BTP Report Rahul Final

12,000 MTPA DIMETHYL CARBONATE PRODUCTION
USING METHANOL AND UREA
A PROJECT REPORT
submitted in partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
By:
RAHUL SHRIVASTAV (14111032)

(GROUP 1, Production Factor 1)
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project titled – Dimethyl Carbonate Production using Methanol and
Urea which is hereby presented by Group 1 in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the
awarding of the degree of Bachelor of Technology at Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, is
a genuine account of his work carried out during the period from October 2017 to April 2018
under our supervision and guidance.
Date: April 16, 2018
Prof. Shishir Sinha

Head of Department
Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Roorkee
Dr. Vimal Chandra Srivastava

Associate Professor
Department of Chemical Engineering
IIT Roorkee
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is with a deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness that we express our sincere gratefulness to
our project guide Dr. V.C. Srivastava, Associate Professor, Department of Chemical
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, under whose able guidance, constant
supervision and encouragement, this work has been accomplished. We thank him for taking time
out of his busy schedule and aiding us with his priceless suggestions, encouragement and
cooperation, which in turn helped us, enhance the scientific merit of the present project work.
Without his guidance and mentorship, this work would have never reached its completion. The
constant motivation and support from him made us understand the depths of various techniques
and processes being used in current scenario.
We’d also like to thank our Institution and entire staff of Central Library, IIT Roorkee and
Departmental Library, IIT Roorkee who provided us with facilities for various books, research
papers and internet.

Index
I. General
II. Summary
Executive summary of the project… ............................................................................................ 6
III. Project Details
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 8
2. Project Description...................................................................................................................9
a. Uses and present status of the product/importance of the problem ................................. 9

b. (i) Available processes for the production of the product with brief description… ......... 10
(ii) Techno-economic appraisal of alternative processes/schemes… ............................... 13
(iii) Status of technologies/schemes available .................................................................. 13
(iv) Selection of technology/scheme… ............................................................................ 14
(v) Source of knowhow of selected process/technology… ............................................... 16
c. Raw Materials ...................................................................................................................... 16
(i) Detailed specifications… ............................................................................................. 17
(ii) Requirement of raw materials… ................................................................................. 18
(iii) Availability: indigenous/imported… ......................................................................... 18
(iv) Government policies for import of the raw materials… ............................................ 21
(v) Prevailing prices… ..................................................................................................... 22
(vi) Testing procedures for the raw materials… .............................................................. 22
3. Material and Energy Flow Information .................................................................................... 23
a. Material balance
b. Energy balance

4. Detailed Design of Equipment ................................................................................................. 38
a. Process design of all major equipment ............................................................................. 38

b. Mechanical design of three major equipment .................................................................. 79
c. Drawings of 2 equipment as per BIS specification of equipment
d. Design of Auxiliary Equipment ....................................................................................... 97
e. Major engineering problems of the plant with their possible remedies… ....................... 98
5. Materials Storage & Handling Facilities..................................................................................99
6. Process Instrumentation & Control and Safety Aspects ......................................................... 113
IV. Environmental Protection & Energy Conservation ........................................................ 117
1. Environmental Aspects ........................................................................................................... 117
a. Air Pollution…...............................................................................................................118
b. Liquid Effluents… ......................................................................................................... 122
c. Solids Disposal................................................................................................................125
d. Noise Pollution…............................................................................................................126
2. Energy Conservation .............................................................................................................. 129
a. Possible usage of renewable resources… ....................................................................... 129

b. Energy conservation options… ....................................................................................... 131
V. Plant Utilities
……………………………………………………………………………….131
1. Air for Process and Instrumentation ....................................................................................... 131
2. Heat Transfer Media ............................................................................................................... 135
3. Water ....................................................................................................................................... 138
a. Process and general water requirement and standards… ................................................ 138

b. Water treatment and storage facilities
c. Cooling tower/spray ponds
4. Refrigeration… ....................................................................................................................... 139
5. Electricity/Power…..................................................................................................................141
VI. Organizational Structure and Manpower Requirement ................................................ 142
1. Organizational structure with chart

2. Manpower requirement

VII. Market Prospects .............................................................................................................. 146
1. A brief analysis of demand and supply… ....................................................................... 146

2. Present production capacity… ........................................................................................ 148
3. Export potential (if any). ................................................................................................. 151
4. Marketing set-up and area of consumption… ................................................................. 152
VIII Site Selection & Project Lay-out ..................................................................................... 153
1. Critical points taken into consideration .

2. A plot lay-out of works
IX. Economic Evaluation & Profitability of the Project ....................................................... 162
1. Total project cost

2. Detailed statement indicating the cost of production
3. Cash flow chart
4. Break Even point with detailed calculation
5. Full justification of the selling price taken in the preparation of cash flow
6. Implementation schedule
X. References ............................................................................................................................. 167
1. References should be given as per the guidelines of American Chemical Society Journals.

II Executive Summary
This project is an attempt towards making a techno-economic evaluation of installing a 12,000

MTPA plant. For the production of dimethyl carbonate (DMC) using methanol and urea.
The main advantage of this technology lies in the usage (for the production of urea) of carbon
dioxide indirectly. This process can be used to convert a greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, to a
green chemical, dimethyl carbonate.
Cost Information
Total Fixed Capital Investment (Rs) 748,297,830
Total Working Capital (Rs) 76,871,270
Production Cost (Rs) 3,052,855,820
Gross Profit (Rs) 605,144,120
Payback period: 1.74 years
Selling Price at 100 % Production:
Employment Potential
The organization consists of 6 divisions, namely Administration, Personal (HR), Finance,
Production, Technical and Maintenance.
Division Number of Employees
Administration 14
Personal (HR) 5
Finance 5

Production 63
Technical 33
Maintenance 19
The plant has a total employment potential of 135 people.
Utilities
S.No Utility Consumption Rate, in $ Cost(per year $)
1 Steam(in ton) 579906 17.14 per ton 9,939,589
2 Power(in kwh) 97270272 50.07 $/ kWh 7,642,660
3 Water(in m3) 18272211.9 0.42 per m3 7,674,329
Total 25,256,578
Profitability of the Project

A minimum return rate of 13.41 % is assured.
For a break even, annual sales is 4208 tonnes per year.

III. Project Details
3.1. Introduction
3.1.1 Problem Statement and description
The project demands a Technical and Economic feasibility report checking for a proposed
project which will produce dimethyl carbonate from methanol and urea. Emphasis is to be laid
on the fact that owing to the multiple uses of dimethyl carbonate and limited competition in the
market, it offers huge export potential in the near future.
As part of this project the following are to be detailed out :
1. Project details and technology
2. Material and Energy flow information
3. Detailed design of equipments ( Process and Mechanical)
4. Material storage and handling facilities
5. Environment protection and energy conservation
6. Plant utilities
7. Organisational structure and manpower requirement
8. Market prospects
9. Site selection and project layout
10. Economic evaluation and profitability of the project

3.1.2 Introduction to the format of the report
The complete report has been extended to a Span of seven chapters, each chapter focusing on
dimension of the project.
● The first chapter covers summary of the project.

● The second chapter covers project details and problem statement analysis.
● The third chapter is the heart of the project. It is subdivided into three sections, each
dealing with a distinct topic. The chapter cover problem statement and description, a brief
literature review on various available process for production and basis of the final process
selection. Requirement, availability, specification and testing procedures for the raw
materials are also mentioned here. The next section in this chapter includes exhaustive
process designing of all the major equipments in the plant. Mechanical designs of the
some of the equipments have also been presented. Besides, the major engineering
problems of the plant and their possible remedies are also discussed
● The fourth chapter deals with environmental protection and energy conservation in the
plant. Possible sources of the pollutants of the all kinds are investigated and their
mitigation measure is suggested.
● Chapter five discusses in full detail the utilities involved in the plant. Considerations are
taken or various type of utilities their application range and their general facilities.
● Chapter Six discusses the market prospects of the DiMethyl carbonate.
● Site selection and project layout is covered in the seventh chapter. Alternative feasibility
sites and weighed and best site selected. A plant layout of the works showing mandatory
requirement is also attached.
● Chapter eight deals with assessment of the economic viability of the project. It shows in
detail the project cost estimation cash flow diagram, break even point analysis and
implementation schedule.
● The ninth chapter encompasses the organization structure and manpower requirement of
the project.

3.2. Project Description
3.2.a Uses and present status of the product
Dimethyl carbonate (DMC) (CH3OCOOCH3) has been considered as an environmentally benign

chemical and applied widely during the last few years because of its low toxicity and quick
biodegradation properties. Following are some of the uses of this ‘Green Chemical’.
● DMC is an important carbonylation and methylating reagent used in various fields such
as medicine, pesticides, composite materials, flavouring agent and electronic chemicals.
● It is considered as an additive for gasoline due to the enhancement of the octane number.
● It can be used as a polar solvent in the chemical industry.
● Paints and Coatings : Dimethyl Carbonate can be used as VOC exempt solvent in many
paints and coatings. DMC is a fast evaporating polar solvent. It can replace esters, glycol
ethers and ketones in formulations.
● Fuel Additive : Because of its high oxygen content, DMC can be used as a fuel additive.
● Li-ion Battery : Lithium ion battery electrolytes use organic carbonates such as diethyl
carbonate and complexes of lithium ions.
Although processes for the production of DMC are well-established, for example phosgenation
of methanol, oxidative carbonylation of methanol, and trans esterification of ethylene carbonate
with methanol; the synthesis of DMC utilizing CO2 is an option worth investigating since all
these techniques suffer from corresponding drawbacks such as toxicity, explosion hazards,
reaction routine complex, and low conversion, respectively.
Therefore, it is desirable to focus on new processes to avoid these shortcomings.
3.2.b.(i) Available processes for the production of DMC

Methods for the production of DMC can be classified into two: Conventional and Non-
conventional methods.

Conventional Routes:
● Phosgene Route,
● BAYER Route (Partial carbonylation of methanol)
Non-conventional Routes: These are CO2 based routes of production.
● Urea Route
● Synthesis from CO2 and Methanol
● Propylene Carbonate Route
● Ethylene Carbonate Route
Phosgene Route
This process employs the traditional (pre-1980) method to produce DMC. Here phosgene reacts
with methanol to form methyl chloroformate (CH3OCOCl), which further reacts with methanol
to form DMC.
COCl2 + 2 CH3OH ⇌ (CH3O)2CO+ 2 HCl
Partial carbonylation of methanol
This non-phosgene process produces DMC by reacting methanol, carbon monoxide and oxygen
in liquid phase, in the presence of a catalyst. The process has been licensed by BAYER for
commercial production of DMC.
CO + ½ O2 + 2 CH3OH ⇌ (CH3O)2CO + H2O
Urea Route

In this process, methanol is added to urea for the alcoholysis reaction to produce DMC. It has
been reported that the process involves a two-step reaction with methyl carbamate as the reaction
intermediate.
NH2CONH2 + CH3OH ⇌ NH2COOCH3 + NH3
NH2COOCH3 + CH3OH ⇌ CH3OCOOCH3 + NH3
Synthesis from CO2 and Methanol

For the direct use of CO2 to produce DMC, it has been reported that CO2 could react with
methanol at critical temperature and critical pressure of CO2 . Under mild conditions, a basic
catalyst (ZrO2–MgO), a promoter (methyl iodide) and butylene oxide as a chemical trap to shift
the chemical equilibrium are needed (Eta et al., 2011).
CO2 + 2 CH3OH ⇌ (CH3O)2CO + H2O
Propylene Carbonate Route

DMC can be obtained through the transesterification of propylene carbonate and methanol.
Various types of catalysts can be used such as basic quaternary ammonium ion exchange resins
with hydroxide counterions.
C3H6O + CO2 ⇌ CH3(C2H3O2)CO
CH3(C2H3O2)CO + 2 CH3OH ⇌ (CH3O)2CO + C3H8O2

Ethylene Carbonate Route
Transesterification of ethylene carbonate with methanol produces DMC and ethylene glycol.
Various types of catalysts can be used, such as poly-4-vinyl pyridine as a novel base catalyst and
DABCO-derived (1,4-diazobicyclo[2.2.2]octane) basic ionic liquids.
C2H4O + CO2 ⇌ (CH2O)2CO
(CH2O)2CO + 2 CH3OH ⇌ (CH3O)2CO + (CH2OH)2
3.2.b.(ii) Techno-Economic appraisal of alternate processes :
DMC can be used as a precursor for carbonic acid derivatives and as a methylating agent.
Because of its high oxygen content, DMC has been proposed as a replacement for methyl tert-
butyl ether (MTBE) as a fuel additive.
The process of oxidative carbonylation of methanol on unsupported cuprous chloride suffers

from catalyst deactivation, equipment corrosion, and difficulties in product separation, a number
of alternative approaches have been investigated. These include cycloaddition of CO2 to
epoxides with the use of titanosilicate molecular sieves, various transesterification methods,
methanol carboxylation over zirconia, and electrochemical oxidative carbonylation of methanol .
From a thermodynamic standpoint, the oxidative carbonylation of methanol remains the most
favorable reaction.
To overcome problems with catalyst separation inherent in liquid-phase processes, recent interest
has focused on vapor-phase oxidative carbonylation of methanol over supported copper-based
catalysts. CuCl and CuCl2 supported on activated carbon have been evaluated by a number of
groups because of the inherent similarity of such catalysts to those used in the liquid-phase
system . CuCl, CuCl2, and bimetallic PdCl2-CuCl2 deposited on mesoporous silica supports
(HMS silica, MCM-41, and SBA-15) have also been evaluated.
3.2.b.(iii) Status of technologies/schemes available
Although Phosgene route is a conventional route to produce DMC, phosgene is an extremely

hazardous material and is classified by the US Department of Transportation (DOT) as a class-A

poison. Therefore due to the inherent hazards and potential environmental problems in handling
and waste disposal, it is crucial that this method is replaced by a more sustainable method.
With regard to the BAYER Process, the process suffers from low production rate, difficulties in
downstream separation because of the existence of binary azeotropes in the system methanol-
water-DMC, and the need for corrosion resistant reactors.
Urea route has many inherent advantages such as the consumption of CO2 as a raw material and
the ability to recycle the waste NH3 stream for the production of Urea, thus making the process
even more sustainable.
DMC synthesis from the direct reaction of urea and methanol using bases, organic tin, metal
oxides, and ionic liquids has been reported. However, the corresponding DMC yields were
usually below 40% in the batch reactor.
3.2.b.(iv) Selection of Technology/Scheme:
Compared to the traditional routes, Urea route is one such method that has many advantages such
as
● Usage of CO2 as a raw material: This method is a potential strategy to counter the large
scale emission of CO2 by using it as a chemical feedstock for conversion to more
valuable chemical.
● Easy availability of raw material and safe operations: Having easily available raw
materials such as urea and methanol is an advantage. Also this method does not involve
any hazardous chemicals (like phosgene), thus it is inherently safer.
● Ammonia released during the reaction could be recycled for urea synthesis. Moreover
urea synthesis can be integrated with the DMC production plant to enhance the
sustainability of the overall process.
In view of the above advantages, Urea route of DMC production was chosen for this project.

Technical Details of the Urea Route of Production
This manufacturing route comprises of two reactions:-
NH2CONH2 + CH3OH → NH2COOCH3 + NH3
NH2COOCH3 + CH3OH → CH3OCOOCH3 + NH3
The intermediate methyl carbamate (MC) (NH2COOCH3) is produced first and further converted
to DMC by the consecutive reaction with methanol.
Different catalytic studies performed for DMC synthesis from urea and methanol were studied
from the literature. Zn-based catalysts have been widely recommended for the synthesis of DMC
from urea or MC.
DMC is produced by the reaction of urea with methanol via intermediate methyl carbamate
(MC). In addition, ammonia released during reaction could be recycled for urea synthesis. No
poisonous or corrosive gases were involved in this approach, and naturally abundant carbon
dioxide was used as one of the starting materials. Those features made the direct carbonate
synthesis more attractive from the environmental perspective. Catalysts in the direct synthesis
method reported in the literature were bases,16,17 organotin catalysts,18-21 and metal
oxides.16,17,22-24 The corresponding DMC yields were usually low (below 40%) in the batch
reactors. Ryu et al.19 have patented a novel process, in which DMC was withdrawn during
reaction via a reflux column above an autoclave reactor in the presence of organotin catalysts. A
high DMC selectivity was obtained, but the organotin and cocatalyst were very complex,
expensive, and difficult to handle. Sun25 and his co-workers reported a new process using
polyphosphoric acid as the catalyst as well as an ammonia captor. The DMC yield in the batch
operation was improved. Ammonium polyphosphate was however precipitated in the reactor
during reaction, which caused problems in operation and separation. In our previous work, ZnO
exhibited high activity toward the DMC synthesis.17 It was simple and nontoxic in comparison
with the tin compounds. In this work, a new strategy was proposed for the DMC synthesis from
urea and methanol based on the analysis of thermodynamic equilibrium and side reactions. The

objective was to increase the DMC yield using catalytic distillation technique over a Zn-based
catalyst.
3.2.b.(v) Source or know how of selected process/technology
● Pichayapan Kongpannaa, Varong Pavarajarnb, Rafiqul Ganic, Suttichai

Assabumrungrata: Techno-economic evaluation of different CO2-based processes for
dimethyl carbonate production
● Dengfeng Wang,Xuelan Zhang, Wei Wei, Yuhan Sun2: Synthesis of Dimethyl Carbonate
from Methyl Carbamate and Methanol Using a Fixed-Bed Reactor
● Kartikeya Shukla and Vimal Chandra Srivastava: Synthesis of organic carbonates from
alcoholysis of urea: A Review
3.2.c Raw Materials
(i) Detailed specifications
Urea:
Urea Specifications
CAS No. 57-13-6
State Prilled
Molecular weight: 60.60 g/mol
Water solubility: Soluble
Density 1.335g/cm3
Urea Coating: No anti-caking agent
MF CH4N2O
Melting point 132.7°C
Nitrogen 46.60%
Moisture 0.36%
Biuret 0.80%

Alkalinity (NH3) 0.02%
Aldehyde 0.8 mg/kg
Insoluble matter 11 mg/kg
Iron (Fe) 0.46 mg/kg
Source:https://www.alibaba.com/product-deta
Methanol:
Methanol Specifications
CAS No. 67-56-1
Appearance colorless, transparent
Molecular weight: 32.04 g/mol
Melting point -97.8°C
Boiling Point 64.7°C
Relative Density 0.7914
Refractive Index 1.3287
Flash Point 16°C
Table No 3.2.1
Test Items Standard Results
Titratable Acid. mmol/g Max 0.0005 0.0003
Titratable Base. mmol/g Max 0.0002 0.00008
Solubility in H2O Pass test Pass test
UV Absorbance,(1.00-cm cell vs.water)

at 205 nm Max 1.00 0.708
at 210 nm Max 0.60 0.411
at 220 nm Max 0.30 0.197
at 230 nm Max 0.15 0.086
at 240 nm Max 0.05 0.033

at 260 nm Max 0.01 0.006
Source:https://www.alibaba.com/product-detail/industrial-methanol
3.2.c.(ii) Requirement of raw materials and basic assumptions made in computing the raw
material requirement for producing 12,000 TPA DMC
Amount of Urea required: 12,000 TPA

Amount of Methanol required: 16,380 TPA
Computation and basic assumptions:-

After reviewing the literature, a conversion of 40% was taken for calculation of raw material.
Using 12,000 TPA DMC, moles produced were calculated, which were back substituted to find
the theoretical moles of raw materials required. The actual moles required was calculated by
back substitution, using the yield data. Finally a 5% provision was included for the unavoidable
losses and the molar data was converted back to MMTPA.

