Module 2

Systematic Approach to Instructional Design

Dr. Sunil Dutt
Professor & Head
Education and Educational Management Department,
National Institute of Technical Teachers Training & Research, Sector-26, Chandigarh (India)

Objectives of the Module:

After reading the learning material, you will be able to:

 Understand the concept of systems approach

 Know the various steps involved in the systematic design of instruction
 Elucidate the Role of the teacher in the Instructional System
Learning Outcomes:
After reading the learning material, you will be able to:
 Explain the concept of a system with an example
 Define instructional system
 Explain the steps involved in the systematic design of instruction
 Describe the Role of the teacher in the Instructional System

Pre-requisite Knowledge:
It is assumed that the learners are quite familiar with the concept of teaching and instruction. Teaching
involves face-to-face interaction between the teacher and learners in a classroom or laboratory, whereas
instruction can be facilitated through a text book or by watching a video or accessing the concerned
material online but in case there is some doubt, the learner cannot seek further information and
clarification which is possible in case of teaching.

Introduction
Dear learners, as you know that earlier instructional plans have been made largely by intuition (ok, I’ll
teach up to here; oh, no I must include this point also), and have often been based on ambiguous goals
(today, I will teach you about ‘inertia’ or sometimes, teacher says, I will enable you understand/know
‘Ohm’s Law’) and casual subjective judgments (What do you know about force? OR discuss…).

It means that the main interest has been with methods of teaching, rather than with learning. It is noticed
that the instructional process is complex and that it is composed of many interrelated components and
functions which operate logically in order to effect learning.

Please note that by controlling or manipulating one or only a few of those components or functions, we
will not be able to achieve or improve the key outcome of education ‘learning by students’.

In order to intelligently relate all elements of the instructional process in building a successful program,
an approach similar to one used widely in business, industry, military and space exploration is receiving
increased attention. This method involves the development of an overall plan incorporating the inter-
related parts of an instructional process in a sequential manner. It is called the ‘systems approach’. It
means systematic design of instruction, based on the learning process and communication theory taking
into consideration various factors and variables, so that successful learning will result.

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This learning material will enable learners apply the systematic approach to design of instruction.

Sub-Topic 1

1. Systems Approach
Before developing the concept of ‘systems approach’, it is essential to understand the term ‘system’. We
often use the word ‘system’ in day to day life in describing the subjects. Let us take the example of a car
and find out the various parts of a car.
Let us list parts of a car: steering; gears; brakes; ignition; clutch; axle; engine; battery,
lights, seats, windows etc.
Each of these parts, listed above, is essential for the car to perform their specific functions. Suppose one
of the parts, say gear, is not working, the car will not function properly, thereby showing that the parts are
inter-related and interdependent and performing towards the car’s effective functioning. With all these
characteristics, a car becomes a system.

An example of a computer as a system is illustrated in Fig. 1.

CDD CPU HDD Mouse

Printer Floppy Cables CD

Components or parts of a computer – Not a System Computer as a whole - A System
Fig. 1.
From Fig. 1, it is quite evident that a system refers to a set of elements which interacts with one and
another to achieve an objective, i.e., process data and provide information. Further, a system is not a
randomly arranged set of elements, but it is arranged with some logic governed by rules/ regulations,
principles or policies. A system seldom works in a vacuum as it has to interact with other sub-systems in
the surrounding. Interaction with the other sub-systems, i.e., environment is very much essential to enable
the system to achieve its specific purpose. The environment may influence the system with regard to its
design and performance. When a system is developed to achieve certain objectives, it sets the boundaries
for itself automatically.

Thus, a system refers to a group of elements or parts working together to

achieve a purpose.

In an educational technology context, a system is ‘any collection of component parts which are
interrelated with each other to achieve an objective’. Any deviation in one or more component parts may
affect the overall performance of the system, either beneficially or adversely, because the basic notion of
a system is the concept of wholeness. It means that unrelated or independent components do not
constitute a system. Thus, it is essential to determine the relationships amongst components.
A system involves identifying the requirements and gaps correctly, defining learning outcomes, applying
logic and analysis techniques for the gaps and measuring the product rigorously against the specified
learning outcomes (Bretz 1971, Briggs and Wager, 1981).

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Thus, a system has

 Two or more components

 Patterns of inter-relationships leading to structures
 Environment, and
 Boundaries

A system has A, B, C, & D as four distinct elements which are inter-related and inter-dependent as
indicated in Fig. 2. The elements may be further analyzed into other smaller component parts, and hence,
may be called as sub-system of the overall system. For example, polytechnic/engineering education
system in a state comprises all polytechnic/engineering institutes under the Directorate of Technical
Education. Within the State polytechnic/engineering education system, instructional system deals with the
planning, development, implementation, monitoring and control of instruction.

