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Wang, David and Groat, Linda. (2013) Architectural Research Methods.

New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Emmitt, Stephen (2013). Architectural Technology Research & Practice.

England: Wiley Blackwell.

RESEARCH METHODS C.R. Kothari. (2004). Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques.

FOR ARCHITECTURE New Age International Publisher, 2nd edition.

Fink, Arlene (1995). The Survey HandBook. USA: SAGE Publications,

Inc.

Lois Johnson Reid, Bedford. (1993) Introduction to Technical Writing:

Process & Practice: St.Martin's.

Presented by: Calderon, Jose F. and Gonzales, Expectacion C. (1993) Methods of

Research and Thesis Writings. Manila: National Book Store, Inc.
Arch. Juanito Y. Sy, uap, aacep, earoph, same
MA Architecture Good, Carter V. And Scates, Douglas E. (1954) Methods of Research.
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.

Wire Research:

http://wire.rutgers.edu/research_assignments_empirical_link.html

http://www.chssc.salford.ac.uk/healthSci/rem99/resmeth/planning.htm

http://www.io.com/~hcexres/tcm1603/acchtml/otherep.html#primresch

http://www.slideshare.net

Module 2: Introduction to Research

References

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WHAT IS SCIENCE?
 a body of established knowledge
 the observation, identification, investigation,
theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon
WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Any honest attempt to study a problem systematically or to
add to man’s knowledge of a problem may be regarded as
research. (Theodorson and Theodorson 1969 cited in
Reber 1995, p.663)
and
The aim, as far as I can see, is the same in all sciences.
Put simply and cursorily, the aim is to make known
something previously unknown to human beings. It is to
advance human knowledge, to make it more certain or
better fitting
. . . the aim is, as I have said, discovery. (Elias 1986, p.20)

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
WHAT IS THEORY?

 a set of inter-related constructs and propositions that • The systematic investigation into and study of materials,
specify relations among variables to explain and predict sources, etc, in order to establish facts and reach new
phenomena conclusions.

• An endeavour to discover new or collate old facts etc by

 should be simple, consistent with observed
the scientific study of a subject or by a course of critical
relationships, tentative and verifiable
investigation.

[Oxford Concise Dictionary]

WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC METHOD? WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN?

 involves the principles and processes regarded as Research…

characteristic of or necessary for scientific investigation  the application of the scientific method
 a systematic process of collecting and logically
 process or approach to generating valid and analyzing information (data)
trustworthy knowledge
Research Methods (Methodology)…
 the ways one collects and analyzes data
 methods developed for acquiring trustworthy
knowledge via reliable and valid procedures

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WHY UNDERTAKE RESEARCH? KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

• To investigate some existing situation or problem • time in research

• To provide solutions to a problem
• To explore and analyse more general issues
• To construct or create a new procedure or system
• To explain a new phenomenon
cross‐sectional vs. longitudinal
• To generate new knowledge
• A combination of two or more of any of the above
repeated measures time series
(Hussey and Hussey 1997)

KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
• variables
• objective
variable…
• precise
any entity or observation that can take on different
• verifiable
values
• empirical
• logical
attribute…
a specific value on a variable

EXAMPLES
KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

• time in research
• variables Variable Attribute
• types of relationships
• hypotheses
age
• types of data
• fallacies
• structure or research
• deduction and induction
• ethics
• validity

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Variable Attribute Variable Attribute

age 18, 19, 20, etc... satisfaction

Variable Attribute Variable Attribute

satisfaction 1 = very satisfied

Gender or sex
2 = satisfied

3= somewhat satisfied

4 = not satisfied

5 = not satisfied at all

Types of variables

independent variable (IV)…

Variable Attribute what you (or nature) manipulates in some way

dependent variable (DV)…

Gender or sex Male, female what you presume to be influenced by the IV

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EXAMPLES

 patterns of relationships…
IV DV •no relationship
•positive relationship
health status •negative relationship
•curvilinear relationship +
attitude
exercise

fitness
participation
social support

-
intervention
- resting HR +

KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

• types of relationships  patterns of relationships…

 correlational vs. causal relationships •no relationship

•positive relationship
•negative relationship
•curvilinear relationship +
one variable causes the

exercise intensity
variables perform in a other variable
synchronized manner

correlation does not imply causation!
(it’s necessary but not sufficient) -
- HR +

 patterns of relationships…  patterns of relationships…

•no relationship •no relationship

•positive relationship •positive relationship
•negative relationship •negative relationship
•curvilinear relationship
+ •curvilinear relationship +
performance
fitness

- -
- vocabulary
+ - arousal +

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KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

