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Joe F. Hair, Jr.
University of South Alabama Guest Paper
Dana E. Harrison
East Tennessee State University
ORCID: 0000-0002-7250-9522
Jeffrey J. Risher
University of West Florida
ORCID: 0000-0002-0359-2668
Abstract
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RISHER São Paulo, Brazil. Special Issue v.17n.5. October 2018
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digitally connected marketplaces (Harrison & their personal data, or to use their mobile phone
Hair 2017). Examples include internet-based to search for and purchase groceries, or almost
companies such as Uber, Amazon, Airbnb, any other product or service they want.
Salesforce and Netflix that have forged
successful new business models, ultimately Emergence of Big Data
revolutionizing industries. While these
developments have been gradually Companies and customers are
materializing over the last 20 years, their full producing large amounts of data from various
impact is now becoming evident. touchpoints. On the customer side data is
Customers and companies have captured through heavily promoted omni-
collectively become less averse to risks often channel experiences. As examples, consider
associated with online transactions, and this has Target’s buy online and immediate pickup in
fueled growth among these emerging business store, Amazon’s prime membership and
models. Furthermore, dynamic customer associated sales and shipping relationships, or
behavior and market changes have contributed FedEx’s use of blockchain methodology for
to the need for greater convenience and more managing customer dispute data and as an
personalized experiences than initially offered efficient method for tracking packages, all are
through online markets. For example, faster producing mountains of useful information for
moving trends in clothing fashions and fads is both business and consumer sides of
one of many market developments that can be transactions. Perhaps the most pervasive data
attributed to the capabilities of internet-based collector is Google, which has trackers on
products and services. But there are many other almost 80 percent of all websites (except China,
examples. In essence, innovative companies where Google withdrew because they refused
have developed and mastered value to permit censoring of information). Similarly,
propositions that more effectively respond to on the B-to-B side General Electric and Boeing
market opportunities, and more closely fulfill are installing sensors in jet engines, robots are
customer wants and needs. being coordinated to manufacture many
A critical component that has emerged products, such as autos and airplanes, sensors
along with these new value propositions is are enabling vehicle brands such as Volvo,
digital data, which has enabled both businesses Tesla, Mercedes, BMW, and others to market
and consumers to not only be more informed self-driving cars, and many other distribution
than ever before, but also to sell and seek almost and manufacturing innovations, all of which
all products and services completely online. For are also collecting data across the entire
example, if you have a My Google account it is manufacturing and distribution ecosystem to
tracking your activities 24/7. One individual generate actionable and valuable insights. As a
checked the number of items tracked over a result, companies can better manage
period of time and found that on average, more production, understand and respond to
than 200 activities were added to their My customer requirements, and add value. With
Google account per day, which is more than this emerging resource of data, they can more
73,000 per year. Who would have thought a few intelligently manage their businesses, improve
years ago that individuals would not only be response times, promote innovation, reduce
sharing their personal data, but bicycles and costs, and boost revenues and profits.
cars instead of buying them, not to mention Data changes power within the
being willing to give organizations such as organization. Today only about five percent of
Google or Facebook access to huge amounts of the U.S. economy is the data economy – small
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now but the percent is expanding customer lifetime value, drivers of customer
exponentially. In the past, data was the loyalty, and so forth.
responsibility of the Chief Information Officer
(CIO), a staff position. Last year (2017) in the Transformative Marketing
U.S., for the first time more of the information
technology budget was spent by line managers As the amount, type (structured and
than CIOs. For CIOs, the security of data unstructured), and complexity of data changes,
systems is a priority. In contrast, CMOs and so do the methods of research necessary to
CFOs care about business execution. The support these developments. The variety,
Equifax data breach of 2017 was likely a result velocity and volume of data stems from
of this transition in responsibility for data changing marketing environments, emerging
security. At the same time, for individuals technology, and the lower cost of collecting and
trained in the business college it is likely storing data (Erevelles, Fukawa & Swayne 2015;
surprising that over 15 percent of CEOs are now Kumar 2018; Varadarajan 2018; Davenport
data scientists – they do not have an MBA 2018). Examples of drivers of data creation
degree! include evolving customer purchase behavior,
Data and data analytics have the the internet of things, digital wearables, the rise
potential to change the economic order of the of artificial intelligence, enhanced supply chain
world in ways that will be disturbing to many technology, and the ability to embed analytics
companies and people. Moreover, knowledge- into sales, distribution, and production
based data will likely become a source of power systems, to mention a few (Kumar 2018).
that is difficult to challenge for countries and Facebook alone has over 200 billion photos
companies lacking this knowledge and these stored in the Cloud, and more than 350 million
skills. In short, data and analytics have become new photos are uploaded every day. In
to the 21st century economies what oil was to response to these drivers, marketing strategies,
the 20th – a valuable asset essential to a better organizational decisions and performance are
economic life. It appears, therefore, that we are being revolutionized by information assets,
on the brink of a new data world, and this will analysis capabilities, and increased customer
definitely change both marketing and knowledge.
marketing research.