B
Output from
Input to system into
System Interaction between another
A components of C system
subsystem

Fig.2. A typical system

D

Fig. 2

The teaching & learning process can be considered to be indeed very complex system. The input to a
given teaching & learning system is composed of human, information and resources, and the output
comprises of human, with improved performance in some desired way. Hence, the system designer
selects the best set of inputs out of available various alternative instructional inputs. For this, a
consideration of relevant factors viz. instructional objectives, learners’ characteristics, nature of
discipline, availability of resources, size of the group, and the ability of the teacher become significant. It
is reasonable to assume that if a system becomes dysfunctional, i.e., does not transform the inputs in ways
which result in defined/specified outputs, it will be eliminated, replaced or modified. This type of system
is schematically represented in Fig. 3.

Input The System Output

Target Population; Students whose performance
Human resources; Educational or learning has been improved in
Technical Resources; process specific areas
Financial resources;
Information
Fig. 3: The ‘systems’ model of educational or learning system.

Thus, systems approach is a rational problem solving method of analyzing the instructional process taken
as a whole (including all of its parts) and making it more effective.

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2. Instructional System Design

An individual interacts with the various components of the natural environment in an informal and
unorganized way, leading to unspecified learning. Instruction provides a controlled environment with
which the individual interacts leading towards the accomplishment of certain pre-specified learning
outcomes or instructional objectives.

The term ‘instruction’ refers to a goal-directed teaching process (which is more or less pre-planned). It is
immaterial that whether the goal has been recognized by the learner or by some external agent such as a
teacher or a syllabus. More important is, that a predetermined goal has been identified.

Again, the routes to the goal may be then unique or various or prescribed by the teacher or may be chosen
by the learner. It is the pre-planning that establishes and tests out viable routes. Thus, the presence of
precise goals or learning outcomes, and careful pre-planning and evaluation shall be taken as the main
characteristics of the term ‘instructional system’. Instructional system may be viewed as composed of
various inter-related components functioning together to achieve a purpose. Design of Instructional
System, therefore, involves the process of establishing precise learning outcomes, planning appropriate
routes and evaluating them, i.e., concerned with analysis, synthesis and evaluation.

Thus, an instructional system requires a number of inputs in terms of teachers’ competencies, learners’
background, infrastructural facilities, curriculum etc. With a view to operating these inputs, the
instructional system uses varied processes which require teaching/communication skills, students’ active
involvement and procedures for the utilization of infrastructural facilities and curriculum. The output of
instructional process namely the instructional outcome is to be evaluated in order to understand the
effectiveness of the system for achieving these objectives (instructional objectives).

Practice Task:

A. Define a system.

B. State the components of a system with an example.

C. Define an instructional system.

D. Is it True OR False that a system may have:

a. Single input & multiple outputs?
b. Several inputs/outputs? True OR False

E. Why controls are considered as an integral part of the system design?

F. Why a designer cannot introduce an additional objective in the system?

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Self-evaluation to Practice task

A. A set of elements a set of elements which interacts with one and another to
achieve an objective.

B. An example of a computer system has Input (e.g., keyboard, mouse etc.),

Process (interaction between various input devices) and Output devices (e.g.,
monitor, printer etc.), Operating System, DBMS, personnel as elements.

C. Instructional system is composed of various inter-related components

functioning together to achieve a purpose. It involves process of establishing
specific objectives, planning viable routes and testing them out.

D. Yes, you are True, a system may have several inputs/outputs

E. Because controls call for a measurement of the output against the desired
specifications. If the measured output is as per the specified standard, the
system provides a feedback to continue the process.

F. Because it may not be possible as the new objective may fall outside the
boundaries or scope of the system.

You are Excellent! Now you may learn the next input (sub-topic 2) as
follows:

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Sub-Topic 2

3. Systematic Approach to Instructional Design

Systems approach can be applied on any educational level. It can best be applied first to individual topics,
then to units and subjects and finally to the complete programme, initially involving one or a few
teachers. When the instructional designer and teachers have become fully familiar with the design plan, it
may be applied to the efforts of an entire polytechnic/engineering system at state level.

Let us now learn the process of applying systems approach to instruction towards the development of an
instructional system. Let us understand that how we can improve an engineering diploma/degree
programme by applying the concept of systems approach.

