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MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY
CASTING
Casting Processes:
The casting process involves pouring of liquid metal in to a mold cavity and allowing it
to solidify to obtain the final casting.
The flow of molten metal into the mold cavity depends on several factors like minimum
section thickness of the part, presence of corners, non-uniform cross-section of the cast,
and so on.
The casting processes can be broadly classified into expendable mold casting and
permanent mold casting processes
Expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic, shell,
plaster, and investment (lost-wax technique) molds.
All these methods use temporary, non-reusable molds.
After the molten metal in the mold cavity solidifies, the mold is broken to take out the
solidified cast.
Expendable mold casting processes are suitable for very complex shaped parts and
materials with high melting point temperature.
However, the rate of production is often limited by the time to make mold rather than the
casting itself.
Following are a few examples of expendable mold casting processes.
Sand Casting:
Sand casting is widely used for centuries because of the simplicity of the process.
The sand casting process involves the following basic steps: (a) place a wooden or
metallic pattern in sand to create a mold, (b) fit in the pattern and sand in a gating system,
Shell molding
Shell molding:
It is similar to sand casting.
Normally a machined pattern of grey iron or aluminum is used in this process.
The pattern is heated to 2500 C to 2600 C and the sand resin mixture is poured over its
surface.
The heated pattern melts the resin creating bonds between the sand grains.
After a dwell period the pattern and sand inverted and extra sand is cleaned off.
The mold cavity is now formed by a hardened shell of sand.
The mold is then heated in an oven for further curing.
The shell thus formed constitutes one half of the mold.
Two such halves are placed over one another to make the complete mold.
Investment casting:
Investment casting is also referred to as lost-wax casting since the pattern is made
of wax.
The wax patterns are first dipped into a slurry of refractory material and
subsequently, heated so that the wax melts away keeping a refractory mold.
The mold is then further cured to achieve proper strength. Very high melting
temperature material can be cast in investment casting process because of the
refractory mold.
The molten metal is poured into the mold and is taken out after solidification by
breaking the mold.
Very high dimensional accuracy and surface finish can be achieved in investment
casting process. However, the tooling cast is usually high and hence, investment
casting process is primarily used for large size batch production or for specific
requirements of complex shape or casting of very high melting temperature
material.
Vacuum Casting:
Permanent mold casting processes involve the use of metallic dies that are permanent in
nature and can be used repeatedly.
Squeeze casting:
Molten metal is poured into a metallic mold or die cavity with one-half of the die
squeezing the molten metal to fill in the intended cavity under pressure .
Fiber reinforced casting with SiC or Al2O3 fibers mixed in metal matrix have been
successfully squeeze cast and commercially used to produce automobile pistons.
However, squeeze casting is limited only to shallow part or part with smaller dimensions.
There are various defects that are experienced during casting, in particular, sand casting
processes. A brief explanation of some of the significant defects and their possible remedial
measures are indicated in the text to follow.
Shrinkage
Shrinkage of molten metal as it solidifies is an important issue in casting. It can reduce the 5-
10% volume of the cast. Gray cast iron expands upon solidification due to phase changes.
Need to design part and mold to take this amount into consideration. The thickness of the
boss or pad should be less than the thickness of the section of the boss adjoins and the
transition should be gradual. The radius for good shrinkage control should be from one half
to one third of the section thickness. Shrinkage defect can be reduced by decreasing the
number of walls and increasing the draft angle.
Hot tear
Hot tears are internal or external ragged discontinuities or crack on the casting surface,
caused by rapid contraction occurring immediately after the metal solidified. They may be
produced when the casting is poorly designed and abrupt sectional changes take place; no
proper fillets and corner radii are provided, and chills are inappropriately placed. Hot tear
may be caused when the mold and core have poor collapsibility or when the mold is too hard
causing the casting to undergo severe strain during cooling. Incorrect pouring temperature
and improper placement of gates and risers can also create hot tears. Method to prevent hot
tears may entail improving the casting design, achieving directional solidification and even
rate of cooling all over, selecting proper mold and poured materials to suit the cast metal, and
controlling the mold hardness in relation to other ingredients of sand.
Blowhole:
Blowholes are smooth round holes that are clearly perceptible on the surface of the casting.
To prevent blowholes, moisture content in sand must be well adjusted, sand of proper grain
size should be used, ramming should not be too hard and venting should be adequate.
Blister:
This is a scar covered by the thin layers of the metal.
Dross:
The lighter impurities are appearing on the top of the cast surface is called the dross. It can be
taken care of at the pouring stage by using items such as a strainer and a skim bob.
Dirt
Sometimes sand particles dropping out of the cope get embedded on the top surface of a
casting. When removed, these leave small angular holes is known as dirts.
Wash
It is a low projection on the drag surface of a casting commencing near the gate. It is caused
by the erosion of sand due to high velocity liquid metal.
Buckle
It refers to a long fairly shallow broad depression at the surface of a casting of a high
temperature metal. Due to very high temperature of the molten metal, expansion of the thin
layered of the sand at the mold face takes place. As this expansion is obstructed by the flux,
the mold tends to bulge out forming a V shape.
Rat tail
It is a long shallow angular depression found in a thin casting. The cause is similar to buckle.
Shift
A shift results in a mismatch of the sections of a casting usually as a parting line.
Misalignment is common cause of shift. This defect can be prevented by ensuring proper
alignment of the pattern for die parts, molding boxes, and checking of pattern flux locating
pins before use.
Warped casting
Warping is an undesirable deformation in a casting which occurs during or after
solidification. Large and flat sections are particularly prone to wrap edge. Wrap edge may
also be due to insufficient gating system that may not allow rapid pouring of metal or due to
Fin
A thin projection of metal, not intended as a part of casting, is called a fin. Fins occur at the
parting of the mold or core sections. Molds and cores in correctly assembled will cause the
fin.
High metal pressures due to too large downsprue, insufficient weighing of the molds or
improper clamping of flasks may again produce the fin defect.
Inspections of Casting:
Visual inspection
Visible defects that can be detected provide a means for discovering errors in the pattern
equipment or in the molding and casting process. Visual inspection may prove inadequate
only in the detection of sub surface or internal defects.
Dimensional inspection
Dimensional inspection is one of the important inspections for casting. When precision
casting is required, we make some samples for inspection the tolerance, shape size and also
measure the profile of the cast. This dimensional inspection of casting may be conducted by
various methods:
• Standard measuring instruments to check the size of the cast.
• Contour gauges for the checking of profile, curves and shapes
• Coordinate measuring and Marking Machine
• Special fixtures
In all the foundries the flaw detection test are performed in the casting where the defects are
not visible. This flaw detection test is usually performed for internal defects, surface defects
etc. These tests are valuable not only in detecting but even in locating the casting defects
present in the interior of the casting. Radiography is one of the important flaw detection test
for casting. The radiation used in radiography testing is a higher energy (shorter wavelength)
version of the electromagnetic waves that we see as visible light. The radiation can come
from an X-ray generator or a radioactive source.
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic testing used for detecting internal voids in casting is based on the principle of
reflection of high frequency sound waves. If the surface under test contains some defect, the
high frequency sound waves when emitted through the section of the casting, will be
reflected from the surface of defect and return in a shorter period of time. The advantage this
method of testing over other methods is that the defect, even if in the interior, is not only
detected and located accurately, but its dimension can also be quickly measured without in
any damaging or destroying the casting.
