previous material
studies indicated that the cermals provided the best results in NaK at lOOO°F.
Five material combinations were evaluated by testing for five minutes each.
The three best matElrial combinations were re-evaluated for a six hour period
at 1000°F. The characteristics determined from these tests were material
compatibility, coeffieient of friction, and wear rate.
Test results of Ole most promising combinations are shown on Figure 3.
From this evaluation the material combination selected for the design of a
high pressure pump was the mixed tungsten-titanium carbide running on a
titanium carbide. This is represented by the middle point. This combination

Coefficient of 511dln9 Friction VI. Beorinv Load

1I1. . . .CI

0.200

8 (K-I."'wel

Fi~. a-Friction coeiiicients 01

(.ubidcs ldth NaK.7,! as a
lubricant.
It 1.·. . .CI

----+-'-----'--....,-loo'-o--'--........'-'--,.~oo........-'-.I.-I-.o+o-o"'-"
O. 'O~o ........-'--........
Be",inv Lood ps.t

A-6
 APPamIX A

National Conleren~e on Indt(8trial Hydra.tlliu

--
.....
_._

FiB. It-SchemaUc oj the

liquid meuzls tellt loop.

_ _ _ _ _ .J

... -tb===93':~'"
'"
' .. --
possessed the highest load carrying capability and consequently the lowest
wear. It also maintained a reasonable friction coefficient and demonstrated
the best wear surface finish.

Liquid Metals Test Loop

A liquid metals test loop to pump NaK-77 at 3000 psi and 1000°F at a con-
tinuous 110w rate of 1 gpm has been const.ructed. This is shown schematically
. in .Figure 4. The results of the preliminar~' investigation conducted with both
the single-piston pump and friction-wear test equipment were used to good
advantag:e in the design of this loop.
This system consists of a surge tank or reservoir, a low pressure electro-
magnetic: boost pump, an electromagnetic flowmeter, a cooler, an oxide detec-
tion indicator, a cold trap, filters, a high pressure-temperatilre pump, a pump
pressure regulating valve and a dump tank. Provision is also made for sealing
the system with p.n inert gas cover.
The sJ1stem cont,lins several subloops for cleaning of NaK prior to high-
temperature operation and for the measurement of the oxide content present
in the sy'stem.
The low-pressure portion of the NaK loop opf'ratt's at 500-600°F. Cold
lrnpping is performed at 250°F, and the high~pressure pump operates at
lOOO°F ambient.
The operation of the NaK test loop is as follows: The s,ystem is filled with
!'InK, the gas cover is applied and the fluid circulated by the'EM pump at low
pressure. The loop is heated to 600°F. The oxides are removed from the s~'s­
tl.'01 b~' l'old trapping until the S~'stl'm temperature is dropped to 250°F. The
SYl'tl>1ll ill then reheated to GOO°F and the oxide content determined by means
of the plugging plate. This is accomplished by decreasing temperature until
tilt.' flow rate through the plate drops to one half its origili:ll ,·alue. This point
is the saturation temperature of the fluid and indicates the oxide content pres-
l'nt in tilt.' system. The temperature is once again retu\'I1l'd to GOO°F and the

A-7
 -.'

Liquid Metals as Power Tra~sl1'ission Fluids

"

~ <

'~c;;:

.. Fig. 5-TwQostage gellr pump jor 8000 Fig. 6-Exploded view oj tke
psi, 1000 0 F liquid metal seniice. two-stage gear pump.

high pressure, high temperature pumping is initiated. The NaK is filtered be-
fore entering the pump and the system pressure is adjusted by means of the
loading valve.
The high-presure pump is of the gear type having two cascaded stages.
Fifteen hundred pounds per square inch is developed across each stage. It haa
hydrostatic bearings and a capillary shaft seaL
To demonstrate the feasibility of liquid metal controls a simple hydraulic
servo is included in the system. This is a manually operated, closed loop, posi-
tion servo using a single-stage valve, the output drives a torque shaft.
The high pressure pump is shown in Figure 5 and the exploded view is
shown in Figure 6. The gears and shafts are made of mixed titanium-tungsten
carbide and the wear plates, cylinders and bearings of titanium carbide. The
pump housing is m~ide of titanium alloy.
The servo shown :in Figure 7 has been designed with similar materials such
as titanium alloys and carbides. It is interesting to note that the complete
unit weighs about 50 percent-less than a comparable servo using conventional
materials.

L(
F~-
Fig. 7-lnternal view of tM

I liquid metal position servo.

 APPIIDIX B
DEVELOPMDIT OF A FORMULA FOR PERCPM' fHjX>RmCAL HYDRAULIC PaiER Ia3S
~rL'1'i1fG riCii CCiiPRISSICi OF THE FLUID

The following deriY8tion considers only the loss resulting from

compression of' the fluid during the power generation cycle (as
caused by a pump).

The basic thoo1ret:i.cal hydraulic power formula is:

where: T HP = Theoretical hydraulic power, horsepower

AP = Pressure differencial, psi

qJ) = Discharge flow, gpm

During pressurization of the fluid by a pump:

whert~: T H P LC = Theoretical hydraulic power loss due

to fluid compressibility, horsepower
AP
~ = The average pressure during the
pressurization cycle, psi

.d Q. = The volume per unit time reduction in

the fluid due to fluid compression,
gpm

B-1
 APPWIDIX
(continued)
»

!'rom the basic bulk llK.')dulus formula

where: A P u Pressure increase across pump, psi

Q! = Flow rate entering pump, gpn

BAS ... Adiabatic secant bulk llCldulus of the

fluid (considered applicable to
compression by a pump), psi

Since Qf =Q»+ A~ ; where: Q:Ja'" flow rate discharging from

pump, gpm

then
.6~:; (Qn + Ali?) AP
81'S

and then
AP (ti.D 4P) ~p)2 ~])
TH P lc = (iff1/4- Q31lS _ .Ap) ::: "":::"':(2.)~17---,...~(!7-eA-JJ---4-~-