But before, let us learn that systematic approach to instructional design attempts to answer three
questions:

 What must be learned? (Objectives)

 What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning
levels? (Methods, Media & resources)

 How will we know when the required learning has taken place? (evaluation)

Process of Instructional system design consists of following steps:

System Level
i) Analyzing – Needs, Goals and Priorities
ii) Analyzing – Resources, Constraints and Alternate Delivery System
iii) Determining scope and sequence of curricula and subjects; delivery systems

Subject Level
iv) Analyzing Subject structure and sequence
v) Analyzing Subject objectives

Lesson Level
vi) Defining performance objectives (Learning Outcomes)
vii) Developing lesson plans
viii) Developing and Selecting Instructional materials and media
ix) Assessing students’ performance

System Level
x) Teacher preparedness
xi) Evaluation – Formative
xii) Field testing/revising
xiii) Evaluation – Summative
xiv) Installing and diffusion

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Now let us study each of the steps in detail:

System Level

i) Analyzing – Needs, Goals and Priorities

The design of an instructional system results from some perceived need. In the context vastly changing
technology being the characteristic of modern industrial society, instruction imparted in
polytechnic/engineering education system needs to be modified, as there is a gap between ‘what is’ and
‘what should be’. It is this discrepancy between what is and what is needed that generates the need for a
new instructional system, or at least a redesigned system. Sometimes there is a need to update a system in
content to improve its effectiveness, to change the methods to reach a greater number of learners.

Thus, a subject of applied chemistry which has long been accepted as a part of a civil engineering
diploma/degree curriculum may need to be redesigned in order to change the methods, the content or
both.

Beginning with the results of the need analysis, the next step to be undertaken is to describe major goals
and objectives for the instructional system. Needs and goals will need to be prioritized, i.e., which needs
and goals should be addressed to immediately and which ones can be taken up thereafter.

ii) Analyzing – Resources, Constraints and Alternate Delivery System

After the need analysis, the next task required of the designer is to specify what the present state of
system is. Each component is reviewed in terms of available resources and constraints. The designer
attempts to find answers to questions like:

 How would students learn to do things that goals describe? From whom would they learn?
 Where would they find instructional resources or help needed by them?
 What would be required to accomplish goals?
 Is a compromise required to be made somewhere? What would it cost?
 What are the alternate delivery systems? And like

In addition to the various available alternatives like lecture, demonstration, tutorials, group study,
laboratory work, the other alternative modes such as providing self learning modules, CAI, power-point
presentations, multimedia packages and remedial instruction may also be considered. So, an effective
teacher always employs a variety of instructional methods & media to achieve the specified objectives.

iii) Determining Scope and Sequence of Curricula and Subjects; Delivery Systems

Next task of the instructional system designer is to formulate sequentially major goals to be achieved in
each year of curriculum. The scope and sequence of subject or curriculum are typically represented in
charts, indicating the topics to be studied in a total subject or set of subjects and laying them out in
matrices, detailing the topics for each semester. Goals are then to be translated into increasingly specific
objectives. Once these objectives have been identified, delivery systems will be designed to meet those
objectives.

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Subject Level
iv) Analyzing – Subject Structure and Sequence
Every subject has a set of target objectives which are to be achieved at the end of semester/year. Each
target objective consists of several enabling objectives which are smaller in scope. The target objectives
are grouped into units. The sequence of instruction is determined first for the units and then for the
enabling objectives.

v) Analyzing – Subject Objectives

The analysis of target objectives consists of three kinds of analysis given below:

 Information processing analysis for revealing the mental operations which make possible the
observed performance of the learners indicating that they have mastered the objectives.

 Task classification of the objectives helps in checking whether any intended purpose of a unit of
instruction has been overlooked. The classification of objectives for each desired domain of
outcome helps in identifying neglected areas of instruction in each unit of the subject. The
classification is done into cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains as per Bloom’s
Taxonomy or into intellectual skills, verbal information, motor skills and attitudes as per
classification given by Gagne.

 Task analysis is undertaken to state the enabling objectives for which decisions concerning
teaching sequence are required to be made. Such an analysis leads to the identification of
appropriate conditions of learning which need to be incorporated into the teaching strategy while
preparing lesson plans.

a) Concept of Task Analysis

When preparing for a self learning material, the teacher thinks about: What tasks are
required to reach a goal? and, in what sequence these tasks can best be mastered? A goal
is defined as something that one wishes to achieve; whereas a task is the series of
activities or actions required to achieve a goal. Task analysis attempts to answer these
two questions. The answers of these questions decide the nature and structure of teaching
learning activities. This involves both analysis and synthesis process.

Task analysis is the process of analyzing a task into smaller and more detailed constituent
units and of then sequencing these units of analysis in an order of priority based on their
importance in the learning. Whether we are concerned with analysis of a topic or a skill
or a job, the process of task analysis is the same, i.e., a breakdown into smaller and more
detailed units. In other words, task analysis is "the process of breaking down large chunk
of content matter or tasks into smaller and instructionally meaningful units. It, therefore,
is concerned with both analysis and synthesis.

