Chapter II

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter will introduce you to the different literature and studies that can lead

to the understanding of the different variables.

Related Literature

According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization (2008), TVL refers to a scope of learning knowledge that happens in a

wide variety of settings and is focused on building up the abilities required for specific

occupations in the labor market. As mentioned in the study of Mensah & Alagaraja

(2013), the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) notes

that TVL focuses on specific traits rather than general education and plays a huge part

in "preparing young people for work, developing skills of adults and responding to the

labor market needs of an economy". As an alternative to traditional academic education

and as a means for bridging the skills gap, TVL has increased national and global level

prominence in the last decade.

Related Studies

In the study of Mensah & Alagaraja (2013), TVL has a renewed interest as a

direct contributor and an alternative way to improve one’s skills and have the capacity to

work in developed and less developed countries. Due to the changes in the global

market, the nature and content of work, and the advances in technology the employers

in the labor market have been demanding the employees and potential labor market
entrants of complex skills. As a result, countries have started to systematically

investigate their educational system and how such systems can be.

Age

Donald Super’s career developmental theory in 1953 shows how people mature

in time and how it affects the career decision and adaptation in a life-span approach.

His theory consists of five stages: growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance and

decline. According to Leung (2008), each stage has a corresponding vocational

development tasks one has to successfully manage which is arranged chronologically

according to its age range.

For the purpose of this study, exploring one’s role will be examined. This stage

takes place from age 17 to 25 where a person starts to get jobs and begin making

serious decisions that will impact their future. They have these ideas whether to finish

secondary school and get a job or got to college, and what path should they take. Super

emphasizes how these in their late teens and early 20s are trying out different roles

through classes, work experiences and hobbies. They now have the intellectual

capacity and resources to explore the ideas of their childhood.

Sex

According to Fizer (2013), careers for both men and women have changed

throughout the decades, as well as the culture and economy. Jobs have become more

diverse and have shifted from one area to another. Men have a more liberal and

progressive style of thinking. Women prefer a hierarchical style of thinking

(Mihyeon,2009).
Type of High School

According to Jenkins and Lanning (2002), public and private schools are

separate institutions that follow guidelines. Private and Public schools have the intention

of giving their students the best education within their means.

In the study of Tan (2009), McDonough differentiated private high school and

public high school. He cited that private high schools are smaller, and have larger

percentages of students in the academic track than public schools do. Private schools

help students develop their college aspirations better than public schools through a

greater proportion of counselors per students, who encourage and influence a large

proportion of their students in their college planning (Tan, 2009).

Paulsen (1990), as mentioned in the study of Tan (2009), concludes that “based

on characteristics of student background and ability alone, individuals are more likely to

attend college” when “their own educational or occupational aspiration is higher”. He

mentioned that when a student has a higher aspiration in education, he is likely to go to

a higher and high-cost institution, an institution located a greater distance from home, a

private (rather than public) institution, and a four-year institution (Tan, 2009).

Parent’s Monthly Income

According to Hearn, family income found to be strongly related to career choice.

Parental income is also potentially endogenous either because correlated with

unobservable characteristics explaining educational performance, or because the

parental education effect is through income. Family income is another aspect of family

background that influences the career development of youth (Mortimer et al., 1992).
Parental Level of Education

Parental educational attainment is the highest grade level completed by parents,

measured from high school to professional school. According to Johnson et al. found in

the study of Boxer et al. (2010), the parents’ educational attainment and fathers’

occupational status were related positively to their children’s adulthood occupational

status. With the involvement of the parents, the children’s performance and levels of

educational attainment are positively affected.

According to Davis-Kean, parental educational level is an important indicator in

the education and behaviour of a child. Positive relations between parents’ levels of

education and parents’ expectations for their children suggest that more highly

educated parents actively encourage their children and have higher expectations for

their academic achievement (Boxer et al., 2010). Filipinos are known to be consistent

with the cultural norm of relatively strict obedience within the family. Hence, they yield

high level of rules for their children and are expecting for them to adhere to their

expectations (Blair, 2013). Also in McLloyd’s review, parents who are experiencing

difficult economic times have children who are more pessimistic about their educational

and vocational futures (Boxer et al., 2010). Parents with high education attainment

provide higher quality of learning to their children. A child with less-educated parents

does not have access to a higher quality of learning from their parents thus he depends

on the teacher for an access to a better learning regardless of the teacher’s

qualification.
 According to Young and Smith as found in the study of Gooding (2001), there

has been an increase to the average educational level of parents since the year 1970.

This is an indication that there is a change in the family’s ability to support and

encourage education for their children. For example, recent statistics show the

percentage of fathers with less than a high school education decreased from 43% in

1970 to 19% in 1990. During the same 20-year period, the percentage of students’

fathers with a bachelor’s degree or higher increased from 13% to 23%. The percentage

of mothers with less than a high school diploma decreased from 38% to 17% between

1970 and 1990 while the percentage with a bachelor’s degree or higher doubled. This

increase had an impact on student academic achievement (Gooding, 2001).

