BIOLOGY - NCERT UPDATES

FOR CLASS XI
Dear Students and Teachers,
NCERT has revised the previous edition of biology book and incorporated certain new facts, gures and
examples. Ambiguous and controversial facts have also been removed as well as corrections have been
made wherever required. (Divisions of Aakash Educational Services Limited)
Aakash brings to you, all the applied changes/additions/deletions in new text of NCERT.

CHAPTER 2- BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

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1. 17 Table 2.1 Fungal Cell wall : Present (without cellulose) Fungal Cell wall : Present (without cellulose) with Chitin

It brought together the prokaryotic bacteria and the blue green algae with other It brought together the prokaryotic bacteria and the blue green algae
2. 17 Introduction
groups which were eukaryotic. (Cyanobacteria) with other groups which were eukaryotic.

3. 21 Fig. 2.4

4. 22 2.3 When your bread develops a mould or your orange rots it is because of fungi. You must have seen fungi on a moist bread and rotten fruits.

5. 25 2.6 2.6 Viruses, Viroids and Lichens 2.6 Viruses, Viroids, Prions and Lichens

In the ve kingdom classication of Whittaker there is no mention of some acellular In the ve kingdom classication of Whittaker there is no mention of Lichens and some
6. 25 2.6 organisms like viruses and viroids, and lichens. acellular organisms like viruses, viroids, and prions.

Prions : In modern medicine certain infections neurological diseases were found to be

transmitted by an agent consisted of abnormally folded protein. The agent was similar
7. 27 2.6 in size to viruses. These agents were called prions. The most notable diseases caused
by prions are bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow
disease in cattle and its analogous variant Cr-Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.

CHAPTER 3- PLANT KINGDOM

These gametes can be agellated and similar in size (as in Chlamydomonas) or non- These gametes can be agellated and similar in size (as in Ulothrix) or nonagellated
agellated (non-motile) but similar in size (as in Spirogyra). Such reproduction is (non-motile) but similar in size (as in Spirogyra). Such reproduction is called
8. 30 3.1
called isogamous. Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size, as in some species of isogamous. Fusion of two gametes dissimilar in size,as in species of Udorina is termed
Chlamydomonas is termed as anisogamous as anisogamous.

9. 31 Fig.3.1

The dicotyledons are characterised by seeds having two cotyledons, reticulate

The dicotyledons are characterised by having two cotyledons in their seeds while the
monocolyledons have only one. The male sex organs in a ower is the stamen. Each
stamen consists of a slender lament with an anther at the tip. The anthers, following
40 3.5 meiosis, produce pollen grains. The female sex organs in a ower is the pistil or the
10.
carpel. Pistil consists of an ovary enclosing one to many ovules. Within ovules are
present highly reduced female gametophytes termed embryo-sacs. The embryo-sac
formation is preceded by meiosis. Hence, each of the cells of an embryo-sac is haploid.
venations in leaves, and tetramerous or pentamerous owers, i.e. having four
or ve memerbs in each oral whorls. The monocotyledons on the other hand
are characterised by single cotyledonous seeds, parallel venation in leaves, and
trimerous owers having three members in each oral whorls. The male sex
organs in a ower is the stamen. Each stamen consists of a slender lament with an
anther at the tip. Within the anthers, the pollen mother cell divide by meiosis to
produce microspores which matures into pollen grains. The female sex organs in a
ower is the pistil. Pistil consists of an ovary at its base, a long slender style and
stigma. Inside the ovary, ovules are present. Generally each ovule has a
megaspore mother cell that undergoes meiosis to form four haploid megaspore.
Three of them degenerate and one divide to form the embryo sac.

An alga, Fucus sp., represents this pattern (Fig. 3.7b). In addition, all seed bearing
All seed-bearing plants i.e. gymnosperms and angiosperms, follow this pattern (Figure
11. 42 3.6 plants i.e., gymnosperms and angiosperms, follow this patterns with some variations,
3.7 b).
wherein, the gametophytic phase is few to multi-celled.
 CHAPTER 4- ANIMAL KINGDOM
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12. 49 Fig.4.4

13. 50 4.2.2 Which contain the stinging capsules or nematocytes Which contain the stinging capsules or nematocysts

14. 52 Fig.4.10

15. 54 Fig.4.15

Hemichordata have a rudimentary structure in the collar region called stomochord, a

16. 54 4.2.10 structure similar to notochord.

