BITEMARK ANALYSIS/ ODONTOGLYPHICS

HISTORY.
A. The trial of Reverend George Burroughs in Salem, Massachusetts introduced testimony
that a bite mark on one of the purported witches was left by Reverend Burroughs.
Testimony of his biting was given by one of the women accused of witchcraft.
He was convicted of witchcraft by the Court of Oyer and Terminer and hanged on August
19, 1692.
B. The 20th century judicial history shows Texas (Doyle vs. State) as the first appellate court
to permit bite mark into court in 1954.
The case involved a bitemark in cheese left at a burglary scene.
Police technician, rather than a dentist, performed the analysis.

BITEMARK ANALYSIS

C. Odontoglyphics = Bitemarks
- Regarded as “new scientific evidence”
- Pattern left when teeth are actively, voluntarily pressed into a soft material
- Dependent on time, movement and pressure
- Bite marks can be identified from skin and inanimate objects
- Usually criminal matter
- Related to violence, sex crimes, abuse of children
- Perpetrator of the crime bites the victim or victim bites the perpetrator

D. There are challenges in forensic identification of bitemarks due to the following factors:
1. The skin is a poor surface to clearly capture the shapes of teeth making contact with
it.
2. The common appearance and shape of human teeth.

E. Bite mark analysis is based on following two concepts or assumptions:

a. The dental characteristics of anterior teeth involved in biting are unique in all
individuals and
b. This asserted uniqueness is transferred and recorded in the injury.

F. Cases likely to involve bite marks

1. associated with violent interactions such as sexual assault, child, elder abuse and
homicide.
2. Bitten foodstuffs left at a crime scene may be useful in determining the identity of a
burglar, assault or homicide suspect.

• Usually criminal matter

• Related to violence, sex crimes, abuse of children
• Perpetrator of the crime bites the victim or victim bites the perpetrator
G. Sequence of Events in Bitemark Analysis

1. Recognition. Establish that the injury is indeed a human bite mark - shows obvious
tooth characteristics

 Animal bite wounds produced can be remarkable in their depth and amount of
damage to skin and underlying muscle.
 extremely long canines and a complement of six incisors plus the two canines for a
total of eight.

2. Documentation.
3. Evidence collection and preservation (DNA and physical evidence).
4. Physical dental profiling of the questioned evidence (bite mark).
5. Physical dental profiling of the known evidence (suspect).
6. Physical comparison of (4) and (5) which produces either
• – a common link or
• – no link or
• – inability to determine because of poor quality of the evidence.
7. DNA profiling bite mark salivary swabbing evidence and suspect’s DNA.
8. Communication of results to authorities and legal counsel.

H. Preliminary Analysis of Bitemark. Questions to ask.

1. Is the pattern a bite mark?
2. Could human teeth be the cause of (1)?
3. Does the area allow swabbing for salivary DNA?
4. Do the teeth marks present in the evidence possess information sufficient to identify
one person?
If (4) is “No”: What features (if any) present in the bite mark are sufficient to eliminate
specific people from the investigation?
If (4) is “Yes”: What is the probability of an unassociated person being “matched” with
the bite mark evidence?

I. Idealized or“prototypical” bite mark shows the following characteristics:

”A circular or oval (doughnut) (ring-shaped) patterned injury consisting of two opposing

(facing) symmetrical, U-shaped arches separated at their bases by open spaces.
Following the periphery of the arches are a series of individual abrasions, contusions
and/or lacerations reflecting the size, shape, arrangement and distribution of the class
characteristics of the contacting surfaces of the human dentition.”
This is a quote from the American Board of Forensic Odontology (ABFO) Bitemark
Standards and Guidelines.

J. Tooth features, imperfection and irregularities are noted for Bitemark Analysis
 1. Tooth size and shape
2. Chips and fractures
3. Tooth orientation and alignment
4. Missing teeth
5. Height and spacing of dentition

K. Types Of Bite Marks Accdg to Appearance

1. Abrasion – scrape of the skin

2. Avulsion – a bite resulting in the removal of skin; when a piece of the body is
removed from biting
3. Contusion – bruise
4. Hemorrhage – profuse bleeding bite
5. Incision – clean, neat wound
6. Laceration – puncture wound

L. Gross Appearance of Bite mark

1. Double arched pattern
2. Uniform bruise
3. Markings from the upper and lower six anterior teeth
4. Circular mark with several small lacerations with central area of ecchymosis

M. Additional Features Seen in Skin Caused by Bitemarks

1. Central ecchymosis (central contusion) – this is seen as the brilliantly reddened
area.
2. Linear abrasions, contusions or striations – these represent marks made by either
slipping of teeth against skin or by imprinting of the lingual surfaces of teeth.
3. Drag marks is in common usage to describe the movement between the teeth and
the skin while
4. Lingual markings is an appropriate term when the anatomy of the lingual surfaces
are identified.