• hypotheses • types of data

…a specific statement of prediction of the expected Quantitative research…

outcome in a given situation and is tested in an
experiment
 types of hypotheses
• alternative vs. null
alternative hypothesis (HA)…an effect (that you
predict or trying to demonstrate)
null hypothesis (HO)…null effect (any observed
changes in behaviour are due to chance)
systematically observe changes in the phenomena of
interest while manipulating what are believed to be
causal influences
Qualitative research…
may be more concerned with the individual’s personal
experiences of the problem under study

• one-tailed vs. two-tailed

EXAMPLES
KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
hypothesis there is a relationship between age and
exercise participation • fallacies

an error in reasoning (logic or premise)

HA there is a relationship

HO there is not a relationship

this is a two‐tailed hypothesis as no 
direction is predicted

show that the different results

are statistically significant

KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

hypothesis an incentive program will increase
exercise participation
• structure or research
The "hourglass" notion of research
HA participation will increase
begin with broad questions

HO participation will not increase or will narrow down, focus in

decrease operationalize

this is a one‐tailed hypothesis as a  OBSERVE
specific direction is predicted analyze data
reach conclusions
statistical significance means generalize back to questions
expected result was found

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KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

• deduction and induction • validity

the best available approximation to the truth of a given

proposition, inference, or conclusion
Deduction
 types of validity…
• conclusion
• internal
• construct
• external

Induction
types of validity are cumulative

THE VALIDITY QUESTIONS ARE CUMULATIVE...

THE VALIDITY QUESTIONS ARE CUMULATIVE...

KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

• ethics

balance between protecting participants vs. quest for

knowledge (confidentiality and anonymity)

Is there a relationship between

In this study the cause and effect?

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THE VALIDITY QUESTIONS ARE CUMULATIVE... THE VALIDITY QUESTIONS ARE CUMULATIVE...

Validity

Can we generalize
External to other persons,
places, times?
Can we generalize to
Construct the constructs?
In this study Is the relationship causal? Internal Is the relationship causal?

Is there a relationship between Is there a relationship between

Conclusion the cause and effect? Conclusion the cause and effect?

THE VALIDITY QUESTIONS ARE CUMULATIVE... TYPES OF RESEARCH

Exploratory research

Takes place where there is little or no prior knowledge of a

phenomenon.

This type of research attempts to gain some familiarity with

the appropriate concepts and looks for patterns or ideas
without any preconceived ideas or explanation.
Can we generalize to
In theory the constructs? Descriptive research

Internal Is the relationship causal? Describes a particular phenomenon, focusing upon the
issue of what is happening, or how much of it has
Is there a relationship between happened, rather than why it is happening.
Conclusion the cause and effect?

THE VALIDITY QUESTIONS ARE CUMULATIVE... Explanatory research

This type of research is involved in explaining why

something happens, and assessing causal relationships
between variables.

Predictive research
Can we generalize
In theory to other persons, Forecasts future phenomena, based on the interpretations
places, times? suggested by explanatory research.
Construc Can we generalize to
the constructs?
t
Internal Is the relationship causal?
Is there a relationship between
Conclusion the cause and effect?

