Ancient Roman culture grew through the almost 1200 years of Rome's civilization.

The Romans conquered many peoples and brought back from their wars many things from each
land. Their way of life was a mix of many cultures, influences,
and religions. Architecture, painting, sculpture, laws, and literature grew to a high level.[1] Slaves,
and Christians were treated differently by different rulers. Rome was a trading nation which kept
military control over a wide range of peoples, mostly around the Mediterranean.

Classes

There were four classes of people in Rome: the aristocrats, the equestrians, the common citizens,
and the slaves. The aristocrat class had about 300 families, mostly senators. The aristocrat class was
very powerful. The equestrians were merchants, government builders, and bankers who were
rich.[1] The common citizens were farmers, industrial workers, and the city mob. Slaves had to work
hard and were usually released when they became old.[1] Some slaves were trained to be gladiators
for people to watch. Other slaves worked in rich homes as doorkeepers, litter-bearers, messengers,
or servants. Some Greek slaves were teachers.

Religion

The original Roman religion had many gods, with stories called Roman mythology.

Christianity

At the time of the birth of Jesus, the Roman Empire ruled the entire Mediterranean area.[1] Jesus
taught to worship God only. Because Christians worshiped only God and did not join in the festivals
to other gods, Romans thought they were unpatriotic.[1] Many Christians were crucified.[1] Romans
persecuted them for many years. Sometimes they were killed by animals for a show.

However, Christianity still spread in the Roman Empire. A great change took place when Constantine
I became emperor. He moved the capital of the empire to Byzantium, converted to Christianity, and
protected Christians from harm. Many Romans continued to worship the old gods.

Arts

The language of Rome has influenced many cultures. Its influence can be seen in this Latin Bible from
1407.

The earliest Roman art is generally associated with the overthrow of the Etruscan kings and the
establishment of the Republic in 509 BC. Roman art is traditionally divided into two main periods, art
of the Republic and art of the Roman Empire (from 27 BC on), with subdivisions corresponding to the
major emperors or imperial dynasties.
Roman art includes architecture, painting, sculpture and mosaic work. Luxury objects in metal-work,
gem engraving, ivory carvings, and glass, are sometimes considered in modern terms to be minor
forms of Roman art, although this would not necessarily have been the case for contemporaries.

When the Republic was founded, the term Roman art was virtually synonymous with the art of the
city of Rome, which still bore the stamp of its Etruscan art; during the last two centuries, notably
that of Greece, Roman art shook off its dependence on Etruscan art; during the last two centuries
before Christ a distinctive Roman manner of building, sculpting, and painting emerged. Never-the-
less, because of the extraordinary geographical extent of the Roman Empire and the number of
diverse populations encompassed within its boundaries, the art and architecture of the Romans was
always eclectic and is characterized by varying styles attributable to differing regional tastes and the
diverse preferences of a wide range of patrons.

Roman art is not just the art of the emperors, senators, and aristocracy, but of all the peoples of
Rome's vast empire, including middle-class businessmen, freedmen, slaves, and soldiers in Italy and
the provinces. Curiously, although examples of Roman sculptures, paintings, buildings, and
decorative arts survive in great numbers, few names of Roman artists and architects are recorded. In
general, Roman monuments were designed to serve the needs of their patrons rather than to
express the artistic temperaments of their makers.

While the traditional view of Roman artists is that they often borrowed from, and copied Greek
precedents (much of the Greek sculpture known today is in the form of Roman marble copies), more
recent analysis has indicated that Roman art is a highly creative pastiche relying heavily on Greek
models but also encompassing Etruscan, native Italic, and even Egyptian visual culture. Stylistic
eclecticism and practical application are the hallmarks of much Roman art.

Painting

Our knowledge of Ancient Roman painting relies in large part on the preservation
of artifacts from Pompeii and Herculaneum, and particularly the Pompeian mural
painting, which was preserved after the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. Nothing
remains of the Greek paintings imported to Rome during the 4th and 5th centuries,
or of the painting on wood done in Italy during that period.

In sum, the range of samples is confined to only about 200 years out of the about
900 years of Roman history, and of provincial and decorative painting. Most of this
wall painting was done using the secco (dry) method, but some fresco paintings
also existed in Roman times. There is evidence from mosaics and a few
inscriptions that some Roman paintings were adaptations or copies of earlier Greek
works. However, adding to the confusion is the fact that inscriptions may be
recording the names of immigrant Greek artists from Roman times, not from
Ancient Greek originals that were copied.

Roman painting provides a wide variety of themes: animals, still life, scenes from
everyday life, portraits, and some mythological subjects. During the Hellenistic
period, it evoked the pleasures of the countryside and represented scenes of
shepherds, herds, rustic temples, rural mountainous landscapes and country houses.