CHAPTER 5- MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

17. 69 Fig.5.6

Like calyx, corolla may be also united gamopetalous (petals united) or polypetalous Like calyx, corolla may also be gamopetalous (petals united) or polypetalous (petals
18. 73 5.5.1.2 (petals free) free).

Gynoecium: bicarpellary, syncarpous; ovary superior, bilocular, placenta swollen with Gynoecium: bicarpellary obligately placed, syncarpous; ovary superior, bilocular,
19. 80 5.9.2 many ovules placenta swollen with many ovules, axile

20. 81 Fig.5.23
 CHAPTER 6- ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS
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When xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are arranged in an alternate manner When xylem and phloem within a vascular bundle are arranged in an alternate manner
on different radii, the arrangement is called radial such as in roots. In conjoint type of along the different radii, the arrangement is called radial such as in roots. In conjoint
21. 90 6.2.23 vascular bundles, the xylem and phloem are situated at the same radius of vascular type of vascular bundles, the xylem and phloem are jointly situated at the same radius
bundles. of vascular bundles.

The outermost layer is epidermis. Many of the epidermal cells protrude in the form of The outermost layer is epiblema. Many of the cells of epiblema protrude in the form
22. 90 6.3.1 unicellular root hairs. of unicellular root hairs

CHAPTER 8- CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE

23. 136 8.5.6

Each ribosome has two subunits, larger and smaller subunits (g. 8.9) The two
subunits of 80S ribosomes are 60S and 40S while that of 70S ribosomes are 50S
Here ‘S’ stands for the sedimentation coefcient; it indirectly is a measure of density
24. 136 8.5.6 and 30S. Here ‘S’ (Svedberg's Unit) stands for the sedimentation coefcient; it
and size. Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of two subunits.
indirectly is a measure of density and size. Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed
of two subunits.

CHAPTER 9- BIOMOLECULES
25. 144 9.1 Oils have lower melting point (e.g., gingely oil) and hence remain as oil in winters. Oils have lower melting point (e.g., gingelly oil) and hence remain as oil in winters.

26. 150 Fig.9.3

CHAPTER 10- CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION

27. 163 Fig.10.1

Prophase which is the rst stage of karyokinesis of mitosis follows the S and G2
28. Prophase which is the rst stage of mitosis follows the S and G2 phases of interphase.
phases of interphase.
Centrosome which had undergone duplication during interphase, begins to move
Initiation of the assembly of mitotic spindle, the microtubules, the proteinaceous
29. 164 10.2.1 towards opposite poles of the cell. Each centrosome radiates out microtubules called
components of the cell cytoplasm help in the process.
asters. The two asters together with spindle bres forms mitotic apparatus.

Telophase At the beginning of the nal stage of mitosis, i.e., telophase, the Telophase At the beginning of the nal stage of karyokinesis, i.e., telophase, the
chromosomes that have reached their respective poles decondense and lose their chromosomes that have reached their respective poles decondense and lose their
30. 164 10.2.1
individuality. The individual chromosomes can no longer be seen and chromatin individuality. The individual chromosomes can no longer be seen and each set of
material tends to collect in a mass in the two poles (Figure 10.2 d). chromatin material tends to collect at each of the two poles (Figure 10.2 d)
Nuclear envelope develops around the chromosome clusters at each pole forming
31. 166 10.2.4 Nuclear envelope assembles around the chromosome clusters.
two daughter nuclei.
Cytokinesis Mitosis accomplishes not only the segregation of duplicated Cytokinesis Mitosis accomplishes not only the segregation of duplicated
chromosomes into daughter nuclei (karyokinesis), but the cell itself is divided into two chromosomes into daughter nuclei (karyokinesis), but the cell itself is divided into two
32. 166 10.2.4
daughter cells by a separate process called cytokinesis at the end of which cell division daughter cells by the separation of cytoplasm called cytokinesis at the end of which
is complete (Figure 10.2 e). cell division gets completed (Figure 10.2 e).

Meiosis involves pairing of homologous chromosomes and recombination between Meiosis involves pairing of homologous chromosomes and recombination between
33. 167 10.2.5 them. non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes.

During this stage, the four chromatids of each bivalent chromosomes becomes
34. 167 10.4 During this stage bivalent chromosomes now clearly appears as tetrads.
distinct and clearly appears as tetrads.