Fracture test
Fracture test is done by examining a fracture surface of the casting. it is possible to observe
coarse graphite or chilled portion and also shrinkage cavity, pin hole etc. The apparent
soundness of the casting can thus be judged by seeing the fracture.
Microscopic Examination
Microscopic examination can enable the study of the microstructure of the metal alloy,
elucidating its composition, the type and nature of any treatment given to it, and its
mechanical properties. In the case of cast metals, particularly steels, cast iron, malleable iron,
and SG iron, microstructure examination is essential for assessing metallurgical structure and
composition. Composition analysis can also be done using microscopic inspection.
Distribution of phase can be observed by metallographic sample preparation of cast product.
Grain size and distribution, grain boundary area can be observed by this procedure.
Distribution of nonmetallic inclusion can also be found from this process of inspection.
Chill Test
Chill test offers a convenient means for an approximate evaluation of the graphitizing
tendency of the iron produced and forms an important and quick shop floor test for
ascertaining whether this iron will be of the class desired. In chill test, accelerated cooling
rate is introduced to induce the formation of a chilled specimen of appropriate dimension. It
is then broken by striking with a hammer in such a manner that the fracture is straight and
midway of its length. The depth of chill obtained on the test piece is affected by the carbon
and silicon present and it can therefore be related to the carbon equivalent, whose value in
turn determines the grade of iron.
WELDING
• Carbon arc
• Metal arc
• Metal inert gas
• Tungsten inert gas
• Plasma arc
• Submerged arc
• Electro-slag
(ii) Gas Welding
• Oxy-acetylene
• Air-acetylene
• Oxy-hydrogen
iii) Resistance Welding
Butt
Spot
Seam
Projection
Percussion
STEPS:
• Prepare the edges to be joined and maintain the proper position
• Open the acetylene valve and ignite the gas at tip of the torch
• Inner flame near the work piece and filler rod at about 30 – 40 deg
• Touch filler rod at the joint and control the movement according to the flow of the material
Consumable Electrodes
Forms of consumable electrodes
• Welding rods (a.k.a. sticks) are 9 to 18 inches and 3/8 inch or less in diameter and must be changed
frequently
No consumable Electrodes
Made of tungsten which resists melting
Gradually depleted during welding (vaporization is principal mechanism)
Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides and other contaminants in welding, or dissolves them and
facilitates removal
Provides protective atmosphere for welding
Stabilizes arc
Reduces spattering
Arc welding
Uses an electric arc to coalesce metals
Arc welding is the most common method of welding metals
Electricity travels from electrode to base metal to ground
Advantages
Most efficient way to join metals
Lowest-cost joining method
Affords lighter weight through better utilization of materials
Joins all commercial metals
Disadvantages
• Manually applied, therefore high labor cost.
• Need high energy causing danger
• Not convenient for disassembly.
• Defects are hard to detect at joints.
GAS WELDING
Sound weld is obtained by selecting proper size of flame, filler material and method of moving torch
The temperature generated during the process is 33000c.
When the metal is fused, oxygen from the atmosphere and the torch combines with molten metal and
forms oxides, results defective weld
Fluxes are added to the welded metal to remove oxides
Common fluxes used are made of sodium, potassium. Lithium and borax.
Flux can be applied as paste, powder, liquid. solid coating or gas.
• Oxygen is turned on, flame immediately changes into a long white inner area (Feather) surrounded
by a transparent blue envelope is called Carburizing flame (30000c)
• Addition of little more oxygen give a bright whitish cone surrounded by the transparent blue
envelope is called Neutral flame (It has a balance of fuel gas and oxygen) (32000c)
• Used for welding steels, aluminium, copper and cast iron.
• If more oxygen is added, the cone becomes darker and more pointed, while the envelope becomes
shorter and more fierce is called Oxidizing flame
• Has the highest temperature about 34000c
• Used for welding brass and brazing operation
Three basic types of oxyacetylene flames used in oxyfuel-gas welding and cutting operations:
(a) neutral flame; (b) oxidizing flame; (c) carburizing, or reducing flame
Filler Metals:
• Additional material to weld the weld zone
• Available as rod or wire
• They can be used bare or coated with flux
• The purpose of the flux is to retard the
Process
• Intense heat at the arc melts the tip of the electrode
• Tiny drops of metal enter the arc stream and are deposited on the parent metal
• As molten metal is deposited, a slag forms over the bead which serves as an insulation against air
contaminants during cooling
• After a weld „pass‟ is allowed the cool, the oxide layer is removed by a chipping hammer and then
cleaned with a wirebrush before the next pass.
Fig: Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc welding process. About 50% of all large-scale
industrial welding operations use this process.
• Weld arc is shielded by a granular flux, consisting of silica, lime, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride
and other compounds.
• Flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow through nozzle.
• Thick layer of flux covers molten metal
• Flux acts as a thermal insulator, promoting deep penetration of heat into the work piece
• Consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire fed automatically through a tube
• Power is supplied by 3-phase or 2-phase power lines
Process capabilities
• GMAV process is suitable for welding a variety of ferrous and non-ferrous metals
• Process is versatile, rapid, economical, welding productivity is double that of SMAW
Fig: Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc-welding process. This operation is similar to gas
metal-arc welding.
Process capabilities
• Weld thickness ranges from 12mm to 75mm
• Metals welded are steels, titanium, aluminum alloys
• Applications are construction of bridges, pressure vessels, thick walled and large diameter pipes,
storage tanks and ships.
It is a low temperature joining process. It is performed at temperatures above 840º F and it generally
affords strengths comparable to those of the metal which it joins. It is low temperature in that it is done
below the melting point of the base metal. It is achieved by diffusion without fusion (melting) of the
base
Brazing can be classified as
Torch brazing
Dip brazing
Furnace brazing
Induction brazing
Disadvantages
• Brazed joints have lesser strength compared to welding
• Joint preparation cost is more
• Can be used for thin sheet metal sections
Soldering
• It is a low temperature joining process. It is performed at temperatures below 840ºF for joining.
• Soldering is used for,
• Sealing, as in automotive radiators or tin cans
• Electrical Connections
• Joining thermally sensitive components
• Joining dissimilar metals
Advantages
High quality welds for suitable applications
No spatter because no filler metal through arc
Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
Disadvantages
Generally slower and more costly than consumable electrode AW processes
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma arc is directed at weld area
Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that focuses a high velocity stream of inert gas (argon)
into arc region to form a high velocity, intensely hot plasma arc stream
Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C (50,000F), due to constriction of arc, producing a plasma jet
of small diameter and very high energy density
Fig: Resistance welding, showing the components in spot welding, the main process in the RW
group.
Components in Resistance Spot Welding
Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)
Two opposing electrodes
Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts between electrodes
Power supply from which a controlled current can be applied for a specified time duration
Advantages
No filler metal required
High production rates possible
Lends itself to mechanization and automation
Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages
Advantages
High-quality welds, deep and narrow profiles
Limited heat affected zone, low thermal distortion
High welding speeds
No flux or shielding gases needed
Disadvantages
High equipment cost
Precise joint preparation & alignment required
Vacuum chamber required
Safety concern: EBW generates x-rays
Fig: Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped, superheated metal flows into mold;
(3) metal solidifies to produce weld joint.