On the data analysis side, advanced Changing Role of Marketing Research
technology and lower costs are now capable of
storing and processing the large amounts of There is value in both traditional
data from these various interactions. Storage research approaches that examine, for example,
costs of one megabyte of information, for hypotheses derived from practice and theory,
example, have dropped from $15.00 U.S. in as well as predictive analytics that commonly
1992, to less than 10 cents U.S. for one megabyte emphasize solving business problems with data
in 2017. But, as more data is produced and (Babin, Griffin & Hair 2015; Delen & Zolbanin
stored, there is a greater need to apply 2018). Indeed, tools and techniques are
advanced marketing analytics methods to gain increasingly available that inform different
a more sophisticated understanding of the data, levels of sophisticated intelligence (Davenport
not only related to what is selling and through & Harris 2017). These tools and techniques
which channels, but to produce improved range from simple spreadsheet analyses used
measures of return on marketing investments, by companies to understand how many, how
often or why something occurred, to predictive
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tools that help to explain and forecast what is Data used in descriptive analytics can
likely to happen, and automated machine be found within and external to the
learning tools that are applied to obtain insights organization. Companies often collect data on a
from data. In short, all levels of sophistication regular basis regarding customers and
offer the potential for competitive advantages competitors, but also use data from external
(Davenport & Harris, 2017). But increasingly sources such as data.com. Although the amount
companies must adopt and rely on the more of internal data is much easier to collect at this
sophisticated tools available. What is often point, it is likely that the future will bring
overlooked, however, it that machine learning, advanced technology resources that permit
increasingly coupled with artificial intelligence, organizations to more efficiently collect data
often requires human intervention to execute from external sources.
and complete the analyses. Thus, the role of
marketing researchers will both expand as well Predictive Analytics
as increase in complexity, requiring much more
advanced training. Advanced technology combined with
The following paragraphs provide an complex algorithms facilitates predictive
overview of how three marketing research analytics approaches. These emerging
approaches – descriptive, predictive and techniques examine mountains of data to
prescriptive analytics – are evolving and promote narratives for more effectively
changing. assessing opportunities as well as predicting
future developments. In short, predictive
Traditional Descriptive Analytics analytics applies modeling tools to data to
predict future market developments and trends
Traditional research often uses (Davenport & Harris 2017). Researchers have
descriptive and diagnostic methods. This type categorized predictive analytics into two
of research is more explanatory and categories: regression techniques and machine
confirmatory in nature (Sivarajah, Kamal, Irani learning techniques (Gandomi & Haider 2015),
& Weerakkody 2017). For example, key both of which are increasingly core elements of
performance indicators (KPIs) provide real- marketing research programs.
time dashboard visualizations for While predictive analytics typically
understanding how effective and efficient the requires some level of human intervention,
company is in achieving business objectives there is often flexibility in the level of
such as sales performance, inventory control involvement (e.g., selecting target variables,
management or supply chain responsiveness. developing theoretically derived models,
Although valuable as historical metrics, this permitting the data to tell a story). Big data
confirmatory feedback offers only limited obtained from many sources, potentially
predictive insights as to whether future results containing thousands and even millions of
will be similar. But it will continue to be very driver variables, is analyzed using hundreds of
useful for marketers as a means of monitoring analytical models. But this type of modeling
day-to-day operations, and marketing presents substantial challenges compared to
researchers will need to provide support for traditional methods (Davenport & Harris 2017),
better understanding and explaining market and requires more knowledgeable data analysts
developments, as well as suggesting innovative than in the past. For example, with many
ways to apply this information. sources and types of data (both structured and
unstructured) integrated into a single database,
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customer behavior, it’s important for marketing have relied on do it yourself, online survey
research to remain managerial relevant and methods such as Qualtrics, Google Survey,
timely. Several relevant questions are to what Mechanical Turk, and Survey Monkey
extent should marketing researchers and data (Hulland & Miller 2018). Companies and
scientists allow these new analytical tools to researchers alike are capitalizing on the digital
develop models and outputs without first transformation to reach survey participants via
developing theoretically derived hypotheses? online platforms. Online platforms have
Where is the place in marketing research for the provided convenient access to business and
integration of predictive and prescriptive tools? consumer samples that were difficult, costly
How could this method develop new theories and often impossible to reach. Unfortunately,
and add value to the field? How can marketing populations are being over surveyed resulting
research apply software such as SAS/STAT for in refusals to respond, and the proportion of
predictive modeling, LIWK for text analysis, survey-based papers has started to decline
social media network analysis tools such as (Hulland, Baumgartner & Smith 2018). Another
NodeXL or machine learning tools such as issue noted by numerous social sciences
DataRobot? How are artificial intelligence (AI) disciplines, and particularly management and
solutions be applied, such as Salesforce Einstein supply chain groups, is single respondent
that not only offers predictions but also makes survey designs. In this type of design, the same
recommendations on how to respond to survey respondent answers questions related to
customers, impacting salesforce capabilities? both the independent and dependent variables,
Marketing research must remain cognizant of producing what is referred to a common
the evolution in big data and analytics, methods bias (Krause, Luzzini & Lawson 2018;
understand how and when to use these Kull, Kotlar & Spring 2018; Flynn, Pagell &
methods in research, and maintain pace with Fugate 2018; Roh, Whippe & Boyer 2013). Other
managerial priorities in practice. disciplines, including marketing, have raised
similar concerns and are suggesting designs
Changes in Methodology and Research that combine secondary data with primary data
Design as a solution. Unfortunately, to date no method
of precisely measuring the extent of common
Parallel to the evolution in advanced methods bias in survey designs has been
techniques and tools, we are also witnessing developed.