3.2.c.(iii) Availability: indigenous/imported
Urea:
Import of Urea in last few Years
Production of Urea in last few Years

Methanol:
Methanol Stats for Imports, exports and net Imports
Methanol stats Indian capacity, consumptions and domestic production

3.2.c.(iv) Government Policies on Import of raw materials
Urea:
Policies on import of urea have seen many changes with the change in government every five
years
Subsidy Provided by the government of india

Internal Product: 13,700₹ per Metric Ton
Imports: 37,898₹ per Metric Ton
Sr .no Acts/Sections Subject

1 Fertilizer Control Order, 1985 This has been issued under the Essential Commodities
Act, 1955 and is administered by Department of
Fertilizers in the Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers,
Govt. of India. The FCO lays down as to what
substances qualify for use as fertilizers in the soil,
product-wise specifications, methods for sampling and
analysis of fertilizers, procedure for obtaining
license/registration as manufacturer/importer/dealer in
fertilizers and conditions to be fulfilled for trading
thereof, etc.
2 ITC (HS)- Schedule I and 2 Under ITC (HS) Code 31021000, it provides that
import and export of Urea is restricted.
● Urea other than Industrial grade/Technical
Grade can be imported by STE only. Industrial
grade/Technical grade urea can be imported
without license subject to actual user condition.
● Export of Urea is restricted and requires export
licence from office of the DGFT.
3 DGFT notification No. 4 /2015-2020,dated It amends the ITC (HS) to provide that w.e.f.
28.04.2015 [Issued under Para 1.02 and 2.01 of 28.04.2015, Import of Industrial Urea /Technical Grade
FTP read with Section 3 of the FT (D&R) Act, Urea (TGU) is free, Subject to Actual User condition.
1992 (Administrative Ministry: Ministry of Urea of grade other than Industrial/Technical grade can
Commerce & Industry, Department of only be imported through State Trading Enterprises
Commerce). only.

Methanol:
There are no quantitative or other restriction on the import of methanol other than few
obligations as per international convention.
On Import of Methanol government of india imposes three tier tax scheme
Basic Duty: 10%
Countervailing Duty: 12%
Special Countervailing Duty: 4%
(v) Prevailing Price

Urea Price: 150$ per ton
Methanol Price: 250$ per ton
(vi) Testing procedures for the raw materials
Urea:
In industries two major techniques are used to measure percentage purity of urea:
● Near-Infrared Spectroscopy
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is a spectroscopic method that uses the near-infrared
region of the electromagnetic spectrum (from about 700 nm to 2500 nm). Typical
applications include medical and physiological diagnostics and research including blood
sugar, pulse oximetry, functional neuroimaging, sports medicine, elite sports training,
ergonomics, rehabilitation, neonatal research, brain computer interface, urology (bladder
contraction), and neurology (neurovascular coupling). There are also applications in other
areas as well such as pharmaceutical, food and agrochemical quality control, atmospheric
chemistry, combustion research and astronomy.
● Kjeldahl Method
The Kjeldahl method or Kjeldahl digestion in analytical chemistry is a method for the
quantitative determination of nitrogen contained in organic substances plus the nitrogen
in inorganic ammonia and ammonium (NH3/NH4+). Other forms of inorganic nitrogen,
for instance nitrate, are not included in this measurement. This method was developed by
Johan in 1883.

3. Material and Energy Flow Information
Material Balance Calculations
Material Balance calculations were carried out using simulations in Aspen Plus software, except
the reactor block, which was solved by hand calculations using the yield data reported in the
research paper mentioned in the reference. HYSSRK method was used for calculations of all
the unit operations. The material balance result obtained from simulation for all the individual
unit operations is shown below.
Reactor
Process Specifications
Reactor REAC-IN REAC-OUT

Temperature
°C 53.32998 170
Pressure bar 1 1
Vapor Frac 1 1
Liquid Frac 0 0
Material Balances
Component Molar
Flow kmol/hr
NH3 6.096876 95.13
METHANOL 1320.574 1265.84
WATER 0 0

DMC 0.0662855 19.59
MC 0.00E+00 32.49
UREA 69 0
Total Flow kmol/hr 1395.737 1413.05
Total Flow kg/hr 46567.69 46383.94
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -169620000 -183750000

Enthalpy Watt -65761000 -72125000
Cooler
Cooler REAC-OUT COLD-STR

Temperature
°C 170 80
Pressure bar 1 1
Vapor Frac 1 0.9812263
Liquid Frac 0 0.0187737
Material Balances
Component Molar
Flow kmol/hr
NH3 95.13 95.13
METHANOL 1265.84 1265.84
WATER 0 0
DMC 19.59 19.59

MC 32.49 32.49
UREA 0 0
Total Flow kg/hr 46383.94 46383.94
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -183750000 -189300000

Enthalpy Watt -72125000 -74305000
Distillation Column 1
Distillation C-1 COLD-STR DC1-BTM DC1-TOP

Temperature
°C 80 107.3366 32.75723
Pressure bar 1 1 1
Vapor Frac 0.9812263 0 0
Liquid Frac 0.0187737 1 1
Material Balances
Mole Flow kmol/hr

NH3 95.13 7.08E-10 95.13
METHANOL 1265.84 8.975058 1256.865
WATER 0 0 0
DMC 19.59 0.9264426 18.66356
MC 32.49 32.49 6.91E-08
UREA 0 0 0
Total Flow kmol/hr 1413.05 42.3915 1370.659
Total Flow kg/hr 46383.94 2809.968 43573.98
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -189300000 -89996000 -234270000

Enthalpy Watt -74305000 -1059700 -89196000
Pump
Pump DC1-TOP LIQ-1

Temperature
°C 32.75723 33.47633
Pressure bar 1 30
Vapor Frac 0 0
Liquid Frac 1 1
Material Balances

Component Molar
Flow kmol/hr
NH3 95.13 95.13
METHANOL 1256.865 1256.865
WATER 0 0
DMC 18.66356 18.66356
MC 6.91E-08 6.91E-08
UREA 0 0
Total Flow kmol/hr 1370.659 1.37E+03
Total Flow kg/hr 43573.98 43573.98
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -234270000 -234080000

Enthalpy Watt -89196000 -89124000
Distillation C-2 LIQ-1 DC2-BTM DC2-TOP

Temperature
°C 33.47633 190.4547 170.302
Pressure bar 30 30 30

Vapor Frac 0 0 0
Liquid Frac 1 1 1
Material Balances
Mole Flow kmol/hr

NH3 95.13 0.00486213 86.06514
METHANOL 1256.865 223.7292 913.4251
WATER 0 0 0
DMC 18.66356 16.84841 0.043145
MC 6.91E-08 6.25E-08 1.22E-27
UREA 0 0 0
Total Flow
kmol/hr 1.37E+03 240.5825 999.5334
Total Flow kg/hr 43573.98 8686.536 30737.74
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -234080000 -244220000 -208110000

Enthalpy Watt -89124000 -16321000 -57780000
Valve
Valve DC2-BTM DC3-IN

Temperature
°C 190.4547 170.4644
Pressure bar 30 20

Material Balances
Component Molar
Flow kmol/hr
NH3 0.00486213 0.00537384
METHANOL 223.7292 247.2865
WATER 0 0
DMC 16.84841 18.61589
MC 6.25E-08 6.91E-08
UREA 0 0
Total Flow
kmol/hr 240.5825 265.9077
Total Flow kg/hr 8686.536 9600.582
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -244220000 -244220000

Enthalpy Watt -16321000 -18039000
Distillation C-3 DC3-IN DC3-BTM DC3-TOP

Temperature
°C 170.4644 210.7092 168.2422
Vapor Frac 0.134518 0 0
Liquid Frac 0.865482 1 1
Material Balances
Mole Flow kmol/hr

NH3 0.00537384 2.46E-16 0.00537384
METHANOL 247.2865 2.472865 244.8136
WATER 0 0 0
DMC 18.61589 18.59727 0.0186158
MC 6.91E-08 6.91E-08 0.00E+00
UREA 0 0 0
Total Flow kg/hr 9600.582 1754.457 7846.126
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -244220000 -531560000 -223200000

Enthalpy Watt -18039000 -3111100 -15180000
Valve 2

Valve 2 DC3-TOP S6
Temperature
°C 168.2422 66.76251
Pressure bar 20 1
Material Balances
Component Molar
Flow kmol/hr
NH3 0.00537384 0.00537384
METHANOL 244.8136 244.8136
WATER 0 0
DMC 0.0186158 0.0186158
MC 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
UREA 0 0
Total Flow
kmol/hr 244.8376 244.8376
Total Flow kg/hr 7846.126 7846.126
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -223200000 -223200000

Enthalpy Watt -15180000 -15180000
Cooler 2

Cooler 2 S6 S7
Temperature
°C 66.76251 15
Pressure bar 1 1
Vapor Frac 0.3714046 0
Liquid Frac 0.6285954 1
Material Balances
Component Molar
Flow kmol/hr
NH3 0.00537384 0.00537384
METHANOL 244.8136 244.8136
WATER 0 0
DMC 0.0186158 0.0186158
MC 0.00E+00 0.00E+00
UREA 0 0
Total Flow kg/hr 7846.126 7846.126
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -223200000 -243600000

Enthalpy Watt -15180000 -16568000

Distillation C-4 DC3-BTM DC4-BTM DC4-TOP

Temperature
°C 210.7092 218.6633 174.626
Vapor Frac 0 0 0
Liquid Frac 1 1 1
Material Balances
Mole Flow kmol/hr

NH3 2.46E-16 0 0
METHANOL 2.472865 0.2834277 2.189437
WATER 0 0 0
DMC 18.59727 18.04759 0.5496806
MC 6.91E-08 6.91E-08 3.36E-20
UREA 0 0 0
Total Flow kg/hr 1754.457 1634.788 119.6689
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -531560000 -566290000 -293810000

Enthalpy Watt -3111100 -2883500 -223550
Flash

Flash DC2-TOP S9 S10

Temperature
°C 170.302 61.74774 61.74774
Pressure bar 30 1 1
Vapor Frac 0 1 0
Liquid Frac 1 0 1
Material Balances
Component Molar
Flow kmol/hr
NH3 86.06514 89.93245 5.192178
METHANOL 913.4251 381.7845 627.794
WATER 0 0 0
DMC 0.043145 0.0142802 0.0333893
MC 1.22E-27 0 0
UREA 0 0 0
Total Flow kg/hr 30737.74 13766.09 20207.31
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -208110000 -169930000 -236550000

Enthalpy Watt -57780000 -22267000 -41596000

Distillation C-5 S9 DC5-BTM DC5-TOP

Temperature
°C 61.74774 65.29137 8.025282
Pressure bar 1 1 1
Vapor Frac 1 0 1
Liquid Frac 0 1 0
Material Balances
Mole Flow kmol/hr

NH3 89.93245 0.8993245 89.03312
METHANOL 381.7845 377.9666 3.817845
WATER 0 0 0
DMC 0.0142802 0.0142802 0
MC 0 0 0
UREA 0 0 0
Total Flow kg/hr 13766.09 12127.47 1638.616
Enthalpy Balances

Enthalpy J/kmol -169930000 -237120000 -52944000
Enthalpy Watt -22267000 -24956000 -1365500
Mixer
Mixer DC5-BTM S7 S10 FEED REAC-IN

Temperature
°C 65.29137 15 61.74774 25 533.2998
Pressure bar 1 1 1 1 1
Vapor Frac 0 0 0 0.5035971 1
Liquid Frac 1 1 1 0.4964029 0
Material Balances
Component Molar
Flow kmol/hr
NH3 0.8993245 0.00537384 5.192178 0 6.096876
METHANOL 377.9666 244.8136 627.794 70 1320.574
WATER 0 0 0 0 0
DMC 0.0142802 0.0186158 0.0333893 0 0.0662855
MC 0 0.00E+00 0 0 0.00E+00
UREA 0 0 0 69 69
Total Flow kmol/hr 378.8802 244.8376 633.0195 139 1395.737

Total Flow kg/hr 12127.47 7846.126 20207.31 6386.79 46567.69
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -237120000 -243600000 -236550000 449571000 -169620000

Enthalpy Watt -24956000 -16568000 -41596000 17358400 -65761000
Distillation C-6 DC1-BTM S3 MC

Temperature C 107.3366 67.51201 188.175
Pressure bar 1 1 1
Vapor Frac 0 0 0
Liquid Frac 1 1 1
Material Balances
Mole Flow kmol/hr

NH3 6.06E-10 6.06E-10 1.65E-15
METHANOL 7.691363 7.651949 0.0394145
WATER 0 0 0
DMC 0.7940368 0.7027648 0.091272
MC 27.85 0.00242851 27.84757
UREA 0 0 0

Total Flow kg/hr 2408.596 308.6715 2099.925
Enthalpy Balances
Enthalpy J/kmol -89986000 -267510000 -26914000

Enthalpy Watt -908240 -621010 -209170
3.4. Material Storage and Handling Facilities
a. Distillation Column 1 Design

Column Diameter
Column Specifications:-
Feed (F): 33.6mol/s
Reflux Ratio (R): 1.5
Distillate Rate (D): 19.6 mol/s
Bottoms Rate (B): 13.9 mol/s
No. of real stages: 36
Flow rate Calculations:-

Rectifying section:-
V = D(1+R) = 19.6*(1+1.5) = 49 mol/s
L = D x R = 19.6*1.5 = 29.4
mol/s
Stripping Section:-
L′m = L + liq part of F
= 29.4 + 33.6
= 63 mol/s
V ′m = V - vapor part in F
= 49 - 0
= 49 mol/s

Calculation of Column Diameter:
ρV 1.25
F bottom = L′m = 19.05 x = 0.109
LV V ′m √ ρL
7.26
√ 720
L ρV
F top = = 19.05 x 1.01 = 0.002
LV V √ ρL 400.05 √ 755.09
Taking plate spacing as 0.45 m
Base K1 = 0.08
Top K 1 = 0 .078
ρL − ρV
√ √
720 − 1.25
Base uf = K 1 ρV = 0.08 x 1.25
= 1.92 m/s
√ √
ρL − ρV 755.09 − 1.01
Top uf = K 1 ρV = 0.078 x 1.01 = 2.13 m/s
Where uf = flooding velocity
Actual velocity = 0.8 x flooding velocity
Base actual vel = 1.536 m/s
Top actual vel = 1.704 m/s
Max V apor volumetric f low rate 2

Net Area (base) = = 2.98 m
actual vel

Net Area (top) = = 1.088 m
actual vel
Taking downcomer area as 12% of the total,
2
Total Area (base) A = Net Area
c = 0.121 m
0.88

Column Diameter (base) Dc = 2.076 m
2
Total Area (top) A = Net Area
c = 10.734 m
0.88
Column Diameter (top) Dc = 1.254 m
As bottom diameter > top diameter
Dc = 2.076 m
Provisional plate design

Column diameter Dc =2.076 m
Column area Ac = 3.383 m2
Downcomer area Ad = 0.12 x Ac = 0.406 m2
Net Area An = Ac − Ad = 2.977 m2
Active area Aa = Ac - 2Ad = 2.571 m2
Taking Hole area Ah as 10 per cent of Aa = 0.20571 m2 (Initially Ah was taken as 5 % of Aa but
in that case the weeping criteria was not met)

From the above graph, Weir length (lw) = 1.58m
Taking: weir height = 50mm

Hole diameter = 5mm
Plate thickness = 5mm
Check weeping
Maximum liquid rate = 7.37 kg/s

Minimum liquid rate, at 70 per cent turn-down = 5.159 kg/s
Lw,max 2/3
Maximum how =750x ( ρ l ) = 26.064mm liquid
l w
Lw,min 2/3
Minimum how = 750x ( ρ l ) = 20.55 mm liquid
lw
At minimum rate hw + how = 50 + 20.55 =70.55 mm

K2 = 30.5

k2−0.9(25.4−dh)
Uh (min) = = 12.08 m/s
ρ v 0.5
minimum vapor rate

Actual minimum vapor velocity = = 27.81 m/s
Ah
Actual vapour velocity > minimum vapour velocity → Satisfied !!
Plate Pressure Drop

Dry plate drop
Maximum vapour velocity through holes uh = 27.5 m/s
Orifice Coefficient = 0.795
uh 2 ρv
H = 51x ( ) = 85.6052 mm liquid
d C 0 ρl
12500
Residual head hr = = 17.36mm liquid
ρl
Total plate pressure drop ht = 152.96 mm liquid

Downcomer liquid back-up
Downcomer pressure loss

Take hap = hw – 10 = 40mm
Area under apron, Aap = 40*3.675*10-3 = 0.0632m2

using Aap
Lwl 2
Hdc = 166x ( ρl A m
) = 4.35 mm
Back up in downcomer
Hb = 233.374 mm liquid = 0.233 m
½ x (Plate spacing + Weir height) = 250 mm liquid

So plate spacing is acceptable.
Residence time tr = 2.26 x 0.225 x 785 / 19.82

= 9.24 s
As tr is greater than 9.24 s hence satisfactory.
Entrainment
Uv = 2.47 m/s
%flooding = UUn = 80.34
f

So φ = 0.09 (well below 0.1)
Perforated Area
θc = 1000
Angle subtended = 1800 -1000 = 800
Mean length = 2.83 m
area of unperforated edge strips = 0.1415 m2
Mean length of calming zone = 1.63m

Area of calming zone = 0.163 m2
Total area = Ap = 2.2665 m2

Ah
= 0.0907
Ap
Lp
=2.9
Dh

Area of each hole = 1.964x 10−5
Ah
Number of holes = = 10473
1.964x10−5
b. Distillation Column 3 Design

Column Diameter
Feed (F): 73.91 mol/s
Reflux Ratio (R): 1.77

V = D(1+R) = 68.50(1+1.177) = 188.49 mol/s
L = D x R = 120.45 mol/s
Stripping Section:-
= 184.38 + 0
= 184.38 mol/s
= 188.49 - 10
= 178.5 mol/s

ρV 17.46
F bottom = L′m = 184.38 x = 0.179
LV V ′m √ ρL
178.5
√ 580.4

L ρV
F top = = 184.38 x 23.5 = 0.126
LV V √ ρL
188.49
√ 600.6
Base K1 = 0.034
Top K 1 = 0 .061
ρL − ρV
Base uf = K 1 √ ρV = 0.034 x
√
580.4 − 17.46
17.46
= 0.19 m/s
√ √
ρL − ρV 600.6 − 23.5
Top uf = K 1 ρV = 0.061 x 23.5 = 0.30 m/s

actual vel

actual vel
2
c = 2.256 m
0.88
2
c = 1.207 m
0.88

As top diameter < bottom diameter
Dc = 1.240 m

Column diameter Dc = 1.69 m
Taking Hole area Ah as 10 per cent of Aa = 0.085 m2 (Initially Ah was taken as 5 % of Aa but in
that case the weeping criteria was not met)

Hole diameter = 5mm
Check weeping

Lw,max 2/3
Maximum how =750x ( ρ l ) =280.36 mm liquid
l w
Lw,min 2/3
lw

K2 = 30.7
k2−0.9(25.4−dh)
Uh (min) = = 2.958 m/s
ρ v 0.5
minimum vapor rate

Ah
Plate Pressure Drop

Dry plate drop

uh 2 ρv
H = 51x ( ) = 47.93 mm liquid
d C 0 ρl
12500
Residual head hr = = 21.54 mm liquid
ρl


using Aap
Lwl 2
Hdc = 166x ( ) = 9.274 mm
ρl A m
Hb = 229.57 mm liquid
½ x (Plate spacing + Weir height) = 250mm liquid


=5.36 s
As tr is greater than 3 s hence satisfactory.
Entrainment
Uv = 0.13 m/s
f
Perforated Area

θc = 1000
Area = 0.11 m2

2
Total area = Ap = 1.458 m
Ah
= 0.058
Ap
Lp
=3.1
Dh
Ah
Number of holes = = 4337.95
1.964x10−5

c. Distillation Column 4 Design
Column Diameter
Feed (F): 5.86 mol/s
Reflux Ratio (R): 6

V = D(1+R) = 0.756(1+6) = 5.292 mol/s
L = D x R = 4.536 mol/s
Stripping Section:-
= 4.536 + 5.759
= 10.395 mol/s
= 5.292 - 0
= 5.292 mol/s