Applications
Joining of railroad rails
Repair of cracks in large steel castings and forgings
Weld surface is often smooth enough that no finishing is required
Applications
Shafts and tubular parts
Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm equipment, petroleum and natural gas
Limitations
At least one of the parts must be rotational
Flash must usually be removed
Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must be taken into consideration in product design)
Weld Defects
• Undercuts/Overlaps
• Grain Growth
A wide T will exist between base metal and HAZ. Preheating and cooling
methods will affect the brittleness of the metal in this region
• Blowholes
Are cavities caused by gas entrapment during the solidification of the weld
puddle. Prevented by proper weld technique (even temperature and speed)
• Inclusions
Impurities or foreign substances which are forced into the weld puddle during the welding process. Has
the same effect as a crack. Prevented by proper technique/cleanliness.
• Segregation
Condition where some regions of the metal are enriched with an alloy ingredient and
others aren‟t. Can be prevented by proper heat treatment and cooling.
• Porosity
The formation of tiny pinholes generated by atmospheric contamination.
Prevented by keeping a protective shield over the molten weld puddle.
MACHINING
This is a small lathe usually mounted on a bench. It has practically all the parts of an engine lathe
or speed lathe and it performs almost all the operations, its only difference being in the size.
This is used fur small and precision work.
The tool room lathe:
A tool room lathe having features similar to an. engine lathe is much more accurately built and
has a wide range of spindle speeds ranging from a very low to a quite high speed up to 2500 r.p.m.
This is equipped, besides other things, with a chuck, taper turning attachment, draw in collet
attachment, thread chasing dial, relieving attachment, steady and follower rest, pump for coolant,
etc.
This lathe is mainly used for precision work on tools, dies, gauges and in machining work where
accuracy is needed. The machine is costlier than an engine lathe of the same size.
Automatic lathe :
These are high speed, heavy duty, mass production lathes with complete automatic control. Once
the tools are set and the machine is started it performs automatically all the operations to finish the
job
The feed mechanism has different units through which motion is transmitted from the headstock spindle
to the carriage. Following are the units:
1. End of bed gearing.
2. Feed gearbox.
3. Feed rod and lead screw
4. Apron mechanism.
End of bed gearing: This gearing serves the purpose of transmitting the drive to the lead screw and
feed shaft, either direct or through a gear box. In modern lathes, tumbler gear mechanism or bevel gear
feed reversing mechanism is incorporated to reverse the direction of feed.
Tumbler gear mechanism:.
Tumbler gears are used to give the desired direction of movement to the lathe carriage, via lead
screw or the feed shaft.
Apron mechanism Different designs of apron mechanism for transforming rotary motion of the
feed rod and the lead screw into feed motion of the carriage are constructed by different makers
of the lathe
LATHE OPERATIONS
Operations which are performed in a lathe either by holding the workpiece between centres or
by a chuck are:
Straight turning.
Shoulder turning.
Chamfering.
Thread cutting.
Facing.
Knurling.
Filing.
Taper turning.
Eccentric turning.
Polishing.
Grooving.
Spinning.
Spring winding.
Forming.
Fig : (a) and (b) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in-type collets. The workpiece is placed
in the collet hole, and the conical surfaces of the collet are forced inward by pulling it with
a draw bar into the sleeve. (c) A push-out type collet. (d) Workholding of a part on a face
plate.
Collet Chuck:
Collet chuck is used to hold small workpieces
Magnetic Chuck
Thin jobs can be held by means of magnetic chucks
TURNING:
Turning in a lathe is to remove excess material from the workpiece to produce a cone-shaped or
a cylindrical surface. The various types of turning made in lathe work for various purposes are
described below.
STRAIGHT TURNING:
The work is turned straight when it is made to rotate about the lathe axis, and the tool is fed
parallel to the lathe axis The straight turning produces a cylindrical surface by removing excess
metal from the workpiece.
A taper may be turned by any one of the following methods: 1. By a broad nose form tool. 2. By
setting over the tailstock centre. 3. By swivelling the compound rest. 4. By a taper turning
attachment. 5. by combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special lathe. Taper Turning by a
form tool-
A broad nose tool having straight cutting edge is set on to the work at half taper angle,
and is fed straight into the work to generate a tapered surface
The half angle of taper will correspond to 90 minus side cutting edge angle of the tool. In
this method the tool angle should be properly checked before use.
This method is limited to turn short length of taper only. This is due to the reason that the
metal is removed by the entire cutting edge, and any increase in the length of the taper will
necessitate the use of a wider cutting edge.
This will require excessive cutting pressure, which may distort the work due to vibration
and spoil the work surface.
SHAPER
Shaper is a reciprocating type of machine tool in which the ram moves the cutting tool backwards
and forwards in a straight line. The basic components of shaper are shown in Fig. It is intended
primarily to produce flat surfaces. These surfaces may be horizontal, vertical, or inclined. In
general, the shaper can produce any surface composed of straight-line elements. The principal of
shaping operation is shown in Fig. Modern shapers can also generate contoured surface as shown in
Fig. A shaper is used to generate flat (plane) surfaces by means of a single point cutting tool similar
to a lathe tool.
TYPES OF SHAPERS
Shapers are classified under the following headings:
(1) According to the type of mechanism used for giving reciprocating motion to the ram
(a) Crank type
(b) Geared type
(c) Hydraulic type
(2) According to the type of design of the table:
(a) Standard shaper
(b) Universal shaper
(3) According to the position and travel of ram:
(a) Horizontal type
(b) Vertical type
(c) Traveling head type
(4) According to the type of cutting stroke:
(a) Push type
(b) Draw type.
A brief description these shapers is given below-
Crank Shaper
This is the most common type of shaper. It employs a crank mechanism to change circular motion
of a large gear called “bull gear” incorporated in the machine to reciprocating motion of the ram.
The bull gear receives power either from an individual motor or from an overhead line shaft if it is a
belt-driven shaper.
Geared Shaper
Geared shaper uses rack and pinion arrangement to obtain reciprocating motion of the ram.
Presently this type of shaper is not very widely used.
Hydraulic Shaper
In hydraulic shaper, reciprocating motion of the ram is obtained by hydraulic power. For generation
of hydraulic power, oil under high pressure is pumped into the operating cylinder fitted with piston.
The piston end is connected to the ram through piston rod. The high pressure oil causes the piston
to reciprocate and this reciprocating motion is transferred to the ram of shaper. The important
Base
It is rigid and heavy cast iron body to resist vibration and takes up high compressive load. It
supports all other parts of the machine, which are mounted over it. The base may be rigidly bolted
to the floor of the shop or on the bench according to the size of the machine.
Column
The column is a box shaped casting mounted upon the base. It houses the ram-driving mechanism.
Two accurately machined guide ways are provided on the top of the column on which the ram
reciprocates.
Cross rail
Cross rail of shaper has two parallel guide ways on its top in the vertical plane that is perpendicular
to the rai1 axis. It is mounted on the front vertical guide ways of the column. It consists mechanism
for raising and lowering the table to accommodate different sizes of jobs by rotating an elevating
screw which causes the cross rail to slide up and down on the vertical face of the column. A
horizontal cross feed screw is fitted within the cross rail and parallel to the top guide ways of the
cross rail. This screw actuates the table to move in a crosswise direction.