changes in research designs and
methodologies. Shift Towards Objective Data
The Use of Survey Data With the emergence of digital data, and
lots of it, researchers have shifted toward
In the 1980s more than 2/3 of scholarly collecting objective, secondary data. Archival or
published papers were survey or interview proprietary information, such as historical data,
based. But by 2013, the number of survey-based is readily available to researchers (Verma,
published papers in the three top marketing Agarwal, Kachroo & Krishen 2017). Using
journals [Journal of the Academy of Marketing historical data, event studies (Sorescu, Warren
Science (JAMS), Journal of Marketing (JM), and & Ertekin 2017) can examine the long-term
Journal of Marketing Research (JMR)] was only impact of a particular decision on the firm.
about 1/3 (Hulland, Baumgartner & Smith Businesses and researchers alike are focused on
2018). To collect data, researchers increasingly predictive and prescriptive strategies,
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when applying both descriptive and predictive relationships (Hair, Sarstedt, Ringle & Mena
analytics (Becker, Rai, Ringle & Volckner 2013; 2012). Another increasingly popular software is
Sarstedt & Ringle 2010; Hair, Matthews, R, which is widely used among statisticians and
Matthews & Sarstedt 2017). Both industry and data scientists to execute data analysis.
academic researchers are rapidly making Unfortunately, it is not very user friendly but is
strides to develop advanced statistical analyses open source and free.
that effectively address potential reliability and If moderators are unknown ahead of
validity issues. time, this type of analysis becomes more
Although these issues have long been a difficult. Often, clusters appear which have
concern in marketing research, enhanced similar values for certain variables. These types
statistical methods enable researchers to of groups cannot be accurately defined by any
address them more rigorously (Hult, Hair et al. particular demographic or descriptive data
2018; Worm, Bharadwaj, Ulaga & Reinartz variable. This type of moderation can be
2017). Regression based analyses function on difficult to predict or even identify. In these
the assumption of minimal multicollinearity. At cases, prediction-based techniques should be
the same time, however, moderation occurs used to identify segments that may be creating
when two or more factors covary enough to unexplained heterogeneity. In addition, several
alter the impact on the outcome. If the statistical software packages offer researchers
moderation is known or suspected, it can be the opportunity to further verify external
tested with either continuous or categorical validity and predictive relevance
variables. This is particularly useful for (www.smartpls.de, www.r-project.org;
identifying hygiene variables or boundary Schmueli, Ray et al. 2016).
conditions. Focusing on PLS-SEM, researchers have
Academicians and practitioners are proposed the methodological application of
increasingly using sophisticated software to prediction-oriented segmentation (PLS-POS)
execute predictive analytics. One example, the and finite mixture partial least squares (FIMIX-
SmartPLS software (www.SmartPLS.de) is PLS) segmentation as methods to overcome
cutting edge in terms of analytics, and a prior limitations of identifying unobserved
preferred option for many scholars and heterogeneity. Other heuristic techniques
practitioners because it is very user friendly. should be used when the heterogeneity found
The software executes multi-group analysis in in these effects is sequential. This goes far
SmartPLS and can be used to examine observed beyond longitudinal analysis, and often this
heterogeneity, in which known groups are type of variance results from nested effects, due
proposed to behave differently (e.g., to the order of effects, seasonality, grouping,
female/male comparisons; large/small etc. Traditionally, HLM has been used to
businesses), as well as unobserved identify these in econometrics. In machine
heterogeneity (Sarstedt et al., 2017; Hair et al., learning, Bayes theorem is used to overcome
2016; Matthews et al. 2016). Multi-group the cross sectional nature of these situations.
analyses (MGA) assist researchers in Bayes theorem assumes that error terms vary
discovering if differences exist in the parameter depending on the situation or order of the
estimates (e.g., outer weights, outer loadings effects. Bayesian modeling uses what is known
and parameter estimates) of pre-defined data to predict the unknown. Furthermore, Markov
groups (Matthews, Hair & Matthews 2018). In Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) modeling, such as
PLS-SEM, MGA is beneficial in efficiently Bayesian techniques, consists of algorithms
examining moderation across multiple focused on probability distributions for large
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São Paulo, Brazil. Special Issue v.17n.5. October 2018
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multi-dimensional, hierarchical models and big data and its impact. It was then when the
unknown parameters. The method is first attempts to quantify the growth rate in data
advantageous when a high level of uncertainty began, and for the next 50 or so years this trend
exists and historical information is scarce, and was referred to as the “information explosion”.
can be used to investigate information across At about the same time (1941), the Oxford
multiple sources of data (Rossi & Allenby 2003). English Dictionary for the first time included
The use of Bayesian methods has increased in the term information explosion in its list, and
parallel with the digital transformation driven many other data terms have been added since.
by internet use. Among the first business authors to
Marketing research, particularly write about this phenomenon was Tom Peters
academic, has welcomed the adoption of in his 1991 book titled Thriving on Chaos. While
Bayesian techniques and applied the method to his book predicted many broad economic
address many aspects of marketing (Rossi & changes occurring at that time, the phrase most
Allenby 2003) such as advertising (Agarwal, relevant to big data was We are drowning in
Hosanager & Smith 2011), customer choice information and starved for knowledge. He went on
(Chung, Rust & Wedel 2009) and customer to note that the difference in information and
relationships (Netzer, Lattin & Srinivasan knowledge is that information consists of only
2008). Although data is plentiful, digitalization words and numbers that may be interesting, but
has magnified the unknown in consistently they are not useful for decision-making.