THPL. c X /00
% THPLc. =. "rHP :: --~~-...;.....---

B-2
 APPaDIX . C

DEVBLOPMENT OF A 1I'OR11JLA FOR THE TBCPERATURE RISE RESULTING FROM ca4PRi5SION

OF THE FWID

The following d.erivation considers only the temperature riae resulting

from compressio1n of the fluid during the power generation cycle (as
caused by a PUlllp),

A basic heat transfer formula states:

where: .6 r = i'sperature rise of fluid, of

H = Quantity of heat transferred to the

fluid, BID

CI' = Specific heat of fluid, BTU/lb _ ~

'vi = Weight of the fluid, lb.

but H= (% THPLc)(hp) 42..4- x10-2-

where: (" TUPL~ ~ theoretical hydraulic power loss
due to fluid compressibility (thiS
is based on adiabatic compression)

(h p) = Hydraulic power level, horsepower

and w'= ~D el(4~)

where:: ~ = Specific gravity of the fluid

and for a const~mt jXlWer level

~ -J!.2..J?7/+J
~l) - AP-
where:; ~D = Discharge flow rate, gpm

h)) = Hydraulic power level, horsepower

A P :: Pressure increase across pump, psi

C-l
 APr" .~
(Cont1Du8d

then
_ ().2.97 ~ THPL c) AP
~ CI' (/~)

C-2
 APP-.oIX D

DEVILOFMaft or A li'ORMULA FOR THE STIJ1'!f1SS OF AN ACTUATOR UNDER sp~mc

CORDITIOiiS

Conditions:
1) Conventional utility system, linear, piston type
actuator (and valve)
2) Given stroke and maximum design output force
3) Vary system design pressure

Actuator stiffness K=£

'"
where: /.. • Imposed. (and. maximum designed.)
load of the actuator

d. = Displacement of the output

member of the actuator due to
L by the compression of the
fluid
and d. = liV where: IJ.V = Volume reduction due to the
A fluid compression
A = Effective piston area
p
also 8'5 = 4V V where: 13, $ = Isothermal bulk modulus of the
fluid. This type of bulk
modulus is-considered appropriate
for the conditions
P :I Pressure due to L (also the
system design pressure)
v = Total volume under compression

and V = SA where: S = Stroke

D-l
 L J.. " .L A 8" L 8"
so K = -ct =-;;v- :. .'-py-";" :::. pS

since L and S are constant

where: 1<, • Constant

D-2
 APPDlDIX E

!!!3COUS LEAKAGE 'J.'HaOUGH SMALL CLEARANCE

Theoretical fonllulas have been developed by various sources for

viscous leakage through concentric and eccentric radical clearance
spaces which ar49 in general agre.ent. These formulas are considered
applicable to 1DIiny of the close clearance leakage paths in hydraulic
systems. In re:f'erence (1), this appendix, the following formula was
developed which includes the effects of high pressure on Y1acoa1ty:

where:: Q. .. valve leakage, in /min

J=> • inlet pressure (and also across

valve), psi

1) • cylinder diameter, in.

c .. diametral clearan'ce, in.

}-to .. absolute viscosity at 0 psig

L .. valve overlap (leakage length), in.

d .. distance between the center

of the valve piston and the
valve cylinder (eccentricity),
in.

e • 2.118
b .. pressure coefficient of visoosity
_ J ~
h- -p J.()G
e~o
Where: /" .. absolute viscosity at
a given pressure
 ~Il E
(contill1lll4 )

Ref'erence (2) cited tile f'oiloring tacts which are applicable to the
leakage t01'llula:

Tests conducted prove the validity of' the fOl'llula for static con-
centric conditions wit;h C/L.
less than 0.0140 and. C/O equal to 0.008 or
less.

For vibratory conditiclns with C/L.lesS than 0.0140 and c/O greater than )
0.005 the value of 1. '"(5 can be used for the eccentricity tera +1.5" E l •
Q
The te-fi
~~b
_,-1. p) :f.s the correction factor for the increase in
.
viscosity resulting fI~ the pressure and also the non-linear pressure
distribution across the leakage path.

References

(1) Leakage in Capillary Seals of Hydraulic Valves and Pumps by

P. G. Exline, Gulf Research and Development Company t Product
Engineering, Aprj.l 1946].

(2) Hydraulic EngineE~ring Design Manual, NA-41-216, North American

Aviation, Inc., March 21, 1941 [Revised May 20, 1953].

E-2
 DEVBLOPMII'II or YU1r1 ARIA. CCMPARISOI FORMlJLAS CONSIDERIKG HIGH
!'RISSURI iJ'J'ETS Of VISC<iI'l'Y AIm DmSITY

This developaent is relative to flow in round, straight, smooth passages

and establishes a comparison of flow areas relative to system pressures.
It is based on the changes in fluid viscosity and density at pressure
and the following two considerations:

(1) The power level of the system is held constant.

(2) The power loss due to flow pressure loss is held constant.

Formulas are developed for both turbulent and laminar flow regions.

Turbulent Flow

A basic turloulent flow pressure 108s formula is:

~p
where: ~ • pressure loss per unit length

K D constant

e D density of the fluid

,I D kinematic viscosity of the fluid

~ -= volume flow rate

1) • inside diameter of the flow passage

Considering the ];lOwer loss from A~ to be constant

AP
-.«=J<
L
then:
4P K 1 ~ .yI'.2S' Q.2.75
-.Q: ::K,
L D+.7$

F-l.
 APP. .n F
(contlDued)

Also let the ayet_ power level remain constant

PQ :. K 0" at: ~ where: p ... system pressure

._ Ka , -v'~Z5"
so K,·- D 4:7S' pl.75"

