Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
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SUBJECT CODE: EC 6802
Prepared by
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Affiliating
Sl. No. Name of the Faculty Designation
College
1 Prof.S.Vellaisamy AP/ECE SCADCET
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ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI-25
SYLLABUS COPY
REGULATION 2013
300 3
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UNIT II MOBILE NETWORK LAYER 9
TCP enhancements for wireless protocols - Traditional TCP: Congestion control, fast
retransmit/fast recovery, Implications of mobility - Classical TCP improvements:
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Indirect TCP, Snooping TCP,Mobile TCP, Time out freezing, Selective
retransmission, Transaction oriented TCP - TCP over 3G wireless networks.
UNIT V 4G NETWORKS 9
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
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TEXT BOOKS:
REFERENCES:
1. Erik Dahlman, Stefan Parkvall, Johan Skold and Per Beming, "3G Evolution
HSPA and LTE for Mobile Broadband”, Second Edition, Academic Press, 2008.
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Elsevier 2011.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
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F Unit II MOBILE NETWORK LAYER -Part B 28
I
A
Unit IV WIRELESS WIDE AREA NETWORK -Part A 61
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AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE SUBJECT
AIM :
OBJECTIVES:
OUTCOMES:
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Upon completion of the course, the students will be able to
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Design and implement wireless network environment for any application using
latest wireless protocols and standards
Conversant with the latest 3G/4G and WiMAX networks and its architecture.
Implement different type of applications for smart phones and mobile devices
with latest network strategies.
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SCAD GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Detailed Lesson Plan
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and LTE for Mobile Broadband”, Second Edition, Academic Press, 2008.
R2. Anurag Kumar, D.Manjunath, Joy kuri, “Wireless Networking”, First Edition, Elsevier
2011.
R3.Simon Haykin , Michael Moher, David Koilpillai, “Modern Wireless Communications”,
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First Edition, Pearson Education 2013
Hours Books
SlNo Unit Topic / Portions to be Covered Required Cumulativ
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/ Planned Referred
e Hrs
Introduction-WLAN technologies:
1 1 Infrared, UHF narrowband, spread 1 1 TB1
spectrum
2 1 IEEE802.11: System architecture, TB1
1 2
protocol architecture
Physical layer, MAC layer, MAC
3 1 2 4 TB1
Management,
5 1 1 6 TB1
Hiper LAN: WATM
6 1 BRAN ,HiperLAN2 1 7 TB1
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Bluetooth: Architecture, Radio Layer,
7 1 Baseband layer, Link manager Protocol, 2 9 TB1
security
8 1 1 10 TB1
IEEE802.16
WIMAX: Physical layer, MAC, Spectrum
9 1 1 11 TB1
allocation for WIMAX
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13 2 IPV6-Network layer in the internet 1 16 TB1
20 3 Indirect TCP, 1 24 TB 1
23 3 Selective retransmission 1 27 TB 1
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25 3 TCP over 3G wireless networks 1 29 TB 1
28 4 3G-MSC 1 32 TB2
30 4 3G-GGSN 1 34 TB2
31 4 SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC 1 35 TB2
32 4 Firewall, 1 36 TB2
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DNS/DHCP-High speed Downlink RB1
33 4 1 37
packet access (HSDPA
UNIT V
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4G NETWORKS
35 5 Introduction 1 39 TB2
4G vision
36 5 4G features and challenges 1 40 TB2
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37 5 Applications of 4G 1 41 TB2
Total hours: 48
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UNIT – I
WIRELESS LAN
PART-A
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power management and association, dissociation and reassociation processes
for registration connection management.
2. What are the functions of physical layer of IEEE 802.11 system.
1.Encoding/Decoding of signals
2.Preamble generation/removal
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3.Bit transmission/reception
4.Includes specification of the transmission medium.
3. Write the expansion of Wimax and features of the system
Wimax-Worldwide Inter-operability for Microwave access.
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Features:
Service area range 50km
Very high spectrum utilization;3.8 bit/Hz
Upto 280 Mbps per BS.
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5. State the difference between on ESS and a BSS on the IEEE 802.11 wireless
LAN.
The basic service set (BSS) is a set of stations controlled by one access point.
The connection of set of BSS creates extended service set (ESS).