ρV 17.46
F bottom = L′m = 10.395 x = 0.491
LV V ′m √ ρL
5.292
√ 353.2
L ρV
F top = = 10.395 x 43.44 = 0.295
LV V √ ρL
5.292
√ 366.41

Base K1 = 0.046
Top K 1 = 0 .056
ρL − ρV
√ √
353.2 − 17.46
Base uf = K 1 ρV = 0.046 x 17.46
= 0.17 m/s
√ √
ρL − ρV 366.41 − 43.44
Top uf = K 1 ρV = 0.056 x 43.44 = 0.15 m/s

actual vel

actual vel
2
c = 0.135 m
0.88
2
c = 0.049 m
0.88
As top diameter < bottom diameter
Dc = 0.25 m

Column diameter Dc = 0.41 m
Taking Hole area Ah as 10 per cent of Aa = 0.005 m2 (Initially Ah was taken as 5 % of Aa but in
that case the weeping criteria was not met)

Hole diameter = 5mm

Check weeping

Lw,max 2/3
Maximum how =750x ( ρ l ) =101.29 mm liquid
l w
Lw,min 2/3
lw

K2 = 30.7\6
k2−0.9(25.4−dh)
Uh (min) = = 2.524 m/s
ρ v 0.5
minimum vapor rate

Ah
Plate Pressure Drop

Dry plate drop
uh 2 ρv
H = 51x ( ) = 88.55 mm liquid
d C 0 ρl

12500
Residual head hr = = 35.39 mm liquid
ρl


using Aap
Lwl 2
Hdc = 166x ( ρ A ) = 7.518 mm
l m
Hb = 241.72 mm liquid
½ x (Plate spacing + Weir height) = 250 mm liquid


=1.52 s
As tr is greater than 1.52 s hence satisfactory.
Entrainment
Uv = 0.046 m/s
f
Perforated Area
θc = 980
Area = 0.02 m2


2
Total area = Ap = 0.04 m
Ah
= 0.125
Ap
Lp
=4.1
Dh
Ah
Number of holes = = 255.31
1.964x10−5
REACTOR
The feed components to the reactor are Urea and Methanol in the molar ratio of 1:20.
The output stream from the reactor has methyl carbamate, methanol, dimethyl carbonate and
ammonia in the molar ratio of 0.023, 0.89, 0.014 and 0.067 respectively.
The operating conditions of the reactor are : T = 170 degree Celsius & P = 1 bar.
At this temperature all the components are in gaseous state. Because of the low operating
pressure and high temperature the gases are assumed to be ideal.
The output of the reactor and the input were related by the conversion data obtained from
literature. Furthermore, the space time was obtained from a plot between mole fraction of DMC
in output versus space time given in the literature.
Gas viscosities have been calculated as shown below while densities have been calculated using
the equation :
ρ= PM
RT

μ =2.6693x10-5 √MT
σ 2Ω
M : Molecular Mass (kg/mol)
σ : Characteristic diameter of molecule (A)
Ω : Dimensionless constant
μ : Viscosity (g/s.cm)
T : Temperature (K)
R : Universal gas constant
σ = 2.44( T Pc )0.33
c
T : Critical Temperature
c
Pc: Critical Pressure
ε
Ω is a function of
kT
. THe critical properties of various components are as follows :
Components Tc (K) Pc(atm)
Methyl Carbamate 592.23 57.77
Methanol 513 78.5
Urea 638 76.34
DMC 557 147.13
Table 1 : critical temperatures and critical pressures

Viscosity and density of the feed have been taken as the respective value of methanol since it is
present in excess. The outlet stream viscosity and density has been calculated by multiplying
viscosity and density of each component with its mole fraction.
Characteristic diameter
Components Ω
ε
(Ȧ)
kT
Methyl Carbamate 5.30 1.0293 1.5735
Methanol 4.56 0.8916 1.6820
Urea 4.94 1.1089 1.5186
DMC 3.80 0.9681 1.6363
Table 2 : Ω & σ of various components
Components Inlet mol fraction Outlet mol fraction Viscosity (Pa-s) Density (kg/m3)
-6
Methyl Carbamate 0 0.023 11.008 X 10 2.0363
-6
Methanol 029523 0.89 11.81 X 10 0.881
Urea 0.0476 ~0
-6
DMC 0 0.067 22.57 X 10 2.482
Table 3 : μ & ρ of various components
So the averaged viscosity and density of inlet and outlet streams are :

Stream Average viscosity (Pa-s) Average Density (kg/m3)
-6
Inlet 9.092 X 10 881
-6
Outlet 8.69 X 10 0.866
Table 3 : μ & ρ of various streams
From literature,
Space time τ = 0.3 kgcat h mol-1
Amount of catalyst (W )
Where τ is defined as τ = Feed molar f lowrate (F
cat
)
Hence Wcat = 0.3 X F = 398834.4 kg
Wcat
Vcat = ρ
cat
We are using ZnO pellets, both as the packing material as well as the catalyst
ρcat = 5610 kg/m3
Wcat
Vcat = 5610 = 72 m3
Taking random packing density to be 62 %
Volume of packed bed,
V cat
Vbed = 0.62
= 116.1 m3
In order to ensure close temperature control, multi tubular fixed reactor was chosen

All the reactor tubes were placed inside an enclosing shell with triangular pitch
pitch was taken to be 1.25 times of diameter of individual tube (do)
Number of total tubes that can be enclosed inside the enclosing shell was calculated using
D n
Nt = K 1 (do b )1
where Nt = Total number of fixed bed tubes

Db = Bundle diameter
do = Diameter of individual fixed bed tube
Using the above formula, following values were calculated after iterating for a multiple number
of times, in order to obtain feasible reactor dimensions and keeping the constraint that
πdo2
4
L N t = V bed
where L = length of bed
Using the above procedure following results were obtained,
Two identical reactors would be placed in parallel with the following dimensions
Db = 5 m
do = 0.3 m
NT = 132
L = 6.5 m
Pressure Drop Calculation
Using Ergun’s Equation
ΔP 150μ(1−ε2)v 1.75(1−ε)ρv2
L = ε2 Dp 2
+ ε2Dp
ΔP : Pressure drop
L : Length of each reactor column (m)

μ : Fluid Viscosity (Pa-s)
ε : void space of the bed
V : superficial Velocity(m/s)
Dp : Diameter of particle(m)
ρ : Density (kg/m3)
In our case :
L = 6.5 m
-6
μ = 8.85 x 10 Pa-s
ε = 0.38
-4
V = net flow rate to each bed/ Area of bed = 7.67 x 10 m/sec
Dp = 2 cm
ρ = 873.5 (kg/m3)
Calculating we get,
ΔP = 2.08 Pa
Storage Facility
BENZENE STORAGE TANK:
Mass flow rate of Methanol = 2133.12 kg/hr
Density = 792 kg/m3
Volumetric flow rate = 2.69 m3/hr
Storage for 7 days (1 week) = 452.48 m3
Using standard dimensions from code: [IS: 803-1976]
Height = 10.5 m
Diameter = 7.5 m
Volume = 463.57 m3

UREA STORAGE TANK
Mass flow rate of UREA = 3957.95 kg/hr
Density = 1320 kg/m3
Volumetric flow rate = 2.99 m3/hr
Storage for 7 days (1 week) = 503.73 m3
Using standard dimensions from code: [IS: 803-1976]
Height = 4.5 m
Diameter = 12 m
Volume = 508 m3
FLASH
Unit Specifications
Feed: 32355.78 kg/hr (0.0156 m3/hr)
Top Outlet (Vapor),V = 13110.67 kg/hr
Density of V, ρv = 6.5 kg/m3
Bottom outlet (Liquid), L = 19245.11 kg/hr
Density of L, ρL = 702.4 kg/m3
FLV = 15.26
ln(FLV) = 2.725
ρL − ρv
Now permitted velocity, vperm = K
√ ρv
Where K = exp [ A + B ln F LV + C (ln F LV )2 + D (ln F LV )3 + E(ln FLV )4 ]

In this equation, A, B, C, D and E are constants having the following values:-
A = -1.877478
B = -0.814580
C = -0.187074
D = -0.014523
E = -0.001015
Putting the values of FLV and these constants,

K = 0.00292
√
ρL − ρv
Hence, vperm = K ρv = 0.03 m/s
√
4 V = 4.86 m
D= π vpermρv

Now hv , related to the vapor velocity
hv = 36” + 1
2
diam of feedline
hf = 12” + 1
2
diam of feedline
L = h v + hf + h l
Now for nozzle diameter,

100
umax = √ρmix
, ft/s
60
umin = , ft/s
√ ρmix
ρmix = ρfeed = 578.19 kg/m3
umax = 4.16 ft/s = 1.27 m/s

umin = 2.49 ft/s = 0.76 m/s

V olumetric f lowrate 0.0156
Area of nozzle = umin = 0.76
= 0.0205 m2
Dnozzle = 16.16 cm = 6.23 in ≈ 6.2 in
Hence,
hv = 36 + 3.1 = 39.1 in
hf = 12 + 3.1 = 15.1 in
hl = 1 2( hv + hf ) = 27.1 in
L = hv + hf + hl = 81.3 in = 2.06 m
π D2
Volume = 4 L = 38.23 m3
HEAT EXCHANGER
HEAT EXCHANGER (B19) PROCESS DESIGN
Design for number of tube, bundle diameter, shell diameter, tube side heat transfer
coefficient (HTC), shell side HTC, Overall HTC and pressure drop for shell side and
tube side (using Bell‘s Method). The values of all constants, tables and graphs have
been taken from the book : Coulson Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Vol. 6
Chemical Engineering Design 4th edition.
a) Properties of stream and HE layout specification
Table : Properties of Hot Fluid

Properties Values Unit
Stream Reactor outlet
Inlet Temp Ti 170 ℃
Outlet Temp To 70 ℃
Mass Flow Rate 6626.39 kg/hr
Viscosity 1.28 x 10-4 Pa.s
Specific Heat Capacity, CP 1.86 kJ/kg-K
Density (vapor) 7.142 kg/m3
Thermal Conductivity 2.41 x 10-4 W/m.K
Table : Properties of Cold Fluid

Properties Values Unit
Stream Cooling Water -
Inlet Temp ti 25 ℃
Outlet Temp to 45 ℃
Mass Flow Rate 13413.12 kg/hr
Viscosity 8 x 10-4 Pa.s
Specific Heat Capacity, CP 4.178 kJ/kg.K
Density, ρ 995 kg/m3

Thermal Conductivity, k 0.59 W/m.K
Step 1.
Fluid Allocation :
Shell side ( vapor) : Reactor outlet stream

Tube side (liquid) : Cooling Water
From mass and energy balance,
Shell side mass flow rate, ms = 1.84 kg/s
Tube side mass flow rate, mt = 3.72 kg/s
Heat duty, Q = 311.33 kW
Step 2. LMTD
Assuming counter current flow in a 1 shell 2 tube heat exchanger
∆T 1−∆T 2
LMTD = = 78.30 °C
ln ∆T 1
∆T 2
(T i−T o)
R= =5
(to−ti)
(to−ti)
S = (T −t ) = 0.14
i i
From graph, FT = 0.965

ΔTm,true = True LMTD = FT x LMTD = 75.56 °C
Assumed overall heat transfer coefficient, Uass = 66.70 W/m2.℃

Q
Area Required = A = = 61.77 m2
Uass∆Tm,true
Choose tubes of following dimensions : 19mm OD, 16mm ID, 6.096m length
effective length of straight tubes = 6.096 - 2 x 0.025 = 6.046 m
Surface Area of one tube = 0.36 m2
Area Required
Number of tubes = Surface Area of one tube = 172
Triangular pitch arrangement for the tubes has been used
Step 3. Tube side velocity
Using 1.25do triangular pitch and split-ring floating head type and 2 tube pass.
1
N
Bundle diameter, Db = do × ( K t )n1 = 0.37 m
1
Shell inner diameter, Di = Db + 0.053 = 0.42 m ( Di = Ds )
Number of tubes per pass, n = 86
(3.14 ndi2)
Total flow area = 4 = 1.73 x 10-2 m2

mt
Velocity of water in tubes, ut = (ρ x total f low area) = 0.21 m/s
Step 4. Tube side heat transfer coefficient
Method 1 :
4200(1.35+0.02t)ut0.8
hi = = 1454.25 W/m2-K
di0.2
Method 2 :
ρvdi
Re = μ = 4309.51
Cp
Pr = µ k
= 5.66
L/di = 377.875
jh = 0.004

k −0.14
h = ( f )j RePr 0.33 ( µ )
i di h µw
µ
is assumed to be 1.
µw
Hence,
hi = 1126.62 W/m2.K
The minimum value is selected from both the methods. So,
hi = 1126.62 W/m2.K
Step 5. Shell side heat transfer coefficient
lb = baffle spacing = 0.4 x Di = 0.17 m
Tube pitch = pt = 2.38 x 10-2 m
(pt−do)lbDi
Cross flow area (As) = pt = 1.41 x 10-2 m2
ms
Mass Velocity (Gs) = A = 130.12 kg /s.m2
s
1.10(pt2 – 0.917do2)
Equivalent diameter, de = do = 1.34 x 10-2 m
Gsde
Re =
μ = 137142.85
k = 9.87
Pr = µ Cp
jh = 3.1 x 10-3

k
hoc = ( do )j hRePr = 115.71 W/m -K
f 0.33 2
where hoc is the heat transfer coefficient calculated for cross-slow over an ideal tube
bank, with no leakage and bypassing.
Baffle cut, Bc = 25 % (assumed)
Hb = height
Db from the baffle chord to the top of the tube bundle
= - D (0.5-B ) = 7.86 x 10-2 m
2 s c
Ncv = the number of constrictions, tube rows, encountered in the cross-flow section
Db−2Hb
= 0.87p = 10.17 = 11 ( next integral value)
t
Fn = tube row correction factor = 0.99

Hb
Bundle cut, B =
Db = 0.21
Ra’ = ratio of the bundle cross-sectional area in the window zone to the total bundle
cross-sectional area = 0.14
Ra (at baffle cut) = 0.18
Nw = number of tubes in a window zone = R a’ x N =

t 24.08
Rw = ratio of number of tubes in window zone to the total number in the bundle
2Nw
= N = 0.28
t

Nc = number of tubes in a cross-flow zone = Nt - 2Nw = 123.84 = 124
Fw = window correction factor = 1.08
Ab = clearance area between the bundle and the shell = lb(Ds-Db) = 8.91 x 10-3 m2
Ns = Number of sealing strips =3

A
Fb = bypass correction factor = exp (- α Ab (1-( 2N
N
s
) 2/3
)) = 0.87
s cv
ct = diametrical tube-to-baffle clearance = 0.8 mm
cs = baffle-to-shell clearance = 1.6 mm

θb = angle subtended by the baffle chord = 2.1 rads
3.14ctdo(Nt−Nw)
Atb = tube to baffle clearance area, per baffle = 2 = 7.06 x 10-3 m2
csDs(2x3.14−θb)
Asb = shell to baffle clearance area, per baffle = = 1.41 x 10-3 m2
2
AL = Total leakage area = Atb + Asb = 8.47 x 10-3 m2
AL/As = 0.59 m2
βL = 0.37
Atb+2Asb
FL = leakage correction factor = 1- β L (
AL
) = 0.57

hs = hocFnFwFbFL = 61.31 W/m2-K
Step 5: Overall coefficient
doln do
do 1
+ ddo 1h
1 di
U
= h1o + 1
hod
+ 2kw
+ di hid i i
U= 55.97 W/m2 oC
where hod and hid are outer and inner dirt factors respectively.
Error is less than 30 % , so the initial guess of overall heat transfer is current.
Step 6: Pressure drop
Shell side pressure drop
jf = 4.5 x 10-2
8jf Ncvρus2
ΔPi = pressure drop calculated for an ideal tube bank = = 4342.03 Pa
2
Ab
F ’ = bypass correction factor for pressure drop = exp (- α (1-( 2Ns )1/3))
b As Ncv
where ( α = 4) for Re > 100
Fb’ = 0.67
Ab/As = 0.63
βL′ = 0.6
Atb+2Asb
FL’ = leakage factor for pressure drop = 1- β L ′ ( AL ) = 0.30

ΔPc = pressure drop in a cross − f low zone between the baffle tips, corrected for bypassing and leakage
= ΔP i F b ′ F L ′ = 868.03 Pa
3.14Ds2Ra 3.14Nwdo2
Aw =
4 - 4 = 1.82 x 10-2 m2
Nwv = number of restrictions for cross-flow in window zone, approximately equal to the
H
number of tube rows = 0.87bp = 3.80 = 4 (round-off to next bigger integer)
t
uw = the velocity in the window zone, based on the window area less the area occupied
ms
by the tubes Aw = = 14.18 m/s
(Aw ρ)
uz = the geometric mean velocity = √uwus = 16.08 m/s
ΔPw = FL′(2 + 0.6Nwv)ρuz2/2 = 1186.98 Pa

(Nwv +Ncv )
ΔPe = end zone pressure drop = ΔP F ’ = 3971.20 Pa
i N cv b
ef fective length
Nb = number of baffles = lb - 1 = 35.94 = 36
total shell side pressure drop = 2 ΔPe + (Nb − 1)ΔPe + Nb ΔPw = 6992.05 Pa
Tube side pressure drop
Np = Number of tube passes = 2
jf = 6 x 10-3

L µ −m ρu2t
𝞓P = Np [8j ( )( ) + 2.5]
t f di µw 2
µ
is equal to 1 ( assumed)
µw
𝞓Pt = 963.03 Pa
MECHANICAL DESIGN OF REACTOR

Data from process design:
Shell inside diameter, Di = 5 m
Column Parameters:
Considering tray spacing = 0.45 m
Height of shell = 7.5 m
Operating pressure, P = 1 bars
Design pressure = 105 kPa
Selection of Materials:
IS : 2002-1962 – Grade 2B , with double – welded butt joints
(Ref : Table A – 1 , Pg 261, BCB)
Calculation of Thickness:
Thickness will be calculated using equation for low pressure vessel as pressure < 20 MN/m2
which assumes that the thickness, t, and internal diameter, Di ,ratio doesn’t exceed 0.25,
which will be checked later .
PDi
t = 2f J −P
f = 98.1 MN/m2 (Ref: Appendix A, Pg 261, BCB)

J=1
Hence, t = 0.00267 m
Corrosion allowance = 0.003 m
So,Thickness standard = 0.007 m
Do=Di + 2t = 5.014 m
Thickness of head:
Torispherical
Assuming Ri = Do= 5.014 m
ri = 0.3, Do = 5.014 m

ho = Ro – (( Ro – 0.5Do)(Ro + 0.5Do – 2ro))0.5
= 0.84 m
Do2/4R o= 1.235 m
(Doro/2)0.5 = 0.86 m
Ho is least effective external height of head (hE) = 0.84 m

J=1
P
t/Do = 2f J
C = 0.00177C
hE/Do = 0.169
From table, t/Do =0.0017
C = 3.21
t/Do = 0.0017
t = 0.0088 m
Therefore, thickness = 12 mm
t/Do ratio is less than 0.25. Hence, assumption is valid
Hence, thickness = 12 mm
Blank diameter = 5.41 m
Height of flange = Sf =40 mm
Stress calculation:
Thickness = 0.0026 m
Top + bottom disengaging space = 1 m
Insulation = 75mm asbestos
Maximum wind velocity expected = 140 km/h
Weight of each head = (πDb2ht sρ g)/4 = 129626.54 kg
Axial stress due to pressure:
σ zp = PDi2
= 49.02 MN/m2
4t(Di+t)

Axial stress due to dead loads:
Wa = Wt. of shell for X meters length = (π D t X ϒins) N
Ws
σ zs = Π D = ϒs X x 10-6 MN/m2 = 63563 kg
t
Assuming constant shell thickness,

Wi = weight of insulation for a weight X meters
= π Dins tins ϒins X x 10-6 MN/m2 = 49877.98 kg
σ zi = Wi/ πDot = (tins ϒins X) /t = 1.18 MN/m2
σ zl = Wl/ πDt =54.03 MN/m2
Weight of ZnO = 403680 kg