Substituting the viscosity - pressure relationship of -,I" = ~ e liP

K _ K, (> -,/""5" a~S' b P
I - 0"'= 15" p~_15"

where: ~ = kinematic viscosity at 3000 psig

b = pressure coefficient for viscosity

of the fluid

p =pressure (system)

e ... natural logarithnr base

or

Comparing the diameter at high pressure to the diameter at standard

pressure

Dp
- - - K'
Os - 5
t ~P.J
~
-.1".16
,~.1S'
S 'VI'-P
I
e·a.f'bP p.
,., ~/J5'
..
I
2.'1S"]ifi -
- D
[e
to.P 1-.75"
p
bPJ
A2..7S" e· 2S
P~·~----
K~ ...... ill

where: subscript P II: at the system high pressure

s ... at standard at 3000 psig

_) _ ,S II: different values for the constant K

t
~
t
then converting to an area ratio

o
DS
)2 =#(
5
~pR1.·7S"
,
(>s
e.25' hPj 4-.7$
p/".75
~

where: A = flow area

F-2
 m.mx F
(con't1nued)

A badc pressure loss f'01'llula is

AP _ KIP-/Q.
T - - D+
Considering the power loss f'ro- 4 P to be constant
l.
41:)
L- oQ = K,
Then
~. Q = 1<, ~-v' Q..t. = K6
L. D+
Also let thl! system power level remain constant, Q = ,~
K - )(11 ~...v
, - l)+ p2.
SUbstituting the viscosity .. pressure relationship of' V =""" tfhP
_ ~:....::@~"",,~,~.=--bP_
1<, - D. P2- I

or _
D- K,
j" e~p2 ebPJ+
Comparing the diameter at high pressure to the diameter at standard

pressure
.Qe.. - K
Oft - ,'D
[ ~
~e p. ~
e. p; •
e
bP]*"- t'
-
t p; 6PJ i
-2
()p ...
10 ~s
e

Then convert;ing to an area ratio

~ -fD~=K,o [ fp pi e/,P] i
As 'W l l.s P;

F-3
 APP-XX G
DEVILOPMII'l' OF A fCIIIJLl lOR PRISSUU·II'J'rrED PUMP VISCOUS LBAK'AGE

The leakage past the pistons and. nlve port is considered to be the
major leakage which is effected b7 fluid viscosity increases due to
high pressures ill1 a conventional aircraft h;ydraulic pump. The
formula for ViSCl)US leakage discussed in Appendix I is considered to
be generally applicable to this leakage. Following is a s1aplified
version of this :t'o1'lllula:

where: ((PL • pump leakage flow excluding that

specifically metered for cooling
purposes

Kr constant for dimensional units

D pumping piston diameter. Valve

port leakage path.width considered
proportional to the cylinder
(piston) diameter

C = piston/cylinder diameterial
clearance

fA- o = absolute viscosity of fluid at

atmospheric pressure

L ... leakage path length (piston and

valve port)

e III natural logarithm base (2.718)

p ... pump discharge pressure

& ... pressure coefficient of viscosity
of the fluid

G-l
 AJ'PIIDIX G
(continued)

In accordance with the established ground rules for this study, the
power level is held constant. Also, it is considered reasonable that
the pump speed., cleara:l1ces, leakage path lengths and stroke be assumed
constant for the analysis.

P Q:: Constant: PA" .. P 0 2 S

K,.
or D =-=r- where: Q IS pump volume flow
PI.
A • pump piston area

o = piston diameter
S ::0 piston stroke

then 0 _
'"'I{'I. -

Comparing the leakage at a given high pressure to that at standard

pressure with a given fluid at a given temperature results in the
following formula:
I
(r:, }."i (, _eDP~
,\!p,/ (I_eb~)
where: ~PL(~a leakage at a given high pressure

Q'I(s) = leakage at standard pressure

Ps .. standard pressure (3000 psig)
Pp = given high pressure
 APPEIX B

DEVELOFMDIT or A FOIIIJLA. lOR TINPJItA1IURE RISE REULTING J'll(J( IU4P LEAKAGE

Starting with the following basic heat transfer formula:

4TL =\ij
1"
e,.
"here: 4TL a temperature rise of the leakage fluid
due to being forced through the leakage
path*

H a heat generated (and transferred), BTU I s

'" • weight flow of leakage fluid, lb/min

Cp • specific heat of fluid, BTU/lb-C?

* excludes temperature rise due to the

relative motion of adjacent surfaces
(pistons and cylinder valls)

Then vJ =- Q."" ~ (I.1~ and

H =Jr) QL ~2.4)
"1""
\rhere: f • specific gravity of fluid

P III pump discharge pressure, psig

~L a pump leakage flow, gpm

So

H-l
 AP.PSIX I

The following 1188l8ptions are con8idered applicable over the pressure

range being imrestigated:

(1) The ,'1_118 drag in conventional aircraft hydraulic pump

effec:ted by the high pre••ure viscosity change mainly
concelrna the pumping pistOns and cylinders and the valve
port surfaces
(2) Power output of pump constant

(3) Pump stroke constant (at rated flow conditions)

(4) PistCl>n lengths constant

(5) Pump speed constant

(6) Leaka.ge clearances constant

(7) Visco·us flow through the clearances, pressure effects

on viscosity included. The viscosity (pressure)
distribution over the piston length is the same as that
for the viscous leakage (see Appendix E).

I-I
 APPE)l
..a
(coat

From the basic Viacos1t;y formulas, the drag (force) on a representative

part (piston) ia:

where: f :: drag on piston due to the viscosity

of the fluid

~ • absolute viscosity of the fluid

A ... fluid contact area = IDK

(K : constant)

l :: piston length

o ... piston diameter

IV" :: average velocity of the piston

C. a clearance between piston and

cylinder wall

Since L 1 /V" and (~ are constant, then

The fluid pressure varies across the length of the piston which causes
a variation in viscosj.ty and, consequently, in the drag. To simplify
the analysis, an effective absolute viscosity,~., can be used since
the pressure (and. visc~osity) distribution follows a characteristic
curve with a given fl\ud at a given temperature.