Saddle
The saddle is located on the cross rail and holds the table on its top. Crosswise movement of the
saddle by rotation the cross feed screw by hand or power causes the table to move sideways.
Table
The table is a box like casting having T -slots both on the top and sides for clamping the work. It is
bolted to the saddle and receives crosswise and vertical movements from the saddle and cross rail.
Ram
It is the reciprocating part of the shaper, which reciprocates on the guide ways provided above the
column. Ram is connected to the reciprocating mechanism contained within the column.
Tool head
The tool head of a shaper performs the following functions-
(1) It holds the tool rigidly,
The various parts of tool head of shaper are apron clamping bolt, clapper box, tool post, down feed,
screw micrometer dial, down feed screw, vertical slide, apron washer, apron swivel pin, and swivel
base. By rotating the down feed screw handle, the vertical slide carrying the tool gives down feed or
angular feed movement while machining vertical or angular surface. The amount of feed or depth of
cut may be adjusted by a micrometer dial on the top of the down feed screw. Apron consisting of
clapper box, clapper block and tool post is clamped upon the vertical slide by a screw. The two
vertical walls on the apron called clapper box houses the clapper block, which is connected to it by
means of a hinge pin. The tool post is mounted upon the clapper block. On the forward cutting
stroke the clapper block fits securely to the clapper box to make a rigid tool support. On the return
stroke a slight frictional drag of the tool on the work lifts the block out of the clapper box a
sufficient amount preventing the tool cutting edge from dragging and consequent wear. The work
surface is also prevented from any damage due to dragging
SHAPER OPERATIONS
A shaper is a machine tool primarily designed to generate a flat surface by a single point cutting
tool. Besides this, it may also be used to perform many other operations. The different operations,
which a shaper can perform, are as follows:
1. Machining horizontal surface
2. Machining vertical surface
3. Machining angular surface
4. Slot cutting
5. Key ways cutting
6. Machining irregular surface
7. Machining splines and cutting gears
A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work is fed against a rotating
multipoint cutter. The milling cutter rotates at high speed and it removes metal at a very fast rate
with the help of multiple cutting edges. One or more number of cutters can be mounted
simultaneously on the arbor of milling machine. This is the reason that a milling machine finds
wide application in production work. Milling machine is used for machining flat surfaces,
contoured surfaces, surfaces of revolution, external and internal threads, and helical surfaces of
various cross-sections. Typical components produced by a milling are given in Fig. In many
applications, due to its higher production rate and accuracy, milling machine has even replaced
shapers and slotters.
PRINCIPLE OF MILLING
In milling machine, the metal is cut by means of a rotating cutter having multiple cutting edges. For
cutting operation, the workpiece is fed against the rotary cutter. As the workpiece moves against the
MILLING METHODS
There are two distinct methods of milling classified as follows:
1. Up-milling or conventional milling, and
2. Down milling or climb milling.
UP-Milling or Conventional Milling Procedure
In the up-milling or conventional milling, as shown in Fig.the metal is removed in form of small
chips by a cutter rotating against the direction of travel of the workpiece. In this type of milling, the
chip thickness is minimum at the start of the cut and maximum at the end of cut. As a result the
cutting force also varies from zero to the maximum value per tooth movement of the milling cutter.
The major disadvantages of up-milling process are the tendency of cutting force to lift the work
from the fixtures and poor surface finish obtained. But being a safer process, it is commonly used
method of milling.
is mounted on the knee casting which in turn is mounted on the vertical slides of the main column.
The knee is vertically adjustable on the column so that the table can be moved up and down to
accommodate work of various heights. The column and knee type milling machines are classified
on the basis of various methods of supplying power to the table, different movements of the table
and different axis of rotation of the main spindle. Column and knee type milling machine comprises
of the following important parts-
1. Base
2. Column
3. Saddle
4. Table
5. Elevating screw
6. Knee
7. Knee elevating handle
8. Cross feed handle
9. Front brace
10. Arbor support
11. Arbor
12. Overhanging arm
13. Cutter
14. Cone pulley
15. Telescopic feed shaft.
The principal parts of a column and knee type milling machine are described as under.
Base
It is a foundation member for all the other parts, which rest upon it. It carries the column at its one
end. In some machines, the base is hollow and serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid.
Column
Overhanging arm
It is mounted on the top of the column, which extends beyond the column face and serves as a
bearing support for the other end of the arbor.
Front brace
It is an extra support, which is fitted between the knee and the over-arm to ensure further rigidity to
the arbor and the knee.
Spindle
It is situated in the upper part of the column and receives power from the motor through belts,
gears. and clutches and transmit it to the arbor.
Arbor
It is like an extension of the machine spindle on which milling cutters are securely mounted and
rotated. The arbors are made with taper shanks for proper alignment with the machine spindles
having taper holes at their nose. The draw bolt is used for managing for locking the arbor with the
spindle and the whole assembly. The arbor assembly consists of the following components.
1. Arbor
2. Spindle
3. Spacing collars
4. Bearing bush
5. Cutter
6. Draw bolt
7. Lock nut
8. Key block
Thread milling
It is a method of milling threads on dies, screws, worms, etc. both internally and externally. As an
alternative to the screw cutting in a lathe, this method is being more extensively introduced now a
day in modern machine shops.
Grinding Machines
Grinding Machines are also regarded as machine tools. A distinguishing feature of grinding
machines is the rotating abrasive tool. Grinding machine is employed to obtain high accuracy along
with very high class of surface finish on the workpiece. However, advent of new generation of
grinding wheels and grinding machines, characterised by their rigidity, power and speed enables
one to go for high efficiency deep grinding (often called as abrasive milling) of not only hardened
material but also ductile materials. Conventional grinding machines can be broadly classified as:
(a) Surface grinding machine
(b) Cylindrical grinding machine
(c) Internal grinding machine
(d) Tool and cutter grinding machine
This grinding machine with all working motions is shown in Fig. The grinding operation is similar to
that of face milling on a vertical milling machine. In this machine a cup shaped wheel grinds the
workpiece over its full width using end face of the wheel as shown in Fig. This brings more grits in
action at the same time and consequently a higher material removal rate may be attained than for
grinding with a peripheral wheel
This machine enables single pass grinding of a surface with a larger down feed but slower table
speed than that adopted for multi-pass conventional surface grinding. This machine is characterised
by high stiffness, high spindle power, recirculating ball screw drive for table movement and
adequate supply of grinding fluid. A further development in this field is the creep feed grinding
centre which carries more than one wheel with provision of automatic wheel changing. A number
of operations can be performed on the workpiece. It is implied that such machines, in the view of
their size and complexity, are automated through CNC.
Roll grinding is a specific case of cylindrical grinding wherein large workpieces such as shafts, spindles
and rolls are ground.
External centreless grinder
This grinding machine is a production machine in which out side diameter of the workpiece is
ground. The workpiece is not held between centres but by a work support blade. It is rotated by
means of a regulating wheel and ground by the grinding wheel.