Hence weight of attachments is the sum of the three weights above (Wa)=413917 kg
σ za = Wa/ πDot = 9.8 MN/ m2
Net stress, σ zw = σ za + σ zl + σ zs + σ zi = 11.34 MN/ m2

Stress due to wind loads:
Wind pressures, Pw = 0.05 Vw2 = 980 N/m2
From table 9.1 BCB, maximum wind pressures is about 1000 N/m2
Hence Pw = 1000 N/m2 will be used
K1 = 0.7
Calculation of K2
W = W s+ W i + W l + W a
= 110.043 kN
T = 6.35 x 10-5 (H/D)1.5(W/t)0.5
= 1.6 s > 0.5 s
Hence K2 = 2
As height of column < 20 m, so wind load will not vary along the height of the column
Pw = K1K2P1h1Do = 52.95 kN
Bending moment

Mw = PwH/2 = 197.06 kJ
Resulting bending stress
4Mw
σ zsw = Πt(D +t)D =3.74 MN/m2
i i
Design of skirt support:

Important considerations
Tensile stress in the skirt will be maximum when the dead weight is minimum i.e. the shell is just
erected and the shell is empty without any internal attachment.The compression stress is yet to be
determined when the vessel is filled up water for hydraulic test. Maximum wind load may be
expected at any and this factor is always considered.
Period of vibration:
Minimum weight of vessels with two heads and a shell
Wmain = π (Di + t) t(H-4) ϒs + 2 Wh
Di = 1.73 m
Wmin = 322.816 kN
Wmax = 270.866 kN
Tmin = 6.35 x 10-5 (H/D)1.5(Wmin/ta)0.5

= 2.42 > 0.5
Hence K2 = 2 (a coefficient to determine wind load)
Wind load:
The minimum wind load K,
Pw = K1K2P1HDo
Hence,
Pw,min = 80.75 kN
Pw,,max = 83.14 kN
Wind Moment:
Minimum wind moment
Mw(min) = Pw(min) x H/2 = 302.07 kJ
Maximum wind moment

Mw(max) = Pw(max) x H/2 = 311.57 kJ
As skirt thickness is assumed as I,
So, Di = Do = 5.014 m
σ zwm (min) = 4Mw(min)/ πD2t = 0.098/t MN/m2
σ zwm (max) = 4Mw(max)/ πD2t = 0.1225/t MN/m2
Tensile strength:
Maximum tensile strength without any eccentric loads
σ z,tensile = σ zwm,min - σ zw,min
Substituting
σz = f x J
t = 0.042 mm
Compression load
σ z,max = σ zwm (max) + σ zw(max)
Substituting
Az(compressive) = 0.125 E (t/Do)
t = 42 mm
As per IS : 2825-1969
So, thickness of skirt plate = 42 mm
Design of skirt plate:
Maximum compressive stress between bearing plate and foundation is:
I = outer radius of bearing – outer bearing of skirt
σ c = Wmax/A + Mw/z
=0.23865/(2.71I - I2) + 0.277228/(2.71 - I)2I

Assuming σ c= 2.74 MN/m2
I = 0.023 m
So, I = 100 mm = width of bearing plate
Thickness of bearing plate:
Tbp = I(3 σ c/f)0.5
= 32 mm (approx.)
So, a bearing plate of 32 mm thickness is used
Stability factor:
R = Do + 2I
J = WminR/Mw = 3.44 (Skirt need not be anchored)
Thickness of gusset plate = 0.014 m
Number of gussets = 110
N x Pbolt = 0.322
Ar x n = 0.0067
Ar = 67 mm2
number of bolts = 101.22 = 108 bolts
HEAT EXCHANGER :
Heat exchanger is assumed to be a cylindrical vessel under internal pressure.
SHELL THICKNESS CALCULATION:

Operating pressure = 1 bar
Design pressure (P ) = 1.05 bar
d
[From process Design]

Material of construction: IS 1570-1961 15Cr9oMo55

Design Temperature (T ) = 250 C
o
o
f = 118 MN/m = 118 x 106 N/m

2
2
pDi
t= 2f J +p [Ref: Eq. 3.3.19, BCB, 5 ED.]
Weld joint efficiency factor, J = 0.85 [Ref: Art. 2.8, Pg 20 BCB, 5 ED.]
t = 0.21 mm
Corrosion allowance = 2mm
Thus, thickness (t) = t + C.A = 2.21 mm = 5 mm (Std)
[t/D < 0.25 thus assumption is valid]
i
Thus, Outer diameter, Do = Di + 2t = 0.043 m
HEAD DESIGN:
For the cylindrical design of exchanger, we have chosen Torispherical head because pressure is
in range 0.1 - 1.5 MN/m . 2
D = 0.43m
J=1
Taking head specifications as:
Ri = Do = Ro
ri = 0.06 D = 0.025 m
o
Sf = 40mm
0.5
Do
ho = Ro − [(Ro − Do
2
)(Ro + 2
− 2ro)] [Ref: Eq. 4.2.22, BCB, 5 ED.]
ho 0.072 m
D2o/4ro = 0.107 m

Doro/2 = 0.074 m
Out of these three quantities calculated above, ho is the least.

Therefore, ho = 0.107 m
he/Do = 0.169
J=1
p/2fJ = 0.000444
Trying out various values of t/Do from Table 4.1
t/Do = 0.0015
t = 0.00064 m
= 0.64 mm
NOZZLES AND BRANCH PIPES:
Construction of nozzles:
Shell nozzle:
Material construction: Same as that of shell.
f = 118 MN/m = 118 x 106 N/m
2 2
Shell wall thickness, ts = 0.05 m

Corrosion Allowance (C) = 0.002 m
dnozzle = 0.218 m
pDo
tr = 2f J +p
= 0.00019 m
Area to be compensated (A) = (d + 2c )tr = 0.000042 m2

Area available from shell (As) = (d + 2c)(ts – tr – C ) = 0.0106 m2
Area available from nozzle for reinforcement
pdo
tr′ = 2f J +p
= 0.00011 m
H1 = [(d + 2C)(tn - C)]0.5 = 0.055 m
An = 2H1(tn - tr’ - C) = 0.0015 m2
Area remaining to be compensated

Area = A – (As + An) = -0.012 m2
Hence, no ring pad required.
Design of flange for opening:
Taking IS: 2004-1962 Class2:

y = 25.5 MN/ m2 [Ref. Table 7.1, page 103 BCB, 5 ED.]
m = 2.75
Allowable Stress for Flange = 100MN/m2
Allowable stress of bolting material = 138 MN/m2 (Bolting material – 5% CRMO Steel)
p = 1.05 MN/m2
d0 y−pm 0.5
=(
y−p(m+1))
= 0.85
di
Let di of gasket = 0.44 m
do = 0.377 m
Minimum gasket width (N) = (do-di)/2 = 0.011 m

do (calculated) = di+ 2N = 0.46 m
Basic Gasket seating width (bo) = N/2 = 0.0055 m
Diameter at location of gasket load reaction
G = di + N = 0.45 m
LOAD DUE TO DESIGN PRESSURE:
H = πd2p/4 = 1.697 MN
Load to keep joint tight under operation:

Hp = πG(2b)mp = 1.675 MN
Total operating load:

Wo = H + Hp = 1.677 MN
Load to seal gasket under bolting up conditions,
Wg = πGby = 0.19 MN
So, Wo is controlling load.
Minimum bolting area,

Where, Ao = Am = Wo/So = 0.0057 m2
go = Shell thickness = 5 mm
gi = 1.415 go = 7.075 mm
C = ID + 2(gi + R)
ID = B = 0.899 m

M 30 x 2 is most suited (because difference in c is minimum) and hence selected.
Bolt diameter = 0.03 m

No. of bolts = 12
Bolt circle diameter = 1.0068 m
Flange outside diameter (A) = 1.0068 + 0.03 + 0.02 = 1.057 m
Check of gasket width:
AoSo
= 56.38 < 2y
πGN
So, condition is satisfied.
FLANGE MOMENT COMPUTATION:
a) Operating Condition
Wo = W1 + W2 + W3
W1 = πB p/4 = 1.527 MN
2
W2 = H – W1 = 0.152 MN

W3 = Wo – H = Hp = 1.67 MN
Selected lap joint flange

a1= (C – B)/2 = 0.28 m
a3 = (C – G)/2 = 0.27 m
a2 = (a1 + a3)/2 = 0.28 m
Mo = W1a1 + W2a2 + W3a3 0.4657 MJ
Mo = Total flange moment
Bolting up condition:
Mg = Wa3 = 0.362 MJ
M g < Mo
Hence, Mo is controlling.
So, M = 0.46 MJ
Calculation for flange thickness:
K = A/B = 2.45
Y = 1. [Ref: figure 7.6, Pg 115, BCB, 5 ED.]
Assuming Cf = 0.1;
t2 = (MCfY)/(BST) = 0.0025
t = 0.05 m
Bs = πC/n = 0.2634 m
Bolt pitch correction factor,
Cf = [Bs/(2d+t)]0.5 = 0.15
Corrected flange thickness = t.Cf0.5 = 0.0767 m
So, Final Flange Thickness = 85 mm

MECHANICAL DESIGN OF DISTILLATION COLUMN
Data from process design:

Shell inside diameter, Di = 1.73 m
Column Parameters:
Considering tray spacing = 0.45 m
Number of trays = 31
Therefore 31 trays at 0.5 m spacing, and top and bottom engaging space 1 m each
Bottom Separator Space = 2.75 m
Length of column including skirt height = 18.45 m
Operating pressure, P = 19 bars = 1900 kPa
Design pressure = 199.5 kPa
Selection of Materials:
IS : 2002-1962 – Grade 2B , with double – welded butt joints
(Ref : Table A – 1 , Pg 261, BCB)
Calculation of Thickness:
Thickness will be calculated using equation for low pressure vessel as pressure < 20 MN/m2
which assumes that the thickness, t, and internal diameter, Di ,ratio doesn’t exceed 0.25,
which will be checked later .
PDi
t= 2f J −P
f = 98.1 MN/m2 (Ref: Appendix A, Pg 261, BCB)

J=1
Hence, t = 0.0177 m
So,Thickness = 0.025 m
Do=Di + t = 1.755 m

Thickness of head:
Torispherical
Assuming Ri = Do= 1.78 m
ri = 0.1038, Do = 1.78 m
ho = Ro – (( Ro – 0.5Do)(Ro + 0.5Do – 2ro))0.5

= 0.301 m
Do2/4R o= 1.4 m
(Doro/2)0.5 = 0.3 m
Ho is least effective external height of head (hE) = 0.3 m
J=1
P
t/Do = 2f J
C = 0.01016C
hE/Do = 0.015
From table, t/Do =0.015
C = 1.605
t/Do = 0.015
t = 0.0267 m
Therefore, thickness = 32 mm
t/Do ratio is less than 0.25. Hence, assumption is valid
Hence, thickness = 32 mm
Height of flange = Sf =40 mm
Stress calculation:
Thickness = 0.017 m
Tray spacing = 0.5 m
Top disengaging space = 1 m

Bottom separator space = 2.75 m
Weir height = 50 mm for all trays
Downcomer clearance = 25 mm for all trays
Insulation = 75mm asbestos
Accessories: 1 caged ladder
Maximum wind velocity expected = 140 km/h
Tray loading = 25 lb/ft2
Weight of each head = (πDb2ht sρ g)/4 = 5799.63 kg
Axial stress due to pressure:
σ zp = PDi2
= 48.55 MN/m2
4t(Di+t)
Axial stress due to dead loads:

Wa = Wt. of shell for X meters length = (π D t X ϒins) N
σ zs = Ws
Πt D
= ϒs X x 10-6 MN/m2 = 1.99 MN/m2
Assuming constant shell thickness,

Wi = weight of insulation for a weight X meters
= π Dins tins ϒins X x 10-6 MN/m2 = 43007 kg
σ zi = Wi/ πDot = (tins ϒins X) /t = 0.439 MN/m2
Number of trays= 25
Weight of liquid, supported,
Wl = (π/4t)Do2(0.05)(9.81) n x 10-6 MN
= 5440 kg
σ zl = Wl/ πDt =54.03 MN/m2
Weight of trays = ( πD2/4) x (1) x n x 10-3 MN

= 72534 kg
Hence weight of attachments is the sum of the three weights above (Wa)=86768 kg

σ za = Wa/ πDot = 0.89 MN/ m2
Net stress, σ zw = σ za + σ zl + σ zs + σ zi = 0.288 MN/ m2
Stress due to wind loads:
Wind pressures, Pw = 0.05 Vw2 = 980 N/m2
From table 9.1 BCB, maximum wind pressures is about 1000 N/m2
Hence Pw = 1000 N/m3 will be used
K1 = 0.7
Calculation of K2
W = W s+ W i + W l + W a
= 110.043 kN
T = 6.35 x 10-5 (H/D)1.5(W/t)0.5
= 9.3 s > 0.5 s
Hence K2 = 2
As height of column < 20 m, so wind load will not vary along the height of the column
Pw = K1K2P1h1Do = 45.95 kN
Bending moment
Mw = PwH/2 = 424.06 kJ
Resulting bending stress
4Mw
σ zsw = Πt(D +t)D = 9.87 MN/m2
i i
Design of skirt support:

Important considerations
Tensile stress in the skirt will be maximum when the dead weight is minimum i.e. the shell is just
erected and the shell is empty without any internal attachment.The compression stress is yet to be
determined when the vessel is filled up water for hydraulic test. Maximum wind load may be
expected at any and this factor is always considered.
Period of vibration:
Minimum weight of vessels with two heads and a shell
Wmain = π (Di + t) t(H-4) ϒs + 2 Wh

Di = 1.73 m
Wmin = 207.28 kN
Wmax = 368.642 kN
Tmin = 6.35 x 10-5 (H/D)1.5(Wmin/ta)0.5

= 9.9 > 0.5
Hence K2 = 2 (a coefficient to determine wind load)
Wind load:
The minimum wind load K,
Pw = K1K2P1HDo
For minimum weight condition, Do = 2.615 m

For maximum weight condition, Do = 2.765 m
Hence,
Pw,min = 55.45 kN
Pw,,max = 60.02 kN
Wind Moment:
Minimum wind moment
Mw(min) = Pw(min) x H/2 = 55.07 kJ
Maximum wind moment
Mw(max) = Pw(max) x H/2 = 60.57 kJ
As skirt thickness is assumed as I,
So, Di = Do = 1.73 m
σ zwm (min) = 4Mw(min)/ πD2t = 0.207/t MN/m2
σ zwm (max) = 4Mw(max)/ πD2t = 0.095/t MN/m2
Tensile strength:
Maximum tensile strength without any eccentric loads

σ z,tensile = σ zwm,min - σ zw,min
Substituting
σ z= f x J
t = 0.0301 mm
Compression load
σ z,max = σ zwm (max) + σ zw(max)
Substituting
Az(compressive) = 0.125 E (t/Do)
t = 34 mm
As per IS : 2825-1969
So, thickness of skirt plate = 37mm
Design of skirt plate:
Maximum compressive stress between bearing plate and foundation is:
I = outer radius of bearing – outer bearing of skirt
σ c = Wmax/A + Mw/z
=0.23865/(2.71I - I2) + 0.277228/(2.71 - I)2I
Assuming σ c= 25.6 MN/m2
I = 0.023 m
So, I = 100 mm = width of bearing plate
Thickness of bearing plate:
Tbp = I(3 σ c/f)0.5
= 88 mm (approx.)

So, a bearing plate of 88 mm thickness is used
Stability factor:
R = Do + 2I
J = WminR/Mw = 0.36
Thickness of gusset plate = 0.043 m
Number of gussets = 54
N x Pbolt = 0.207
Ar x n = 0.0043
Ar = 63 mm2
number of bolts = 69
3.4.d Design of auxiliary process equipment

Pump Design
Following data has been collected from Aspen plus software, for designing the pump system :
Suction Pressure, P1 = 1 bar

Discharge Pressure, P2= 30 bar
Inlet fluid temperature = 32.75 oC

Outlet fluid temperature = 33.51 oC
Efficiency of the pump, η = 62.91 %
Inlet fluid density = 755.164 kg/m3

Outlet fluid density = 755.081 kg/m3
Average fluid density, ρavg = 755.21 kg/m3
Volumetric flow rate of the fluid, v’ = 49.458 m3/hr.

P 2−P 1
Head loss in the pump = 9.81ρ avg.
(P 2−P 1)v′
Power Intake = 3600η
= 38446.72 W
3.4.e Major engineering problems of the plant with their possible remedies.
Problem — Carelessness or Unsafe Practices. In manufacturing, it is crucial that you and your
team not grow complacent when it comes to workplace safety. In almost no other work
environment is the risk of workplace accidents so high. The top three causes of injury and death
in manufacturing are falling, being struck by an object, and electrocution — all preventable, if
you know what to look for and take the proper prevention steps.
The Fix — Constant Training and Inspections. Your workers should know safety procedures
ranging from regular inspections to emergency response. They should be trained to spot anything
out of the ordinary. Additionally, all of your equipment should be professionally inspected on a
regular basis.
Problem — Unrealistic Goals. It’s easy to be overly optimistic, especially if you believe you can
win manufacturing business with an aggressive timeline. But many times, you’re setting yourself

up to fail. Straining your workforce can actually be counterproductive by hurting morale and
increasing the chances for mistakes. Unrealistic goals can set you up for bad business.
The Fix — Detailed Project Management. In manufacturing, you must keep close track of your
resources and manpower. Many facilities are migrating to different types of management
software that allow you to see more than simply when your workers are clocking in and out. You
can see how much time is needed for each task and plan future projects better. The result is a
more consistent workload with realistic expectations.
Problem — Planning Without Input. Planning a project takes collaboration and input from all
involved. Failing to get feedback from your workers can result in heavy workloads that slow
productivity. Further, if you fail to manage customer expectations, you could lose future
business.
The Fix — Planning Task Force. Your workers know better than anyone what can be done in a
given amount of time and the best way to accomplish a task. Assign workers with varying
expertise to give you feedback. Consult with them while you are still in the planning stage so that
you can set more accurate expectations for your customers and to ensure that all needs can be
met.
3.5. Material Storage and Handling Facilities
Urea
Physical state
Vapor Density: 2.07 (Air = 1)
Specific Gravity: 1.323 (Water = 1)
Melting Point: 132.7°C (270.9°F)
Saline Molecular Weight: 60.06 g/mol
Water/Oil Dist. Coeff.: The product is more soluble in water;

Solubility: Easily soluble in cold water, hot water.
Physical state and appearance: Solid. (Crystals solid.)
Odor: Almost odorless; May gradually develop slight odor of ammonia, especially in presence of
moisture.
Storage and Handling

Storage:
Keep container(s) tightly closed. Use and store this material in cool, dry, well ventilated areas.
Sore only in approved containers. Keep away from any incompatible material. Protect
container(s) against physical damage.
Handling:
The use of appropriate respiratory protection is advised when concentrations exceed any
established exposure limits. Wash thoroughly after handling. Wash contaminated clothing or
shoes. Use good personal hygiene practices. If used for the manufacture of feeds for livestock,
mix thoroughly by making a pre-blend with one of the ingredients, then adding and mixing the
preblend with all other ingredients.
Fire Fighting Measures

Flammable Properties:
Feed Urea 46% is non-flammable Flash Point-Not applicable OSHA Flammability Class-Not
applicable LEL/UEL-Not applicable Autoignition Temperature-Not applicable
Unusual Fire & Explosion Hazards:

Material will not burn. Undergoes thermal decomposition at elevated temperatures to produce
solid cyanuric acid and release toxic and combustible gases (ammonia, carbon dioxide, and
oxides of nitrogen). May explode when mixed with certain strong reducing substances
(hypochlorites) - forms nitrogen trichloride which explodes spontaneously in air.