In other words, task analysis is a step by step process of assessing why and what a user
does, and thereby, designing a new system or analyze an existing system.

Now the question is ‘Why should Task Analysis be used’?

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It is used for:

 identifying and isolating single idea or skill units for instruction,

 acting as an objective decision rule for including or excluding topics from instruction, and
provide guidance for sequencing topics in instruction.
 identifying the conditions under which the behaviour occurs
 determining a criterion of acceptable performance.

Thus, task analysis breaks down the difficulty of an activity into easier steps. The steps, are, then
arranged in a sequence and learners are taught each step in that sequence. The purpose is to take
the learner to the desired level of knowledge or skill. With task analysis, the teacher analyzes the
learner in terms of the task(s).

 What abilities does the learner need to know, understand and perform the tasks?
 What parts of the skill does the he/she already know?

Without a proper task analysis, it is not possible to justify what you intend to teach, nor is it
possible to decide on an optimal teaching strategy.

b) Principles of Task Analysis

Following are the general principles of task analysis:

 Task analysis is accomplished by making succeeding Levels of Analysis

 Each level of Analysis produces its own Units of Analysis
 Each succeeding Level of Analysis is more detailed than the one before it from which it
derives
 Each Level of Analysis and associated Units of Analysis follow logically and progressively
from those which precede them

When considering a task analysis, you can ask yourself initially:

 What duties does doing this job entail?

 What tasks are performed in each duty?
 What are the elements of each task?
 What are the acts (actions) which go to make up each element?

These names refer to a Task (Job) Analysis; when making a Task (Topic) Analysis, we call the
Task Elements by another name: Rules.

c) Types of Task Analysis

Three different types of task analysis each fulfilling entirely different needs are discussed here:

Topic Analysis:

Effective teaching can only be organized by analyzing the content into its various constituent
parts/elements. This involves a detailed analysis of intellectual tasks such as Ohm’s law,
Newton’s laws of motion, solving simultaneous equations, considering the character of Brutus in
Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, etc. An example of a topic analysis is given below (Fig. 1).

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 Force

Concept Newton’s laws of motion

Definition Effects Units First law Second law Third law

Speed Direction Shape Statement Application Inertia

Unit rest motion direction

Definition
Fig. 1 An example of a topic analysis

Job Analysis:
This involves a detailed analysis of tasks involving physical or psychomotor skills. The technique
concentrates on what is done when the task is carried out, e.g., setting up apparatus for preparing
oxygen gas; fitting film in a camera etc.

Skill Analysis:
This involves the further analysis of psychomotor tasks, but this time concentrating on how the
job is accomplished.

d) Components of Task Analysis

A task analysis is really an audit and inventory. In it, knowledge, skills and attitudes are identified
and isolated, with a view to ultimately synthesizing them into a hierarchical organization.
One way of doing this is to think of a topic or job as a hierarchical organization of levels or
components, each of which describe the job in successively greater detail. At the highest level is
the topic or job itself. This consists of a number of duties; each duty contains a number of tasks,
and each task consists of a number of task elements. Such an organization is schematically
illustrated in Fig.2.

In topic analysis and job analysis, the task element is the smallest meaningful unit; in
skills analysis, the task element is further broken down into ‘acts’.

To conclude, task analysis involves following activities:

 Identify the tasks for analysis.

 Break these tasks down into 4 to 8 subtasks. Specify these subtasks in terms of learning
outcomes.
 Represent these subtasks as a layered diagram ensuring that it is complete.
 Decide the level of detail into which to decompose ensuring that all the subtask
decompositions are considered consistently.
 Continue the decomposition until flows are more easily represented as a task flow diagram.
Ensure that the decompositions and numbering are consistent.
 Obtain feedback by presenting the analysis to someone else who has not been involved in the
decomposition.

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 Topic or Job

Duty1 Duty2 Duty3 Duty4 Duty5 Duty6 Duty7

Task1 Task2 Task3 Task4 Task5

Task Task Task

Element1 Element2 Element3

Acts

Fig.2. The Hierarchy of behavioural levels in a task analysis

Let us take an example:

In carrying out a job analysis of a psychomotor skill, for example, the job of an engine mechanic,
may comprise of a number of duties, like

 Tune the carburetor,

 Adjust the tappets,
 Change the oil, and,
 Clean the sparking plugs
Each of these duties is broken down into a number of separate tasks, all closely related to each
other in a sequence. For example, the duty of changing the oil comprises the following tasks:

 Jack-up the car,

 Place an oil container below the sump,
 Remove the sump drain plug,
 Allow the oil to drain away, and so on.