Design
Cost
10. State the difference between on ESS and a BSS on the IEEE 802.11
wireless
LAN.
The basic service set (BSS) is a set of stations controlled by one access
point.
The connection of set of BSS creates extended service set (ESS).
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PART B
The IEEE 802.11 MAC layer covers three functional areas: reliable data
delivery, medium access control, and security.
Medium Access Control
The 802.11 working group considered two types of proposals for a MAC
algorithm: distributed access protocols, which, like Ethernet, distribute the
decision to transmit over all the nodes using a carrier-sense mechanism; and
centralized access protocols, which involve regulation of transmission by a
centralized decision maker.
The end result for 802.11 is a MAC algorithm called DFWMAC (distributed
foundation wireless MAC) that provides a distributed access control mechanism
with an optional centralized control built on top of that, below figure illustrates the
architecture.
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A
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MAC Frame
The following figure shows the 802.11 frame format when no security features
are used. This general format is used for all data and control frames, but not all fields
are used in all contexts. The fields are as follows:
1.Frame Control: Indicates the type of frame and provides control information
2.Duration/Connection ID: If used as a duration field, indicates the time (in
microseconds) the channel will be allocated for successful transmission of a MAC
frame. In some control frames, this field contains an association, or connection,
identifier.
3. Addresses: The number and meaning of the 48-bit address fields depend on
context.
4. Sequence Control: Contains a 4-bit fragment number subfield used for
fragmentation and reassembly, and a 12-bit sequence number used to number
frames sent between a given transmitter and receiver.
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5.Frame Body: Contains an MSDU or a fragment of an MSDU. The MSDU is a LLC
protocol data unit or MAC control information.
6.Frame Check Sequence: A 32-bit cyclic redundancy check.
7. Protocol Version: 802.11 version, currently version 0.
8.Type: Identifies the frame as control, management, or data.
9.Subtype: Further identifies the function of frame.
10.To DS: The MAC coordination sets this bit to 1 in a frame destined to the
distribution system.
11. From DS: The MAC coordination sets this bit to 1in a frame leaving the
distribution system.
12. More Fragments: Set to 1 if more fragments follow this one.
13.Retry: Set to 1 if this is a retransmission of a previous frame.
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MAC frame types.
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Control Frames: Control frames assist in the reliable delivery of data frames.There
are six control frame subtypes:
1. Power Save-Poll (PS-Poll)
2. Request to Send (RTS)
3. Clear to Send (CTS)
4. Acknowledgment:
5. Contention-Free (CF)-End
6. CF-End + CF-Ack
Data Frames There are eight data frame subtypes, organized into two groups.
The first four subtypes define frames that carry upper-level data from the source
station to the destination station. The four data-carrying frames are as follows:
1. Data
2. Data + CF-Ack
3. Data + CF-Poll
4. Data + CF-Ack + CF-Poll
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2. Explain MAC Sub layer in detail.
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senses the channel to see if the channel is available both physically
and virtually.
If the channel is virtually busy because a NAV signal is turned
on, the operation is delayed until the NAV signal has
disappeared.
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When the channel is virtually available, the MAC layer
senses the PHY condition of the channel. If the channel is idle,
as shown in figure, the terminal waits for a DIFS period and
transmits the data. If the channel is sensed busy, MAC runs a
random number generator to set a backoff clock. During the
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The IEEE 802.11 recommends both CSMA/CA based on the
clear channel assignment signal from the PHY layer and CSMA/CA
with ACK for MAC recovery.The below figure represents a sample
operation of the CSMA/CA with ACK in a communication
between a terminal and an AP.
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infrastructure network
In the RTS/CTS mechanism in the IEEE 802.11 MAC sublayer,
shown in the following figure a terminal ready for transmission
sends a short RTS packet (20 bytes) identifying the source
address, destination address, and the length of the data to be
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transmitted.
The destination station will respond with a CTS packet (16
bytes) after a SIFS period. The source terminal receives the CTS
and sends the data after an-other SIFS. The destination terminal
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Fig: Implementation of RTS/CTS mechanism in the IEEE
802.11
. Therefore, the source terminal sends its packet with no
contention. After completion of the transmission, the destination
terminal sends an acknowledgment packet, and the NAV signal
is terminated, opening the contention for other users. This method
provides a unique access right to a terminal to transmit without any
contention.