Extinguishing Media:
Use extinguishing agent suitable for type of surrounding fire. Fire Fighting Instructions: Positive
pressure, self-contained breathing apparatus is required for all fire fighting activities involving
hazardous materials. Full structural firefighting(bunker) gear is the minimum acceptable attire.
The need for proximity, entry, flashover and/or special chemical protective clothing needs to be
determined for each incident by a competent fire fighting safety professional. Water used for fire
suppression and cooling may become contaminated. Discharge to sewer system(s) or the
environment may be restricted, requiring containment and proper disposal of water.
First Aid Measures:

Eye: If irritation or redness develops, move victim away from exposure and into fresh air. Flush
eyes with clean water. If symptoms persist, seek medical attention.
Skin: Remove contaminated shoes and clothing and cleanse affected area(s) thoroughly by
washing with mild soap and water. If irritation or redness develops and persists, seek medical
attention.
Inhalation (Breathing): If respiratory symptoms develop, move victim away from source of
exposure and into fresh air. If symptoms persist, seek medical attention. If victim is not
breathing, clear airway and immediately begin artificial respiration. If breathing difficulties
develop, oxygen should be administered by qualified personnel. Seek immediate medical
attention.
Ingestion (Swallowing): First aid is not normally required; however, if swallowed and symptoms
develop, seek medical attention.
Animal Antidote and Emergency Treatment: In animals, the cold water-acetic acid treatment may
be useful. The adult cow is given 19 - 38 liters cold water and 3.8 liters of 5% acetic acid
(vinegar) orally. This treatment limits absorption of ammonia from the rumen by diluting the
rumen contents and slowing the rate of hydrolysis of urea by decreasing rumen pH and
temperature. This treatment also promotes urine flow that, if maintained by fluid therapy, may
assure recovery from urea toxicity. Gaseous or fluid bloat should be relieved before pumping
water into the rumen. Consult your veterinarian immediately.

Accidental Release Measures
Urea is a feed ingredient and crop nutrient, however, large spills can harm or kill vegetation.
● Stay upwind and away from spill (dust hazard).
● Wear appropriate protective equipment, including respiratory protection, as conditions
warrant
● Prevent spilled material from entering sewers, storm drains, other unauthorized treatment
drainage systems, and natural waterways.
● Notify appropriate federal, state, and local agencies as may be required
● Minimize dust generation.
● Sweep up and package appropriately for disposal
Exposure Control/Personal Protection

Engineering Controls: If current ventilation practices are not adequate to maintain airborne
concentrations below the established exposure limits (see Section 2), additional ventilation or
exhaust systems may be required.
Respiratory: A NIOSH approved air purifying respirator with a type 95 (R or P) particulate filter
may be used under conditions where airborne concentrations are expected to exceed exposure
limits. Protection provided by air purifying respirators is limited (see manufacturer's respirator
selection guide). Use a positive pressure air supplied respirator if there is potential for
uncontrolled release, exposure levels are not known, or any other circumstances where air
purifying respirators may not provide adequate protection. A respiratory protection program that
meets OSHA's 29 CFR 1910.134 and ANSI Z88.2 requirements must be followed if workplace
conditions warrant a respirator.
Skin: The use of cloth or leather work gloves is advised to prevent skin contact, possible
irritation and absorption (see glove manufacturer literature for information on permeability).

Eye/Face: Approved eye protection to safeguard against potential eye contact, irritation, or
injury is recommended.
Other PPE: A source of clean water should be available in the work area for flushing eyes and
skin. Impervious clothing should be worn as needed.
Stability and Reactivity

Chemical Stability: Stable under normal conditions of storage and handling.
Conditions to Avoid: Urea forms an explosive salt with nitric acid. Reacts violently with gallium
perchlorate.
Incompatible Materials: Not applicable in feed mill situation.
Corrosivity: May be slightly corrosive to steel, aluminum, zinc, and copper.
Hazardous Decomposition Products: Heating above 270.9°F (132.7°C) (decomposes to biuret,
ammonia, cyanuric acid, and nitrogen oxides.
Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur.
Potential Health Effects

Eye: Contact may cause mild eye irritation including stinging, watering and redness.
Skin: Contact may cause mild irritation including redness and a burning sensation. No harmful
effects from skin absorption are expected.
Inhalation (Breathing): No information available. Studies by other exposure routes suggest a low
degree of toxicity by inhalation. Urea dust may cause mild irritation of the nose, throat and
respiratory tract.
Ingestion (Swallowing): No harmful effect report by ingestion. Swallowing may cause irritation
of the digestive tract. Signs and Symptoms: Effects of overexposure may include irritation of the
nose, throat, respiratory and digestive tract, nausea, vomiting, coughing, and transient
disorientation.
Cancer: No carcinogenic effects in humans reported in the literature examined.

Developmental: Inadequate data available to evaluate the developmental effects of this material.
Other Comments: May be harmful to livestock if ingested without adequate mixing. If used for
the manufacture of feeds for livestock, mix thoroughly by making a preblend with one of the
ingredients, then adding and mixing the pre-blend with all other ingredients. Equivalent protein
from Urea should not exceed 1/3 of the protein in the mixture.
Methanol
Physical Data
Physical State: Liquid

Appearance: Clear, Colorless
Odor: Slight Alcohol Odor
Molecular Wt.: 32.04
Boiling Point (760 mm Hg): 64.5°C
Flash Point: 11 °C
Auto Ignition Temp: 385 °C (NFPA 1978)
Vapor Pressure @ 200 °C : 12.8 kPa
Vapor Density: 1.11 (Air = 1)
Viscosity: 0.55 cP (20 °C)
% Volatile / Volume: 100.0
Freezing / Melting Pt.: -98 °C (-144 F)
Water Solubility: Complete
Soluble in: Water, Ethanol, Ether, Acetone, and Chloroform
Partition Coefficient n-octanol/water: -0.82 / -0.66
Evaporation Rate: (BuAc=1) 5.9
(Ether = 1)5.3
Specific Gravity: 0.791 – 0.793
Saturation Concentration: 166 g/m

Storage & Handling
Handling
● Wash hands thoroughly after handling. In the event of exposure, remove contaminated
clothing and wash before reuse.
● Containers should be grounded and bonded when transferring material in order to avoid
static sparks.
● Do not breathe vapor, mist or gas. Do not get in eyes, skin or clothing.
● Use non-sparking type tools and equipment,including explosion-proof ventilation.
● Empty containers retain product residue (liquid and/or vapor) and can be dangerous.
● Do not pressurize, cut, weld, braze, solder, drill, grind or expose such containers to heat,
sparks,flame, static electricity or other sources of ignition.
● Keep container tightly closed.
Storage
● Keep away from heat, sparks, flames (all sources of ignition). Keep away from
oxidizers,acids and bases.
● Store in a cool, dry, well-ventilated area away from incompatible substances. Outside or
detached storage is recommended.
● Tanks must be grounded and vented and have vapor emission controls including floating
roofs, inert gas blanketing to prevent the formation of explosive mixtures and pressure
vacuum relief valves to control tank pressures. Tanks should be of welded construction
and should also be diked.
● Do not store in aluminum or lead containers.(Anhydrous methanol is non-corrosive to
most metals at ambient temperatures except lead and magnesium.
● Coatings of copper and its alloys, zinc, or aluminum are unsuitable for storage as they
are attacked slowly. Mild Steel is the recommended construction material for tanks.)

● Plastics may be used for short-term storage, but not recommended for long-term use due
to deterioration effects and the subsequent risk of contamination.
Fire Fighting Measures
Flash Point: 11°C

Lower Explosive Limit: 6% (NFPA 1978)
Upper Explosive Limit: 36% (NFPA 1978)
Auto Ignition Temp.: 385°C NFPA 1978)
Hazardous Combustion Products: Toxic gases and vapors; Oxides of Carbon and
Formaldehyde.
Extinguishing Media
● Small fires: Use dry chemical, carbon dioxide, water spray or alcohol resistant foam. Use
water sprays to cool fire-exposed containers.
● Large fires: Use water spray, water fog or alcohol-resistant foam.
Special Protective Equipment for Firefighters
● Firefighters must wear full face, positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus,
MSHA/ NIOSH (approved or equivalent), and full protective gear.
● Protective firefighting structural clothing may not offer complete protection from a
methanol fire if there is liquid methanol or vapor levels above the threshold limit value
(TLV). Use of HAZMAT suits are recommended.
Important Information
Methanol burns with a clean, clear flame, which is almost invisible in daylight. Containers may
build up pressure if exposed to heat and/or fire. Cool tanks / drums with water spray and remove
them to safety. Fire fighting water should be contained if possible, as it is toxic and can cause
environmental damage. Water runoff can cause environmental damage. Vapors can travel to a
source of ignition and flash back. Material is lighter than water, and so a fire can be spread by

the use of water. During a fire, irritating and highly toxic gases may be generated by thermal
decomposition or combustion.Responders should stay upwind.
Accidental Release Measures

Procedure
● Wear appropriate personal protective equipment as specified.
● Stay upwind.
● Ventilate area of leak or spill and isolate hazard area.
● Eliminate all sources of ignition.
● Keep unnecessary and unprotected personnel from entering the hazard zone.
● Contain and recover liquid where possible or dilute with water or use alcohol-resistant
foam to reduce fire hazard. Collect liquid in an appropriate container or absorb with an
inert material (e.g. vermiculite, dry sand, earth) and place in a chemical waste container.
Do not use combustible materials such as sawdust.
● Use non-sparking tools and equipment.
● Do not flush to sewer and prevent from entering confined spaces.
● US regulations (CERCLA) require reporting spills and releases to soil, water and air in
excess of reportable quantities.
Waste Disposal
● Recycling is the recommended disposal method.
● Incineration should only be performed using a legally approved incinerator fitted with
emission controls.
● Methanol wastes are not suitable for underground injection.
● Biological treatment may be used for dilute aqueous waste methanol.
Exposure Controls / Personal Protection

Engineering Controls: Use explosion-proof ventilation equipment. Use adequate general or local
exhaust ventilation to keep airborne concentrations below the permissible exposure limits. Use
only under a chemical fume hood. Facilities
storing or utilizing this material should be equipped with an eyewash facility and a safety
shower.
Personal Protective Equipment
● Respiratory Protection: A respiratory protection program that meets OSHA’s 29 CFR
1910.134) and ANSI Z88.2 requirements or European Standard EN 149 must be followed
whenever workplace conditions warrant a respirator use.
● Eye Protection: Use face shield and chemical flash goggles.
● Skin Protection: Rubber (Butyl or Nitrile) or neoprene gloves and additional protection
including impervious boots, aprons, or coveralls as needed in areas of unusual exposure.
PPE must not be considered a long-term solution to exposure control. PPE usage must
be accompanied by employer programs to properly select, maintain, clean, fit and use.
Consult a competent industrial hygiene resource to determine hazard potential and/or the
PPE manufacturers to ensure adequate protection.
Stability & Reactivity

Chemical Stability: Stable under normal temperatures and pressures.
Conditions to Avoid: High temperatures, incompatible materials, ignition sources, oxidizers.
Incompatible Materials: Avoid contact with strong oxidizers, strong mineral or organic acids and
strong bases. Contact with these materials may cause a violent or explosive reaction. May be
corrosive to lead, aluminum, magnesium and platinum.
Hazardous Decomposition Products: Carbon monoxide, irritating and toxic fumes and gases,
carbon dioxide, formaldehyde.
Hazards Identification
Emergency Overview

Vapor harmful. May be fatal or cause blindness if swallowed. Harmful if inhaled or absorbed
through the skin. Flammable liquid and vapor. Causes irritation to skin,eyes and respiratory tract.
Affects central nervous system and liver.
Target Organs: Kidneys, heart, central nervous system, liver, eyes.
Potential Health Effects

Inhalation:An irritant to the mucous membranes. Toxic effects exerted upon nervous system,
particularly the optic nerve. Once absorbed into the body, it is very slowly eliminated. Symptoms
of overexposure may include headache, drowsiness, nausea, vomiting, blurred vision, blindness,
coma, and death. A person may
get better but then worse up to 30 hours later.
Ingestion: Toxic. Symptoms similar to those for inhalation, but severity and speed of appearance
may be greater. May be fatal or cause blindness. Usual fatal dose: 100 – 125 ml. May cause
gastrointestinal irritation with nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. May cause central nervous system
depression, characterized by excitement, followed by headache, dizziness, drowsiness and
nausea. Advanced stages may cause collapse, unconsciousness, coma and possible death due to
respiratory failure.
Skin Contact:Methyl Alcohol is a defatting agent and may cause skin to become dry and cracked.
Skin absorption can occur in harmful amounts; symptoms may parallel inhalation exposure.
Eye Contact: Irritant, characterized by a burning sensation, redness, tearing, inflammation,

possible corneal injury, painful sensitization to light. Continued exposure may cause lesions.
Chronic Exposure: Marked impairment of vision has been reported. Repeated or prolonged skin
contact may cause dermatitis. Chronic exposure may cause reproductive disorders and
teratogenic effects. Laboratory experiments have resulted in mutagenic effects.

Aggravation of Pre-Existing Conditions: Persons with pre-existing skin disorders or eye
problems or impaired liver or kidney function may be more susceptible to the effects of the
substance.
Other
Highly flammable.
May build up Electrostatic charges: risk of ignition.
Vapor-Air mixture is flammable / explosive within the explosion limits.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 704 Hazard Identification Rating

Health:1 Other Rating System
Reactivity:0 0 = No Hazard
Flammability:3 1 = Slight Hazard
Special Hazards:None 2 = Moderate Hazard
3 = Serious Hazard
4 = Severe Haza
First Aid Measures
Eyes
Immediately flush eyes with an ample amount of water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally
lifting upper and lower eyelids. Get medical help immediately.
Skin
Immediately wash skin with lots of soap and water for at least 15 minutes while removing
contaminated clothing and shoes. Get medical aid if irritation develops or persists.
Inhalation

Remove from exposure to fresh air immediately. If breathing is difficult, give oxygen if
available. If breathing has ceased apply artificial respiration using oxygen and a suitable
mechanical device such as a bag and a mask.
Ingestion
The ingestion of methanol is potentially life threatening. Onset of symptoms may be delayed for
18 to 24 hours after digestion. If the victim is conscious and medical help is not immediately
available, give 2 to 4 cupfuls of milk or water. Do not induce vomiting! Transport victim to a
medical facility immediately.
Note to Physician
Effects may be delayed. Ethanol may inhibit methanol metabolism.
DMC
Physicochemical properties
Boiling point: 90 °C
Density: 1.07 g/cm3 (20 °C)
Explosion limit: 4.22 - 12.87 %(V)
Flash point: 16.7 °C
Ignition Temperature: 458 °C
Melting Point: 0.5 - 4.7 °C
Vapor pressure: 53 hPa (20 °C)
Solubility: 139 g/l
Hazard Identification:
1. Flammable liquid
2. Keep away from heat, spark, and flame.
3. Keep container closed.
4. Use with adequate ventilation.
First Aid Measures:

Inhalation: Remove to flesh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen.
Skin: Immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while removing
contaminated clothing and shoes.
Splashes in eyes: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while
removing contaminated clothing and shoes.
Ingestion: Immediately flush mouth, get medical attention.
Fire Fighting Measures:

Suitable extinguishing media: Water spray, Carbon dioxide, Dry chemical powder.
Special exposure hazards in a fire: It emits smoke and irritating fumes.
Special protective equipment for a fire: Use a positive-pressure, self-contained breathing
apparatus and full protective clothing.
Accidental Release Measure:

Personal precautions: Wear respirator, goggles, boots and gloves.
Methods for cleaning up: Absorb spill with inert material (e.g., dry sand or earth), then place in a
chemical waste containers using non sparking tools. Flush residual spill with copious amounts of
water. For large spills, dike for later disposal.
Other instructions: Consult with local, state and country officials.
Handling and Storage

Handling: Avoid contact with eyes, skins, and clothing. Wash thoroughly after handling.
Storage: Store in cool dry place. Keep package closed. Keep away from heat, spark, and flame.
Exposure Controls/Personal Protection

Special instructions for protection and hygiene: Safety shower and eye bath should be located in
immediate work area. Provide general and/or local exhaust ventilations to control airborne levels
below the exposure guidelines.

Respiratory protection: Use an approved air respirator.
Hand protection: Use heavy rubber gloves.
Eye protection: Use chemical safety goggles.
Skin protection: Use protective clothing impervious to this material. \
Stability and Reactivity

Conditions to avoid: heated condition
Materials to avoid: oxidizing agents.
Hazardous decomposition products: Toxic fumes of monoxide, carbon dioxide.
3.6. Process Instrumentation and Control and Safety aspect

Process Instrument Control
The main goal of all the major units is to minimize the extent of undesirable processes and
reaction. Quality control and the proper installation of an efficient process instrumentation and
control system in the plant are two very important tools for monitoring this requirement. By
use of instruments having varying degrees of complexity, the values of variables like,
temperature, pressure, density, viscosity, specific heat, conductivity, PH, humidity, dew point,
liquid level, flow rate can be recorded continuously and controlled within narrow limits.
Process instrumentation and control aid the economic function of any operation by
maintaining, improving and controlling the various process parameters like flow rates,

temperature, pressure, level, composition etc. An efficiently controlled process plant system
also ensures greater safety in its operation. The parameter measurement could be direct or
indirect. Instrumentation and control systems must justify the additional investment in them.
Process control must aid the smooth operation of the plant and show adequate returns in terms
of greater productivity, quality and stability of the various processes and in producing the
desired results.
Functions to be performed by the instrumentation system

● Indicating
● Recording
● Controlling
The process control instruments should be capable of functioning under and withstanding the
process conditions of temperature, pressure, chemical environment and other adverse
conditions on the plant. It is advisable to set norms, standards and practices to ensure that the
instruments are interchangeable, easy to maintain and install. Proper code must be followed.
Other features could be ruggedness, accuracy and quick response. With respect to our plant,
controls for the following variables may be required:
Pressure: Pressure measurement systems including inductive, capacitive, and piezo-electric
gauge, absolute and differential pressure; calibration of gauges; selection criteria and
specifications; ISA symbols and case study.
Level: Level measurement systems including resistance, capacitance, radiation and optical
methods; selection criteria and specification; ISA symbols and case study.
Temperature: Temperature measurement systems including platinum resistance, thermistors,
thermocouples; pyrometers; selection criteria and specifications; ISA symbols and case study.
Density and Flow: Flow measurement systems including venturi tube, orifice plate, magnetic
flow meter, vortex meter, ultrasonic flow meter, Pitot-static tube, coriolis meter, mass flow
meters; density measurement systems including vibrating element and radiological devices;
selection criteria and specifications; ISA symbols and case study.
Followings are the described various sensors available for controlling these parameters.