In through-feed centreless grinding, the regulating wheel revolving at a much lower surface speed
than grinding wheel controls the rotation and longitudinal motion of the workpiece. The regulating
wheel is kept slightly inclined to the axis of the grinding wheel and the workpiece is fed
longitudinally as shown
DRILLING MACHINE
Drilling is an operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from the job by
cutting tool called drill. A drill is a rotary end-cutting tool with one or more cutting lips and usually
one or more flutes for the passage of chips and the admission of cutting fluid. A drilling machine is
a machine tool designed for drilling holes in metals. It is one of the most important and versatile
machine tools in a workshop. Besides drilling round holes, many other operations can also be
In a plain radial drilling machine, provisions are made for following three movements -
1. Vertical movement of the arm on the column,
2. Horizontal movement of the drill head along the arm, and
3. Circular movement of the arm in horizontal plane about the vertical column.
In a semi universal drilling machine, in addition to the above three movements, the drill head can be
swung about a horizontal axis perpendicular to the arm. In universal machine, an additional rotatory
movement of the arm holding the drill head on a horizontal axis is also provided for enabling it to
drill on a job at any angle.
Number sizes
In metric system, the drill is generally manufactured from 0.2 to 100 mm. In British system the
drills sizes range from No. 1 to No. 80. Number 80 is the smallest having diameter equal to 0.0135
inch and the number 1 is the largest having diameter equal to 0.228 inch. Number 1 to number 60 is
the standard sets of drills. The numbers 61 to 80 sizes drills are not so commonly used. The
diameter of drills increases in steps of approximately by 0.002 inch.
Letter sizes
The drill sizes range from A to Z, A being the smallest having diameter equal to 0.234 inch and Z
being the largest having diameter equal to 0.413 inch, increasing in steps of approximately O.010
inch fractional sizes: The drill sizes range from 1/64" inch to 5 inch in steps of 1/64 inches up to
1.75 inches, then the steps gradually increase. The drill sizes range from A to Z, A being the
smallest having diameter equal to 0.234 inch and Z being the largest having diameter equal to 0.413
inch, increasing in steps of approximately O.010 inch fractional sizes: The drill sizes range from
1/64" inch to 5 inch in steps of 1/64 inches up to 1.75 inches, then the steps gradually increase. The
Drilling:
This is the operation of making a circular hole by removing a volume of metal from the job by a
rotating cutting tool called drill as shown in Fig. Drilling removes solid metal from the job to
produce a circular hole. Before drilling, the hole is located by drawing two lines at right angle and a
center punch is used to make an indentation for the drill point at the center to help the drill
in getting started. A suitable drill is held in the drill machine and the drill machine is adjusted to
operate at the correct cutting speed. The drill machine is started and the drill starts rotating. Cutting
fluid is made to flow liberally and the cut is started. The rotating drill is made to feed
Into the job. The hole, depending upon its length, may be drilled in one or more steps. After the
drilling operation is complete, the drill is removed from the hole and the power
Reaming
This is the operation of sizing and finishing a hole already made by a drill. Reaming is performed
by means of a cutting tool called reamer as shown in Fig. Reaming operation serves to make the
hole smooth, straight and accurate in diameter. Reaming operation is performed by means of a
multitooth tool called reamer. Reamer possesses several cutting edges on outer periphery and may
be classified as solid reamer and adjustable reamer.
Counter-Boring
Counter boring operation is shown in Fig. It is the operation of enlarging the end of a hole
cylindrically, as for the recess for a counter-sunk rivet. The tool used is known as counter-bore.
Counter-Sinking
Counter-sinking operation is shown in Fig. This is the operation of making a cone shaped
enlargement of the end of a hole, as for the recess for a flat head screw. This is done for providing a
seat for counter sunk heads of the screws so that the latter may flush with the main surface of the
work.
Lapping
This is the operation of sizing and finishing a hole by removing very small amounts of material by
means of an abrasive. The abrasive material is kept in contact with the sides of a hole that is to be
lapped, by the use of a lapping tool.
reversed slightly to clear the threads. Tapping operation is shown in Fig. The geometry
and nomenclature of a tap is given in Fig.
Core drilling
Core drilling operation is shown in Fig. It is a main operation, which is performed on radial drilling
machine for producing a circular hole, which is deep in the solid metal by means of revolving tool
called drill.
CUTTING SPEED
The cutting speed in a drilling operation refers to the peripheral speed of a point on the surface of
the drill in contact with the work. It is usually expressed in meters/min. The cutting speed (Cs) may
be calculated as: Cs = ((22/7) × D × N)/1000 Where, D is the diameter of the drill in mm and N is
the rpm of the drill spindle.
FEED
The feed of a drill is the distance the drill moves into the job at each revolution of the spindle. It is
expressed in millimeter. The feed may also be expressed as feed per minute. The feed per minute
may be defined as the axial distance moved by the drill into the work per minute. The feed per
minute may be calculated as:
F = Fr × N
Where, F = Feed per minute in mm.
Fr = Feed per revolution in mm.
N = R.P.M. of the drill.
Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between 1.0%
and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are broken down into
two groups: low-alloy steels and high-alloy steels.
Advantages:
Greater harden ability
Less distortion and cracking
Greater ductility at high strength
Greater high temperature strength
Greater stress relief at given hardness
Better mach inability at high hardness
High elastic ratio and endurance strength.
Disadvantages:
Tendency toward austenite retention
Cost
Special handling
Temper brittleness in certain grades.
Purpose of alloying:
Strengthening of the ferrite
Improved corrosion resistance
Better harden ability
Grain size control
Greater strength
Improved mach inability
Improved ductility
Improved toughness
Better wear resistance
Alloys steels are divided into three-component steels, containing one alloying element in
addition to iron and carbon: four component steels, containing two alloying elements,
etc
Alloys steels may be classified on the basis of the structure that is obtained when specimens
of small cross section are cooled in air.
1. Pearlitic
2. Martensitic
3. Austentic
4. Ferritic
5. Carbidic
Stainless steels
Ultra-High Strength Steels
Heat Resisting Steels
Shock resisting Steels
Magnet Steels
Carbon :
The presence of carbon in iron is necessary to make steel.
Carbon is essential to the formation of cementite (as well as other carbides), and to the
formation of pearlite, spheroidite, bainite, and iron-carbon martensite, with martensite being
the hardest of the micro-structures, and the structure sought after by knife makers.
The hardness of steel (or more accurately, the hardenability) is increased by the
addition of more carbon, up to about 0.65 percent.
Wear resistance can be increased in amounts up to about 1.5 percent. Beyond this
amount, increases of carbon reduce toughness and increase brittleness.
The steels of interest to knife makers generally contain between 0.5 and 1.5 percent
carbon. They are described as follows:
• Low Carbon: Under 0.4 percent
• Medium Carbon: 0.4 - 0.6 percent
• High Carbon: 0.7 - 1.5 percent
Carbon is the single most important alloying element in steel.
Manganese
Manganese slightly increases the strength of ferrite, and also increases the hardness
penetration of steel in the quench by decreasing the critical quenching speed.
This also makes the steel more stable in the quench.
Steels with manganese can be quenched in oil rather than water, and therefore are less
susceptible to cracking because of a reduction in the shock of quenching.
Manganese is present in most commercially made steels.
Chromium
As with manganese, chromium has a tendency to increase hardness penetration.