Finally, each task can be further broken down into a number of task elements. For example,
‘Jacking-up the car’, may involve the following task elements:

 Acquire the right kind of jack,

 Position it underneath the jack-up points,
 Manipulate the jack so that it raises the car to the required level

Even in more specifically cognitive or intellectual skills, a similar classification can be employed.

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e) Writing a Topic Analysis
Although there are a number of different ways of making a topic analysis, one of the most useful
methods of topic analysis involves identifying the topic, breaking down the topic into its
constituent parts, and arranging these parts, in a hierarchical form, on an analysis sheet.
In order to make a topic analysis, the teacher will need to collect together all the relevant subject
material and ensure that it is technically accurate and up to date. Once the subject material has
been collected, the next step is to refine and limit the topic that the student is required to learn,
and to ensure that it is as self-contained as possible. After delimiting, it must be broken down into
its smallest constituent parts, called task elements (usually referred to as ‘rules’ in case of topic
analysis). In order to identify the rules, the teacher-analyst should ask himself five critical
questions:

 What does he expect the student to do to demonstrate that he has learnt the topic?
 What questions does he expect the student to answer?
 What tasks, procedures and techniques does he expect him to perform, and at what level does
he expect them to be executed?
 What discriminations does he expect the student to make, and in what terms does he expect
these discriminations to be made?
 What total changes in behaviour does he expect, and in what form does he expect to observe
and measure them?
As the rules are written, they will be arranged into some type of natural sequence. This sequence
is likely to be based upon the teacher’s own subject expertise, his teaching experience, intuition,
and his own learning experience. Let us take an example:
Topic : Theory of conservation of energy

Duty : Ohm’s law

Tasks : Concepts of electric charge; electric current, electromotive force;

resistance; potential difference. The principle of Ohm’s law.

Task Elements : (Rules for the concept of electric charge)

 An electric charge is produced by friction
 The electron is the basic unit of charge
 The current is an impractical unit of charge
 The coulomb is the practical unit of charge
 Current is a flow of charge

Style of Writing Rules

• These should be stated simply and clearly
• These should contain one fact/idea
• These should begin with one action verb
• These need to be essential relevant to the job
• These should be short
• Emphasis on what has to be done and not what hasn’t
• These should be written at same level

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 Rules of Sequence in arranging task elements: Proceed from Known to Unknown;
Proceed from Simple to Difficult/Complex; Proceed from Concrete to Abstract; Proceed
from Observation to Reasoning. The task analyst should follow correct chronological order.

f) Writing a Job Analysis

A job analysis takes place at the workplace, and here, the master is the tradesman doing the job at
the required level of mastery. The task analyst observes what the tradesman does, how he does it,
what he does it with, what he does it to, and finally, why he does it. An illustration is given in
Fig.3.

Fig. 3: Job: Collection of Soil sample by Auger boring

Rule Writing for Job Analysis: Follow the same procedure for writing Task Elements as
the writing of Rules for a topic.

g) Writing a Skill Analysis

A skill analysis is concerned with how a job is done, in addition to what is done. The first step in
carrying out the skills analysis is to identify and record every detail of every act or body
movement that the master makes in doing the job. This will include such details as which parts of
the body are involved and over what distances, as well as identifying which senses are used in
order to accomplish each of the actions. Each piece of information must be seen within the five
stage activity framework of planning, initiating, controlling, terminating, and checking, and
particular care should be taken to identify and isolate the cues which begin and terminate each
cycle.
Rule Writing for Skill Analysis: Here, the analyst will break down each Task Element into
the Acts which is done when performing a job. Follow the same procedure for writing Task
Elements as the writing of Rules for a topic except it has at least one more level of analysis.

h) Conclusion
Task analysis is the process of carrying an ‘Audit’ or making an ‘Inventory’ of the knowledge,
skills and sometimes the attitudes associated with performing a job. There are three main types of
task analysis – topic, job and skill. In each case the fundamental process of analysis is carried out
by breaking down the topic, or job, or skill into increasingly detailed components called units of
analysis. Each ‘breakdown’ is called a Level of Analysis.

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Lesson Level
vi) Defining Performance Objectives (Learning Outcomes)
Performance objectives, the statements in terms of human performance, serve three basic functions:
 They help to define what must be learned. (objectives)
 They give some guidance as to what instructional methods/media should be employed to reach
the desired learning levels.
 They are of considerable assistance in planning assessment procedures.
For example, the statement of objective is ‘After the instructions are over, the students will be able to
define force, without the use of class notes, correctly in accordance with the instructions’. Thus, defining
performance objectives makes it essential to convey purposes of instruction as learning outcomes of
students to assist them in their study efforts and guide teachers in assessing students’ performance.
These objectives should always be formulated taking due cognizance of the relevant pre-requisite
knowledge and skills of the target population, together with its level of maturity and the nature of the
topic area in question.