Temperature control(subsection of above para)
Temperature is a very common process variable and temperature control is critical to
maintaining product quality and ensuring safe and reliable operation of many processes. There
are mainly two devices that are most widely used for temperature measurement:
● Resistance Temperature Indicators (RTD's)
● Thermocouple
Thermocouples are fabricated from two electrical conductors made of two different metal
alloys. At one end of the cable the two conductors are electrically shorted together by
crimping, welding, etc. This end of the thermocouple, the hot or sensing junction, is thermally
attached to the object to be measured. The other end, the cold or reference junction is
connected to a measurement system. Thermocouples generate an open-circuit voltage, called
the Seebeck voltage that is proportional to the temperature difference between the sensing
(hot) and reference (cold) junctions.
Resistive Temperature Devices, a resistance-temperature detector (RTD) is a temperature
sensing device whose resistance increases with temperature. An RTD consists of a wire coil or
deposited film of pure metal whose resistance at various temperatures has been documented.
RTDs are used when applications require accuracy, long-term stability, linearity and
repeatability. RTDs can work in a wide temperature range; some platinum sensors handle
temperatures from 165°C to 650°C.
Level measuring element (second para of subsection)

There are two methods used to measure the level of a liquid:
● Contact Level Measurement
● Non-Contact Level Measurement
Contact Level Measurement Contact level measurement, as the name implies, requires that
the sensing element be in contact with material being measured. Continuous level
measurements can be performed with:
Direct Methods: With direct level measurement the sensor is in contact with the material over

the entire span that we wish to measure. Direct contact continuous level measurement is
commonly used in bulk powder storage silos and un-agitated tanks. RF capacitance/resistance
level sensors are the typical direct contact level sensors for both the point and continuous level
variety.
Indirect Methods: With indirect level measurement the sensor is in contact with the material at
a single point and the tank level is inferred from this point measurement. Pressure transmitters
measuring hydrostatic head are typically used for indirect contact continuous level
measurement.
Flow Measurement (third para of subsection)

Flow meter is a device that measures the rate of flow or quantity of a moving fluid in an open
or closed conduit. Flow measuring devices are generally classified into five groups.
● Differential Pressure meters: Fixed restriction variable head type flow meters using
different sensors like orifice plate, venturi tube, flow nozzle, Pitot tube and Dall tube.
● Mechanical type flow meters: Quantity meters like positive displacement meters etc.
● Inferential type flow meters: Variable area flow meters (Rotameters), turbine flow meter
target flow meters etc.
● Electrical type flow meters: Electromagnetic flow meter, Ultrasonic flow meter, mass
flow meters, Laser Doppler Anemometers etc.
● Other flow meters: Purge flow regulators, Flow meters for Solids flow measurement,
Cross-correlation flow meter, Vortex shedding flow meters, flow switches etc.
Distributed System for Process Control

Earlier, plants were constructed with a distributed system in the sense that the individual
controllers were located near the process equipment with which interacted. To control and
adjust the operating parameter, operator had to go to each area consuming unnecessary
resources. So, controllers were then started to be maintained in a single room so that operator
could quickly assess the status of the process and make adjustments. The remote multiplexer is
being further used. This unit consists of minicomputer and microprocessor. The process

signals are scanned, converted to digital and transmitted to central computer located adjacent
to the control room. So a single path is shared for all of these processes as against an
individual signal path for each process. Based on the above mentioned parameters, automatic
control has generally been accepted throughout the chemical industry. The resultant savings in
labour combined with improved ease and efficiency of operations has more than offset the
added expense for instrumentation. We have also used high speed computers as they serve
vital tool in the operation of the plant.
The primary objectives of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control schemes
are:
Safe plant Operation:
● To keep the process variables with in known safe operating limits.
● To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms and automatic shut-
down systems.
● To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent dangerous operating procedures.
● Production rate: To achieve the design product output.
● Product quality: To maintain the product composition with the specified quality
standards.
● Profit: To operate the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other objectives.
IV. Environmental Protection and Energy conservation
4.1. Environmental Aspect
The International Standards are based on the methodology known as

Plan-Do-Check-Act(PDCA). PDCA can be briefly described as follows:
● Plan: establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance
with the organization’s environmental policy.
● Do: implement the processes.

● Check: monitor and measure processes against environmental policy, objectives, targets,
legal and other requirements, and report the result.
● Acts: take actions to continually to improve performance of the environmental
management system.
Many organizations manage their operations via the application of a system of processes and
their interactions, which can be referred to as the “process approach”. ISO 9001 promotes the use
of the process approach. Science PDCA can be applied to all processes, to methodologies are
compatible.
This International Standards contains only those requirements that can be objectively audited.
Those organizations requiring more general guidance on a broad range of environmental
management system issues are referred to ISO 14004. This International Standards does not
establish absolute requirements for environmental management.
4.1.a Air Pollution
Storage Tank Emissions. Product storage tank emissions are controlled with double seal floating
roofs or, in some cases, water scrubbers. Field experience indicates that a removal efficiency of
99% can be achieved with water scrubbing.
Product Transport Loading. Emissions of product transport loading vents are gathered and sent
to a flare or incinerator for VOC control. Destruction efficiencies of 98-99% are achieved using
the flare and greater than 99% using incineration.
Absorber Vent Gas. The absorber vent gas stream contains nitrogen, oxygen, un-reacted
propylene, hydrocarbon impurities from the propylene stream, CO, water vapor, and small
quantities of acrolein.
The treatment of air emissions normally takes place on-site and usually at the point of
generation. Waste gas treatment units are specifically designed for a certain waste gas
composition and may not provide treatment for all pollutants. The petrochemical industry has
increasingly reduced the emissions from point sources, and this makes losses from fugitive
sources relatively more important.

Petrochemical processes usually operate with closed process equipment because of
reactant/product characteristics (e.g., high volatility, high toxicity, high hazard risk), and reaction
conditions (e.g., high temperatures and pressures) and this has associated environmental benefits.
Special fields of attention with regard to air emission prevention are:
● Raw materials and fuel composition;
● Required volume of process air;
● Presence of, and need for, inert gases in the process (e.g., N2 from ambient air);
● Energy consumption and the combustion conditions.
The major concern in atmospheric emissions from petrochemical complexes is emissions of

VOCs. Release of toxic/hazardous components and their impact on plant surroundings needs
special attention. The petrochemical industry is characterized by toxic / hazardous chemicals that
are handled and processed in large volumes and so external safety is an important issue.
VOCs Emissions Control

Generally the control on hydrocarbon emissions has been attempted by employing equipment
design standards, control technologies and inspection/maintenance requirements.
Improved technology has a great potential in fugitive emission control. In recent years,
manufacturers of seals, packing, and gaskets for process equipment have designed their products
to control fugitive vapour leaks. These more effective seals, packing, etc., are expected to result
in lower emissions and lower costs for monitoring and maintenance programs. Hydrocarbon
emissions can pose not only environmental risk but also safety risks. Indian petrochemical
industries have been following inspection routine to ensure that any leaks do not lead to
incidents. In such inspections sensory perceptions of the operators and LEL detectors play a vital
role. This same program when extended with the use of monitoring instruments and appropriate
frequency will lead to control of environmental risks and has been commonly called as Leak
detection & Repair (LDAR).
The effectiveness and costs of VOC prevention and control depend on VOC species, VOC
concentration, the flow rate, and the source. Resources are typically targeted at high flow, high

concentration, process vents, but recognition should be given to the cumulative impact of low
concentration diffuse generation sources. Following table identifies the properties needed to
select the appropriate control technique for each identified stream generated by a process source.
Process vents
Process vents usually represent the largest source of VOCs generation from petrochemical
processes. Wherever possible, VOCs should be reused within the process. The potential for
recovery depends on:
● Composition: In technical and economic terms, a gas stream containing one VOC (or a
simple mixture) will be more amenable to re-use than one containing a complex mix.
Likewise, high concentration streams (with low levels of inerts) are more amenable to
reuse.
● Restrictions on reuse: The quality of recovered VOCs should be of a suitable quality for
re-use within the process, and should not generate new environmental issues.
● VOC value: VOCs that are derived from expensive raw materials will be able to sustain
higher recovery costs.
The next best alternative is to recover the calorific content of carbon by using VOCs as a fuel. If
this is not possible, then there may be a requirement for abatement. The choice of abatement
technique is dependent on factors that include VOC composition (concentration, type and
variability) and targeted emission levels.
For example:
● Pre treatment to remove moisture and particulates, followed by
● Concentration of a dilute gas stream, followed by
● Primary removal to reduce high concentrations, followed by
● Polishing to achieve the desired release levels.

The most frequent approach to point source control is the application of add-on control device.
These devices can be of two types: combustion and recovery. Applicable combustion devices are
thermal incinerators, catalytic incinerators, flares and boilers/process heaters. Applicable
recovery devices include condenser, absorbers, and adsorbers. The combustion devices are more
commonly applied control devices, since they are capable of high removal efficiencies for almost
any type of toxic gases. Selection of applicable control technique is made on the basis of stream
specific characteristics and desired control efficiency.
The choice of the best technique will depend on site-specific circumstances.
Storage Tanks:Emissions from storage tanks may contribute significantly to the total
hydrocarbon emissions. The controls to be specified for each type of fluid, needs to be worked
out preferably based on assessment of quantum of emissions, nature of hydrocarbons emitted
(i.e., their toxicity) and the percentage reduction achieved by the controls.
Oil-Water Separators:Assessing the safety of control technologies is of paramount importance.

Since the covering of API separators can potentially lead to explosive environment in the Oil
Water separators, suitable safety measures need to be incorporated.
Fugitives Emissions Control

Fugitive emissions to the air environment are caused by vapour leaks from pipe systems and
from closed equipment as a result of gradual loss of the intended tightness. Although the loss
rates per individual piece of equipment are usually small, there are so many pieces of equipment
in a typical petrochemical plant that the total loss of VOCs via fugitive routes may be very
significant. LDAR programmes are therefore important to identify leak sources and to minimise
losses. Fugitive emissions can be controlled by elaborate leak detection, repair and equipment
modifications. Many plants have implemented LDAR programmes in which various sources of

fugitive emission like leaks from valves, flanges, pump seals, etc., are routinely monitored for
leaks and maintained on regular basis.
4.1.b Liquid Effluent
4.1.b.1 Possible Sources

The major sources of water pollution in our industry are:
1. Drains
2. Spills or leak
3. Metals
1. Drain: Drain of hot water into rivers or other location where infiltration may occur are
harmful to living organisms.
2. Spills/leakages: Spill or leakage of any component i.e. ethylbenzene, styrene, methylene,

ethylene are harmful to the environment and living organisms and are soluble in water. So, water
washing treatment should be done immediately after spillage. and if, leakage is there in large
quantities then, absorbent paper is used for absorbing the spill and then, water washing is done.
3.Metal: Metals may occur in effluents, for example, through the use of catalyst i.e.,Fe2O3.
Metals generally need to be removed by separate treatment, because they cannot be removed
efficiently in biological treatment plants.
4.1.b.2 Wastewater Prevention Technique
1. General prevention techniques

Before considering wastewater treatment techniques, it is first necessary to fully exploit all the
opportunities for preventing, minimizing and reusing wastewater. However, water use, effluent
generation and effluent treatment are all intrinsically linked and should be considered in
combination. A typical exercise in preventing wastewater may include the following steps:

Step 1: Identify wastewaters - The first step is to identify all wastewater sources from a process
and to characterize their quality, quantity and variability. An analysis is useful to identify those
sources that use most water and contribute most wastewater. Further clarification is provided by
the preparation of plans that show all drain networks, points of arising, isolation valves,
manholes and points of discharge.
Step 2: Minimize water flows - The overall aim is to minimize the use of water in the process in
order to obviate effluent production or, if that is not possible, to produce more concentrated
effluents. It will be necessary to identify the minimum quantity of water that is needed (or
produced) by each step of the production process and then to ensure that these requirements are
implemented by such practices as:
● Use of water-free techniques for vacuum generation (e.g., use the product as a sealing
liquid in vacuum pumps, use dry pumps)
● Employ closed loop cooling water cycles.
● Use management tools such as water-use targets and more transparent costing of water.
● Install water meters within the process to identify areas of high use.
Step 3: Minimize contamination - Wastewaters are created by contamination of process water

with raw material, product or wastes; either as part of process operation, or unintentionally. The
following techniques can prevent this contamination:
Process operation:
● Use indirect cooling systems to condense or cool steam phases (not direct injection
systems)
● Use purer raw materials and auxiliary reagents (i.e., without contaminants).
● Use non-toxic or cooling water additives with lower toxicity (e.g., chromium based
additives).

From spills:
● Fit secondary containment to vessels and pipe-work that pose a high risk of leaks.
● Provide spill clean-up material (adsorbents, drain plugs, etc) at strategic points around the
installation and prepare spill contingency plans.
● Use separate collection systems for process effluent, sewage and rainwater (although
there may be cases where the blending of effluent streams offers treatment advantages).
Step 4: Maximize wastewater reuse - Even when wastewaters are produced/generated they do
not necessarily have to be sent to a treatment plant.
2. Process Modification
In-plant processes
All in-plant treatment options require segregation of process waste streams under consideration.
If there are multiple sources of a particular pollutant or pollutants, it/they require segregation
from the main wastewater sewer. However, similar sources can be combined for treatment in one
system.
In-plant practices are the sole determinant of the amount of wastewater to be treated. There are
two types of in-plant practices that reduce flow to the treatment plant. First, there are reuse
practices involving the use of water from one process in another process.
Second, there are recycle systems that use water more than once for the same purpose. Reduction
in water usage sometimes may be more cost-effective in reducing the quantity of wastewater
discharged than water reuse or recycle. Good housekeeping is one inexpensive method of
wastewater reduction. Many of the wastewater streams are suitable for reuse within the plant.
Water quality Standards by CPCB
Solution Permissible Limit

TDS 850 mg/l
Suspended solids 350 mg/l
Nitrogen as N 85mg/l
Phosphorus as P 20mg/l
BOD5 300 mg/l
Alkalinity 200 mg/l
4.1.c Solid Disposal
Waste Disposal Techniques

Spent catalysts are generally sent back to the suppliers. Solid waste may be disposed by the
following methods:
1. Landfill:
Landfilling is the main method of disposal of municipal solid in most countries. Unlike
incineration, landfilling is not capital intensive and does not require skilled laborers. Landfills
dispose of municipal solid wastes directly, as well as the residue that remain after recycling,
composting, and incineration. Regardless of the level of technology used, landfilling is very
simple process waste is dumped into a disposal area where, depending upon the type of landfill,
the material may be compacted, and covered with a layer of soil. Over time, organic wastes such
as paper and food decompose to produce methane, carbon dioxide, water, organic acids and other
chemicals. The rate of decomposition depends upon many factors including moisture content,
pH, and temperature, degree of compaction, wastage and composition. When degradation occurs,
the volume of the original waste is reduced, providing additional landfill capacity. Strong odors
are emitted as the organic wastes decompose. Inorganic wastes such as metals and glass do not
decompose, and remain essentially unchanged over time.

2. Incineration:
In the incineration process, wastes are burned at very high temperatures and byproducts are
released into the atmosphere and concerned into incineration ash. The byproducts which are
released into the atmosphere contain dust, acidic gases, vaporized metals, toxic chemicals such
as dioxin, all of which have been linked to public health and environmental degradation. These
byproducts can be reduced with a variety of air pollution technologies such as scrubbers which
remove particulates before they are released into the atmosphere. The incinerator ash is highly
toxic as it contains a high concentration of heavy metals, which stay in the incinerator while
other wastes are burned, from batteries and other waste products.
4.1.d Noise Pollution
Noise Pollution at Petrochemical Industries

The large petrochemical plants and refineries are highly regulated concerns because of the
materials and processes involved and their potential impact on nearby communities and the
environment.
In some jurisdictions a plant’s noise levels must be assessed when seeking regulatory permits
and approvals for new facility construction, plant expansions or for the addition of new processes
or equipment.
Petrochemical faculties bring some unique noise and acoustical engineering challenges. Unlike
most other industrial facilities, petrochemical processes operate largely outdoors, with the
processing equipment located on open-frame steel structures. These operations which include
pumps, compressors, blowers, agitators and coolers, run out in the open, with limited barriers in
place to restrict equipment noise from carrying beyond the confines of the plant.

Compounding this is the sheer size and scale of these operations, which incorporate a large and
varied amount of stationary sound sources, along with miles of complex, intertwined piping
systems.
As a result, the noise levels generated by these facilities can often be significant. Identifying key,
major contributors to the excesses within the plant labyrinth as measured from nearby
community locations can be challenging.
In general it is produced, at every stage in industry by various aspects like welding, drilling,
running machinery, motors, operation of cranes, grinding, turning, forging, steaming, boiling,
cooling, heating, painting, pumping, packing, transporting etc. It creates very serious of large-
scale noise problems that significantly affect the working people as well as surrounding people.
As mechanical noise is the major part of industrial noise and is due to machinery of all kinds and
often increases with the type of operation and power capacity of the machines. The
characteristics of industrial noise vary considerably depending on specific industrial process.
High noise levels common in petrochemical industries can be due to presence of unsteady force
and it’s structural elements caused by moving parts, vibration of heavy equipments, sound from
engines, gear, bearings, rotating and reciprocating machines, combustion, fans, pressurized flow,
during shifting of raw materials and end products, trucks and dumpers etc.
For Petroleum industries the noise pollution may generate at any phases of development
including:
● Seismic Operations
● Construction Activities
● Drilling & Production
● Aerial Surveys
● Transportation.
4.2. Energy Conservation

With the rising population of the world and rapidly increasing per capita consumption in the
developing countries, energy conservation has become the focus of attention all around the
world, particularly in energy intensive petrochemical industry. The fast depleting petroleum
resources, which are estimated to be just around 89*10^9 barrels as reserves (sufficient for just
another 30 years) have led to the exploration of new energy resources. In this context, both
conventional and nonconventional sources of energy are to be studied.
7.2.1 Alternate Energy Resources

Renewable energy resources have become more important now a day in process plants. The
major renewable energy forms and their present use and prospects have been tabulated below.
Solar Energy
Electrical/ thermal conversion of solar energy in which electricity is generated using solar
concentrating mirrors, absorbers and high temperature thermodynamic cycle can be used for both
industrial and domestic use. In industry, much of the energy required is used for relatively low
temperature applications such as space heating, dehydration of food, heating water for
production and processing of low pressure steam.
Biomass Conversion
Heat, fuel, electricity or chemical feed stocks undergo cultivation and chemical processing under
the action of terrestrial and aquatic plants. Other sources from which energy can be derived
include industrial.
Agriculture, human and animal wastes. The final products of these processes may be methane,
ethylene, hydrogen, alcohol, heat, steam, charcoal, other solid fuels and synthetic oils.
Wind Energy
Wind is utilized to propel turbines and air foils, which convert it to electrical or mechanical
energy. A 3.5 m diameter rotor develops about 0.16 BHP in a 15-mph wind can pump to 35
gallons of water per minute to a height of about 10 cm.

Tidal Energy
Ocean thermal energy conversion into electricity is another possible source of energy. This is
due to fact that oceans are the largest solar collectors and storage system. We can also make use
of thermal gradients that exists beneath the water surface and derive heat from these.
Nuclear Energy
More than 1900 tons of uranium reserves are presents in the earth. Given proper measures, this
form of energy is very competitive and an excellent substitute for fossil fuels. However, this
form of energy is viewed with some reservations due to the inherent hazards of radioactive
pollution.
7.2.2 Energy Conservation Measures

The increasing cost of primary fuel has broadened the range of the heat recovery applications
that can be economically justified. In a typical chemical concern with a profit margin of Rs. 4 per
Rs. 100 sales, a saving of Rs. 1 in energy cost is approximately equivalent to an increase of Rs.
25 in sales. The entire gamut of energy conservation operations can be classified into two broad
categories:
1. Energy Concept: The term energy has its origins in last of thermodynamics. It can be
redefined in terms of enthalpy or entropy change or temperature difference. In each
process, the sum of all the inputs are always greater than the sum of all the outputs, the
differences being the energy losses. The endeavour of all energy conservation step is to
minimize this energy loss.
2. Pinch Concept: Every chemical industry used hot and cold streams. The hot streams are
cooled while the cold streams get heated up. These are called the hot and cold end
“Approach”. ΔT, i.e. the temperature difference between the hot and cold end need not
remain same through the temperature range. In a grand composite curve, all the hot and

cold streams are combined to form the hot composite and cold composites respectively.
There is a situation when ΔT becomes minimum. This point of closest approach is called
pinch of the integrated heat exchanger (HEN) and signifies zero heat transfer in the grand
composite curve.
To achieve energy conservation, the following three rules must be followed:

● No heat transfer across the pinch
● No cooling above the pinch
● No heating below the pinch
Apart from the above, some more measures taken for the energy conservation are:
Boiler & Steam systems
Increase the efficiency of the condense system
Replace improperly sized steam traps
Upgrade the quality of insulation in the plant
Reuse the hot water stream previously served

V. Plant Utilities
The word "Utilities" is now generally used for the ancillary services needed in the operation of
any production process. These services will normally be supplied from a central site facility; and
will include:
1. Instrument Air
2. Electricity.
3. Steam, for process heating.
4. Cooling water.
5. Water for general use.
6. Demineralized water.
7. Compressed air.
8. Inert-gas supplies.
9. Refrigeration.
10. Effluent disposal facilities
Secondary utilities:
1. Maintenance facilities
2. Roadways
3. Rail/road facilities
4. Fire protection

5. Plant sewer system and waste disposal
6. Plant buildings
7. Plant security
5.1. Air for Process and Instrumentation

For plant utilities we use secondary measuring instruments. These are the elements of a
measuring information system that indicate or record the values of the quantities being measured.
There are various modifications of secondary measuring instrument: single channel types (which
indicate or record); multi-channel types (which simultaneously indicate and record the values)
etc.
The most important part of any secondary measuring instrument is the energy-generation and
energy transmission systems which used to relay the signals. In the pneumatic system, the energy
generating facility is composed of an air compressor, air dryer and storage tank. Pneumatic
secondary instruments rely on the slight movement of flapper nozzle mechanism to sense signal
change. Therefore clean dry air must be provided to ensure proper operation. The air is typically
supplied throughout the plant in ½ inch (12 mm) pipes and at 40-60 psi. This pressure is reduced
to a standard 20 psi for operation of each pneumatic instrument. Pneumatic signals are usually
transmitted through tubing, usually ¼ inch (6mm) from feed to control room and within the
control room between instruments.
In the generation of compressed air there are two main equipment:
1. Air receivers: A small tank is provided after the compressors in the installation of compressor
which is known as air receivers. An air receiver serves a fourfold purpose.
● As a surge tank to damping the pulsation of air delivered by the compressor.