N. Types of bite marks Accdg to Pressure

1. Clear – significant pressure

2. Obvious – medium pressure
3. Noticeable – biter used violent pressure to bite down

O. Other Types of Bitemarks

1. radial or sunburst pattern .
2. Double bite – a “bite within a bite” occurring when skin slips after an initial contact
of the teeth and then the teeth contact again a second time
3. Weave patterns of interposed clothing.
 4. Peripheral ecchymosis – due to excessive, confluent bruising
5. Partial bite marks
– one-arched (half bites);
– one or few teeth;
– unilateral (one-sided) marks – due to incomplete dentition, uneven pressure or
skewed bite.
6. Indistinct/faded bite marks – healing in a live person will gradually affect the
appearance of the injury
7. Fused arches – collective pressure of teeth leaves arched rings without showing
individual tooth marks.
8. Solid – ring pattern is not apparent because erythema or contusion fills the entire
center leaving a filled, discolored, circular mark.
9. Closed arches – the maxillary and mandibular arch are not separate but joined at
their edges.
10. Latent – seen only with special imaging techniques.
11. Superimposed or multiple bites
12. Avulsive bites – this is when tissue or a significant body part (tongue, finger, etc.)is
bitten off the victim.

P. The types of scenarios where bite marks occur can be categorized from the overall
circumstances of the event.
1. Sexual assault: Females exhibit bite marks on breasts, nipples, abdomen, thighs and
pubis. Males receive bite marks on back, shoulders and penis.
2. Defense wounds: Individuals being attacked can receive bite marks from their
attacker on their forearms and hands.
3. Animal bite marks.
4. Initial animal attacks on humans focus on the legs and then advance to hands, arms,
and the head and neck.

Q. The limiting factors in recognizing a pattern as originating from teeth are:

1. the character of the material bitten,
2. the power of the biting force.

R. Importance of Bite mark as Evidence

Estimate the potential value of recovering and analyzing the bitemark
Forensic significance and evidentiary value???
a. Bite marks of high evidentiary value should exhibit markings from a significant
number of the six upper and/or six lower front teeth.
b. Fewer than 12 teeth appearing in a bite mark diminishes the identification value
of the evidence.
S. Immediate Recovery of Bitemark Evidence
 1. Immediate recovery of this type of physical evidence is required due to potential
degradation of the physical evidence over time.
2. The evidence must be timely photographed, impressed and documented in terms of
location and physical characteristics.
3. Delayed evidence collection and analysis limits the scope of data available to the
examining dentist due to un-recovered information or biological evidence.

T. Ways of Analysing Bitemarks:

1. Dorion method, which advocates the removal of bitten tissue for microscopic
examination.
2. Scanning electron microscopy,
3. Computer-enhanced digitization, and
4. Xeroradiology.
5. Computerized bite analysis software also exists.

U. Methods of Overlay Production

1. Computer-based
2. Radiographic
3. Xerographic
4. Hand-traced (acetate sheets and marker pens)

V. New Way of Analysing Bitemark

Image Perception Technology
Artificially color areas with equal intensity values
2-D image as pseudo3-D surface object

W. Managing a bite mark

1. Identify if bite mark is human
2. Swab for DNA
a. Check if bite was self-inflicted
3. Take measurements and photographs of bite marks
a. Bruises appear after 4 hours and disappear within 36 hours
4. Bite marks of deceased individuals are cut out, preserved in formalin, and silicone
casts are made from these

X. Salivary Trace Evidence.Why?

- Presence of Agglutinins –ABH blood group type
- Presence of salivary amylase, sloughed epithelial cells from inner surface of lips
and oral mucosa, leukocytes to provide source of DNA evidence
Technique:
1. Take initial photograph
2. Wash hands and use sterile glove
3. Moisten the tip of cotton with distilled water
4. Swab beginning at the center going to the periphery
5. Place an identifier (alphanumeric code or symbol) on the swab handle= “Bitemark saliva
Exhibit”
6. Do same procedure to area not bitten.
7. Air dry
8. Place in separate paper envelopes for transportation to serologist. Label the envelops

Y. Photographs

- Colored and black and white print film

- Take picture at regular intervals for several days = bruise maturation phenomena
- With and without ABFO No. 2 reference scale
- Electronic flash and available light at different oblique angles
- Keep the film parallel to the skin surface o avoid distortion
- Take measurements and photographs of bite marks - With American board of
Forensic Odontology No.2 reference scale

Z. Surface Molding

- Accurate mold of the skin surface

- Low and medium viscosity vinyl polysiloxane material
Technique:
1. Wash hands and wear sterile gloves
2. Shave the injury site, wash with plain water and dry the surface
3. Prepare the tray
4. Place the VPS to the involved skin surface and around 3-4 cm beyond the edges of bitemark
5. Place VPS on the tray and place it over the site
6. Let it set and make sure anatomical reference markers are well placed
7. Pour the impression with dental stone

AA. Tissue Removal

- Why? For preservation for further investigation
And Maintain the skin in its original shape
- Bite marks of deceased individuals are cut out, preserved in formalin and
silicone casts are made out of these
- This requires the approval of the controlling coroner or medical examiner prior
to initiation
- Should be performed after all other steps have been completed.
- The value of keeping the tissue is dependent on the dissection technique and
proper stabilization of the tissue before removal.
- Tissue preservation in a 10% formalin solution is necessary immediately after
tissue removal.