The stage between the two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and is generally The stage between the two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis and is generally
35. 168 10.4.1 short lived short lived.There is no replication of DNA during interkinesis.

Anaphase II: It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each Anaphase II: It begins with the simultaneous splitting of the centromere of each
36. 169 10.4.1 chromosome (which was holding the sister chromatids together), allowing them to chromosome (which was holding the sister chromatids together), allowing them to
move toward opposite poles of the cell (Figure 10.4). move toward opposite poles of the cell (Figure 10.4) by shortening of microtubules
attached to kinetochores.
 CHAPTER 11- TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
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Active Transport Active transport uses energy to pump molecules against a Active Transport Active transport uses energy to transport and pump molecules
37. 178 11.1.3 concentration gradient. Active transport is carried out by membrane-proteins. against a concentration gradient. Active transport is carried out by specic
membraneproteins.

If some solute is dissolved in pure water, the solution has fewer free water and the If some solute is dissolved in pure water, the solution has fewer free water molecules
38. 179 11.2.1 concentration of water decreases, reducing its water potential. and the concentration (free energy) of water decreases, reducing its water potential.

39. 182 Fig. 11.5

In large and complex organisms, often substances have to be moved across very
40. 183 11.3 In large and complex organisms, often substances have to be moved long distances
large distances

CHAPTER 13- PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

You have studied the structure of chloroplast in Chapter 8. Within the chloroplast
there is the membranous system consisting of grana, the stroma lamellae, and the
uid stroma (Figure 13.2). There is a clear division of labour within the chloroplast.
The membrane system is responsible for trapping the light energy and also for the
synthesis of ATP and NADPH. In stroma, enzymatic reactions incorporate CO2 into
41. 209 13.3 the plant leading to the synthesis of sugar, which in turn forms starch. The former
set of reactions, since they are directly light driven are called light reactions. The
latter are not directly light driven but are dependent on the products of light reactions
(ATP and NADPH). Hence, to distinguish the latter they are called, by convention, as
dark reactions.
You have studied the structure of chloroplast in Chapter 8. Within the chloroplast
there is the membranous system consisting of grana, the stroma lamellae, and the
matrix stroma (Figure 13.2). There is a clear division of labour within the chloroplast.
The membrane system is responsible for trapping the light energy and also for the
synthesis of ATP and NADPH. In stroma, enzymatic reactions synthesise sugar,
which in turn forms starch. The former set of reactions, since they are directly light
driven are called light reactions (photochemical reactions). The latter are not directly
light driven but are dependent on the products of light reactions (ATP and NADPH).
Hence, to distinguish the latter they are called, by convention, as dark reactions
(carbon reactions).

Transfer to another accepter, and nally down hill to NADP+ causing it to be reduced Transfer to another accepter, and nally down hill to NADP+ reducing it to NADPH +
42. 212 13.6 to NADPH + H+ is called the Z scheme, due to its characterstic shape (Figure 13.5). H+ is called the Z scheme, due to its characterstic shape (Figure 13.5).

Why are we so interested in the proton gradient? This gradient is important because Why are we so interested in the proton gradient? This gradient is important because
43. 214 13.6.3 it is the breakdown of this gradient that leads to release of energy. it is the breakdown of this gradient that leads to synthesis of ATP

44. 214 Fig.13.7

Of the F0 of the ATPase. The ATPase enzyme consists of two parts: one called the F0 is
embedded in the membrane and forms a transmembrane channel that carries out
facilitated diffusion of protons across the membrane. The other portion is called F1
and protrudes on the outer surface of the hylakoid membrane on the side that faces
the stroma. The break down of the gradient provides enough energy to cause a
conformational change in the F1 particle of the ATPase, which makes the enzyme
45. 215 13.6.3 synthesise several olecules of energy-packed ATP. Chemiosmosis requires a
membrane, a proton pump, a proton gradient and ATPase. Energy is used to pump
protons across a membrane, to create a gradient or a high concentration of protons
within the thylakoid lumen. ATPase has a channel that allows diffusion of protons back
across the membrane; this releases enough energy to activate ATPase enzyme that
catalyses the formation of ATP.
Of the CF0 of the ATP synthase. The ATP synthase enzyme consists of two parts: one
called the CF0 is embedded in the thylakoid membrane and forms a transmembrane
channel that carries out facilitated diffusion of protons across the membrane. The
other portion is called CF1 and protrudes on the outer surface of the thylakoid
membrane on the side that faces the stroma. The break down of the gradient provides
enough energy to cause a conformational change in the CF1 particle of the ATP
synthase, which makes the enzyme synthesise several molecules of energy-packed
ATP. Chemiosmosis requires a membrane, a proton pump, a proton gradient and ATP
synthase. Energy is used to pump protons across a membrane, to create a gradient
or a high concentration of protons within the thylakoid lumen. ATP synthase has a
channel that allows diffusion of protons back across the membrane; this releases
enough energy to activate ATP synthase enzyme that catalyses the formation of ATP.