evolving, dynamic environments. Moreover, the thinking in that day was that
perhaps only five percent of all information was
Concluding Observations knowledge and the challenge was to convert
more of the available information to
As should be evident, much has knowledge. Peters and others believed that
changed in marketing and marketing research would be possible if they created awareness of
in the past few years. Many more changes are this problem, but they did not foresee the
anticipated in the next few years. The following impact of the internet and particularly the
summarizes our thoughts about future emergence of digital data.
developments. Predictions of the future are In the late 1990s the book titled How
clearly risky. Many intelligent individuals have much information is there in the world?, by
attempted to forecast the future – and often Michael Lesk (1997), concluded that “There
been proven wrong. Our thoughts are based on may be a few thousand petabytes of
what we believe is sound reasoning, but like information all told; and . . . in only a few years
others in the past it is unlikely that our thinking . . . we will be able [to] save everything–no
will be entirely as it appears to us today. We do information will have to be thrown out, and . . .
believe that we are mostly correct and ask that the typical piece of information will never be
you view our thoughts as at least directional – looked at by a human being.” By this time
as we are confident about the direction but not scholars and practitioners were clearly aware
necessarily the specifics. not only of the huge amounts of data being
produced, but also the importance of data
Data Will Continue Increasing Exponentially analytics, and particularly the role of machine
learning in analyzing the available data. Of
The first discussions of the rapid course, the data scientists were also developing
expansion of data began at least 70 years ago, new terms in an effort to clarify how one could
well before the current widespread interest in measure the large amounts of data, and began
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using words like terabyte, petabyte, exabyte, and digital data in only a few instances. But
zettabyte, and finally yottabyte – with each there are increasingly substantial opportunities
succeeding term referring to an amount 1,000 to access this type of data, particularly in
times larger. According to a Forbes report, the marketing, and as data increases exponentially
total amount of information in 2013 was 4.4 so will opportunities for academicians to
zettabytes, and by 2020 the amount of data will pursue these opportunities. At the same time,
reach 44 zettabytes (Kanellos, 2016). For the marketing research texts must also undergo
layman, 44 zettabytes means little, but for the major revisions since most include only limited
data scientist it clearly indicates a huge amount material on data analytics, or even on the
of data. Of course, this and other estimates are explosion of secondary and digital data.
just informed predictions but the direction and
amount of increase in data accumulation and Data Quality Will Improve
storage is unquestionably correct.
As noted, we believe data will continue All aspects of both academic and
to increase exponentially, and this clearly will practitioner research are being impacted by the
impact both market research practitioners and availability of data and the advances in data
scholars. Practitioners must help organizations analytics. One area impacted is data
to understand and respond effectively to this examination, and as data examination is
glut of data. They must advise marketers on implemented in organizations it will improve
which data is relevant and which can be data quality and ultimately the success or
dismissed. Beyond that, marketing researchers failure of the research effort. While many
will need to be more effective in informing researchers continue to operate with primary
marketing managers on how the data can be data, both qualitative and quantitative, many
used, and what data will be most helpful. The others increasingly are dealing with widely
bulk of data available now and in the future will disparate data sources (e.g., customer-level
be secondary and digital. This is in stark data within multiple divisions of firms, social
contrast to the past, in which marketing media and other digital data, locational data,
researchers collected primary data and etc.) that have different data structures and
controlled what type of data would be collected formats. Expanded data examination, often
in hopes that it would be directly and referred to as data cleaning, is necessary and
immediately applicable to problems will improve data quality and thus results.
confronting their customers. With the increase Another evolving area, and one that is
in secondary data, marketing researchers must likely the most challenging of the big data era,
help organizations sift through the mountains is data management – organizing, cleaning and
of data and determine what is relevant and coding the data from multiple sources and in
what is of little or no value. Moreover, going multiple formats to prepare for analysis. Many
forward longitudinal data will be available to researchers think the primary question is which
conduct retrospective analyses, as well as technique to use, and do not realize that the
prepare more effective forecasts. type of data often dictates the selection of the
Marketing scholars must follow a technology and analysis technique. In most
similar path – determining and gaining access instances, what precedes and dictates the
to secondary data that is relevant to their appropriate analysis technique is the
research and will enable them to publish in management of data from multiple sources,
quality peer-reviewed journals. Academicians which can easily take 50 percent or more of the
have thus far accessed and applied secondary
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total time for completing a data analytics Decisions will Be More Knowledgeable
project.