This element has many interesting effects on steel. When 5 percent chromium or
more is used in conjunction with manganese.
The critical quenching speed is reduced to the point that the steel becomes air
hardening.
Chromium can also increase the toughness of steel, as well as the wear resistance.
Probably one of the most well known effects of chromium on steel is the tendency
to resist staining and corrosion.
Steels with 14 percent or more chromium are referred to as stainless steels. A more
accurate term would be stain.
Silicon :
Silicon is used as a deoxidizer in the manufacture of steel.
Nickel :
Nickel increases the strength of ferrite, therefore increasing the strength of the steel.
It is used in low alloy steels to increase toughness and hardenability.
Nickel also tends to help reduce distortion and cracking during the quenching phase
of heat treatment
Molybdenum :
Molybdenum increases the hardness penetration of steel, slows the critical quenching speed, and
increases high temperature tensile strength.
Vanadium
Vanadium helps control grain growth during heat treatment. By inhibiting
grain growth it helps increase the toughness and strength of the steel.
Tungsten:
Used in small amounts, tungsten combines with the free carbides in steel during heat
treatment, to produce high wear resistance with little or no loss of toughness.
High amounts combined with chromium gives steel a property known as red
hardness. This means that the steel will not lose its working hardness at high
temperatures.
An example of this would be tools designed to cut hard materials at high speeds,
where the friction between the tool and the material would generate high temperatures.
Copper :
The addition of copper in amounts of 0.2 to 0.5 percent primarily improves steels
resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
It should be noted that with respect to knife steels, copper has a detrimental effect to
surface quality and to hot-working behavior due to migration into the grain boundaries of
the steel.
Niobium :
In low carbon alloy steels Niobium lowers the transition temperature and aids in a fine
grain structure.
Niobium retards tempering and can decrease the hardenability of steel because it forms
very stable carbides. This can mean a reduction in the amount of carbon dissolved into the
austenite during heat treating.
Boron :
Boron can significantly increase the hardenability of steel without loss of ductility.
Its effectiveness is most noticeable at lower carbon levels.
Titanium :
This element, when used in conjunction with Boron, increases the effectiveness of
the Boron in the hardenability of steel
Carbon steel is also known as plain steel Alloy steel is a type of steel that has presence
It is an alloy of steel where carbon is the of certain other elements apart from iron and
main constituent and no minimum carbon
percentage of other alloying elements is Commonly added elements in alloy steel are
mentioned. manganese, silicon, boron, chromium,
Carbon steel is not stainless steel as it is vanadium and nickel.
classified under alloy steels. The quantity of these metals in alloy steel is
primarily dependent upon the use of such steel
As the name implies, carbon content is Alloy steels are divided into low alloy steels
increased in the steel making it harder and high alloy steels
and stronger through application of heat When the percentage of added
treatments. elements goes past 8 (in terms of
addition of carbon makes the steel less weight), the steel is referred to as high
ductile. alloy steel.
The weldability of carbon steel is low In cases where added elements remain
and higher carbon content also lowers below 8% by weight of the steel, it is a
the melting point of the alloy. low alloy steel.
To keep the alloy steel wieldable,
carbon content needs to be reduced.
Steels can be heat treated to produce a great variety of microstructures and properties.
Generally, heat treatment uses phase transformation during heating and cooling to change a
microstructure in a solid state.
In heat treatment, the processing is most often entirely thermal and modifies only
structure.
Thermo mechanical treatments, which modify component shape and structure,
Thermo chemical treatments which modify surface chemistry and structure are also
important processing approaches which fall into the domain of heat treatment.
Quenching :
Soaking temperature 30-50°C above A3 or A1, then fast cooling (in water or oil) with
cooling rate exceeding a critical value.
The critical cooling rate is required to obtain non-equilibrium structure called marten site
During fast cooling austenite cannot transform to ferrite and pearlite by atomic
Diffusion.
Martensite is supersaturated solid solution of carbon in α-iron (greatly supersaturated ferrite)
with tetragonal body centered structure.
Martensite is very hard and brittle.
Martensite has a “needle-like” structure.
Tempering:
This process is carried out on hardened steels to remove the internal stresses and
brittleness created by the severe rate of cooling.
The treatment requires heating the steel to a temperature range of between 200 and 600°C
depending upon the final properties desired.
Steel is considered to be an alloy if the maximum alloying element content within the steel
surpasses at least one of the following limits:
1.65% Manganese
0.6% Copper
0.6% Silicon
It may also be considered an alloy steel if there is a prescribed minimum quantity of the
following elements added to produce a specific alloying effect:
Up to 3.99% Chromium
Up to 3.99% Aluminum
Up to 3.99% Boron
and a definite minimum quantity of cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten,
vanadium, zirconium, and etc.
• The term “ferrous" applies to the group of metals having iron as their principal constituent. •
Eg. 1. Iron 2. Steel and its alloys
Iron
• If carbon is added to iron, in percentages ranging up to approximately 1 percent, the product
is vastly superior to iron alone and is classified as carbon steel. • Carbon steel forms the base of
those alloy steels produced by combining carbon steel with other elements known to improve the
properties of steel. • A base metal (such as iron) to which small quantities of other metals have
been added is called an alloy. The addition of other metals changes or improves the chemical or
physical properties of the base metal for a particular use.
Steel and steel alloys
Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.10 to 0.30 percent is classed as low carbon
steel. The equivalent SAE numbers range from 1010 to 1030. Steels of this grade are used for
making such items as safety wire, certain nuts, cable bushings, or threaded rod ends. T • his steel in
sheet form is used for secondary structural parts and clamps, and in tubular form for moderately
stressed structural parts. • Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.30 to 0.50 percent
is classed as medium carbon steel. • This steel is especially adaptable for machining or forging,
and where surface hardness is desirable. Certain rod ends and light forgings are made from SAE
1035 steel.
• Steel containing carbon in percentages ranging from 0.50 to 1.05 percent is classed as high
carbon steel. The addition of other elements in varying quantities adds to the hardness of this steel.
• In the fully heat-treated condition it is very hard, will withstand high shear and wear, and will
have little deformation. It has limited use in aircraft. SAE 1095 in sheet form is used for making flat
springs and in wire form for making coil springs. • The various nickel steels are produced by
combining nickel with carbon steel. Steels containing from 3 to 3.75 percent nickel are commonly
used. • Nickel increases the hardness, tensile strength, and elastic limit of steel without appreciably
decreasing the ductility. It also intensifies the hardening effect of heat treatment. SAE 2330 steel is
used extensively for aircraft parts, such as bolts, terminals, keys, clevises, and pins.
• Chromium steel is high in hardness, strength, and corrosion resistant properties, and is
particularly adaptable for heattreated forgings which require greater toughness and strength than
may be obtained in plain carbon steel. It can be used for such articles as the balls and rollers of
antifriction bearings. • Chrome-nickel or stainless steels are the corrosion resistant metals. The
anticorrosive degree of this steel is determined by the surface condition of the metal as well as by
the composition, temperature, and concentration of the corrosive agent. • The principal alloy of
stainless steel is chromium. The corrosion resistant steel most often used in aircraft construction is
Aluminum alloys:
Aluminum alloys (or aluminum alloys; see spelling
differences) are alloys in which aluminum (Al) is the predominant metal.