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RESEARCH CLASSIFICATION
Pure research takes place to explore a particular concept,
or issue, without regard for a specific problem, and may be
carried out to simply gain a better understanding of the
overall concepts.
Applied research is undertaken to solve a specific
problem or provide a solution to a practical question.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY RESEARCH
Primary research
Refers to research that has involved the collection of
original data specific to that particular research project, for
example through using research methods such as
questionnaires or interviews.
Secondary research
Refers to research where no such original data is collected,
but the research project uses existing (or secondary)
sources of data, for example census or archive data.
THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
Theoretical research generally uses the findings from
existing works to develop new ideas through analysing
existing theory and explanations. These new ideas are not
tested through collecting evidence in the form of primary
data.
Empirical research supports the development of new
ideas through the collection of data (empirical =
observation or measurement rather than theoretical
reasoning).
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WHAT IS AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH REPORT?
1. An empirical research report is structured to answer
specific questions posed by readers in scientific and
technical fields:
–What is the problem?
–What was done to study the
problem?
–What was found?
–What do the findings mean?
(Introduction to Technical Writing: Process & Practice, by
Lois Johnson Reid)
2. An empirical research report is a report in which you
gather your most important information from primary
sources, such as the field or laboratory, rather than
published documents. The research focuses on why certain
things happen.
(Power Tools for Technical Communication, McMurray,
Harcourt College Publications 2002)
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH REPORT COMPONENT
1. Title
2. Authors: Affiliations
3. Abstract: Synopsis of study
4. Introduction: Literature review, statement of goals,
research questions, and hypotheses
5. Methods and Materials: Participants, measures,
equipment, statistical techniques, etc.
6. Results: Summaries and analyses of the measures
obtained
7. Discussion & Recommendations : Interpretations and
implications of the study
8. References
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TITLE
The title is a concise summary of the empirical research
report. The title should convey appropriate information
about the study or studies presented in the report.
AUTHORS
People who make a major contribution to the study are
listed as authors. You might want to do a background
search on the authors in order to determine the expertise
the researchers have.
Questions that have to be answered here:
Who did the research?
Is there an established protocol for the order of the
authors’ names?
ABSTRACT
A report of an empirical study also includes an abstract.
The abstract is a brief but comprehensive summary of the
empirical research report. It includes a concise statement
of the goal of the research, outlines the methods, and
presents the essential results and conclusions.
Questions to be answered here:
Why did you do the study?
How was the study done?
What did you find?
Why are these findings important?
INTRODUCTION
The introduction sets the research in a context (it provides
the "big picture"), provides a review of related research,
and develops the hypotheses for the research.
The purpose of the introduction is to describe the problem,
develop the theoretical and empirical background for the
research questions, and elaborate a rationale for all parts
of the study.
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In order to understand why the research was conducted,
you need to ask yourself the following questions:
 What are the research questions?
 Where did these research questions come from?
 Is the research important? Why or why not?
These questions set up the context and rationale for the
study.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Analyze published studies relevant to the
issue under study.
Synthesize to avoid simply listing studies and findings.
Cite studies with author(s) and date.
Avoid plagiarism by constructing a comprehensive outline.
State Your Objective: Purpose of the Study
State Your Research Questions
State Your Hypothesis: What you thought you'd find?
METHODS & MATERIALS
The methods section is a description of how the research
was conducted, including who the participants were, the
design of the study, what the participants did, and what
measures were used.
The questions that will help you evaluate the method are:
Have you explained the samples used in the study?
Are the samples appropriate for the study?
What is the research design?
Is the design appropriate for the research question(s)?
What are the measures?
Are the measures appropriate for addressing the research
question(s)?
What ethical considerations are important to address?
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RESULTS
REFERENCES

The results section contains the summaries and analyses

The references section cites all the literature reported in the
of the measures obtained in the study. This is where the
article. The reference citations are used to support
"answers" to the research questions are found.
statements made in the article.

The following questions will help you evaluate the results:

 What are the main results of the study?
 Can the results be used to answer the research
question(s)?
 Can the results be generalized beyond the context
of the study?

You need to understand what the results are before you

can think critically about them. A good way to start to
understand the results is to study the figures and tables.
Then read the text for the researchers' interpretations.

DISCUSSION
When preparing the report remember to:
The discussion section contains the interpretations and
implications of the study. There may be more than one 1. Determine that the objective is a project involving
study in the report; in this case, there are usually separate discussion of causes, effects, or both.
Method and Results sections for each study followed by a
2. Define the audience and purpose (&/or describe problem
general discussion that ties all the research together.
and background).
3. Perform the research.
The discussion section should start with a summary of the
most important results and then follow with a discussion of 4. Plan and develop graphics and tables.
how the results address the research questions. 5. Identify causes.
6. Identify effects.
Consider these questions as you write the discussion 7. Identify the relationships between causes and effects.
section:
8. Discuss causes and effects.
 What conclusions do the researchers draw from their
results?
 Are the conclusions important?
 Why or why not?

Explain your results: TIPS ON RESEARCH

 Did your results support your hypothesis?
 Did your results relate to your objective?
 Did your results interpret in light of other published
results on the subject?
 Did your results suggest directions for further
research?
 Did your results discuss the limitations of your study?
This section, or area of the report, is also the place
to make recommendations or state ideas for further
research.
1. Locate and read a few articles from within a field you are
comfortable with.
2. Read studies that are of interest to you.
3. Read the abstract first.
4. Identify the research question and objectives.
5. Why did the researcher(s) choose a particular setting or
sample?
6. What were the methods chosen to collect data?
7. What were the most important findings?
8. Do not be over-concerned with statistical analysis.
9. Be critical but objective.

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WHAT IS RESEARCH - SUMMARY

1. There are a number of definitions of research. Defining

research is less important than understanding its nature.

2. Research is important for the advancement of any

academic field or discipline.

3. Research can be classified as exploratory, descriptive,

explanatory or predictive depending upon its purpose. It can
also be classified as either theoretical or applied depending
upon the level of application of the findings to ‘real life’ Questions or Comments?
situations.

4. Research may involve the collection of new data (primary

research) or the use of existing data (secondary research).

5. The best way to begin to develop your understanding of

research, its role, and the types of research is to undertake
some reading. Choose some appropriate articles, and begin
to read!

Quality research is the lifeblood of any scientific

discipline. Without it, disciplines would stagnate,
failing to advance past their current limits and
understanding.
(Wann 1997 p.17)

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