Combining and managing data from Both management and customer
multiple sources becomes complex very decisions will increasingly be knowledge-
quickly. What may seem like a simple merging based. The era of big data has provided new
of data can be very difficult when the analyst and varied sources of data, and has placed
has to extract the data from multiple databases, additional requirements on the analytical
matching formats and timeframes and many techniques that must handle these data sources.
other required adjustments. And since 90 There are, therefore, unique challenges facing
percent of data is often unstructured, this task today’s analyst with the many issues in big data
is clearly daunting. Therefore, academic and and analytics. We believe with an expanded
practitioner researchers in all fields will have to focus on data challenges and data analytics,
become “data managers” along with being data data scientists will be able to create awareness
analysts. and motivate management to invest in these
promising developments. If this happens,
Data Analytics Will Improve marketing research and business decisions in
general will be based on better data and more
A primary force behind the widespread effective analytical techniques, and thus be
application of data analytics is the potential more knowledge based. Clearly, the
improvement in decision-making. Improved organizations and individuals that move the
data analytics will benefit practitioners and quickest in these emerging areas will acquire
academics, as well as governments and for- and establish true competitive advantages in
profit or non-for-profit organizations. But to the marketplaces of tomorrow.
realize these benefits analysts will need to be
more involved in providing critical inputs on Privacy Issues and Challenges
what data to collect, in what format, how to
manage and combine the data, and ultimately In his book The Assault on Privacy,
selecting the best analytic technique. Arthur Miller (1971) noted that “Too many
Unfortunately, to date academicians information handlers seem to measure [an
have been slower in adopting and applying big individual by] the number of bits of storage
data and data analytics into their research. capacity [their] dossier will occupy.” Today, in
Some disciplines in the sciences (biology, advanced economies data exists on everyone
biomedicine, and neuroscience) are moving and has grown in exponential size due to digital
faster in adopting data analytics, but the social records. Increasingly, however, government
sciences are beginning to recognize the implemented policy changes are impacting the
potential of more complex analytical methods. way we collect, access, store and use data. On
These enhanced analytics methods make it the heels of the Cambridge Analytica’s
possible for additional types of research information security issues involving Facebook,
questions to be examined and new challenges to two consumer privacy laws have been or are is
be overcome. As marketing research academics in the process of being adopted – the General
and practitioners become more aware of these Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and the
opportunities, in both data and techniques, California Consumer Privacy Act, A.B. 375
their utilization will increase, hopefully sooner were developed to provide greater control to
rather than later. customers of data that was collected on them.
As a result, companies must now increase
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controls and transparency of how data is only their research questions more broadly, but
collected, what data is collected, why data is also the scope of their responsibility in leading
being collected, who has access to the data and the way to more effectively use data to solve
how companies are using the collected data. business problems. The successful utilization of
Marketing researchers are also required to data analytics will be influenced substantially
comply with these regulations as they face the by the analysts and the decisions they make not
same rules in collecting, securing and only in informing senior managers of the
distributing identifiable data. potential of data analytics, but also in the
selection and application of the techniques to
Data Analytics Capabilities Are An Important use moving forward.
Competitive Advantage According to the Study Portals website,
in the U.S. there are slightly more than100
Data is only as good as the intelligence bachelor’s degree programs with a
we can glean from it, and that entails effective concentration in data analytics. This number
data analytics and a whole lot of computing needs to be five and perhaps ten times that
power to cope with the exponential increase in many – and similar changes must follow
the volume and type of data. Most all globally. But an even greater need exists for
organizations (large, medium, and even small) master’s degrees in data analytics (only about
can apply data analytics to improve 40 are offered in the U.S.) since being a data
manufacturing, supply chain, management and scientist requires substantial training.
marketing activities, and to be more efficient Universities globally need to move quickly to
and effective in achieving organizational goals. train these data scientists to meet not only the
While the application of data analytics is current demand, but to continue producing
producing useful findings in the fields of what will be a substantial and expanding need
agriculture, healthcare, urban design, crime for data scientists in the future, particularly in
reduction, and energy, along with business in the field of marketing research.
general, much remains to be done. The field of
analytics is evolving quickly and more References
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e-ISSN: 2177-5184
DOI: 10.5585/bjm.v17i5.4173
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pela FedEx, para gerenciar dados de disputa de Officers) se importam com a execução do
clientes e como método eficiente de negócio. A divulgação de quebra e roubo da
rastreamento de pacotes. Assim, todos estão informação feita pela empresa Equifax, em
produzindo quantidades significativas de 2017, foi provavelmente a responsável pelo
informações úteis, tanto para as empresas resultado dessa transição na responsabilidade
quanto para os consumidores envolvidos nas pela segurança de dados. Ao mesmo tempo,
transações. Talvez o coletor de dados mais para indivíduos treinados na faculdade de
difundido seja o Google, que tem rastreadores Administração, é surpreendente que mais de
em quase 80% do total de sites (exceto na China, 15% dos CEOs (Chief Executive Officers) sejam
de onde o Google se retirou porque se recusou agora cientistas de dados – eles não têm um
a permitir a censura de informações). Da MBA!