Then .1= Kp-e O

Power loss due to drag, f} is

. PLO =t<'}'\e 1:>SN
where; PL I) = power loss due to viscous drag

S ... stroke of pumping piston

N ... rotational speed of pump

1-2
Incorporation of the effect. of • cOIl.tant power output 0 =(:r)
~:l)A. aN
PL o =- p~

Since S and II are constant

Pi. =- ~'I.}AtI
D F'~
Comparing the power loss due to viscous drag at high pressures to that
at standard pressure for a given fluid at a given temperature
I

PL D(P) =(I'~e(Pl\ (psY _ (I)

PL,es) ~f!f$))Vp7
where: PLIJ~ power loss due to Viscosity drag
~7 at the given pressure (pump dis-
charge)

PLaAll power loss due to Viscosity drag

D

~I, at the standard pressure (3000

psig)

,M~JIj = effective absolute viscosity at

the given pressure

)A.e(s) = effective absolute viscosity at

the standard pressure

I-3
 APr_IX I
(cODtlauecl)

The effective visco.i ty ratios oaD be determined from viscous leakage

data using the follalr:~ formula (developed later in this appendix):

)-Ie(;» =~,\t Q. (2)

,Me ell ps/ Qp

where: Ps .. standard pressure (3000 ps1g)

P p .. g1ven pressure

Qs • pump viscous leakage (pump pistons

and valve port) at standard pressure

Qp = pump viscosity leakage at the given

pressure
Combining equations (1) and (2)

PJ.D(p) _
PLD(s)

1-4
 APP-.u I
(continued )

Fro8 AppeDdix Q., the simplified pUlrp viscous leakage formula for a
constant power level is:

~'L = -,AiK'. P I& fbeb~-

where: q,.. • pump viscous leakage
K I: constant
)Ao I: absolute viscosity of fluid at
atmospheric pressure
P • pump discharge pressure
b I: pressure coefficient of viscosity
of the fluid
e I: natural logarithm base (2.718)
t',- e-bP\ .
Since the term \~ b - ) corrects for the pressure effects on
viscosity and replaced P in the original basic formula, equation ~A)
can be written as
I
KP~
.,Me
where: ~e I: effective absolute viscosity of
the fluid
then, comparing Ii given pressure to the standard pressure
.L
QPJ.Oi._~'t(}-te~
~'I.(s) - \f's/\:.Me(ij)
..t.
or .Melp) =-1(2\I.EQ'L(S)
fle(~ ~s) Ci",(~
 APPJDIX J

DEVILOPMaT OF A 1POIIIJLA FOR TJMPlmATURE RISE RiBULTING PRa.t LINE FLOW LOSS

Starting with the following basic heat transfer formula:

4T _ HA.
T- ti"i'c;.
'where: .AI.. = temperature rise per unit length of
~ the flowing fluid due to the line
flow loss

l!- a heat generated per unit length of

L line due to the line flow loss

K = units constant

~ = volume flow rate

t = fluid density

Cp = fluid specific heat

ThenJ considering a constant system power level (Q.~) a constant per-

cent of (system power) flow power loss HI",- = K' = ~nst.Dt and that
the specific helat of the fluid is constant
AT _ P ~C'
L-f-
,,,here: P = system pressure

Comparing a giVl2n high pressure to standard pressure

Aw..(!') =f2J LP~,
Alj'L(S) \!s7 \. f p)
w'here: Subscript P represents at the given high
pressure

Subscript S represents at standard pressure

J-l
 APP~IX K

DEVILOFMJ:tr.r or A FOlMJLA JOB LIIE COOLIIG BY CONVim'rOI

The following basic heat transfer formula is applicable:

H = C, ,c~'(AT)
where: H- heat transferred

c,- coefficient of convected heat

transfer

AI so heat transfer area

AT • temperature difference between

the hydraulic fluid and the
cooling air

'where: l:L ... heat transferred from the line

L. to the cooling air per unit
per unit line length

K ... constant

D ... diameter of the line

Comparing X at III given high pressure to that at standard pressure con-
sidering all conditions the same except the prel;Jsure and line diameter
H!L(It)
~~~
H/l(s) -
..... -Dp
DS
lihere: SUbscript P represents at the given high pressure

SUbscript S represents at standard pressure

Converting from flow diameters to flow areas ~::. D~K)

HILI') (A ,,\J:.
HA.(s) :: (A.7
lrhere: A ... flow area of the line

K-l
 APPDDIX L

DEVELOFMENT OF AN ORIFICE SIZE CClCPARISON FO:RMULA RELATIVE TO SYSTDf

PRESURE

To simplify calculations the velocity of approach has been neglected..

In view of this, the results should be considered as approximations.

The simplified olrifice flow formula is

Q=~ 2'~1t
'W'here: q :: orifice flow
c • discharge coefficient.

A • orifice area

S :: acceleration of gravity

dP • pressure drop across the orifice

~ :: fluid specific density

Considering that the orifice will limit to a specific percentage of

:ruU system power (flow)
xc;, power :: Pq,K
PQTK - ~T
_ Q,

where: xc;, power = percentage of full system power

(power limitation)

~ = orifice volume flow

fT :: system full volume flow

P :: system pressure
K • power constant .L I
xoj, power • c:{). '; Ed./i.'f.\a= C J:)~K, ~~31
Qr Qr \'IN) QT
where: 02 • orifice diameter

L-l
 APP.xx L
(continued)

Since X;' power and th.e syst_ power level are to be constant q
I
=-00'
- Co PI.~D: K, L2'~
then K2. - K \W)

D - rl< X; (~~'\:lf­
or
~- [K C pl."i'ffj J
Comparing the orifice: diameter at a given pressure to that at the
standard pressure '
.1r .2.r
DYe) =(p:\ ~/~
D1 (4 V;) \y~

where: sulJscript P represents at the given pressure

sutlscript S represents at the standard pressure

L-2
 APPIlmIX M

ElCAMINATION OF THE EF!'Ir;TS OF S'15TDt PRESSURE LEVEL ON ORIFICE CONTROL

Supply >m Flow Limiting orif~ ~Actuator

Press., p.! L t ~ ou!p1tx.:~~c'i ty, IV'"

~ .. By'stem volume flow (and orifice) PIt • actuator pressure

PI. .. sy'stem supply pressure L • load on actuator

A o ... orifice area Ar .. velocity of loaded

actuator output rod
AA • actuator piston area
A~ .. pressure differential
K .. cClnstants across orifice

Q
-,4tA

.. L
-
APo - ps ·- -
/\,..

6·- :;s
I

~: KIA.

~ =:: t!~ ;~
M-l
 APP~IX M
(continued )

Considering constant l~er level for any system pressure and neglecting
the density change of the fluid which is relativelY small

(See Appendix L )

For design purposes

WhE!re: K~ I: max. anticipated load

K Pi. = some percent of p...

4 based on desired IV""

K: - PI
(\)":: -::l2
P!.~ Ks
~ L. -
p!. - -
KS
~~-J: :=. ~
K, 1 -L.-
K,s:
~f
Then considering a given load change and the resultant actuator output
velocity change

lo = initial
load,
corresponding to L. '7 L,= load after change, N; =velocity
= velocity C/orres~ponding,to L, ~
11".- Arj = K6t K;) -K6~-I<,)
1. 4, 1"
=K,s (- K~ ~- K
1.. i
- L.,
S

The velocity change, ~ -.Hi , can be used as a criteria of control.

Since the system presElure term, PI , cancelled out, the above develop-
ment indicates that the system design pressure level has no effect on
the control of an orifice.

M-2
 APPENDIX N

FACTORS An·~·THE SPRING RATE OF HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS

During the Spring, 1965 meeting of Subcommittee A-6D (Fluid Power

Utilization) of SAE Committee A-6 (Aerospace Fluid Power Technologies),
the following qu~stions were asked:

A. What de~gree of success have various companies experienced

in being able to predict the spring rate of hydraulic
powered. surface control actuators?

B. What relationship has been observed between actuator

spring rate and dynamic spring rate at various input
frequencies?

In answer to these questions Mr. W. J. Thayer of Moog Servocontrols,

East Aurora, New York, commented as follows:
"To comment on the first portion of the question, i.e., the
degree of success in predicting actuator ~ring rate, I would
like to distinguish between the physical stiffness character-
istic of an actuator and the functional stiffness characteristic.
The physical stiffness is the composite effect of the mechanical
and hydraulic compliant elements between the fixed and movable
attach poirres of the actuator. The functional stiffness is
that due to servo action, so is related to servoloop configura-
tion, loop gains and valve performance characteristics.

In a conventional position servosystem, the functional static

stiffness w:lll be higher than the physical stiffness, as
position error caused by load force will cause some fluid flow
into the side of the cylinder being pressurized by the load
force. Fortunately the functional stiffness is relatively
straight-forward to predict and to measure, and we have had
reasonably good luck in doing this.

The actuator physical stiffness is usually high with respect

to the stiffness of the structure, so an accurate prediction
is not necessary. This may be a convenient rationalization
as it has bElen our experience that the physical stiffness is
very difficlut to predict accurately and equally difficult
to measure. However, it is true that the actuator physical
stiffness cem be combined with that of the structure, if piston
mass and fri.ction are small with respect to the control sur-
face inertisl and aerodynamic loading. This combined physical
stiffness of' the actuation system determines the basic resonant