LeVine, Stevenson and Baker, and Youniss and Smollar all agreed to the fact

that a mother’s education has an impact to the educational endeavors of their children.

The study of Stevenson and Baker showed that well-educated mothers’ expectation

levels are higher and they have more demands of academic achievement for their

children (Gooding, 2001). Mothers who have high-level of education are more likely to

become their own children’s role model.

Many studies have mentioned that the educational attainments of fathers are

more important than that of the mothers’. According to Gooding (2001), research has

shown that fathers who have a higher level of educational attainment are more likely to

have successful children than those fathers who are less educated. In Oh-Hwang’s

cross-cultural study, having Americans and Koreans as his respondents, he found out

that the fathers’ educational attainment level has a big impact in children’s intelligence
and achievement scores. He concluded on his study that children who are intelligent

and are high achievers have fathers’ who are well-educated (Gooding, 2001).

In the study of Blair (2013) on Filipino Parental Involvement and Children’s

Educational Performance, parents with a higher level of educational attainment

positively influence their children of higher grades. This is consistent with family capital

explanations of children’s school performance, as higher levels of parental educational

attainment can be beneficial to children’s academic success in both direct and indirect

manners (Blair, 2013). The less education level the parents have, the less likely they

are to be involved.

Parents regardless of their educational attainment dream for their children to

enter prestigious college and universities. For some parents who have low educational

attainment they tend to choose TVL for immediate employment. In the presentation

made by Mr. Jesus L.R. Mateo, the Undersecretary for Planning and Field Operations of

the Department of Education in the Philippines, a pie chart was presented showing the

distribution of TVL graduates by education attainment before training in the year 2012

(prior to the implementation of K-12 in the Philippines). Covering 57% of the chart is the

high school undergraduate and 19% are the college undergraduate indicating that 76%

of the students enrolled decided not to finish schooling and studied Technical

Vocational Livelihood (TVL) to financially help their families. In 2013, 43% of the

reasons for taking TVL was because of employment, 38% was to gain skills, 7% was for

upgrading skills and 10% were varied reasons. People clearly enrolled to this course for

immediate employment reasons. For the school year 2016-2017, there are already
602,951 Senior High School students who enrolled under the track of Technical

Vocational Livelihood (Mateo, 2017).

Parent’s Occupation

The children's careers are influenced by the parents intentionally and

inadvertently. Wattles (2009) notes that as children move to the adolescent's stage they

search for career cues by looking to their parents for career advice or as role models.

An effective parental approach to this is to inspire the student to explore a diverse set of

potential career paths or remain with what they think the parents will approve of as a

good career.

Pummel et al (2004), notes that many people are third or fourth generations of

their families' career heritage. This is because they have an insider's glimpse into their

parent's occupations making it better for their breakthrough in to the industry. Parents

whose jobs offer great satisfaction or provide a comfortable lifestyle attract their children

to take after their careers easily. Contrastively, parents whose jobs is displeasing and

full of complains and struggle repel their children from taking after their careers thus

seek more fulfilling roles (Ferry, 2006).

Personality Factor

Several studies show that understanding one's personality traits and characters

can lead to career fulfillment and success rather than an individual's passion.

Personality, as cited in the study of Fizer (2013), is an important factor in choosing a

career. Hence, students prefer to choose a major that suits to their personality types.
 According to Sear and Gordon, it is advantageous to a person if he is aware of

his own personality because it increases self-awareness and helps in choosing his

career in life (Gavo, 2014). Therefore, personality influences our choice in life including

education and career. STUDY

Holland's (1985) theory of personality styles shows six types of personality

known as the RIASEC or the Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising and

Conventional. This is widely used to connect personality types and career fields. This

theory establishes a classification system that matches personality characteristics and

personal preferences to job characteristics. Holland suggests that the choice of

vocation is an expression of personality. For example, a person with a realistic

personality prefers manual occupations which require working with hands, tools,

machines, and technology, and have a narrow scope of interests with a closed system

of beliefs and values. He would prefer practical and structured solutions when working

with troubleshooting and problem solving. This type of person likely falls to become an

automotive engineer or electrician (Aljojo, 2016). In the study of Alkheli (2016), he

mentioned that people choose a career where their personality is suitable and is

congruent to the profession. It will be more comforting enough to the career they

choose.

Environmental Factor

a. Parents Encouragement

Parents serve as a major influence in their children’s career development and

career decision- making. According to Schultheiss, they encourage their children to

analyze first their vocational interest, abilities and chosen career, and subsequently help

them to reflect on career choice (Kumar, 2016). Trusty points out that high parental

involvement, including an active interest in children's school subjects, homework,

grades, activities, emotional well-being and future aspirations, predict positive attitudes

towards school and the future, better grades and better career decision making skills

(Njeri, 2013). Kracke and Noack found out that positive encouragement by the parents

perceives as support to the children and shows interest in career exploration activities

(Kumar, 2016). Children consider this as motivation in career preparation process.