mesma forma, no lado B-to-B (business-to- Dados e análise de dados têm o
business), General Electric e Boeing estão potencial de mudar a ordem econômica do
instalando sensores em motores a jato, os robôs mundo, em modos que perturbarão muitas
estão sendo programados para fabricarem empresas e pessoas. Além disso, dados
muitos produtos, como automóveis e aviões, baseados no conhecimento se tornarão,
sensores estão permitindo marcas de veículos, provavelmente, uma fonte de poder que é difícil
como Volvo, Tesla, Mercedes, BMW e outros, a de desafiar, por parte de países e empresas que
comercializarem carros autônomos, além de não possuem este conhecimento e essas
muitas outras inovações de distribuição e habilidades. Em síntese, dados e análises se
manufatura, que também coletam dados em tornaram, para as economias do século XXI, o
todo o ecossistema de fabricação e distribuição, que o petróleo era para o século XX, ou seja, um
para gerar insights valiosos e praticáveis. Como ativo valioso essencial para uma vida
resultado, as empresas podem gerenciar melhor econômica aprimorada. Parece, portanto, que
a produção, entender e responder às demandas estamos à beira de um novo mundo de dados,
do cliente e agregar valor. Com esse recurso que definitivamente mudará tanto o marketing
emergente de dados, empresas podem quanto a pesquisa em marketing.
gerenciar, de maneira mais inteligente, seus Em relação à análise de dados, a
negócios, podem melhorar tempos de resposta, tecnologia avançada e os custos mais baixos
promover inovações, reduzir custos e agora são capazes de armazenar e processar
impulsionar receitas e lucros. grandes quantidades de dados vindos dessas
Dados mudam o poder dentro das várias interações. Os custos de armazenamento
organizações. Atualmente, apenas 5% da de um megabyte de informação, por exemplo,
economia dos Estados Unidos é referente a caíram de 15 dólares, em 1992, para menos de
dados – um percentual pequeno agora, mas que 10 centavos de dólar por um megabyte em 2017.
está se expandindo exponencialmente. No Mas, à medida que mais dados são produzidos
passado, dados eram responsabilidade do chief e armazenados, há uma necessidade maior de
information officer (CIO), uma posição de se aplicarem métodos analíticos avançados de
funcionário. No ano passado (2017), nos marketing, para haver um entendimento mais
Estados Unidos, pela primeira vez, o orçamento sofisticado dos dados, não apenas relacionados
de tecnologia da informação foi gasto mais por ao que está sendo vendido e por quais canais,
gestores de linha de frente do que por CIOs. mas também para produzir medidas
Para os CIOs, o sistema de segurança dos dados aprimoradas de retorno sobre investimentos de
é uma prioridade. Ao contrário, CMOs (Chief marketing, valor da vida útil do consumidor,
Marketing Officers) e CFOs (Chief Financial
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essas técnicas são capazes de produzir análises estruturados, como texto digital ou
autocorretivas, enquanto outras, como a comentários, empresas e pesquisadores
otimização matemática, “determinam a melhor ampliam seus conhecimentos em segmentação,
solução para problemas matematicamente nível de envolvimento e experiência dos
definidos” (Snyman, 2005). Nos mercados de clientes, redes sociais e análise de sentimentos,
consumo, por exemplo, a digitalização facilitou fato que também cria oportunidades ampliadas
a disponibilidade de dados fisiológicos. De fato, para pesquisadores de mercado.
os métodos de pesquisa mais técnicos incluem
tanto dados biométricos quanto neurológicos Maior Foco em Relevância e Rigor
(Chan, Boksem, & Smidts, 2018; Harris,
Ciorciara & Gountas, 2017). Essas técnicas, À medida que os dados e os métodos
inicialmente emergentes da economia, finanças, analíticos se tornam mais complexos, a pesquisa
ciência da computação e pesquisa médica, estão em marketing também experimenta uma
se tornando cada vez mais predominantes e mudança em direção a técnicas mais rigorosas.
infundidas na pesquisa de marketing e nas Os pesquisadores devem usar todas as
ciências sociais em geral. À medida que abordagens razoáveis para refutar suas
voltamos nosso olhar para o futuro, esses hipóteses versus sentir que é necessário apoiar
métodos de pesquisa em evolução irão tornar- estatisticamente hipóteses para fazer uma
se um recurso crítico nos mercados de negócios contribuição (Babin, Griffin, & Hair, 2015). Por
de empresa para empresa e para os mercados exemplo, endogeneidade, poder estatístico
de consumo, sempre dinâmicos e em constante (tamanho do efeito), validade externa e
mudança. relevância preditiva desempenham papel
importante na avaliação precisa das relações
A Ascensão de Dados Não Estruturados entre variáveis exógenas (independentes) e
endógenas (dependentes).
O marketing digital, em áreas como Por muitos anos, pesquisadores de
mídias sociais, tem produzido conteúdo marketing examinaram a heterogeneidade
substancial não estruturado (Balducci & observada. A heterogeneidade observada
Marinova, 2018), o qual pode ser submetido à baseia-se no conhecimento de que subgrupos
análise de texto (Humphreys & Wang, 2017) e de populações, provavelmente, apresentam
ser, cada vez mais, codificado para modelagem diferenças, e também que essas diferenças são
quantitativa. De fato, a conversão de dados não conhecidas quando a pesquisa é planejada e
estruturados para análise quantitativa se conduzida. Por exemplo, os consumidores
expande rapidamente, já que 90% de todos os homens e mulheres, geralmente, exibem
dados não são estruturados. Os dados não diferentes padrões de pesquisa e de compras e,
estruturados incluem tweets, fotografias, por fim, de comportamento de compra. Para os
registros de chamadas de serviço, blogs, dados consumidores, a heterogeneidade observada
de reclamações e comentários de clientes, geralmente se baseia em dados demográficos.