Language and literature

The native language of the Romans was Latin.[2] Its alphabet was based on the Etruscan alphabet,
which was in turn based on the Greek alphabet.[3]

The surviving Latin literature is in Classical Latin from the 1st century BC. The spoken language of the
Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which differed from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary, and
eventually in pronunciation.[4] Out of Latin came Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Italian.[1] Latin
was used for medicine and science words.

Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire. Greek became the language spoken
by the well-educated elite, because most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek.
Roman literature was much influenced by Greek literature. Some of the best known examples are
the Aeneid by Virgil, Plutarch's Lives of Famous Men, and Odes by Horace.[1]

In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the Byzantine Empire, Latin did not
replace Greek at all. After the death of Justinian, Greek became the official language of the
Byzantine government.[5] The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe.
Vulgar Latin evolved into dialects in different locations, gradually changing into the distinct Romance
languages.

Architecture

Over time, Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed, and the civil
engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. The Roman
concrete has remained a riddle, and even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still
stand magnificently. The architectural style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centers
under Roman control and influence. Roman cities were well planned, efficiently managed and neatly
maintained.
Ancient Roman architecture adopted certain aspects of Ancient Greek architecture,
creating a new architectural style. The Romans were indebted to their Etruscan
neighbors and forefathers who supplied them with a wealth of knowledge essential
for future architectural solutions, such as hydraulics and in the construction of
arches. Later they absorbed Greek and Phoenician influence, apparent in many
aspects closely related to architecture; for example, this can be seen in the
introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as a place and manner of
dining.

Roman architecture flourished throughout the Empire during the Pax Romana - the
long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force experienced
by the Roman Empire in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD. Since it was established by
Caesar Augustus it is sometimes called Pax Augusta. Its span was about 207 years
(27 BC to 180 AD).

Factors such as wealth and high population densities in cities forced the ancient
Romans to discover new (architectural) solutions of their own. The use of vaults
and arches, together with a sound knowledge of building materials, enabled them
to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing structures for
public use.

Music

The Romans' music was an important part of their lives. Song (known as carmen) was part of almost
every social occasion. Music accompanied spectacles and events in the arena. It was part of the
performing arts form called pantomimus, an early form of story ballet that combined expressive
dancing, instrumental music and a sung libretto.

They were influenced by Etruscan and Greek music. What the Romans sang simply followed the
natural melody of the song.

Family

The center of the early social structure was the family, which was not only marked by blood relations
but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas. The Pater familias was the absolute
head of the family; he was the master over his wife, his children, the wives of his sons, the nephews,
the slaves and the freedmen, disposing of them and of their goods at will, even putting them to
death. Roman law recognized only patrician families as legal entities.

Slavery and slaves were part of the social order; there were slave markets where they could be
bought and sold. Many slaves were freed by the masters for services rendered; some slaves could
save money to buy their freedom. Generally mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by
legislation. It is estimated that over 25% of the Roman population was enslaved.
Sports and activities

The youth of Rome, as in Greece, had several forms of play

and exercise, such as jumping, wrestling, boxing, and racing.
The Romans also had several forms of ball playing, including one resembling
handball. Dice games, board games, and gamble games were popular pastimes.
Women did not take part in these activities.

In the countryside, pastimes for the wealthy also included fishing and hunting.

A popular form of entertainment was gladiatorial combats. Gladiators fought

either to the death or to "first blood" with a variety of weapons in different
scenarios. These fights achieved their height of popularity under the emperor
Claudius, who placed the outcome of the combat firmly in the hands of the
Emperor with a hand gesture. Contrary to popular representations in film, several
experts believe the gesture for death was not "thumbs down". Although no one is
certain about what the gestures were, some experts conclude that the emperor
signaled "death" by holding a raised fist to the winning combatant and then
extending his thumb upwards, while "mercy" was indicated by a raised fist with
no extended thumb.

A gladiator (Latin: gladiator, "swordsman", from gladius, "sword") was an armed

combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire
in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned
criminals. Some gladiators were volunteers who risked their legal and social
standing and their lives by appearing in the arena. Most were despised as slaves,
schooled under harsh conditions, socially marginalized, and segregated even in
death.

Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered audiences an example of Rome's

martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and
popular acclaim. They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as
entertainers was commemorated in precious and commonplace objects throughout
the Roman world.

The origin of gladiatorial combat is open to debate. There is evidence of it in

funeral rites during the Punic Wars of the 3rd century BCE, and thereafter it
rapidly became an essential feature of politics and social life in the Roman world.
Its popularity led to its use in ever more lavish and costly spectacles or
"gladiatorial games".

The games reached their peak between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century
CE, and they finally declined during the early 5th century after the adoption of
Christianity as state religion in the 390s, although "beast hunts" (venationes) were
continued into the 6th century.