The PCF mechanism in the IEEE 802.11 MAC sublayer,
shown in figure 11.15, is built on top of the DCF using CSMA to
support contention-free time bounded and asynchronous
transmission operations.
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Fig:Implementation PCF on top of the DCF in the IEEE
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802.11
This is another optional MAC service that has complicated the
MAC layer, and all manufacturers have not chosen to implement it
in their products.
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3. Explain the Physical and MAC layer of Bluetooth with neat sketch.
OR
Explain physical and MAC layer of Wi max .
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A 2-level GFSK modem with a transmission rate of 1 Mbps that hops 79
channels in the frequency range of 2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz is used in the
Bluetooth specification.
Responsible for transferring bits between adjacent systems over the air
interface.Receives a bit stream from the MAC sublayer and transmits the bit
stream via radio waves to the associated station or vice versa
Regulatory requirements
The Bluetooth transceivers operate in 2.4 GHz ISM band.
Products implementing the reduced frequency band will not work with the
products that implement full band.
Transmitter Characteristics
The equipment can be divided into three power class categories. GFSK
(Gaussian Frequency Shift Keying) is used with Bandwidth Time (BT) product of
0.5.
Receiver Characteristics
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The Bluetooth receiver sensitivity level is approximately -70 dBm or better.
The receiver should have the capability to measure its signal strength and
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determine whether the transmitter should increase or decrease the power. This is
the RSSI measurement.
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Frame Format:
The overall frame format is shown below. Access code consists of 72 bits.
Header field consists of 54 bits. Payload field consists of 0-2744 bits.
Access field consists of,
4-bit preamble
64-bit synchronization word
4-bit trailer
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Fig : Frame Format of the Bluetooth packet
Header Field:
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The following figure shows the overall format of the HIPERLAN
activities after completion of the HIPERLAN-1. HIPERLAN-2, which
aims at higher data.
the data rate, which was an order of magnitude higher than the
original 802.11.
The following figure shows the overall architecture of an ad
hoc network. InHIPER-LAN-1's ad hoc network architecture, a
multihub topology is considered that also allows overlay of two
WLANs.
As shown in this figure, the multihop routing ex-
tends the HIPERLAN communication beyond the radio range of a
single node. Each HIPERLAN node is either a forwarder,
designated by "F," or a nonforwarder. A nonforwarder node
simply accepts the packet that is intended for it. A forwarder node
retransmits the received packet, if the packet does not have its own
node address, to other terminals in its neighborhood. Each
nonforwarder node should select at least one of its neighbors as a
forwarder.
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Fig : Ad hoc network architecture in the HIPERLAN-1
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"F" indicating that they have forwarding connections. There are
two overlapping HIPERLANs, A and B, and terminal 4 is a member
of both WLANs which can also act as a bridge between the
two.
This architecture does not have an infrastructure, and it has
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a large coverage through the multihop operation.
HIPERLAN-1 did not generate any product development, but
it had some pioneering impact on other standards. The use of 5
GHz unlicensed bands, first considered in HIPERLAN-1 is used by
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the terminal access has three phases when the channel becomes
available.
These phases, shown in figure are prioritization phase,
contention phase, and transmission phase.
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Fig :Channel Access cycle in the HIPERLAN-1
Bluetooth is the first popular technology for short range ,adhoc networking
that is designed for an integrated and data voice application. Unlike WAN
Bluetooth has lower data rate ,but it has an embedded mechanism to support
voice application.
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Unlike 3G cellular system ,Bluetooth is an inexpensive personal area
adhoc network operating in unlicensed bands and owned by user. It avoids the
multiple short range wiring surrounding today’s personal computing devices.
Features:
Fast frequency hopping to reduce interference.
Adaptive output power to minimize interference.
Short data packets to maximize capacity.
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Fast acks allowing for low coding overhead for links.
Flexible packet types that support a wide application range.
CVSD (Continuous Variable Slope Delta Modulation) voice coding that can
withstand high bit error rates.
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Transmission/reception interface tailored to minimize power consumption
Bluetooth Architecture:
MASTER –M
SLAVE -S
STAND BY-S
PARKED/HOLD- P
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PICONET:
1.MASTER –M
2.SLAVE -S
3.STAND BY-S
4.PARKED/HOLD- P
The Bluetooth topology however allows “s” terminals to participate in more than
one piconet.An “M”terminal in the Bluetooth can handle seven simultaneous and upto
200 active slaves in piconet.