In any system, there is a concern for effectiveness. Product is evaluated with respect to laid down
specifications. One cannot visualize a productive system where operations are carried out without
specifying the end product. In education, product is the learning outcomes of the students. learning
outcomes of students are specified in the form of instructional objectives (learning outcomes).

vii) Preparing Lesson Plans

A lesson plan refers to a plan of activities of what a teacher has to do in the classroom, i.e., a teaching
outline of important components of a lesson which are arranged in the sequence in which they are to be
presented during a lecture or demonstration. These include activities of both teacher and students and
references to relevant print and non-print materials to be used or the actual materials themselves in
complete form. Thus, lesson plans are required to assist students in their study effort for each
performance objective. Lesson plans assist in accomplishing the events of instruction.

viii) Developing and Selecting Materials and Media

Let us assume that a teacher has selected lecture, discussion, assignment and practical work for his/her
instructional unit. Each of these would require some instructional material to be integrated when it is
organized. Now the task of the instructional system designer is to make decisions about the instructional
materials and media needed. Materials refer to the print and non-print instructional media for conveying
instructional stimuli and content. Specification of materials to be produced or acquired is an important
aspect of this stage.
Development and selection of materials and media should take into account task variables, student
variables, size of the class or group, mode of imparting instruction, budgetary provisions and practical
factors so that optimum students’ learning can be achieved, and thus, instructional system achieves the
goal state.

ix) Assessing learners’ Performance

Assessment comprises those activities that are designed to measure learner attainment of learning
outcomes brought about as a result of an instructional unit/programme of some sort. Assessment of
learners’ performance is necessary for purposes of learners’ placement in flexible, modularized
programmes, diagnosis of their difficulties, checking of their progress, reporting progress to

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administrators and learners and evaluating instruction. Learners’ need to be assessed before the exposure
of self learning material (placement evaluation), during the course of instruction (formative evaluation)
and, after the course is over (summative evaluation). In addition, their recurring learning difficulties left
unresolved by the remedial prescriptions of formative evaluation need to be studied.

Learning outcome is the key stone in planning assessment of students’ performance. There must be a
match between the performance required during assessment and that described in the learning outcomes.
Any learner assessment procedure should ideally have high validity, reliability, practicability and fairness
and be useful to learners.

Validity is assured when the test item and learning outcome are congruent with each other. Reliability of
a test result is assured by measuring the consistency of the performance assessment and its dependability
over the time. In any case, assessment procedures should be realistically practical in terms of their cost,
time taken, and ease of application. Also, learners should find assessment useful. Feedback from
assessment provides a learner useful information about of his/her current strengths and weaknesses than
he/she might not otherwise have.

Variety of test items including short answer question, fill-in-blanks, essay type (both restricted response
and extended response), objective type (multiple choice, assertion-reasoning, matching type, true/false)
can be used for assessing learners’ progress in self learning material. Designers of self learning material
need to be trained in the writing of various types of test items.

System Level

x) Teacher Preparation

Teacher preparation is absolutely necessary. It should be an on-going activity. There is usually a need for
giving the teacher special training in the use of the new system (self learning material development here).
Training programmes need to be organized for updating and upgrading teachers in subject matter,
industrial practices, educational technology, educational planning and management etc.

Training programmes should be need – based and linked with the career growth opportunities. Teachers
need to be suitably deployed after undergoing training.

xi) Formative Evaluation

As the term implies, a formative evaluation takes place during the formation of learning, i.e., it monitors
the learning progress during instruction. Evaluation of a learner’s learning during a course, when changes
can be made in the transactions of subsequent instruction on the basis of current attainment. It provides
the teacher answers to questions like:

 Are the methodologies used appropriate?

 Do the learners follow instruction properly?
 Are the assumptions made about the entry level behaviour of the students valid? and so on.

Formative evaluation, thus, provides relevant information for revising and improving learning materials,
instructional plans, performance tests and indeed the operation of the entire instructional system.
Instructional materials, lessons etc., thus, need to be tried out on students having appropriate pre-requisite
learning to identify the gaps and weaknesses and for effecting modification for improvement. For this,
mastery tests for each unit of instruction pertaining to self learning material can be employed.