Animal shows were also popular with the Romans, where foreign animals were
either displayed for the public or combined with gladiatorial combat. A prisoner or
gladiator, armed or unarmed, was thrown into the arena and an animal was
released.

Circus Maximus

The Circus Maximus, another popular site in Rome, was primarily used for horse
and chariot racing, and when the Circus was flooded, there could be sea battles. It
was also used for many other events. The Circus could hold up to 385,000 people;
people all over Rome would visit it. Two temples, one with seven large eggs and
one with seven dolphins, lay in the middle of the track of Circus Maximus, and
when the racers made a lap, one of each would be removed. This was done to keep
the spectators and the racers informed of the race statistics.

Other than for sports, the Circus Maximus was also an area of marketing and
gambling. Higher authorities, such as the Emperor, also attended games in the
Circus Maximus, as it was considered rude to avoid attendance. The higher
authorities, knights, and many other people who were involved with the race, sat in
reserved seats located above everyone else. It was also considered inappropriate
for emperors to favor a team. The Circus Maximus was created in 600 BC and
hosted the last horse-racing game in 549 AD, after a custom enduring over a
millennium.

Other

For the wealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment,

sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings. Plebeians sometimes
enjoyed similar parties through clubs or associations, although recreational dining
usually meant patronizing taverns. Children entertained themselves with toys and
such games as leapfrog.

Religion

The Roman people considered themselves to be very religious. Religious beliefs and
practices helped establish stability and social order among the Romans during the
reign of Romulus and the period of the legendary kings. Some of the highest
religious offices, such as the Pontifex Maximus , the head of the state’s religion—
which eventually became one of the titles of the emperor—were sought-after political
positions.
Women who became Vestal Virgins served the goddess of the hearth, Vesta, and
received a high degree of autonomy within the state, including rights that other
women would never receive.

The Roman pantheon corresponded to the Etruscan and Greek deities . Jupiter was
considered the most powerful and important of all the Gods.

In nearly every Roman city, a central temple known as the Capitolia that was
dedicated to the supreme triad of deities: Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva (Zeus, Hera,
and Athena). Small household gods, known as Lares, were also popular.

Each family claimed their own set of personal gods and laraium, or shines to the
Lares, are found not only in houses but also at street corners, on roads, or for a city
neighborhood.

Roman religious practice often centered around prayers, vows, oaths, and sacrifice .
Many Romans looked to the gods for protection and would complete a promise
sacrifice or offering as thanks when their wishes were fulfilled. The Romans were not
exclusive in their religious practices and easily participated in numerous rituals for
different gods. Furthermore, the Romans readily absorbed foreign gods and cults
into their pantheon.

With the rise of imperial rule, the emperors were considered gods, and temples were
built to many emperors upon their death. Their family members could also be deified,
and the household gods of the emperor’s family were also incorporated into Roman
worship.

Roman architecture

Roman architecture began as an imitation of Classical Greek architecture but

eventually evolved into a new style. Unfortunately, almost no early Republican
buildings remain intact. The earliest substantial remains date to approximately 100
BCE.

Innovations such as improvements to the round arch and barrel vault , as well as the
inventions of concrete and the true hemispherical dome, allowed Roman architecture
to become more versatile than its Greek predecessors. While the Romans were
reluctant to abandon classical motifs , they modified their temple designs by
abandoning pedimental sculptures, altering the traditional Greek peripteral
colonnades , and opting for central exterior stairways.

Likewise, although Roman architects did not abandon traditional column orders, they
did modify them with the Tuscan, Roman Ionic, and Composite orders. This diagram
shows the Greek orders on the left and their Roman modifications on the right.

Roman Temples

Most Roman temples derived from Etruscan prototypes. Like Etruscan temples,
Roman temples are frontal with stairs that lead up to a podium, and a deep portico
filled with columns. They are also usually rectilinear , and the interiors consist of at
least one cella that contained a cult statue.

If multiple gods were worshiped in one temple, each god would have its own cella
and cult image. For example, Capitolia—the temples dedicated to the Capitoline
Triad—would always be built with three cellae, one for each god of the triad: Jupiter,
Juno, and Minerva.

Roman temples were typically made of brick and concrete and then faced in either
marble or stucco. Engaged columns (columns that protrude from walls like reliefs)
adorn the exteriors of the temples. This creates an effect of columns completely
surrounding a cella, an effect known as psuedoperipteral . The altar, used for
sacrifices and offerings , always stood outside in front of the temple.

While most Roman temples followed this typical plan, some were dramatically
different. At times, the Romans erected round temples that imitated the Greek tholos
. Examples can be found in the Temple of Hercules Victor (late second century
BCE), in the Forum Boarium in Rome . The temple consists a circular cella within a
concentric ring of 20 Corinthian columns. Like its Etruscan predecessors, the temple
rests on a tufa foundation. Its original roof and architrave are now lost.