If access is not available a terminal can enter the SB mode waiting to join the
piconet later.A radio can also be in PARKED/HOLD in a low power connection.
IN the parked mode the terminal releases its MAC address ,while in the SB state
it’s keeps it MAC address.
RF LAYER:
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It specifies the radio modem used for transmission and reception of the
information.
BASE BAND LAYER:
It specifies the link control at bit and packet level. it specifies coding and
encryption for packet assembly and frequency hopping operation.
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It provides connection oriented and connectionless data services to the upper
layer protocol these services include protocol multiplexing segmentation,
reassembly and
group abstraction for data packets upto 64kb Length. The audio signal is directly
transferred from the application to the baseband.
SERVICE DISCOVERY PROTOCOL:(SDP)
It finds the characteristics of the service and connects two or more
Bluetooth devices to support a service such as faxing, printing teleconferencing
or e commerce facilities.
TELEPHONY CONTROL PROTOCOL:(TCP)
It defines the call control signaling and mobility management for the
establishment of speech for cordless telephone application. using these
protocols legacy telecommunication application can be developed.
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UNIT II
Introduction - Mobile IP: IP packet delivery, Agent discovery, tunneling and encapsulation,
IPV6-bNetwork layer in the internet- Mobile IP session initiation protocol - mobile ad-hoc
network: Routing, Destination Sequence distance vector, Dynamic source routing.
Part – A
1.What are the possible locations of tunnel end point in mobile IP? (Or)What
are the possible locations for care of Address?
Tunnel is a secure path from HA to FA that ensures the successful
delivery of packets to the MN.Care of Address is a termination point of a tunnel
toward a MH, for data grams forwarded to the MH while it is away from home.
registers with.
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1. Foreign agent care-of address: the address of a foreign agent that MH
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5.Differentiate Foreign and Home Agent in Mobile IP technology.
Home Agent (HA)
System in the home network of the MN, typically a router
Registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA
Foreign Agent (FA)
System in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router
Forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the default router for
the MN
6. What are the three basic mechanism associated with Mobile IP?
Mobile IP is associated with the following three basic mechanisms:
• Discovering the care-of-address
• Registering the care-of-address
• Tunnelling to the care-of-address
7. Explain usage of Table driven Routing Protocols and Give types of Table
driven Routing Protocols?
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Maintains global topology information in the form of tables at every node;
Updated frequently in order to maintain consistent and accurate n/w state
information.
Types:
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Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol(DSDV),
Wireless Routing Protocol(WRP),
Source Tree Adaptive Routing Protocol (STAR)
Cluster Head Gateway switch routing Protocol(CGSR)
8. Define Dynamic Source routing protocol.
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PART-B
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To minimize the routing updates, variable sized update packets are used
depending on the number of topological changes.
Cluster-head Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)
CGSR is a clustered multi-hop mobile wireless network with several
heuristic routing schemes.
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A distributed cluster-head (CH) selection algorithm is used to elect a node
as the cluster head.
It modifies DSDV by using a hierarchical CH to route traffic.
Gateway nodes serve as bridge nodes between two or more clusters.
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A packet sent by a node is first routed to its CH and then the packet is
routed from the CH to a gateway of another cluster and then to the CH
and so on, until the destination cluster head is reached. The packet is then
transmitted to the destination as shown in below figure.
Frequent changes in the CH may affect the performance of the routing protocol.
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The disadvantage of using this scheme is that frequent changes adversely
affect performance as nodes spend more time selecting a CH rather than
relaying packets.
Hence the Least Cluster Change (LCC) clustering algorithm is used rather
than CH selection every time the cluster membership changes.
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If a node is not sending messages, it must send a HELLO message within
a specified time to ensure connectivity.
If the node receives a HELLO message from a new node, that node is
added to the table.It avoids the “count to infinity” problem.
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2. Explain Source Initiated on-Demand Routing.
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This process finishes when a route to the destination has been discovered or all
possible routes have been examined without any success.
Nodes that are not in a selected path do not maintain routing information or
participate in routing table exchanges.