comportamento de compra do cliente etc., que Para as organizações, a heterogeneidade
precisam ser analisados e codificados antes de observada é baseada no tamanho da empresa,
serem enviados ao software de análise de dados ofertas de produtos ou serviços, conveniência, e
quantitativos. Programas como o NodeXL e o assim por diante. Mais recentemente, a
LIWC são usados para melhorar a modelagem tecnologia permitiu aos analistas de dados
quantitativa (Harrison, Ajjan, & Coughlan, examinarem a possibilidade de
2018). Por meio da coleta e análise de dados não heterogeneidade não observada, ou seja, que as
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quando a heterogeneidade encontrada nesses no próprio marketing nos últimos anos. Muitas
efeitos for sequencial. Esse procedimento vai outras mudanças são esperadas nos próximos
muito além da análise longitudinal, sendo que, anos. A seguir, resumimos nossos pensamentos
muitas vezes, esse tipo de variância resulta em sobre incrementos futuros. As previsões do
efeitos aninhados, devido à ordem dos efeitos, futuro são claramente arriscadas. Muitos
sazonalidade, agrupamento etc. indivíduos inteligentes tentaram prever o
Tradicionalmente, o HLM tem sido usado para futuro – e, muitas vezes, se provaram errados.
identificar esses efeitos em econometria. Em Nossos pensamentos são baseados no que
aprendizado de máquina, o teorema de Bayes é acreditamos ser um bom raciocínio, mas, como
usado para superar a natureza da seção outros no passado, é improvável que nosso
transversal dessas situações. O teorema de pensamento seja, no futuro, inteiramente como
Bayes assume que os termos de erro variam, nos parece hoje. Acreditamos que estamos
dependendo da situação ou da ordem dos corretos e pedimos que você veja nossas ideias
efeitos. A modelagem bayesiana usa o que é como, pelo menos, direcionais – pois estamos
conhecido para prever o desconhecido. Além confiantes sobre a direção, mas não
disso, a modelagem Markov Chain Monte Carlo necessariamente sobre as especificidades.
(MCMC), como as técnicas bayesianas, consiste
em conjuntos de algoritmos focados em Os Dados Continuarão Aumentando
distribuições de probabilidade para grandes Exponencialmente
modelos multidimensionais, hierárquicos e
para parâmetros desconhecidos. O método é As primeiras discussões sobre a rápida
vantajoso quando existe um alto nível de expansão dos dados começaram há, pelo
incerteza e a informação histórica é escassa, e menos, 70 anos, bem antes do atual interesse
pode ser usado para investigar informações por generalizado por big data e seu impacto. Foi
meio de múltiplas fontes de dados (Rossi & então que começaram as primeiras tentativas
Allenby, 2003). O uso de métodos bayesianos para quantificar a taxa de crescimento nos
aumentou em paralelo com a transformação dados, Nos 50 anos seguintes, essa tendência foi
digital impulsionada pelo uso da internet. chamada de “explosão da informação”. Mais ou
Pesquisas em marketing, particularmente as menos na mesma época (1941), o Oxford English
acadêmicas, vêm recebendo com agrado a Dictionary incluiu, pela primeira vez, o termo
adoção de técnicas bayesianas e aplicado o explosão de informações em seu índice, e
método para abordar vários aspectos do muitos outros termos de dados foram
marketing (Rossi & Allenby, 2003), como adicionados desde então.
publicidade (Agarwal, Hosanager, & Smith Entre os primeiros autores de negócios
2011), escolha do cliente (Chung, Rust, & que escreveram sobre esse fenômeno estava
Wedel, 2009) e relacionamento com clientes Tom Peters, com seu livro de 1991, intitulado
(Netzer, Lattin & Srinivasan, 2008). Embora os Thriving on Chaos. Enquanto o livro previa
dados sejam abundantes, a digitalização muitas mudanças econômicas relevantes
ampliou o desconhecido em ambientes ocorrendo na época, a frase mais importante
dinâmicos em constante evolução. para o big data era: estamos nos afogando em
informação e famintos por conhecimento. Tom
Observações Finais Peters observou que a diferença entre
informação e conhecimento é que a informação
Como deve estar evidente, muitas consiste apenas em palavras e números que
coisas mudaram nas pesquisas em marketing e podem ser interessantes, mas não são úteis para
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por grandes revisões, já que a maioria inclui que pode parecer uma simples fusão de dados
apenas material limitado sobre análise de pode ser muito difícil, quando o analista precisa
dados, ou mesmo sobre a explosão de dados extraí-los de vários bancos de dados, formatos e
secundários e digitais. cronogramas correspondentes, além de muitos
outros ajustes necessários. Como 90% dos
A Qualidade dos Dados Irá Melhorar dados são frequentemente desestruturados,
essa tarefa é claramente desafiadora. Portanto,
Todos os aspectos tanto da pesquisa pesquisadores acadêmicos e profissionais em
acadêmica quanto da profissional estão sendo todos os campos terão que se tornar, além de
afetados pela disponibilidade de dados e pelos analistas, “gerentes de dados”.