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xii) Field Testing/Revision

After all the units of a subject have been tried out, the system may be installed in one or more pilot
institutions for field testing. Field testing may reveal a few more areas of improvement. Such
improvements should be effected in the instructional design. A summative evaluation can then be
undertaken to assess the effectiveness of the new system when operating under normal conditions.

xiii) Summative Evaluation

Summative evaluation is concerned with the study of the effectiveness of the system of instruction as a
whole. It is normally carried out after the system has passed through the formative stage. Such a stage
may occur at the time of first field test or the same years later when a large number of learners have been
exposed by the new system. This type of evaluation is conducted at the end of a topic, term, course, or
programme for the purpose of grading, certification and evaluation of learner’s progress or for conducting
research on the effectiveness of curriculum, course of study or instructional plan.

The techniques used in this type of evaluation include norm or criterion – referenced tests for assessing
learner performance and grading in respect of intended learning outcomes pertaining to instruction
through self learning material. Criterion – referenced tests describe learner performance in terms of a
clearly defined and delimited domain of performance tasks whereas norm– referenced tests describe
learner performance in terms of his/her relative position held in some known group. Learner performance
is assessed relative to the other learners.

xiv) Installation and Diffusion

After an acceptable degree of merit has been reflected by summative evaluation (may be one or more),
the new system (subject curriculum) is ready for regular use and wide-spread adoption. During the stage
of ‘operational installation’, a number of practical matters need careful attention or adjustment. For
example, storage of instructional materials may require adjustments to handle these materials differently
in some educational institutions or time schedules planned for the new system may require adjustment to
fit the scheduling pattern for a particular educational institution.

Practice Task:

G. State the functions of a performance objective.

H. State the factors which need to be considered while developing/selecting instructional

materials.

I. The objective of Formative Evaluation is to monitor the learning progress:

a. during instruction
b. After the system has passed through True OR False
formative stage

J. Name the techniques used in summative evaluation.

K. List a number of practical matters which need final attention or adjustment

before operational installation of a system.

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Self-evaluation to Practice task

G. Performance objectives serve three basic functions:

 They help to define what must be learned. (objectives)
 They give some guidance as to what instructional methods/media should be
employed to reach the desired learning levels.
 They are of considerable assistance in planning assessment procedures.

H. Development and selection of materials and media should take into account task
variables, student variables, size of the class or group, mode of imparting
instruction, budgetary provisions and practical factors so that optimum students’
learning can be achieved.

I. Yes, you are True, objective of Formative Evaluation is to monitor the learning
progress during instruction.

J. The techniques used in summative evaluation include norm or criterion –

referenced tests for assessing student performance and grading in respect of
intended learning outcomes pertaining to classroom instruction,
laboratories/workshops.

K. A number of practical matters which need final attention or adjustment before

operational installation of a system may include: a) storage of materials may require
adjustments to handle materials differently, b) time schedules planned for the new
system may require adjustment to fit the scheduling pattern for a particular
educational institution etc.

You are Excellent! Now you may learn the next input (sub-topic 3) as
follows:

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Sub-Topic 3

4. Role of the Teacher in the Instructional System

As you have seen development of an instructional system involves broadly, the selection and integration
of instructional inputs, and, establishment of the effectiveness and the efficiency of the system through
testing, obviously, the teacher performs two different roles:

 Teacher as an input

As an input, the teacher’s role is to define performance objectives, carry out task analysis,
develop/select materials and deliver a lecture or guide students in a tutorial, or conduct
demonstrations or a discussion session. So, the teacher has to manifest different skills in order to
be versatile in performing the role of an input in the instructional context.

 Teacher as a systemist

In order to make instructional process effective, a systemist teacher depends upon his initiative
for selecting the most suitable instructional inputs from the available alternatives, evolving an
instructional system, thereby bringing improvement in the system. While performing this role,
he goes through a scientific process wherein he makes several decisions with regard to the
selection and integration of instructional inputs (deciding what methods are to be adopted for
teaching a subject; obtaining feedback from students about the teaching etc.) and develops an
instructional system.

5. Closure
For effective instructional design, a wholistic approach is adopted from a systems’ point of view where
the components of the system are interdependent and interrelated. Change in any component cannot be
done in isolation because the change made can affect the system either adversely or favourably.
Development of instructional design is a systematic process comprising a series of steps ranging from
need analysis to diffusion, ensuring maximum success in implementing such instruction in the actual
classroom situation.

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Practice Task

L. Define the role of a teacher in the instructional system.

M. Define the role of a systemist teacher in the instructional system.

Feedback/Self-evaluation to Practice task

L. Define performance objectives, carry out task analysis, develop/select materials and
deliver a lecture or guide students in a tutorial, or conduct demonstrations or a
discussion session.