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A source node initiates a path discovery process to locate the other intermediate
nodes (and the destination), by broadcasting a Route Request (RREQ) packet to
its neighbors.
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The protocol consists of two major phases: Route Discovery, Route
Maintenance.
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When a mobile node has a packet to send to some destination, it first consults its
route cache to check whether it has a route to that destination.
If the node does not have a route, it initiates route discovery by broadcasting a
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This Route Request contains the address of the destination, along with the
source address.
Each node receiving the packet checks to see whether it has a route to the
destination. If it does not, it adds its own address to the route record of the packet
and forwards it.
A route reply is generated when the request reaches either the destination itself
or an intermediate node that contains in its route cache an un-expired route to
that destination.
If the node generating the route reply is the destination, it places the the route
record contained in the route request into the route reply.
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Temporarily Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)
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TORA decouples the generation of potentially far-reaching control messages
from the rate of topological changes.
The height metric is used to model the routing state of the network.
The protocol performs three basic functions: route creation, route maintenance,
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route erasure.
During the route creation and maintenance phases nodes use a height metric to
establish a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) rooted at the destination.
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The three phases of ABR are: route discovery, route reconstruction, route
deletion.
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In ABR a route is selected based on the degree of stability associated with
mobile nodes.
Association stability is defined by connection stability of one node with respect to
another node over time and space.
Each node generates a beacon to signify its existence.
When received by neighboring nodes, the beacon causes their associativity
tables to be updated.
The route discovery is accomplished by a Broadcast Query- Reply (BQ-REPLY)
cycle.
When a discovered route is no longer desired, the source node initiates a Route
Delete broadcast so that all the nodes along the route update their routing tables.
Signal Stability Routing (SSR)
SSR selects a route based on the signal strength between nodes and a node’s
location stability.
This route selection criteria has the effect of choosing routes that have a better
link connectivity.
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3. Explain a) Agent discovery, b) Registration, c) Tunneling and d)
Encapsulation
mechanisms in Mobile IP. (Or) Explain the Key Mechanisms in Mobile IP. (16)
Mobile IP is associated with three basic mechanisms:
i) Discovering the Care – of – Address (Agent Discovery)
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ii) Registering the Care – of – Address (Registration)
iii) Tunneling the Care – of – Address (Tunneling and Encapsulation)
a) Agent Discovery
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During call establishment, Mobile node determines its foreign agent by agent
discovery process.
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The two discovery methods are: Agent advertisement and Agent solicitation.
Mobility agents transmit agent advertisements to advertise their services on a
network. In the absence of agent advertisements, a mobile node can solicit
advertisements.This is known as agent solicitation.
Agent Advertisement
Generally foreign and home agents advertise their presence through
periodic agent advertisement messages. An agent advertisement message is an
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) router advertisement.
This message lists one or more CoA’s and a flag indicating whether it is a
home agent or foreign agent. This is the popular method used in agent discovery.
Mobile nodes use agent advertisements to determine their current point of
attachment to the Internet or to an organization's network.
A foreign agent must continue to send agent advertisements. This way,
mobile nodes that are already registered with it will know that they have not
moved out of range of the foreign agent and that the foreign agent has not failed.
Agent Solicitation
If a mobile node (MN) does not receive any CoA, then mobile node should
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implement agent solicitation message. (Similar to ICMP router solicitation
messages.) The main purpose of this message sent by Mobile node (MN) is to
The rate at which a mobile node sends solicitations is limited by the mobile
node. These messages should not flood the network. The mobile node can send
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three initial solicitations at a maximum rate of one per second while searching for
an agent.
For a dynamic wireless network where the MNs move at a greater speed,
a number of messages are sent per second. After registering with an agent (or) if
the response for the message is very slow, then the rate at which solicitations are
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4) If a mobile hosts has not heard from foreign agent to which its CoA belongs , it
takes up another CoA.
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If a mobile node is using a co-located care-of address, and receives an Agent
Advertisement from a foreign agent on the link on which it is using this care-of
address, the mobile node should register via that foreign agent (or via another
foreign agent on this link). If a mobile node is otherwise using a co-located care-
of address, the mobile node must register directly.
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Fig:Registration
Registering CoA:If a mobile node discovers that it is on the home network, it
operates without mobility services. If a mobile node obtains a CoA from a foreign
agent, then this address should be registered with the home agent.