The typical alloying elements are
copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon and zinc
There are two principal classifications,
namely casting alloys and wrought alloys, both of which are further subdivided into the
categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable.
About 85% of aluminium is used for wrought products, for
example rolled plate, foils and extrusions.
Applications:
Aerospace:
For many years, RZ5 alloy has been the preferred material for helicopter transmission
casings due to the combination of low density and good mechanical properties.
More recently, however, the requirement for longer intervals between overhauls and hence
improved corrosion properties has caused manufacturers to reconsider material choice.
In the past, RZ5 was generally used for gearbox casings but many new programmes will use
WE43 instead including the main rotor gearbox castings. For this application, an aluminium
transmission would have been used but for the exceptional corrosion resistance of WE43.
The Eurocopter EC 120 and NH90 helicopters have also flown with WE43 transmission
casings and WE43 is specified for the Sikorsky S92.
Further applications for WE43 will go ahead in the future both on new programmes and also
to replace RZ5 on older helicopters.
Other Applications:
Other applications include electronics, sporting goods, nuclear applications, office equipment,
flares, sacrificial anodes for the protection of other metals, flash photography and tools
Molybdenum alloys:
Molybdenum based alloys are widely used, because they are cheaper than superior
tungsten alloys. The most widely used alloy of molybdenum is the Titanium-Zirconium-
Molybdenum alloy TZM, composed of 0.5% titanium and 0.08% of zirconium (with molybdenum
being the rest).
The alloy exhibits a higher creep resistance and strength at high temperatures, making
service temperatures of above 1060°C possible for the material.
The alloy exhibits a higher creep resistance and strength at high temperatures, making
service temperatures of above 1060°C possible for the material.
The high resistivity of Mo-30W an alloy of 70% molybdenum and 30 tungsten against
the attack of molten zinc makes it the ideal material for casting zinc. It is also used to construct
valves for molten zinc
Molybdenum is used in mercury wetted reed relays, because molybdenum does not
form amalgams and is therefore resistant to corrosion by liquid mercury
Molybdenum is the most commonly used of the refractory metals. Its most important use
is as a strengthening alloy of steel.Structural tubing and piping often contains molybdenum, as do
many stainless steels.
Its strength at high temperatures, resistance to wear and low coefficient of friction are
all properties which make it invaluable as an alloying compound
Its excellent anti-friction properties lead to its in greases and oils where reliability and
performance are critical
Up to 22% rhenium is alloyed with tungsten to improve its high temperature strength
and corrosion resistance.
Thorium as an alloying compound is used when electric arcs have to be established.
The ignition is easier and the arc burns more stable than without the addition of thorium. For
powder metallurgy applications binders have to be used for the sintering process.
For the production of the tungsten heavy alloy a binder mixtures of nickel and iron or
nickel and copper are widely used.
the tungsten content of the alloy is normally above 90%. The diffusion of the binder
elements into the tungsten grains is low even at the sintering temperatures and therefore the interior
of the grains is pure tungsten.
Tungsten and its alloys are often used in applications where high temperatures are
present but still a high strength is necessary and the high density is not troublesome
Tungsten's high density and strength is also a key property for its use in
weapon projectiles, for example as an alternative to depleted Uranium for tank guns.
Inconel alloys:
Properties:
Inconel alloys are oxidation- and corrosion-resistant materials well suited for service in
extreme environments subjected to high pressure and kinetic energy.
When heated, Inconel forms a thick and stable passivating oxide layer protecting the
surface from further attack.
Inconel retains strength over a wide temperature range, attractive for high-temperature
applications where aluminum and steel would succumb to creep as a result of thermally-induced
crystal vacancies (see Arrhenius).
Inconel's high temperature strength is developed by solid solution
strengthening or precipitation strengthening, depending on the alloy.
In age-hardening or precipitation-strengthening varieties, small amounts of niobium
combine with nickel to form the intermetallic compound Ni3Nb or gamma prime (γ'). Gamma prime
forms small cubic crystals that inhibit slip and creep effectively at elevated temperatures.
The formation of gamma-prime crystals increases over time, especially after three hours of
a heat exposure of 850 °C, and continues to grow after 72 hours of exposure.
Monel alloys:
Monel is a series of nickel alloys, primarily composed of nickel (up to 67%) and copper,
with some iron and other trace elements.
Monel alloy 400 is binary alloy of the same proportions of nickel and copper as is found
naturally in the nickel ore from the Sudbury (Ontario) mines and is therefore considered a puritan
alloy
Properties:
Compared to steel, Monel is very difficult to machine as it work-hardens very quickly.
It needs to be turned and worked at slow speeds and low feed rates.
It is resistant to corrosion and acids, and some alloys can withstand a fire in pure oxygen
It is commonly used in applications with highly corrosive conditions. Small additions
of aluminum and titanium form an alloy (K-500) with the same corrosion resistance but with much
greater strength due to gamma prime formation on aging.
Monel is typically much more expensive than stainless steel.
Monel alloy 400 has a specific gravity of 8.83, an electrical conductivity of approximately
34% IACS, and (in the annealed state) a hardness of 65 Rockwell
K Monel:
It Is a nickel-copper alloy which combines the excellent corrosion resistance of MONEL
alloy 400 with the added advantages of greater strength and hardness
The increased properties are obtained by adding aluminum and titanium to the nickel-copper
base, and by heating under controlled conditions so that submicroscopic
Particles of Ni3 (Ti, Al) are precipitated throughout the matrix.
Super alloy:
A superalloy, or high-performance alloy, is an alloy that exhibits excellent mechanical
strength and resistance to creep (tendency for solids to slowly move or deform under stress) at high
temperatures; good surface stability; and corrosion and oxidation resistance.
Superalloys typically have a matrix with an austenitic face-centered cubic crystal structure.
A superalloy's base alloying element is usually nickel, cobalt, or nickel-iron.
Superalloy development has relied heavily on both chemical and process innovations and has
been driven primarily by the aerospace and power industries.
Typical applications are in the aerospace, industrial gas turbine and marine turbine industries,
e.g. for turbine blades for hot sections of jet engines, and bi-metallic engine valves for use in diesel
and automotive applications.
Examples of superalloys are Hastelloy, Inconel (e.g. IN100, IN600, IN713), Waspaloy, Rene
alloys (e.g. Rene 41, Rene 80, Rene 95, Rene N5), Haynes alloys, Incoloy, MP98T, TMS alloys,
and CMSX (e.g. CMSX-4) single crystal alloys.
Superalloys are commonly used in parts of gas turbine engines that are subject to high
temperatures and require high strength, excellent high temperature creep resistance, fatigue life,
phase stability, and oxidation and corrosion resistance
Superalloys develop high temperature strength through solid solution strengthening. The
most important strengthening mechanism is through the formation of secondary phase precipitates
such as gamma prime and carbides through precipitation.
Superalloys (such as Nimonic 80A) are also used in the poppet valves of piston engines, both
for diesel and gasoline e
As with many other composite materials (such as reinforced concrete), the two
materials act together, each overcoming the deficits of the other. Whereas the plastic
resins are strong in compressive loading and relatively weak in tensile strength, the
glass fibers are very strong in tension but tend not to resist compression. By
combining the two materials, GRP becomes a material that resists both compressive
and tensile forces well. The two materials may be used uniformly or the glass may be
specifically placed in those portions of the structure that will experience tensile loads.