M. A systemist teacher employs a scientific process for making decisions with regard to
the selection and integration of instructional inputs (deciding what methods are to be
adopted for teaching a subject; obtaining feedback from students about the teaching
etc.) and develops an instructional system.

You are Excellent!

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References and Bibliography
Cole, PG & Chan, LKG (1987). Teaching Principles and Practice. New York, Prentice Hall, 210-240p.
Filebeck, R (1974). Systems in Teaching and Learning. Nebraska, Lincoln: Professional Educators
Publishing Inc., 137pp.
Edwards, C (1995). A Systematic Approach to Instructional Design. Amazon Business.
Gagne, RM & Briggs, LJ (1974). Principles of instructional design. New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston, Inc., 270pp.
Hackos, JoAnn T & Redish, Janice C (1998). User and Task Analysis for Interface Design. Wiley.
Kemp, JE (1977). Instructional Design. California: Fearon Pitman Publishers Inc., 162pp.
Kirwan, B. and Ainsworth, L. (Eds.) (1992). A guide to task analysis. Taylor and Francis.
Malhotra, MM (2010). Teaching Learning Presentation in NITTTR, Chandigarh. Unpublished.
Merriënboer, Jeroen JG Van & Kirschner, PA (2017). Ten Steps to Complex Learning: A
Systematic Approach to Four-Component Instructional Design. Amazon Business.
Percival, F and Ellington, H (1984). A Handbook of Educational Technology. London: Kogan page, 9 –
122p.
Romiszowski, AJ (1984). Designing Instructional Systems. London: Kogan Page, 415pp.
Domenic Screnci. Instructional Design. https://www.bu.edu/ctl/files/2009/05/Teaching-Talk-
Instructional-Design.pdf.
Sodhi, GS & Dutt, Sunil (1995). Teaching learning – A Process Approach. Chandigarh: Samir Publishers.
Szidon, K & Franzone, E (2009). Task Analysis. Madison, WI: National Professional Development
Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin.
Wilson, Bob (1987). The systematic design of Training Courses. Vol. 1, USA: Parthenon Publishing.
CTTE: Support for Developing and Analyzing Task Models for Interactive System Design by
Giulio Mori, Fabio Paterno, and Carmen Santoro
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_analysis as downloaded on 08.08.2017.
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/task-analysis.html as downloaded on 08.08.2017.

Support Learning Resources:

 Video film on ‘Systematic Approach to Instructional Design’ developed/recorded by
Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video films on ‘Task Analysis – Concept’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt,
NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video films on ‘Task Analysis – Types’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt,
NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video films on ‘Task Analysis – Rules’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil Dutt,
NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Learning Outcomes - Concept’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) PK
Tulsi, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Learning Outcomes – Cognitive Domain’ developed/recorded by Professor
(Dr.) PK Tulsi, NITTTR, Chandigarh.
 Video film on ‘Evaluation – Concept & Types’ developed/recorded by Professor (Dr.) Sunil
Dutt, NITTTR, Chandigarh.

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Web Resources
1. Designing & Developing Curriculum with Technology - Tools: Content and Resource
Curation/Creation: http://online.tarleton.edu/Home_files/EDTC_538/Week_3/Week_32.html.
2. Educational Technology: Systematic Approach to Teaching.
https://www.slideshare.net/ruby011965/ed-tech-ppt.
3. Systematic Approach to Teaching. https://www.slideshare.net/jeiiculaste/systematic-approach-to-
teaching-73045107.
4. Filep, RT (2008). A Systematic Approach to Instruction: Innovative and Sensitive.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09523987008547776.
5. Systematic Approach to Teaching (2008). http://pearlagpalo.blogspot.in/2012/08/systematic-
approach-to-teaching.html.
6. Visconti, Maria Nina (1984). The systematic approach to instruction: an effective instructional
strategy for learning; Modified on 23rd May, 2017. https://spectrum.library.concordia.ca/5367/.
7. Batulan, Giselle (2014). Systematic Approach to Teaching.
https://prezi.com/um94i2pjkhkz/systematic-approach-to-teaching/.
8. https://www.usability.gov/how-to-and-tools/methods/task-analysis.html
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_analysis
10. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/task-analysis.html
11. http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/sites/autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/files/TaskAnalyis_Steps_0.pdf
12. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02906216.
13. https://www.slideshare.net/DCU_MPIUA/task-analysis-46025169.
14. Designing & Developing Curriculum with Technology.
https://online.tarleton.edu/Home_files/EDTC_538/Week_3/Week_32.html.
15. Course Design – A Systematic Approach.
https://www.niu.edu/facdev/_pdf/guide/prepare/course_design_a_systematic_approach.pdf

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