Step 1: If the mobile node is on a new network , it registers with the foreign agent by
sending a registration request message which includes Permanent IP address of
MN and IP address of its home agent.
Step 2: The foreign agent in turn performs the registration process by sending a
registration request with IP of MN and IP of foreign agent to the home agent.
Step 3: When the home agent receives the request , it updates the mobility binding
by
associating the CoA of mobile node with its home address.
Step 4: The home agent then sends an acknowledgement to the foreign agent.
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Step 5: The foreign agent in turn updates its visitor list by inserting the entry for the
mobile node and relays the reply to the mobile node.
with
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1. Foreign agent care-of address: the address of a foreign agent that MH registers
mobile node.
Two primary functions of tunneling:
Encapsulation of data packet to reach the tunnel endpoint.
Decapsulation when packet is delivered at the endpoint.
Steps involved in tunneling:
i) When a home agent receives a packet to mobile host, it forwards the packet to
the CoA
ii) using IP- in – IP encapsulation.
iii) Home agent inserts a new IP header in front of the IP header of any datagram.
iv) Destination address is set to CoA
v) Source address is set to the Home Agent’s Address.
vi) After stripping out the first header, IP processes the packet again.
d) Encapsulation:
Encapsulation refers to arranging a packet header and data in the data part of
the new packet.Encapsulation of one packet into another as payload
e.g. IPv6 in IPv4 (6Bone), Multicast in Unicast (Mbone)
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Types: IP-in-IP-encapsulation, minimal encapsulation or GRE
4. a) Explain the goals, requirements and packet delivery for mobile IP. (16)(Or)
b) Sketch the schematic of a mobile IP network and explain the packet
delivery between the mobile and corresponding node. (16) (Or)
c) Explain how end to end packet delivery is done in mobile IP. (8)
Mobile IP:
Mobile IP is standard communications protocol that allows mobile device
users to move from one network to another while maintaining their permanent IP
address.
Mobile IP extends the Internet Protocol (IP) for forwarding Internet traffic to
mobile devices(known as mobile nodes) when they are not connecting through their
home network.
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Mobile IP makes the mobility transparent to applications and higher level
protocols. It allows the users to stay connected to Internet from any location
without any change in theirIP address.
Goals of Mobile IP:
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The main goal of Mobile IP is to have a topologically correct address. The goal
of mobile IP is to enable packet transmission efficiently without any packet loss and
disruptions in the presence of host and/or destination mobility.
Requirements of Mobile IP: [ SETCS ]
i) Compatibility - Applications need not be changed to achieve mobility.
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ii) Transparency - Mobility should remain invisible for many higher layer
protocols and applications. Higher layers must continue to work
even if the mobile computer has changed its point of
attachment to the network.
The node must keep its IP address and if the interruption of
connectivity is short then it must survive the change of the
attachment point.
Only effects of mobility should be higher delay and lower
bandwidth.
iii) Scalability - Mobile IP should be scalable over a large number of
participants.
iv) Efficiency - Adding mobility should not compromise the efficiency of the
system. It must consider the lower bandwidth of wireless links.
Enhancing IP for mobility must not generate too many new
messages flooding the whole network.
v) Security - All of the messages related to the management of Mobile IP
should be authenticated. IP layer must guarantee that the IP
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address of the receiver is correct.
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5. The encapsulated packet is routed to the foreign agent which performs
decapsulation to remove the additional header and forwards the decapsulated
packet to the MN, which is the actual destination, as specified by the source node
(CN)
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7. The MN’s IP address acts as the source address and the CN’s IP address acts as
the destination address. The packet is routed to the FA. After receiving the
packet, FA forwards the packet to CN.
Route Optimization:
In the mobile IP protocol, all the data packets to the mobile node go through the
home agent. because of this there will be heavy traffic between HA and CN in the
network, causing latency to increase. Therefore, the following route optimization
needs to be carried out to overcome this problem.
Enable direct notification of the corresponding host
Direct tunnelling from the corresponding host to the mobile host
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Binding cache maintained at the corresponding host
The association of the home address with the care of address is called binding.
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addresses, and to avoid this, the world would need to transition to use a new
version of the IP protocol that permitted a larger address space.