Schultheiss reported that despite parent’s positive encouragement to their child’s

choice of career, some individuals’ choices are strongly controlled by their parents as

well as their career actions (Kumar 2016). According to Young et al., these parents

intended to assert their personal ideas regardless of the child’s own desire of

occupation (Kumar, 2016). Kracke and Noack found that these children are more

passive in the process of career preparation. Mortimers et al., reported that parents who

never involved in career preparation process have children that are slow progress in

career development process that results in less stable career paths (Kumar, 2016).

Parents want happiness and success in their child’s life and one factor which influence

happiness and success is career choice. As mentioned in the study of Olaosebikan and

Olusakin (2014), Taylor pointed out that parents consider themselves the most

influential when it comes to the career development and decisions of their children.

Furthermore, Filipinos are known to be respectful thus they follow the advice of

their parents about choosing a career and sacrifice for the family. Pascual (2014)

agreed that “Out of respect and loyalty, it may not be appropriate to express personal
desires; rather, one may alter one’s interests to maintain harmony.” As a sign of

respect, Filipino children want to do well for the sake of the family, follow parents’.

b. Teachers/Peers/Classmates Encouragement

There are many people in a student’s life that can influence their career

decisions. Most of the time, parents and friends play a large role, but coaches and

teachers can also have a huge impact on a student’s life (Wildman and Torres, 2002).

Stookey (2004) found that the advice counselors gave involved mostly the application

processes and funding problems, while it was the classroom teachers that gave more

academic advice.

Teachers and coaches can help a student to do better in school, to get into

college or to get on a better path. The impact that these adults have on young students

can have a major influence on their career path. Academic or athletic coaches are role

models for students and also play a big part in molding future generations. Coaches

help prepare young men and women for the challenges outside of high school by

exposing them to challenges including situations in and out of the classroom (Blum,

1995). How students react to these lessons early in life can play a big part in what

decisions students make down the road. A bad role model or coach can have a

negative influence leading to bad life choices, while a good role model or coach can

have a positive influence leading to good decisions.

c. Community/Church Encouragement

Aside from the encouragement children gets from their family, peers and school,

community also plays a big role in influencing them with their choice of career (Fizer
2013). Young adults, through interaction with the community, learn about and explore

careers that ultimately lead to career choice.

Stebleton, as mentioned in the study of Gavo (2014), found out that spirituality

and religion also have a role in career choice. It relates positively to desirable career

development outcomes such as career decisions. Duffy and Dick (2009) added that a

majority of the people with spiritual or religious commitment faith plays a role in the

career decision making process (Gavo, 2014). The interdependence of family, school,

and community culture played a critical role in shaping the youth's occupational choice.

The economic and social circumstances of the broader community colored and

influenced the youth's perceptions of appropriate career choices.

Opportunity Factor

Opportunity shapes the career choice of the students. Opportunity may influence

how students perceive their future in terms of the reasonable probability of a future in

particular career fields. The issue of poverty has played an important determining role in

the opportunities available to all.

Studies have shown that irrespective of parental and peer group influence,

children choose jobs that are highly rated in the society (Oyebode, 2010).

The 11 financial aspects that students consider include high earning potential,

benefits, and opportunities for advancement (Beggs et al., 2008). Given the current

economy, and American culture, many students think they need a high paying job to

make it in society these days (Fizer, 2013).

 Department of Education (DepEd) has formed a Technical Vocational unit in the

Bureau of Secondary Education. For them, this unit needs strengthening as one of the

three key strands that will prepare high school graduates by arming them with skills for

employment.

Contrary to what most people think, the K-12 program trains students in joining

the workforce as early as 7th grade. The TLE or technological livelihood education

subjects in junior high school or JHS follow the rules of the Technical Education and

Skills Development Authority or TESDA. This will allow the students to earn a national

certification (NC) required by the industry.

Each TLE subject in Grades 7 and 8 is exploratory. This means each student has

the chance to explore the following four main courses of TLE.

1) Agri-Fishery Arts

2) Home Economics

3) Information and Communications Technology (ICT)

4) Industrial Arts

Students can choose a maximum of four TLE mini courses in Grade 7 and

another four in Grade 8 that the school offers per locality’s needs and school assets.

In Grades 7 and 8, the student does not yet earn a Certificate of Competency

(COC). The exploratory courses are a prelude to earning a COC in Grade 9 and an NC

I/II in 10th grade.

 In Grade 9, the student chooses one course to focus on from among the

exploratory courses he chose in 7th and 8th grades. Under this level, the student can

earn a COC. In Grade 10, the student pursues the TLE specialization course he chose

in 9th grade. This allows him to get at least an NC Level I or II (NC I or II) based on the

TLE course he chose.

JHS graduates or incoming Grade 11 students will study core compulsory

subjects and a required specialty. They can choose from the three main tracks such as

Academic, Technical–Vocational-Livelihood (TVL), and Sports and Arts.

If the student picks the TVL track as specialty in senior high school or SHS,

he/she will continue the TLE course he/she studied in 9th and 10th grades. This will

allow him/her to earn NC II that he/she can use as credentials in applying for a job if

he/she wants to work after SHS graduation. Yet if the student will study further, he/she

can pursue the TVL track and earn a bachelor’s degree in a related field.