● It is used as cooler.
● As a storage vessel of air.
● Removal of the oil and moisture contained in the air.

2. Air compressors: Compressors have numerous forms, the exact configuration being based on
the application. There are two basic modes:
a) Intermittent: - This mode of compression is cyclic in nature, in that a specific quantity of

gas is ingested by the compressor, acted upon, and discharged before the cycle is
repeated. This type of compressor is also referred by positive displacement compressors,
of which there are two distinct types; reciprocating and rotary.
b) Continuous:- This mode is one in which the gas is moved into the compressor, is acted
upon, moved through the compressor, and discharged without interruption of the flow at
any point in the process. Continuous-mode compressors are also characterized by two
fundamental types: dynamic and ejector.
In our case both instrumentation and process air are required. All pneumatic controls in the plant
require instrument air which is supplied in air compressor house. A slight malfunctioning of this
unit may result in complete failure of all the units. The piping is over designed and extreme care
is taken to prevent piping failure.

5.2. Heat Transfer Media
Heat transfer media are defined as fluids which absorb and provide thermal energy to the process
equipment.
Properties of heat carriers:
(i) High rate of heat exchange

(ii) Absence of corrosion effects
(iii)Cheap and easily available
(iv)Low viscosity
(v) Non-toxic
(vi) Non-inflammable and thermally stable
The heat transfer media being used in our plant is: Steam
Steam offers the following advantages over the other heat carriers:
(i) It is thermally stable over the entire range of operation. Also it has less corrosive effects.
(ii) Water is the cheapest and most commonly available heat carrier.
Reasons for choosing steam
● Steam has many important advantages such as high latent heat, constant temperature
requiring practically no control, easy production from commonly available water, high
value of heat transfer coefficient during condensation, no special problems in handling
and transportation. However, its use is generally restricted to about 220°C because of its
low critical temperature.
● High pressure steam is a costly affair as it requires boilers and other processing and
handling equipment to be at high pressure.
● Recently a concept of cogeneration in which high pressure superheated steam is used in
turbines for power generation has picked up.
● The exhaust of turbine is used for thermal heating.

● Now a days, the exhaust steam available at a low pressure of 1.5 – 2 atm being used as a
supplement to process steam of high pressure.
5.3. Water
Use of raw water:
A plant water supply is separated into process, cooling, potable, fire water and utility water
systems. Brief descriptions of the different water uses in industries are given below.
Process water: water is typically used for various purposes where the water is closely contacted
with the reactants. Softened water is usually used for these purposes.
Cooling water: Water-cooled condensers, product coolers (heat exchangers) and other heat
exchangers can use a large amount of water in a plant. Some industries use air coolers, where the
process stream is exchanged with air prior the being sent to a cooling water heat exchanger. This
will minimize the use of cooling water in the industry.
Potable water: Potable water is required for use in kitchens, wash areas and bathrooms in plants
as well as in safety showers/eyewash stations. City water or treated groundwater can be used for
this purpose. In remote locations or in small towns a portion of the treated water from the plant
softening unit may be diverted for potable water use. The treated water must be chlorinated to
destroy bacteria, and then pumped in an independent system to prevent potential cross-
contamination. Potable quality water may also be required in some specialist chemical operations
(e.g. as a diluent).
Fire water: The requirements for fire water in industries are intermittent, but can constitute a
very large flow. Often, industries collect stormwater from non-process areas and store it in a
reservoir dedicated to the fire water system in the plant. Provisions are typically made for a
connection (for use in emergency situations) of the fire water system into the largest available

reservoir of water. Usually this is the raw water supply since fire water requires no treatment.
Seawater or brackish water is often used as fire water by plants located along coastal areas.
Utility water: Utility water is used for miscellaneous washing operations, such as cleaning an
operating area. It should be free from sediment but does not require any other treatment.
Raw water treatment:

The raw water treatment in a industry creates wastewater and sludges that require disposal. The
following section describes the best practices with respect to these discharges. Raw water
treatment—best practices
● Lime softening: When lime softening is used for raw water treatment, the sludge generated in
this process should be thickened, and optionally dewatered. The thickener overflow water can be
discharged directly without any further treatment, when local regulations allow. The sludge that
is generated should be disposed off-site. Not discharging it to the sewer in the refinery will
prevent the introduction of inert solids into the sewer in the industry which in turn will avoid
creation of more oil sludge that requires disposal.
● Ion exchange: The use of ion exchange for treatment of raw water creates an alkaline
wastewater stream and an acidic wastewater stream as a result of the regeneration of the ion
exchange beds. These streams should be collected in a tank and the pH neutralized prior to being
discharged directly to an outfall (bypassing wastewater treatment) if allowed by local regulation.
● Reverse osmosis: The use of reverse osmosis for raw water treatment results in the creation of
a reject stream that is very high in dissolved solids. This reject stream should be discharged
directly to an outfall (bypassing wastewater treatment) if allowed by local regulation.
Water Storage: Water Storage Facilities serve multiple purposes within a distribution system.
The main purposes of finished water storage:
• Equalizing supply and demand
• Increasing operating convenience

• Leveling out pump requirements
• Decreasing power costs
• Providing water during power source or pump failure
• Providing large quantities of water to meet fire demands
• Providing surge relief
• Increasing detention times
• Blending water sources
There are many styles and construction materials for storage facilities. Selection of type and
construction material is generally based on hydraulic considerations and cost. Storage facilities,
depending on design can provide direct access to treated water as in open reservoirs or through
hatches and vents as in closed reservoirs. Buried reservoirs are also susceptible to groundwater
intrusion; however, this is not a viable means of intentional contamination. Depending on the
size and design of the distribution system, finished water storage reservoirs can present a single
point of failure or contamination or, to a lesser extent, disruption or contamination to particular
portions of the service area. Historically, storage facility location has been driven by hydraulic
needs, not security needs. Security needs have been of minor concern.
Cooling Tower
Design Conditions:
Cooling towers are heat removal devices used to transfer process waste heat to the atmosphere.
Cooling towers may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the
working fluid to near the wet-bulb air temperature or in the case of "Close Circuit Dry Cooling
Towers" rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.
Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries, chemical

plants, power stations and building cooling. The towers vary in size from small roof-top units to
very large
hyperboloid structures that can be up to 200 metres tall and 100 metres in diameter, or
rectangular structures that can be over 40 metres tall and 80 metres long. Smaller towers are
normally factory built, while larger ones are constructed on site. They are often associated with
nuclear power plants in popular culture.
Cooling Towers: Operating Principle

Cooled water is needed for air conditioners, manufacturing processes or power generation. A
cooling tower is an equipment used to reduce the temperature of a water stream by extracting
heat from water and emitting it to the atmosphere. Cooling towers make use of evaporation
whereby some of the water is evaporated into a moving air stream and subsequently discharged
into the atmosphere. As a result , the remainder of the water is cooled down significantly.
Cooling towers are able to lower the water temperature more than devices that use only air to
reject heat , like the radiator in a car , and are therefore more cost –effectiveness and energy
efficient.
A cooling tower is determined by the properties with the following parameters.

➢ CT inlet temperature and CT outlet temperature
➢ Wet bulb temperature and Dry bulb temperature
➢ Water flow rate
Dry bulb temperature of air entering the cooling tower of any affect the amount of water
evaporated. This temperature also affects the flow of hyperbolic towers and dry weather in any
indirect-contact cooling tower element affects the working position. Use of air conditioning
cooling tower thermal capability of a 1.25 per kW of heat dissipation base of evaporative cooling
is expressed in terms of nominal capacity. Nominal cooling capacity of 25 to 6 ° C inlet air wet
bulb temperature, 54 ml / s, water temperature 35 ° C is defined as 29 5 ° C to reduce the
required cooling. 1.25 per kW / kW evaporator capacity of these circumstances, cooling tower

heat throws. These values are based on traditional assumptions and inferences conditions typical
air-conditioning evaporator taken every kilowatt of heat for 'cooling tower 0, 25 kW or remove
the heat of an additional compressor. Values of the nominal capacity of the tower is not used for
special applications and specific operating conditions are generally thermal performance
capability of the air entering wet bulb temperatures entering and leaving water temperature,
water flow rate is expressed in the basis.
5.4. Refrigeration
Efficient industrial refrigeration systems are developed through proper design, the use of
premium efficiency equipment, and the installation of appropriate system controls, as well as
regular maintenance. Energy costs are a significant expense for these businesses. For example,
approximately 25% of the electricity consumed by the food processing industry is used for
process cooling and refrigeration. Nevertheless, despite the high energy costs associated with
refrigeration and the potential savings from increased efficiency, the historical focus on
designing and installing new refrigeration equipment hasbeen to develop systems that can meet a
facility’s energy load at a minimum capital cost. Energy use and operating costs have had a
lower priority.
Refrigeration systems are designed to achieve and maintain the specific required conditions of a
facility’s refrigerated space by producing enough cooling to overcome the heat added by external
and internal loads as well as the heat generated by the product. Refrigeration systems usually
comprise four major components—compressor, condenser, expansion device, and evaporator—
which are shown in Figure. Several equipment types and technologies are available for each of
the major components; in many cases, each system component comes from each of the major
components; in many cases, each system component comes from a different manufacturer. To
maximize the overall efficiency of a refrigeration system, it is important to consider the
interaction among components as well as the individual performance of each.
Following is shown a diagram representing a basic refrigeration system:

Figure: Basic Refrigeration Cycle
Various types of refrigerants exist, but many of them are being phased out due to increased
regulation. Refrigerants usually fall into one of the following groups:
CFCs – chlorofluorocarbons
HCFCs – hydrochlorofluorocarbons
HFCs – hydrofluorocarbons
HCs – hydrocarbons
NH3 – ammonia
CFCs have been widely used in the past but are now phased out of production due to their high
ozone-depleting potential (ODP). HCFCs also have ODP; they are strictly regulated and are in
the process of being phased out. HFCs and HCs have zero ODP and are being used as
replacements for refrigerants with ODP. Ammonia is toxic but has no ODP and is used
extensively in industrial refrigeration systems. Several advantages of ammonia have contributed
to its popularity in industry, including high latent heat and therefore less required mass flow, low
pressure losses in connecting piping, and low reactivity with refrigeration lubricants.
Following is provided an overview of common energy efficiency measures, specifically:

Optimized compressor sequencing
Moderately oversized condensers
Floating head pressure control

Increased suction pressure
Variable frequency driver
Premium efficiency motors
Demand-based defrosting
Insulation
High-efficiency lighting fixtures and controls
Rapid-closing doors
5.4. Electricity and Power
Power Week Total

Consumptio y Weekly Annual Number of Total
n instrument Usage consumpti Consumpt Equipments Annual
Equipment (W) (h) on(kWh) ion(kWh) or people Power(kW)
Computer Box 72 43.2 3.456 179.712 112.5 22464
Laptops 18 43.2 0.864 44.928 90 4492.8
Document Shedder 450 4.5 2.25 117 9 1170
Projector 135 4.5 0.675 35.1 9 351
Computer
Network/Hub 36 151.2 6.048 314.496 9 3144.96
printer/copier/fax
machine 17.19 893.88 10.8 10726.56
coffee maker 374.4 9 3.744 194.688 18 3893.76
mobile phone charger 3.6 9 0.036 1.872 90 187.2

Telephones/ intercom 151.2 65.7 3416.4 180 683280
HVAC 3375 100.8 378 0.9 19656
Ventilation System 36 151.2 6.048 315 6.3 2205
Fans 36 100.8 4.032 209.664 450 104832
Lifts 391.5 24429.6 5.4 146577.6
Lighting(max. i.e 35%

of the total energy
consumption) 49.5 45 2.475 128.7 900 128700
Vacuum Cleaners 1350 13.5 20.25 1053 5.4 6318
Microwave 1260 9 12.6 655.2 1.8 1310.4
fridge/freezer 187.2 151.2 31.4496 1635.379 1.8 3270.758
water Heater 81 54 4.86 252.72 10.8 3032.64
Hand drier 421.2 32.4 15163.2
Dish Washer 299.7 1.8 599.4
CCTV System 54 151.2 9.072 1084.5 72 86760
Plant Equipments and

others 118751865

VI. Organizational Structure and Manpower Requirement
Grade Gross salary (per month in Rs)
A0 2,00,000
A1 1,50,000
A2 1,00,000
A3 70,000
A4 50,000
A5 18,000
A6 8,500
B0 50,000
B1 20,000
B2 6,000
Designation Minimum Education Number Grade

qualification
President BTech+MBA with at least 20 1 A0

years experience
Vice President BTech+MBA with at least 15 2 A1

years experience
Administration
General Manager BTech+MBA with at least 12 2 A3

Medical Officers years experience
Legal Head LLB 1 A3
Security Head Retired army officer 1 A3

Fire and Safety Graduate (B.A) 1 A3
Head
Fire Man Diploma 5 A6
Medical Staff Diploma 4 A6
Personal (HR)

years experience
Staff Graduate 4 A5
Finance
General Manager CA with 10 years of Experience 1 A2
Accountants M.com 4 A4
Production

years experience
Managers BTech(chemical) 4 A4
Shift Engineers BTech(chemical) 12 B0
Operators BTech(chemical) 16 B1
Labor BTech(chemical) 30 B2
Technical
General Manager BTech(chemical) with 5 years 1 A2

experience
Engineers BTech 10 B0
Staff Graduate 12 B1
Maintenance
Senior Manager BTech(chemical) with 5 years 1 A3

experience

Engineer BTech(chemical) with 3 years 2 A4
experience
Operator Diploma 6 B1
Labor High School 10 B2
Total salaries of employees = 47,862,000 Rs per annum

= 683,742 $/annum

VII. Market Prospects
7.1 A brief analysis of demand and supply of the product of the past 5 years
and next five years.
Global Dimethyl Carbonate Production
The key drivers of dimethyl carbonate production are its largest applications in the industries of
polycarbonates, paints and coatings.
Polycarbonates are currently in very high demand from the rapidly growing end-user industries
of automotive and electronics. Both industries are currently in full swing and are expected to
continue growing in the near future. As a result, the higher demand for polycarbonates becomes
a driver for the manufacture of dimethyl carbonate. Similarly, the paints and coatings industry is
being boosted by the construction industry, consequently upping the demand for dimethyl
carbonate.
With all these factors of influence in place, the global market for dimethyl carbonate is expected
to progress at a CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Rate) of 6.6% between 2015 and 2023 in
terms of revenue. By the end of 2016, this market revenue should be reaching US$440 mn. By
the end of 2023, the market is expected to be valued at US$690.1 mn. In terms of volume,
dimethyl carbonate global production is expected to weigh in at 599 kilo tons.
Asia Pacific Demand for Dimethyl Carbonate on the Rise:
By the end of 2023, the Asia Pacific demand for dimethyl carbonate is expected to be at 49.26%
of the market. Europe comes in at second place in terms of demand, followed by North America
in third.

China is a massive contributor to the Asia Pacific demand for dimethyl carbonate. Together with
Japan, the two regions are expected to take up more than three quarters of the total dimethyl
carbonate volume in Asia Pacific by 2023. In fact, China is considered to be a top producer and
consumer of dimethyl carbonate in the world currently, as the players in this country also export
large quantities of dimethyl carbonate to emerging economies.
Europe recognized dimethyl carbonate as a non-toxic chemical in 1992, after which it steadily
started to replace chloromethane, phosgene, and methyl chloroformate in several end-use
industries. A majority of the demand for dimethyl carbonate in Europe is expected to continue
originating from Germany and France.
Dimethyl Carbonate Market, By Application
Global dimethyl carbonate market size for polycarbonate was valued at over USD 200 million in
2015. Polycarbonate is a transparent and strong engineering thermoplastic used in automotive,
glazing, electronics, optical media, medical, lighting and appliances markets. Robust growth in
the end user industries such as automotive and electronics, along with increasing product usage
in these sectors will positively influence industry growth over the forecast timeframe.
Global dimethyl carbonate market share for solvent is projected to expand at over 6% CAGR
over the forecast timeframe. The product is an inexpensive oxygenated solvent along with having
excellent solubility properties. It can dissolve numerous coating resins. It can also be employed
in auto refinish and concrete coatings with its promising solubility, odor, evaporation rate and
economic profiles. Furthermore, it can also be used in floor coatings, steel drum linings, traffic paints and
architectural coatings owing to boost industry growth.

U.S Dimethyl Carbonate Market size, by application, 2013-2024 (USD million)
Source: www.gminsights.com
Polycarbonate Industry demand for Dimethyl Carbonate Continues to grow. By 2023, 53.2% of
the total volume of dimethyl carbonate produced is expected to be taken up by the polycarbonate
industry. Dimethyl carbonate is an important constituent in the manufacture of polycarbonates,
as it is used to produce diphenyl carbonate, one of the core chemicals in the condensation
polymerization process that produces polycarbonates. The applications of polycarbonates are
diverse and include appliances, lighting devices, medical devices, optical media, electronics, and
automobiles. Most of these industries, especially the automotive and electronics industries, are
showing a positive growth rate. Therefore, their demand for polycarbonates is expected to drive
the production of dimethyl carbonate.

7.2 Present production capacity/licensed capacity in the country giving the
status of the production
Analysis of Import of dimethyl carbonate By India:
Ref: www.zauba.com
Ref: www.zauba.com

\

7.3 Export Potential
Analysis of Export of dimethyl carbonate By India :

7.4 Marketing set-up and area of consumption
The thriving expansion of some of the key end-use industries of dimethyl carbonate is one of the
key factors leading to the steady rise in demand and consumption of this organic compound.
Manufacturers are also increasingly preferring dimethyl carbonate as a solvent over other toxic
reagents such as phosgene. The usage of dimethyl carbonate in the production of antibiotics,
such as ciprofloxacin and carbadox, and pesticides has also witnessed steady expansion in the
recent years and these applications continue to remain lucrative for the market.
It is estimated that the global dimethyl carbonate market will massively benefit from the vast
surge in uptake of electronics and passenger vehicles, especially across Asia Pacific. The
increasing usage of the compound in these products will prove to be highly lucrative for the
global dimethyl carbonate market in the longer run. Additionally, the market will likely benefit
from the increasing demand from the paints and coatings industry. The thriving construction
industry in regions such as the Middle East and Africa and Asia Pacific is expected to drive the
regional paints and coatings markets, which will, in turn, propel the growth of this market.