frequency ae:sociated with the surface inertia.

N-l
 APPENDIX N
(continued) .

Because these c~mpliant effects act in series, onLY the more

significant contJ:'ibutors need. be considered. Within the
actuator there aJ:'e both mechanical and hydraulic elements
which contribute to the physical compliance. Mechanical
elements include bearings, piston rod and head, cylinder and
actuator body. ~~e compliance of bearings is often significant
for small amplitude motions where the bearing liner is carrying
the load. Hydraulically, fluid compliance is important as is
O-ring compliancE~. Also, hydraulic line compliance can be
significant if the control valve is remotely located. The
compliance of thEl fluid itself will be more significant with
small area pistons. This means that fluid compliance is more
of a problem when higher system pressure is used with a given
control system. Fluid compliance will vary throughout the
piston stroke and with changes in fluid bulk modulus due to
temperature or entrained air. A useful relationship for
approximating the! stiffness due to the fluid is the following:

Ko ~ 4' A!l
Xto't
where: Ko = stiffness due to fluid compressibility (lbs/in)
~ =bulk modulus of fluid (psi)

A = piston area (in2 )

~ = volumetric efficiency (%/100)

Xtot = total piston stroke (in. )

This expression is derived for a balanced area actuator operating

at mid-stroke (Where it is "SOftest"). The volumetric efficiency
is the ratio of the fluid volume swept by the piston in traversing
full stroke, to the total fluid volume contained between the piston
and control valve. This efficiency will generally be between 0.85
to 0.95 for an actuator with an integrally mounted servovalve. A
good number for the bulk modulus of modulus of MIL-5606 oil at room
temperature and 1500 psi (the ideal cylinder pressures at null for
a 3000 psi system) is 250,000 psi.
 APPENDIX N
(continued)

An often o',er-looked contributor to the physical compliance of

an actuator can be the presence of a cylinder differential
pressure transducer or other load sensitive device (any spring
centered p:Lston or valve in parallel with the cylinder). Most
such accesfSor1es contribute more actuator compliance than all
other mechnnical or hydraulic elements taken together.

The functional stiffness of an actuator is determined by the

control servoloop and the valve pressure gain characteristic.
This stiffness will determine the actuation accuracy and band-
width of control, but will not change the basic load resonant
frequency (Which is determined by the physical stiffness as
described Elbove). For a simple flow control servovalve in an
electrohydl~ulic servoloop with proportional control, the
actuator si;iffness due to servo action will be:

where k.. = actuator functional stiffness (lbs/in)

Kp= servovalve pressure gain (psi/ma)

KE= combined electrical feedback gain (ma/in)

A= piston area (in2 )

Many times a more sophisticated servoloop will be used,

especially if resonance of the control surface is a problem,
and for such cases servovalves may be used which include
internal pressure feedback. This pressure feedback contributes
effective d.amping of the control surface resonance, so can be
used to im:prove the actuation response characteristic. Unfor-
tunately the pressure feedback reduces the actuator functional
stiffness, so degrades the positioning accuracy in the presence
of opposing loads or load friction.
 APPEMDIXN
(continued)

Servovalves with proportional pressure feedback (called FQ

servovalves) are simplest, but res\llt in systems which have
reduced static accuracy. Servovalves with dynamic pressure
feedback (DPF) include a high pass frequency sensitive
arrangement in the pressure feedback path, to produce high
static stiffness and accuracy. Reduced stiffness is also
created at the load resonant frequency for improved damping.

If the position feedback for the surface actuation system

is taken directly at the surface, or if the structural and
mounting compliance are negligible, then a DPF servovalve
will give the best static accuracy and resonant damping
condition. However, the position feedback is usually taken
between the piston and cylinder of the actuator. This allows
reduced surface position accuracy in the presence of aero-
dynamic loading due to wind-up of the mounting structure
which is outside the servoloop. A special servovalve may be
used which compensates for this structural positioning error.
This is called a SLEW servovalve for "static load error wash-
out" .

The second portion of the question related to static versus

dynamic spring rate of an actuator. The static actuator
stiffness will "be the so-called functional stiffness, and
this is generally high. With a flow control servovalve and
proportional servoloop, the stiffness will remain essentially
constant throughout the control frequency range, then drop
to that of the actuator physical stiffness above the loop
break frequency. The actuator functional stiffness with a
PQ servovalve will generally be lower. With a DPF servo-
valve, the static stiffness will be high and then drop in
the frequency range of about one-third the surface resonant
frequency to a lower value. The SLEW servovalve would give
ideally infinite static actuation stiffness but this will
decrease with frequency similar to a DPF valve."

N-4
c

, .,
"

"j
"

1.. 060

1',.0$0 '
., '

sp~~ihc GraVit~&:~pe~ificHeai:~s +emper<btur~

'. :. I ."".,,-....•: _ ) . . . . . . : . , " -

P-l
.;. . i , '.: ~ " i . i; '.: _. ': '. ~ :
S:p~dift({Grovity
, and ~pecific Hea~t 'vsTemperafure
P-2
'"

.... .. ,