46. 219 Fig.13.9

 CHAPTER 14- RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
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47. 233 Fig.14.4

Diagram of ETS in previous of NCERT XI denotes oxidation of NADH+H+ only ,so there
were 3 pairs of protons i.e. 6H+ released into the ntermembrane space but in new
diagram of ETS, oxidation of NADH+H+ and FADH2 both are included so total
protons in intermembrane space become ten i.e. 10 H + .Now according to NCERT's
Concept [2H+ for 1 ATP].we conclude these 10H+ in following manner: 1.Release of
6H+ due to oxidation of NADH+H+ =3ATP 2.Release of 4H+ due to oxidation of
FADH2 =2ATP

CHAPTER 16- DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

48. 258 Fig.16.1

49. 259 16.1.1 Stomach has three parts cardiac, fundic and pyloric Stomach has four parts cardiac,fundic, body and pyloric parts

50. 259 Fig.16.1

51. 259 16.1.2 U shaped duodenum C shaped duodenum

52. 261 Fig.16.6

However,some of the substances like fructose and some amino acids are absorbed
However,some of the substances like glucose and some amino acids are absorbed with
53. 264 16.2 with the help of the carrier ions like Na+. This mechanism is called the facilitated
the help of the carrier proteins. This mechanism is called the facilitated transport.
transport.

CALORIFIC VALUE OF PROTEIN, CARBOHYDRATE AND FAT

(Boxed item – Not for evaluation)*
The energy requirements of animals, and the energy content of food, are expressed in
terms of measure of heat energy because heat is the ultimate form of all energies. This
is often measured to as calorie (cal) or joule (J), which is the amount of heat energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1 °C. Since this value is tiny
amount of energy, physiologists commonly use kilocalorie (kcal) or kilo joule (kJ). One
54. 264 16.2 kilo calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water
by 1 °C. Nutritionists, traditionally refer to kcal as the Calorie or Joule (always
capitalised). The amount of heat liberated from complete combustion of 1 g food in a
bomb calorimeter (a closed metal chamber lled with O2) is its gross caloric or gross
energy value. The actual amount of energy combustion of 1 g of food is the physiologic
value of food. Gross caloric values of carbohydrates, proteins and fats are 4.1 kcal/g,
5.65 kcal/g and 9.45 kcal/g, respectively, whereas their physiologic values are 4.0
kcal/g, 4.0 kcal/g and 9.0 kcal/g, respectively.
 NCERT
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PEM Dietary deciencies of proteins and total food calories are widespread in many
underdeveloped countries of South and South-east Asia, South America, and West
and Central Africa. Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) may affect large sections of
the population during drought, famine and political turmoil. This happened in
Bangladesh during the liberation war and in Ethiopia during the severe drought in mid-
eighties. PEM affects infants and children to produce Marasmus and Kwashiorkar.
Marasmus is produced by a simultaneous deciency of proteins and calories. It is
found in infants less than a year in age, if mother’s milk is replaced too early by other
foods which are poor in both proteins and E86caloric value. This often happens if the
mother has second pregnancy or childbirth when the older infant is still too young. In
55. 266 16.4 Marasmus, protein deciency impairs growth and replacement of tissue proteins;
extreme
emaciation of the body and thinning of limbs results, the skin becomes dry, thin and
wrinkled. Growth rate and body weight decline considerably.Even growth and
development of brain and mental faculties are impaired. Kwashiorkar is produced by
protein deciency unaccompanied by calorie deciency. It results from the
replacement of mother’s milk by a high calorielow protein diet in a child more than one
year in age. Like marasmus, kwashiorkor shows wasting of muscles, thinning of limbs,
failure of growth and brain development. But unlike marasmus, some fat is still left
under
the skin; moreover, extensive oedema and swelling of body parts are seen*

CHAPTER 17- BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

56. 268 17.1 Gills and lungs Gills (branchial respiration),lungs (pulmonary respiration)

57. 268 17.1 Reptiles, birds and mammals respire through lungs Amphibians, reptiles,birds & mammals respire through lungs.