VIII. Site selection:
The flexibility of the plant & site selection is mainly based upon the following: -
i. Raw materials availability
ii. Markets
iii. Energy
iv. Climate
v. Transportation facilities
vi. Water supply
vii. Waste disposal
viii. Labor supply
ix. Taxation and legal restrictions
x. Site characteristics
xi. Flood and fire protections
Based upon all these factors we have chosen Kandla (SEZ), Gujarat as the potential site for the
project. Availability of port makes the procurement of raw material by imports quite easy.
Alternatives sites may be Mundra, Ahmedabad and Surat (Gujarat), but due to the availability of
SEZ (400 Ha) for chemicals in Kandla and being a PCPIR (Petroleum, Chemicals and
Petrochemicals Investment Region), it is the best suited for our project.
Advantages of Gujarat
The advantages in selecting Gujarat as the site for the project are described below:
1. Raw material supply:
As mentioned above, these all suppliers are suited in Gujarat, near our project site. The
availability of raw material makes the selection of Kandla as the project site very obvious.
Handling and transportation of the raw materials will be eased due to the lesser distance between
the supplier and project site.

2. Robust Infrastructure:
a) Dependable Power supply: This factor is a key to industrial development. Present power
generation capacity of Gujarat is 9,628 MW, plans afoot to raise it to 25,000 MW by 2012. Per
capita power consumption is 1354 units against national average of 665 units. Also there is rich
availability of natural gas (34 MMCD) and lignite (1,072 MMT) in Gujarat.
b) Transportation facilities: Total road length in Gujarat is 74,018 Km, whereas rail length is
5,188 Km (8.25 % of India), 13 airports and 42 ports along 1,600 km coastline also make Gujarat
a favorite location for industries and businesses. Kandla (itself a large seaport city), situated
between Vadodara and Surat, is well connected through roadways, railways and airways.
c) Utilities: Kandla has always been prosperous because of its location on the Narmada River.
Although water tends to be scarce in Gujarat, one never finds difficulty in getting water in
Kandla. Because of this, agriculture and other linked commercial activities have flourished in
Kandla.
3. Initiatives by Government:
a) Licensing policy:
• In Chemical sector, 100% FDI is permissible.
• The entrepreneurs need to submit only IEM with the Department of Industrial Policy and
Promotion provided no locational angle is applicable.
b) Custom duty:
• The peak rate of custom duty on most Chemicals is 7.5%.
• On basic raw materials like acid grade fluorspar, Sulphur, rock phosphate, natural borates are
5%.
• On most building blocks and feedstock, the duty is 5% (ethylene, propylene, crude, naphtha,
benzene, xylene, Ethyl benzene)
c) Excise duty:
• On almost all chemicals the excise duty is 16%.

4. SEZ Advantages:
For SEZ units-
● Income tax incentives: 10-year corporate tax holiday on export profit, 100% for the initial
5 years and 50% for the next 5 years.
● Other benefits;
○ Exemption of electricity duty—10 years
○ Duty free procurement of capital goods (including second hand capital goods),
raw materials and consumable spares from domestic markets.
○ Full freedom for sub-contracting.
○ Facility to realize and repatriate export proceeds within 12 months.
○ Facility to retain 100% foreign exchange receipts in the export earner’s foreign
currency account.
● Indirect tax incentives (for both SEZ units & Developers)
○ Nil custom duty.
○ Nil excise duty.
○ Exemption from central sales tax.
○ Exemption from service tax.
○ Exemption from securities transaction tax.
○ Exemption from tax on sale of electricity for self-generated and purchased power.
Besides above, Gujarat has very liberal labor policies for SEZ and SEZ Development committee
monitors infrastructure development for each SEZ.
5. Global competitiveness:
● The chemical industry in Gujarat is a significant component of the State’s economy,
contributing to more than 51% of Indian production of major chemicals with revenues at
approximately more than INR US$ 3 billion. Gujarat contributes 15% of the total national
chemical exports.

● Petrochemical Industry in Gujarat produces 13.048 Million Tons of petrochemical
products and contributes around 62% to the total production of the country.
● Bulk of the exports from this sector goes to market such as USA, Europe and other
developed countries- a clear sign of global competitiveness.
● Gujarat has been the ideal destination for several leading MNCs including BASF, Bayer,
DuPont, GE Plastics, Claim Energy, Solvay, Shell, British Gas, Perstrop, Huber,
Heubach colours and Cheminova.
6. Market Advantages:
While the State Chemicals industry exhibits several similarities to the global chemical industry,
there are several characteristics specific to the Gujarat across sub-segments. At the industry
level, Gujarat chemical industry is characterized by:
● High domestic demand potential, as the Indian markets develop and per capita
consumption level increase.
● High degree of fragmentation and small-scale operations.
● Limited emphasis on exports due to domestic market focus and smaller scale of
operation.
● Low cost competitiveness as compared to other countries.
7. Quality Workforce and Educational Infrastructure:

Gujarat is also famous for its educational infrastructure and quality workforce.
● Least man days lost due to industrial unrest.
● Large pool of skilled technical personnel available.
● 39 engineering colleges offering diploma courses in chemical engg.
● 49 Polytechnics offering diploma courses in chemical engg. (e.g. K. J. Polytechnic,
Kandla
● Location of kandla in Gujarat.

8.2 Project Layout
Plant Layout considerations
After selecting a plant site for the plant, plant layout is a crucial factor in the economics and the
safety of process plant. Some of the ways, in which plant layout contributes to safety and loss
prevention (SLP), & which are included in the layout design are:
1. Economic considerations: construction and operation cost,
2. Segregation of different risks.
3. Minimization of vulnerable pipe work.
4. Containment of accidents.
5. Limitation of exposure.
6. Efficient and safe construction.
7. Efficient and safe operation.
8. Efficient and safe maintenance.
9. Safe control room design.
10. Emergency control facilities.
11. Firefighting facilities.
12. Access for emergency services.
13. Security.
14. Future Expansion.
15. Modular construction.
Our plant layout mainly includes the following buildings and construction as per the process
requirements and support activities:
1. Plant Area (including boiler house, pump house, cooling tower, water treatment plant
etc.).
2. Power plant.
3. Storage.
4. Repair and Maintenance Workshop.
5. Plant Utilities.

6. Loading Area (train, tankers, trucks etc.).
7. Stores.
8. R & D Centre.
9. Laboratories.
10. Quality Control Wing.
11. Pollution Control Wing.
12. Fire & Safety Station.
13. Medical Centre.
14. Bank & Post Office.
15. Recreation & Staff Facilities.
16. Administrative Block.
17. Marketing Block.
18. Training Centre.
19. Petrol Pump.
20. Security Wing.
21. Canteen.
22. Parking (Light Vehicles & Heavy Vehicles)
23. Lawns & Fountains.
24. Green Belt Area.
25. Space for Future Expansion.
A site layout for the plant is provided on the next page. Considerations have been given for the
future expansions. Some area has been marked for Green Belt. Hazardous materials are kept at a
safe distance from the offices and other staff facilities.
Description:
Location of buildings
● Buildings which are the work base for several people should be located to limit their
exposure to hazards. Analytical laboratories should be in a safe area, but otherwise as
close as possible to the plants served. So, should workshops and general stores. The main

office block should always be near the main entrance and other administration buildings
should be near this entrance if possible.
● Other buildings such as medical centers, canteens etc. should be in a safe area and the
latter should have ready access for food supplies.
● All buildings should be upwind of plants which may give rise to objectionable features.
Water drift from cooling towers can restrict visibility and cause corrosion or ice
formation on plants or transport routes and towers should be sited to minimize this.
● Another problem is recycling of air from the discharge of one tower to the suction of
another, which is countered by placing towers cross-wise to the prevailing wind. The
entrainment of effluents from stacks and of corrosive vapors from plants into the cooling
towers should be avoided as should the siting of buildings near the tower intakes.
● The positioning of natural draught cooling towers should also consider resonance caused
by wind between the towers. The problem of air recirculation should also be borne in
mind in siting air-cooled heat exchangers.
Economic Considerations
● The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest
run of connecting pipe between equipment and the least amount of structural steel work.
However, this will not necessarily be best arrangement for operation and maintenance.
● Some features which have a particularly strong influence on costs are foundations,
structures, piping and electrical cabling. This creates the incentive to locate items on the
ground to group items so that they can share a foundation or a structure and to keep pipe
and cable runs to a minimum.
Safety Considerations
● Plants which may leak flammables should generally be built in the open or, if necessary,
in a structure with a roof but no walls. If a closed building cannot be avoided, it should
have explosion relief panels in the walls or roof with relief venting to a safe area. Open
air construction ventilates plants and disperses flammables but as already indicated,
scenarios of leakage and dispersion should be investigated for the plant concerned.

● Fire spread in buildings should be limited by design, as should fire spread on open
structures. Sprinklers and other protective systems should be provided as appropriate.
Plants which may leak toxics should also generally be built in the open air. The
hazardous concentrations for toxics are much lower than those for flammables, however,
and it cannot be assumed that an open structure is always sufficiently ventilated.
● Ventilation is necessary for buildings housing plants processing flammables or toxics. Air
inlets should be sited so that they do not draw in contaminated air. The relative position
of air inlets and outlets should be such that short circuiting does not occur. Exhaust air
may need to be treated before discharge by scrubbing or filtering.
● Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment and confine the
effect of the explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from
each level in the process building.
Operations
● Access and operability are important to plant operation. The routine activities performed
by the operator should be studied with a view to providing the shortest and most direct
routes from the control room to items requiring most frequent attention.
● Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient to
the control room. Valves, sample points and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow
easy access to equipment.
● Good lighting on the plant is important, particularly on access routes, near hazards and
instrument reading. Operations involving manipulation of equipment while observing an
indicator should be considered so that the layout permits this.
Maintenance
● Maintenance costs are very large in the chemical industry. In some cases, the cost of
maintenance exceeds the company’s profit. The engineer must design to reduce these
costs.
● Heat exchangers must be sited such that tube bundle can be easily withdrawn for cleaning
and tube replacement.

● Heat exchangers must be sited such that tube bundle can be easily withdrawn for cleaning
and tube replacement.
● Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the
outside of the building.
● Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance such as compressors and large
pumps, should be place under cover.
Modular Construction
● For convenience of efficient management, the whole plant is assembled section wise at
the plant manufacturer’s site in the form of modules. These modules will include the
equipment, structural steel, piping and instrumentation. Modules are then transported to
the plant site, by road or sea.
● We know that technology is improving day by day. That’s why keeping future expansion
in mind, equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any
future expansion of the process.
Plant Layout

IX. Economic Evaluation and Profitability of Project
Total Direct Costs:
Percent of
S.NO Item Purchased Cost Cost in $ Cost in INR
1 Purchased Equipment Cost 100 2,142,200 149,954,000
Purchased Equipment
2 Installation 39 835,458 58,482,060
3 Instrumentation and Control 13 278,486 19,494,020
4 Piping 31 664,082 46,485,740
Electrical equipment and

5 materials 10 214,220 14,995,400
Buildings( Including
6 services) 29 621,238 43,486,660
7 Yard improvements 10 214,220 14,995,400
8 Service Facilities 55 1,178,210 82,474,700
9 Land 6 128,532 8,997,240
Total direct plant cost (D) 5,050,344 353,524,080
Indirect Plant Cost:
S.N Percent of
O Item Purchased Cost Cost in $ Cost in INR
1 Engineering and supervision 32 685,504 47,985,280
2 construction Expenses 34 728,348 50,984,360

3 Contractor's fee 18 385,596 26,991,720
4 Contingency 36 771,192 53,983,440
5 Legal Expenses 4 85,688 5,998,160
Total Indirect Plant cost (I) 2,270,732 158,951,240
Total Capital Investment:
S.NO Description Cost in $ Cost in INR
1 Total Indirect Cost(I) 2,270,732 158,951,240
Fixed Capital investment (FCI),

2 D+I 7,321,076 512,475,324
Working Capital (WC), 15% OF

3 FCI 1,098,161 76,871,270
Total capital Investment 10,689,969 748,297,830
Total Product Cost:
Another equally important part is the estimation of costs for operating the plant and selling the
products. These costs can be grouped under the general heading of Total Product Cost
A tabular form is very useful for estimating total product cost and constitutes a valuable checklist
to preclude omissions.
Basis for calculating total product cost is:

1. The Total Product Cost is calculated based on the Annual Cost Basis.
2. Number of days working per year is taken as 320 days.
3. Plant is running in 3-shifts i.e. 24 hrs per day.
4. Capacity of the plant per year is 12000 ton of DMC production.

Step 3.a. Cost of Raw Materials-
Quantity Per Year Cost (per

S.No. Raw Material (ton) Rate ( per ton), in $ year) in $
1 Methanol 16,382.361 800 13,105,888
2 Urea 1,267.200 300 380,100
3 Zinc Oxide 2418 1000 2,418,000
Total raw material cost 10,799,080
Step 3.b. Cost of Power and Utilities
S.No Utility Consumption Rate, in $ Cost(per year $)
1 Steam(in ton) 579906 17.14 per ton 9,939,589
2 Power(in kwh) 97270272 50.07 $/ kWh 7,642,660
3 Water(in m3) 18272211.9 0.42 per m3 7,674,329
Total 25,256,578
Step 3.c .Total Annual Direct Production Cost
S.n
o. Description % of DPC Cost in $
1 Utilities 8.5 477,120
2 Operating labour 0.25 14,032
3 Operating supervision 0.15 8,419
4 Maintenance and repairs 3.3 185,235
5 Operating supplies 3.7 207,687
6 Laboratory charges 0.1 5,613

Total Annual direct Production Cost 898,106
Step 3.d. Fixed Charges
S.NO Nature of Expenditure Cost in $
1 Depreciation(11% PEC) 148,049
2 Taxes(5% TDP) 280,659
3 Insurance(1% PEC) 13,459
Total Annual Fixed Charges 442,167
Also, Plant Overhead cost is taken to be 30% of the cost of operating labour, supervision and
maintenance.
Thus, Plant Overhead Cost = 58,096 INR
Step 3.e.Total Manufacturing Cost (M)
S.N
o Description Total Annual Cost in $
1 Direct Production Cost 5,613,186
2 Fixed Charges 442,167
3 Plant Overhead Cost 58,096
Total Manufacturing Cost(M) 6,055,353
Step 3.f. General Expense
S.N
o Nature of Expenses Cost in $

1 Administrative Cost 171,428
2 Distribution & Marketing Cost 420,000
3 Research & Development 520,000
Total GE(G) 1,111,428
Total manufacturing cost (M)

= 6,055,353
Total General Expense = 1,111,428 $
Total Product cost=M+G =7,166,781 $
Step 5. Profitability Analysis
Gross profit = Annual revenue through sale - Annual operating cost - salaries of employees
= 52,257,142.86 -43,612,226
= 8,644,916 $
Total direct investment = 10,689,969 $
Rate of return = 13.41%
Total Fixed Investment
Payback period =
Net profit + Depreciation = 1.74 years
Market Value of Finished Product 1200 $ per ton
Annual Revenue Through Sales

(MC + DMC) 52,257,142.86 $
Gross Profit 8,644,916 $
Assuming tax percent 20 %

Net Profit 6,915,932 $
Payback Period 1.74 Years
Rate of Return 13.41 %
Step 6. Break Even Analysis

For breakeven production annual sales equals the annual cost of production
Assuming 100% product demand is there,
Annual Direct Production Cost 5,050,344 $
Annual Sales 14,400,000 $
Selling Price per Kg 1200 $ per ton
Direct Production Cost (per Kg) 394 $ per ton
Tons production for Break even Point 4208 ton/year
Thus,
We find that from 3rd year onwards, cash flow becomes positive which implies that the cost
invested is recovered. We had calculated Payback period to be 1.74 years, hence the above
results confirm it.
References:
❏ Pichayapan Kongpanna, Varong Pavarajar, Rafiqul Gani , Suttichai
Assabumrungrat, “Techno-economic evaluation of different CO2-based
processes for dimethyl carbonate production” Chemical Engineering Research
and Design 93 (2015) 496–510
❏ Kartikeya Shukla and Vimal Chandra Srivastava, “Synthesis of organic carbonates from
alcoholysis of urea: A review” ISSN: 0161-4940 (Print) 1520-5703 (Online) Journal
homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lctr20

❏ Paula Saavalainen, Satish Kabra, Esa Turpeinen, Kati Oravisjärvi, Ganapati D. Yadav,
Riitta L. Keiski and Eva Pongrácz, “Sustainability Assessment of Chemical Processes:
Evaluation of Three Synthesis Routes of DMC” Hindawi Publishing Corporation, Journal
of Chemistry, Volume 2015, Article ID 402315, 12 pages
http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/402315
❏ Dengfeng Wang, Xuelan Zhang, Wei Wei, Yuhan Sun, “Synthesis of Dimethyl
Carbonate from Methyl Carbamate and Methanol Using a Fixed-Bed Reactor”, Chemical
Engineering Technology.
❏ Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Volume 6, Chemical Engineering Design

4th Edition, R. K. SINNOTT
❏ Introduction to Chemical Equipment Design, Mechanical Aspects, B.C Bhattacharya


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12,000 MTPA DIMETHYL CARBONATE PRODUCTION

USING METHANOL AND UREA

RAHUL SHRIVASTAV (14111032)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Date: April 16, 2018

Prof. Shishir Sinha

Dr. Vimal Chandra Srivastava

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 1

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2

Executive summary of the project… ............................................................................................ 6

III. Project Details

a. Uses and present status of the product/importance of the problem ................................. 9

(ii) Techno-economic appraisal of alternative processes/schemes… ............................... 13

(iii) Status of technologies/schemes available .................................................................. 13

(iv) Selection of technology/scheme… ............................................................................ 14

(v) Source of knowhow of selected process/technology… ............................................... 16

c. Raw Materials ...................................................................................................................... 16

(i) Detailed specifications… ............................................................................................. 17

(ii) Requirement of raw materials… ................................................................................. 18

(iii) Availability: indigenous/imported… ......................................................................... 18

(iv) Government policies for import of the raw materials… ............................................ 21

(v) Prevailing prices… ..................................................................................................... 22

(vi) Testing procedures for the raw materials… .............................................................. 22

3. Material and Energy Flow Information .................................................................................... 23

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 3

a. Process design of all major equipment ............................................................................. 38

5. Materials Storage & Handling Facilities..................................................................................99

6. Process Instrumentation & Control and Safety Aspects ......................................................... 113

IV. Environmental Protection & Energy Conservation ........................................................ 117

1. Environmental Aspects ........................................................................................................... 117

2. Energy Conservation .............................................................................................................. 129

a. Possible usage of renewable resources… ....................................................................... 129

1. Air for Process and Instrumentation ....................................................................................... 131

2. Heat Transfer Media ............................................................................................................... 135

3. Water ....................................................................................................................................... 138

a. Process and general water requirement and standards… ................................................ 138

4. Refrigeration… ....................................................................................................................... 139

VI. Organizational Structure and Manpower Requirement ................................................ 142

1. Organizational structure with chart

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 4

1. A brief analysis of demand and supply… ....................................................................... 146

4. Marketing set-up and area of consumption… ................................................................. 152

VIII Site Selection & Project Lay-out ..................................................................................... 153

1. Critical points taken into consideration .

IX. Economic Evaluation & Profitability of the Project ....................................................... 162

1. Total project cost

X. References ............................................................................................................................. 167

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 5

This project is an attempt towards making a techno-economic evaluation of installing a 12,000

Total Fixed Capital Investment (Rs) 748,297,830

Total Working Capital (Rs) 76,871,270

Production Cost (Rs) 3,052,855,820

Gross Profit (Rs) 605,144,120

Payback period: 1.74 years

Selling Price at 100 % Production:

Division Number of Employees

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 6

The plant has a total employment potential of 135 people.

S.No Utility Consumption Rate, in $ Cost(per year $)

1 Steam(in ton) 579906 17.14 per ton 9,939,589

2 Power(in kwh) 97270272 50.07 $/ kWh 7,642,660

3 Water(in m3) 18272211.9 0.42 per m3 7,674,329

Profitability of the Project