Applications
Uses for regular glass fiber include mats and fabrics for thermal insulation, electrical
insulation, sound insulation, high-strength fabrics or heat- and corrosion-resistant
fabrics. It is also used to reinforce various materials, such as tent poles, pole
vault poles, arrows, bows and crossbows, translucent roofing
panels, automobile bodies, hockey sticks, surfboards, boat hulls, and paper
honeycomb. It has been used for medical purposes in casts. Glass fiber is extensively
used for making FRP tanks and vessels.
Open-weave glass fiber grids are used to reinforce asphalt pavement. Non-woven
glass fiber/polymer blend mats are used saturated with asphalt emulsion and overlaid
with asphalt, producing a waterproof, crack-resistant membrane. Use of glass-fiber
reinforced polymer rebar instead of steel rebar shows promise in areas where
avoidance of steel corrosion is desired.
CFRPs are composite materials. In this case the composite consists of two parts: a
matrix and a reinforcement. In CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber, which
provides the strength. The matrix is usually a polymer resin, such as epoxy, to bind
the reinforcements together. Because CFRP consists of two distinct elements, the
material properties depend on these two elements.
The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity; measured
by stress and elastic modulus respectively. Unlike isotropic materials like steel and
aluminum, CFRP has directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend
on the layouts of the carbon fiber and the proportion of the carbon fibers relative to
the polymer. The two different equations governing the net elastic modulus of
composite materials using the properties of the carbon fibers and the polymer matrix
can also be applied to carbon fiber reinforced plastics.
Applications
The Airbus A350 XWB is built of 52% CFRP including wing spars and
fuselage components, taking the lead from the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, for the
aircraft with the highest weight ratio for CFRP, which was held at 50%. This,
along with the Airbus A400M is one of the first commercial aircraft to have
the wing spars made from composites, although the A400M isn't the first
military aircraft to have structural composite components. Furthermore,
the Airbus A380 is one of the first commercial airliner to have a central wing
box made of CFRP
It is a fiber metal laminate (FML) composed of several very thin layers of metal
(usually aluminium) interspersed with layers of glass-fiber pre-preg, bonded together
with a matrix such as epoxy. The uni-directional pre-preg layers may be aligned in
different directions to suit predicted stressconditions.
Applications
Besides the applications on the Airbus A380 fuselage, GLARE has multiple
'secondary' applications.
GLARE is also the material used in the ECOS3 blast-resistant Unit Load
Device. This is freight container shown to completely contain the explosion
and fire resulting from a bomb such as that used over Lockerbie.
Other applications include among others the application in the Learjet 45 and
in the past also in cargo floors of the Boeing 737.
MMCs are made by dispersing a reinforcing material into a metal matrix. The
reinforcement surface can be coated to prevent a chemical reaction with the
matrix. For example, carbon fibers are commonly used in aluminum matrix to
synthesize composites showing low density and high strength. However,
carbon reacts with aluminium to generate a brittle and water-soluble
Applications
Wood
• The earliest aircraft were constructed of wood and cloth. Today, except for
restorations and some homebuilt aircraft, very little wood is used in aircraft
construction.
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees,
and other woody plants. It has been used for thousands of years for both fuel and as a
construction material. It is an organic material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers
(which are strong in tension) embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists
compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems
of trees or it is defined more broadly to include the same type of tissue elsewhere
such as in the roots of trees or shrubs. In a living tree it performs a support function,
AE15301- AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY 109
enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys
water and nutrientsbetween the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots. Wood
may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material
engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber.
Plywood
It is a sheet material manufactured from thin layers or "plies" of wood veneer that are
glued together with adjacent layers having their wood grain rotated up to 90 degrees
to one another. It is an engineered wood from the family of manufactured boards
which includes medium-density fibreboard(MDF) and particle board (chipboard).
All plywoods bind resin and wood fibre sheets (cellulose cells are long, strong and
thin) to form a composite material. This alternation of the grain is called cross-
graining and has several important benefits: it reduces the tendency of wood to split
when nailed at the edges; it reduces expansion and shrinkage, providing improved
dimensional stability; and it makes the strength of the panel consistent across all
directions. There is usually an odd number of plies, so that the sheet is balanced—this
reduces warping. Because plywood is bonded with grains running against one another
and with an odd number of composite parts, it is very hard to bend it perpendicular to
the grain direction of the surface ply.
Smaller thinner plywoods and lower quality plywoods (see Average-quality plywood
photo below and right) may only have their plies (layers) arranged at right angles to
each other, though some better quality plywood products will by design have five
plies in steps of 45 degrees (0, 45, 90, 135, and 180 degrees), giving strength in
multiple axes.
Doping
Dope has been applied to various aircraft fabrics, including madapolam,but also more
recently on polyester and other fabrics with similar fine weave and absorbent
qualities.
Adhesive
It may be used interchangeably with glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, and is any
substance applied to one surface, or both surfaces, of two separate items that binds
them together and resists their separation. Adjectives may be used in conjunction
with the word "adhesive" to describe properties based on the substance's physical or
chemical form, the type of materials joined, or conditions under which it is applied.
The use of adhesives offers many advantages over binding techniques such
as sewing, mechanical fastening, thermal bonding, etc. These include the ability to
bind different materials together, to distribute stress more efficiently across the joint,
the cost effectiveness of an easily mechanized process, an improvement in aesthetic
design, and increased design flexibility. Disadvantages of adhesive use include
decreased stability at high temperatures, relative weakness in bonding large objects
with a small bonding surface area, and greater difficulty in separating objects during
testing. Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion. These are then
organized into reactive and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to whether the
adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively they can be organized by
Paints
Paint is more than aesthetics; it affects the weight of the aircraft and protects the
integrity of the airframe. The topcoat finish is applied to protect the exposed surfaces
from corrosion and deterioration. Also, a properly painted aircraft is easier to clean
and maintain because the exposed surfaces are more resistant to corrosion and dirt,
and oil does not adhere as readily to the surface. A wide variety of materials and
finishes are used to protect and provide the desired appearance of the aircraft. The
term “paint” is used in a general sense and includes primers, enamels, lacquers, and
the various multipart finishing formulas. Paint has three components: resin as coating
material, pigment for color, and solvents to reduce the mix to a workable
viscosity.Internal structure and unexposed components are finished to protect them
from corrosion and deterioration. All exposed surfaces and components are finished
to provide protection and to present a pleasing appearance. Decorative finishing
includes trim striping, the addition of company logos and emblems, and the
application of decals, identification numbers, and letters.
Finishing Materials
Acetone
Alcohol
Benzene
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)
Methylene Chloride
Toluene
Turpentine
AE15301- AIRCRAFT MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY 112
Mineral Spirits
Naphtha
Linseed Oil
Thinners
Varnish
Primers
Wash Primers
Red Iron Oxide
Gray Enamel Undercoat
Urethane
Epoxy
Zinc Chromate
Identification of Paints
Dope
Synthetic Enamel
Lacquers
Polyurethane
Urethane Coating
Acrylic Urethanes
Methods of Applying Finish
Dipping
Brushing
Spraying