avanços na análise de dados. Uma área
impactada é o exame de dados e, à medida que A Análise de Dados Irá Melhorar
o exame de dados é implementado nas
organizações, melhora a qualidade dos dados e, Uma força primária por trás da ampla
em última instância, o sucesso ou o fracasso do aplicação da análise de dados é a melhoria
esforço de pesquisa. Embora muitos potencial na tomada de decisões. A análise
pesquisadores continuem operando com dados aprimorada de dados beneficiará tanto
primários, tanto qualitativos quanto profissionais quanto acadêmicos, bem como
quantitativos, vários outros estão lidando, cada governos e organizações com ou sem fins
vez mais, com fontes de dados distintas (por lucrativos. Mas, para realizar esses benefícios,
exemplo, dados no nível do cliente em várias os analistas precisarão estar mais envolvidos no
divisões de empresas, mídias sociais e outros fornecimento de informações críticas sobre
dados digitais, dados de localização etc.), que quais dados coletar, em que formato, como
possuem diferentes estruturas e formatos. O gerenciar e combinar os dados e, finalmente,
exame de dados expandido, muitas vezes selecionar a melhor técnica analítica.
chamado de limpeza de dados, é necessário e Infelizmente, até o momento, os
melhorará a qualidade dos dados e, portanto, os acadêmicos têm sido mais lentos na adoção e
resultados. aplicação de big data e na análise de dados em
Outra área em evolução, e suas pesquisas. Algumas disciplinas das outras
provavelmente a mais desafiadora da era do big ciências (biologia, biomedicina e neurociência)
data, é o gerenciamento de dados: organizar, estão se movendo mais rapidamente na adoção
limpar e codificar os dados de várias fontes e da análise de dados, mas as ciências sociais
em vários formatos para preparar a análise. estão começando a reconhecer o potencial de
Muitos pesquisadores acreditam que a questão métodos analíticos mais complexos. Esses
principal seria qual técnica usar, e não métodos aprimorados de análise permitem que
percebem que o tipo de dados geralmente tipos adicionais de perguntas de pesquisa sejam
determina a seleção da tecnologia e da técnica examinados e novos desafios sejam superados.
de análise. Na maioria dos casos, o que precede À medida que os acadêmicos e profissionais de
e determina a técnica de análise apropriada é o pesquisa em marketing se tornarem mais
gerenciamento de dados de várias origens, que conscientes dessas oportunidades, tanto em
pode, facilmente, tomar 50% ou mais do tempo dados quanto em técnicas, sua utilização
total para se concluir um projeto de análise de aumentará, mais cedo ou mais tarde.
dados.
Combinar e gerenciar dados de várias
fontes se torna complexo muito rapidamente. O
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Demanda Por Cientistas Treinados em Dados cynicism and workplace withdrawal: A neural
Vai Ultrapassar a Oferta network and SEM approach. Tourism
Management Perspectives, 23, 129-139.
Mais universidades precisam se engajar
no treinamento de novos cientistas de dados. O Antons, D., & Breidbach, C. F. (2018). Big data,
treinamento e a conscientização do big data e da big insights? Advancing service innovation
análise de dados incentivarão os analistas a and design with machine learning. Journal of
definirem não apenas suas perguntas de Service Research, 21(1), 17-39.
pesquisa de forma mais ampla, mas também o
escopo de sua responsabilidade ao liderarem os Agarwal, A., Hosanagar, K., & Smith, M. D.
caminhos para o uso mais eficiente de dados, na (2011). Location, location, location: An analysis
solução de problemas do mundo dos negócios. of profitability of position in online advertising
A utilização bem-sucedida da análise de dados markets. Journal of marketing research, 48(6),
será influenciada substancialmente pelos 1057-1073.
analistas e pelas decisões que tomarão, não
apenas ao informar os gerentes seniores sobre o Bachelor's Degrees in Data Science & Big Data
potencial da análise de dados, mas também in the United States,
quanto à seleção e aplicação das técnicas a https://www.bachelorsportal.com/study-
serem utilizadas no futuro. options/269779226/data-science-big-data-
De acordo com o site Study Portals, nos united-states.html, accessed August 2018.
Estados Unidos, há pouco mais de 100
programas de bacharelado com concentração Balducci, B., & Marinova, D. (2018).
no ensino de análise de dados. Esse número Unstructured data in marketing. Journal of the
precisa ser cinco, talvez 10 vezes maior – e Academy of Marketing Science, 46(4), 1-34.
mudanças semelhantes devem seguir-se
globalmente. Porém, existe uma necessidade Becker, J. M., Rai, A., Ringle, C. M., &
ainda maior de mestrados em análise de dados Völckner, F. (2013). Discovering unobserved
(apenas cerca de 40 desses cursos são oferecidos heterogeneity in structural equation models to
nos Estados Unidos), já que ser um cientista de avert validity threats. MIS Quarterly, 37(3), 665-
dados requer treinamento substancial. 694.
Universidades ao redor do mundo precisam se
mover rapidamente para treinar tais cientistas Chan, H. Y., Boksem, M., & Smidts, A. (2018).
de dados, para atendimento não apenas a Neural profiling of brands: Mapping brand
demanda atual, mas para a continuidade da image in consumers' brains with visual
produção do que será uma necessidade templates. Journal of Marketing Research. 55(4),
substancial e em expansão para os cientistas de 600-615.
dados no futuro, particularmente no campo da
pesquisa em marketing. Chung, T. S., Rust, R. T., & Wedel, M. (2009).
My mobile music: An adaptive personalization
Referências system for digital audio players. Marketing
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