58. 268 17.1 Amphibia respire through moist skin also Amphibia respire through moist skin (cutaneous respiration) also

The nasal chamber opens into nasopharynx which is a portion of pharynx the common The nasal chamber opens into pharynx the portion which is common passage for food
59. 269 17.1.1 passage for food and air and air
60. 269 17.1.1 Nasopharynx opens through glottis of larynx region in to the trachea The pharynx opens through larynx region In to the trachea

CHAPTER 18- BODY FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION

61. 283 Fig.18.2

The blood ows strictly by a xed route through Blood Vessels—the arteries and
veins. Basically, each artery and vein consists of three layers: an inner lining of
62. 286 18.4 squamous endothelium, the tunica intima, a middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic
bres, the tunica media, and an external layer of brous connective tissue with
collagen bres, the tunica externa. The tunica media is comparatively thin in the veins*

CHAPTER 19- EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

63. 294 19.3 Henle's loop—reabsorption in this segment is minimum. Henle's loop—reabsorption is minimum in its ascending limb.

64. 298 19.7 Our lungs remove large amount of CO2 (18 litres /day) Our lungs remove large amount of CO2 (approximately 200 ml/minute)
During the process of haemodialysis the blood drained from a convenient artery is
65. 298 19.8 Blood drained from a convenient artery is pumped into a dialysing unit.
pumped into a dialysing unit called articial kidney.*

CHAPTER 20- LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

You have studied in Chapter 8 that the cilia and agella are the outgrowths of the cell
membrane. Flagellar movement helps in the swimming of spermatozoa, maintenance
66. 303 20.2
of water current in the canal system of sponges and in locomotion of Protozoans like
Euglena.*

CHAPTER 21- NEURAL CONTROL AND COORDINATION

Visceral nervous system is the part of the peripheral nervous system that comprises
the whole complex of nerves, bres, ganglia, and plexuses by which impulses travel
67. 316 21.2 from the central nervous system to the viscera
and from the viscera to the central nervous system*
Brain stem forms the connections between the brain and spinal cord. Three major
68. 321 21.4.3 regions make up the brain stem; mid brain, pons and medulla oblongata.

Sense Organs We smell things by our nose, taste by tongue, hear by ear and see
objects by eyes.The nose contains mucus-coated receptors which are specialised for
E104receiving the sense of smell and called olfactory receptors. These are
made up of olfactory epithelium that consists of three kinds of cells. The neurons of the
olfactory epithelium extend from the outside environment directly into a pair of broad
69. 323 21.6 bean-sized organs, called olfactory bulb,which are extensions of the brain’s limbic
system. Both nose and tongue detect dissolved chemicals. The chemical senses of
gustation (taste) and olfactory (smell) are functionally similar and interrelated. The
tongue detects tastes through taste buds, containing
gustatory receptors. With each taste of food or sip of drink, the brain integrates the
differential input from the taste buds and a complex avour is perceived. *
 CHAPTER 22- CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND INTEGRATION
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Excess secretion of growth hormone in adults especially in middle age can result in
severe disgurement (especially of
the face) called Acromegaly, which may lead to serious complications,and premature
70. 333 22.2.2
death if unchecked. The disease is hard to diagnose in E108the early stages and often
goes undetected for many years, until changes in external features become
noticeable.*

An impairment affecting synthesis or release of ADH results in a diminished ability of

the kidney to conserve
71. 334 22.2.2 water leading to water loss and dehydration. This condition is known as Diabetes
Insipidus*

Exopthalmic goitre is a form of hyperthyroidism, characterised by enlargement of the

72. 335 22.2.4 thyroid gland, protrusion of the eyeballs, increased basal metabolic rate, and weight
loss, also called Graves’ disease*

Underproduction of hormones by the adrenal cortex alters carbohydrate metabolism

73. 336 22.2.7
causing acute weakness and fatigue leading to a disease called Addison’s disease*

* This content was previously given as Supplementary Material at the end of the NCERT book and now added in the main text of their respective chapters.

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