~ ~

1.200

,J.140 :"

,5000

. -'~'i' .. ~: ""~"~-'-'~ .... . .- .. ~.

Specific yohime ,YS Pressure
j. "". ., ",.,. ~..L.,._

P-3
 J

. :.1,.": . " .: i· I '

··SfP,eidfit;' iVoluriie'vs'P-ressure
<L.<.... ~.~L... .:.L;,~~ ....,L ,~'" . :1 ~' .. ,~ :,,_L .- :~ .i.~ .'.
p",4
 APPENDIX - P

'~\ n

P-5
 APPDIDIX Q

HYPOTHmC:AL SYST:D1 STIFFNF£S CALCULATIONS

Hypothetical system stiffness was calculated based. on the system

configuration shown in Figure Ql.

Tube Section Compliance

The compliance of each section of tUbing was calculated

as follows:

From Reference 17,

Compliance = L
Se
where V = volume of fluid in the section

~.= effective bulk modulus of the

fluid and the tubing

I
and --c
(3e
where 8 = bulk modulus of the fluid

E= modulus of elasticity of the tube

material

c10= tUbing O.D.

ei, = tubing I.D.

Q-l
 APPDmIX Q,
"(continued)

Actuator Compliance

The actuator compliance is the sum of the fluid com-

pliance and the <:ylinder wall compliance.

Actuator COlllpliance

where v c actuator fluid volume,

rod extended

8 I: bulk modulus of the fluid

.4 V := change in actuator volume due

to wall deflection '

~s = system pressure

Letting b0 I: diametral deflection

then A V = .J!. (Z bo d, -+- 6:) L

4
where di. cylinder I.D. '

L = actuator stroke

From Reference 13, for a thick wall cylinder

and s+ F5 ~
5- fS ~

where E = modulus of elasticity of

wall material

dD I: cylinder O.D.

)) = Poisson t s ratio

~ = ultimate stress

f5 I: safety factor

p~ = system pressure

Q-2
 APP_DIX Q
(continued)

Total System Compliance

The tCltal system compliance is the sum of the compliance

of each tube section and actuator in the system.

'l~otal System Compliance =2: Tube Sections Compliance +

~ Actuators Compliance

Actuator Stiffness
F'rom Reference 17,

Stiffness = A -Be
V
where A= effective piston area

~ = total system compliance

Be

Q-3
 APPENDIX Q

Sample Calculations ~or a 6000 PSI System

Tube data for the hypothetical system Figure Q,l

is tabulated in Appendix Q Tables I and II.

Tube Section Co~pliance (Tube No.1)

6
Steel Tubing, E = 28 x 10 #/in2

From Table I, de '" . 582 in

d( = .429 in

From Table II, V '" 8.6 in 3

From Figure 2, of the basic report

@ 1000" t~ = 2.56 x 10 5 #/in2

I I + I
S;= B E (O"~ - J)
1 1·
=
+ 28 x 106 (5 82 ).
429 - 1

= .401 x 10- 5

= 8.6 x .401 x 10- 5

= 3.46 x 10- 5 in2 I#.

Appendix Q Table III shows the tube compliance for the

remaining tube sections in the system.

Q-4
 APPElWIX Q
(continued)

Actuator Compliance
Actuator Data - For purposes of analysis, a production
nctuator for a 3000 psi system was used.
Actuator Stroke, L = 15.35 in
Fluid Volume, V = 254 in 3
Effective Piston Area, A = 15.9 in2

I~or a 6000 psi system

Fluid volume = 254 == 127 1n 3

2

Effective piston area = 1~.9 = 7.95 in2

=
d = d'tI.s+fsPs
I V s- F:s P.s
5 = 180,000 PSI

~ = 2.5
180,000 + 2.5 x 6000
180,000 - 2.5 x 6000

= 3.457 in
~ di (d,;'+ d, ~ + y\
E: dt-d'l j
.3
6000 x 3.182
29 x 106

= .0081 in

Q-5
 APPDmIX~
{continued

Actuator Compliance a:: . V + If (ZSfJd +o,'&)L

8 T ~ .
= 127 + _ (2 x .0081 x 3.182 + .00812 )15.35
2. 56 x 105 4 6000
= (49.6 + 10.37) x 10- 5

= 59.97 x 10- 5 in 5/#

Appendix Q Tlible IV shows actuator compliance at various system

pressures.

Total System Complillnce

Total system complillnce = ::2 Tube Sections Compliance +

"2 Actuators Compliance

From Table III" :2: Tube Sections Compliance - 126.94 x 10- 5 in 5/#

From above

:2: Actuators Compliance = 2 x 59.97 x 10- 5

= 119.94 x 10- 5 i n 5/#

Total system compliance = (126.94 + 119.94) x 10- 5
= 246.88 x 10- 5 in 5/#
Table IV shows the total system compliance at various system
pressures.

Actuator Stiffness
~
Stiffness = _A Be
V
= 7.952
;~46.88 x 10- 5

Table IV shows the actuator stiffness at various system pressures.

Q-6
 API_IX Q
tcont:Lnued}

TABLE I
ME DATA

3000 PSI 6000 PSI 9000 PSI 12000 PSI

TUBE LDfGTH' O.D. I.D. O.D. LD. O.D. LD. O.D. LD.
NO (FT) (IN) (IN) (Ill) (IN) (IN) (IN) (IN) (IN)
1 5 .625 .527 .582 .429 .594 .394 .656 .403
2 5 .625 .527 .582 .429 .594 .394 .656 .403
3 8 .750 .652 .610 .530 ' .713 .488 .787 .498
4 1 .750 .652 .610 .530 ·713 .488 .787 .498
5 1 .7'10 .652 .610 ·530 .713 .488 .787 .498
6 2 .625 .527 .582 .429 .594 .394 .656 .403
7 2 .625 .527 .582 .429 .594 .394 .656 .403
8* 2 .500 .430 .582 .429 .594 .394 .656 .403
9* 2 .500 .430 .582 .429 .594 .394 .656 .403
10 180 .250 .210 .232 .171 .238 .157 .262 .161
11 100 .375 ·319 .349 .259 .356 .239 .393 .244
12 50 .500 .430 .465 .350 .475 .322 ·525 .329
13 25 .625 .527 .582 .429 .594 .394 .656 .403
14 20 .750 .652 .610 .530 ·713 .488 .787 .498

TUbing Materi,al - MIL-T-6845B Type Steel, 75,000 PSI Yield

Modulus of Ellasticity = 28 x 106 PSI
Diameter Based on Laminar Flow at _200 F
* Tube With ~iivel Fittings

Q-7
 APPENDIX Q
(continued)

TABLE II

TUBE TRAPPED VOLUME (IN3)

NO 3000 PSI 6000 PSI 9000 PSI 12000 PSI
1 13.0 8.6 7.27 7.4
2 13.0 8.6 7.27 7.4
3 24.0 15.8 13.4 13.7
4 2.0 1.32 1.12 1.14
5 2.0 1.32 1.12 1.14
6 5.2 3.43 2.91 2.97
7 5·2 3.43 2·91 2·97
8* 3.5 3.43 2.91 2.97
9* 3·5 3.43 2·91 2·97
10 76.0 50.2 42.6 43.3
11 96.0 63.4 53.8 54.7
12 82.0 54.1 46.0 46.7
13 66.0 43.5 37.0 37.6
14 80.0 52.8 44.8 45.6

* Tube With Swivel Fitting

Q-8
 APPENDIX Q
(continued)

TABLE III

TUB,E TUBE SEX::TION C<J4PLIANCE V/Be (IN~/#)

NO 3000 PSI 6000 PSI 9000 PSI 12000 PSI
1 5.65xlO- 5 3.46xI0- 5 2. 18xl0- 5 2. 51xl0- 5
2 5.65 3.46 2.18 2·51
3 10.57 6.55 5.05 4.85
4 .88 .1)') .42 .40
5 .88 .55 .42 .40
6 2.26 1.::\8 LOg 1.0')
1 2.26 1.38 1.09 1.05
8 1.54 1.38 1.09 1.05
9 1.54 1.38 1.09 1.05
10 ::\~.10 20.20 16.00 15.35
11 42.80 25.45 20.20 19.36
12 36.00 21.80 11·35 16.06
13 28.10 11.50 13·90 13·30
14 35.20 21.90 16.90 16.15
TOTAl.
(TUBI:NiG ) 201.03Xl0- 5 126. 94xl0- 5 ~Oo.16xl0-5 95.2lxl0- 5

Q-9
 APPENDIX Q
(continued)

TABLE IV

1000 PSI 6000 PSI 9000 PSI 12000 PSI

Total Tubing
Compliance in 5/# 207.03X1O- 5 126. 94xlO- 5 10o.16xlO- 5 95.2lxlO- 5

Actuator
Compliance in 5/# 146.4xlO- 5 59. 97xlO- 5 35.9x 10- 5 24. 74xlO- 5
Total System
Compliance in 5/# 499. 83xlO- 5 246. 88xlO- 5 171. 96xlO- ~ 144. 69xlO- 5
Actuator
4
Stiffness #/in2 5.06xlO 2. 56xlO 4 1. 634xl04 1.093X10- 5

Q-10
 APPIlIDIX Q
lcont1nued1

@ SUBSYSTDi

@
SUBSYSTEM

@
SUBSYSTa.1

CD @
SUBSYST»f

@
SUBSYSTEM

~'"""""- __ ACTUATOR ~--

SOLENOID
VALVE

...,.~-. ACTUATOR 1-----"

FIGURE Ql HYPOTHETICAL SYSTEM

Q -11
 APP~IX R
HYP<1.flurICAL SYSTEM NATURAL FREQUENCY CALCULATIONS

Assuming an inf:Lnite hydraulic bus at the control valve, the follow-

ing network of lumped parameters representing the hypothetical system
of Figure Ql can be constructed by the method developed by Ref-
erence 12.

Ls R.

where: L = Line inductence (lb.-sec 2 /in 5 )

LM = load mass inductance (lb-sec 2 /in 5 )

C = line capacitance (in5/lb)

Cc;. = actuator capacitance (in 5/lb)
Ii = resistance (lb-sec/in5 )

R. = supply pressure (lb-in2 )

p,. = 2
instantaneous pressure at piston (lb/in )

~ = potential of load (lb/in2 )

R-l
 APPENDIX R
(continued)

Realizing that the resistance ( R) and the load potential ( PL )

can be neglected in the solution for the natural frequency, the
above network can l)e simplified as follows:

Lo

The transfer fUnction can be derived from the above network as

follows:

-~
-=
.f1, Lo 5 + _, ('" S+Z!) .
CoS Z
-..!- + L,5T~
CoS Z.
where:
:c = .....'-_M_5_-::--_
LN C, S2 +/

J~ Z(L,CoSz+Cor.5 -tZ)
}~ = kL,4S 3+LoC,r.5 2 --t2Lt>S+L,Sri!
 APPIlmIX R
(continued)

Pp
then: -:
~

Letting
K,15 L,., C.
Kz.= LoLIL"" [oC,
K3 P:: Lo L, C. + L.C"L I1 + ZL.L/llfC, + L, L"C,
k4 = 2 Lc~+L,-rLM

and after simplifying

LM1L,L",c)c, s·+ (L~L,+L/fIfC6 + ZLMCJ5t.rZ~_

--fr... _
F:. - (K, K,) S"+ (K, K3 + Kz )5 i + (K, K'f.-f K3 )SZ+ 1<4

To determine the natural frequency of the system, the characteristic

equation is set equal to zero.

(K, Kz.) 5' + ( K, K3 + K;z) 5 .,.+ (K, K4 + K3 ) 5 z. + K 4- = 0

The lumped parameter constants can be calculated by the following

formula developei by Reference 12.
Inductance of a tube section L = z e,e
-tr AI..
where: J = length of tube section (in)

f = fluid mass density

A~ = erossectional area of tube

R"3
 mDmIX,
{continued

Inductance of the load mass L~ • M

AI'%.
Where: M= mass of load reflected to the
actuator piston

effective piston area

Capacitance of' a tube section C = Z IlL. i.

7T Be
Where: 1 = length of tube section (in)

crosssectional area of tube

8e = effective bulk modulus of the

tube section

Capacitance of' the actuator ~ =__~~~e

{3~
_
where: Ve = effective volume of thp. actuator (in 3 )
~e = Total Actuator Volume (lb/in2)
Fluid Compliance

The lumped parameter constants were calculated to be:

SYSTEM Le- L LM Co C, Cc
I
PRESS~E
(#/in ) (#-sec 2 /in 5 ) (#-sec 2 /in 5 ) (#_sec 2 /in 5 ) (in 5/#) (in 5/#) (in 5/#)
10-2 . -5
3000 H39 x 10-§ 1.4 x 2.2 4 x 10 -33 1.09X10 5 73· 4xlO -55 73.4xlO-5
6000 282 x 10- 1.72 x 10-2 8.97 x 10- •698xlO- 30.4xlO- 30.0X10-§
9000 338 x 10- 5 2.07 x 10-2 20.2 x 10- 3 • 539xlO :§ 18.3xlO- 5 18.0X10-
12000 329 x 10- 5 2.00 x 10-2 35. 8 .x 10 -3 • 527xlO 12.7xlO- 5 12.4xlO- 5
 APPENDIX R
(continued)

SUbstituting tW2 lumped parameter constants into the characteristic

equation and sirnplifying gives the following:

3000 PSI SYSTEM

J3
S"+6.17><JO"S++ 7.74 x/O sz+z:1x/d'= 0

6000 PSI SYSTEM

b 1 4 /3 Z 11
3 + ('0. 84x}O 3 +5.60x/O 5 -t-J.Zlx/O=O
9000 PSI SYSTEM
4 2
je-+ i35 xlO"5 +5.34></0"5 +. ?05xlO'= 0

12000 PSI SYSTEM

3~ +''/75 x 10 15 f +.5: 6>OX/O'3 -5~ +. 8.53 xIO(~O

Substituting 5 -:' j (21T f) where -f equals frequency in CPS gives

the following re!sults:

SYST»1: PRESSURE
#/in2 -F (CPS)

r, = 117
3000 fi I: 136
f; = 1238

F, = 96.1
6000 F.t = 112
f, = 1310

f, = 82.4
9000 f ... = 109
r., = 1358

r; = 73.3
12000 F,. = 114
~ = 1395

R-5
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13· ABSTRACT This report d.r~cusses the results of a research and developnent progral'D.
directed toward an apalysis of theoretical factors attending the development of
ve~J high pressure Ilnid power systems, and an analysis ,of specific applications
thereof. The program consisted of four major tasks: llJ lnformation and data
search - a survey !,leading aircraft equipnent suppliers and chemical and
in,du~rial manufacturers was made to determ,ine the work already accomplished.
WEI '.~ (~e ~,~::;i~~ ~~o:~~ ~~~~;~~~o~~v~;~ tr:~:;~fo~~~~~w;~du~~ii:~~~o~~
,dfJsystem, ~ressure Su~g~,ontrol, ~~t generation and~heat rejection,
\'" .. ".~ examined and adjuste~/wnere necessary for applicability to very high
L pressure fluid systems. (~~ Y 1
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pressure fluid systems. 14 pothetical system requirements - the
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It was concluded that operating pressures up to 9000 psi are

applicable without extensive development.

~
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FORM
DD 1 JAN 64 1473
Security Classification
 Security Classification
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KEY WORDS
Yluid mechanics,
High pressure power systems
Research and development
Systems engineering
Power generation
Power transmission
Power utilization
Pressure surge control
Heat generation
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