The key features introduced by IPv6 are:
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accommodate a pair of larger network addresses, increasing the size from 32 to
128 bits
IPv6 Addressing
While the larger address space is a major feature, IPv6 also benefits from
a new hierarchical addressing architecture [RFC2491].
Each IPv6 address is formed of a scope, prefix and interface ID. Various
types of prefixes are specified: global, link-local, Unique Local (ULA), Multicast,
Anycast, or Reserved. A site-local and IPv4-compatible scope were previously
defined, but have since been deprecated.
Based on this structured approach to addressing, scalable IP routing
protocols are being developed. Each IPv6 unicast address refers to a single
interface, rather than the address of a host or router (as in IPv4).
Representing IPv6 Addresses
An IPv6 address is written as eight sets of four hex characters separated
by colons, e.g. 2001:0db8:0001:0035:0bad:beef:0000:cafe. To simplify reading,
the leading zeros within each group of four hex digits may be omitted, allowing
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this to be written as 2001:db8:d:46:bad:beef:0:cafe. Further, one can use ‘::’ once
in an address to abbreviate a sequence of consecutive zeros, e.g.
2001:db8:d0:0:0:0:0:1 can be more concisely written as 2001:db8:d0::1.
Neighbour Discovery
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Neighbour Discovery (ND) [RFC 2461] replaces the function of the
Address Resolution Protocol in IPv4. It uses IP multicast to determine which
hosts and routers are available on-link, or to determine the link address of a
specific neighbouring node. Key ND functions are: Router Discovery, Parameter
discovery, Redirect, Duplicate Address Detection (DAD) and Neighbour
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Address Configuration
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IPv6 differs from IPv4 in the way the protocol can be extended. IPv4 may
be extended by either assigning the (few) reserved bits in the header for new
functions, or by including an option field between the network and transport
headers.
In practice, most IPv4 routers do not efficiently process packets with
options, and IPv4 options are therefore normally only used for packets that need
to be inspected by all routers along a path.IPv6 uses a modular ‘Next Header’
mechanism, consisting of zero or more extension headers each containing a field
identifying the next header.
The last header (or base header, if no extensions) identifies the type of the
payload. This eases processing and frees IPv6 from a limit to the maximum
number of option bytes.
IPv6 refined the QoS model for the Internet, and defined a new header
element, the Flow Label, to assist router look-up and to identify sub-flows
encrypted using IPsec. Since publishing the base specification of IPv6, IPv4 and
D
IPv6 QoS models have converged. This is not now a major differentiator between
the protocols, and the merits of the flow label field remain a matter of controversy
among the networking community.
A
IPv6 Security
From the outset, security was seen as an important part of the IPv6 stack.
The security solution advocated use of IPsec by hosts (required in full IPv6
implementations), however this model did not see widespread use, with IPsec
now mostly used in tunnel mode, and additional security commonly implemented
SC
above the network layer. IPsec continued to evolve for both IPv4 and IPv6 and is
no longer a major differentiator in favour of IPv6.
IPv6 does provide other features that can improve security (e.g. SEND)
and its addressing architecture can provide greater resilience to some forms of
denial of service attacks.
40
UNIT – III
TCP enhancements for wireless protocols - Traditional TCP: Congestion control, fast
retransmit/fast recovery, Implications of mobility - Classical TCP improvements: Indirect
TCP, Snooping TCP,Mobile TCP, Time out freezing, Selective retransmission,
Transaction oriented TCP - TCP over 3G wireless networks.
Part – A
D
TCP in single hop wireless networks
Indirect TCP (I-TCP)
Fast retransmission
A
Snooping TCP(S-TCP)
Mobile TCP(M-TCP)
Freeze TCP
TCP in multihop wireless networks
SC
I-TCP splits the connection into two parts – a wired/fixed and a wireless/mobile
part. This isolates problems on the wireless link from the fixed network. However, this
also requires that intermediate systems are able to look into IP packets to split the
41
connection. This prevents the usage of IPsec – end-to-end security and I-TCP (or
proxy solutions in general) does not go together.
Snoopy TCP
Advantages:
I-TCP segments a TCP connection into a fixed and wireless part.
It does not require any changes in the TCP protocol.
Transmission errors on wireless link do not propagate into the fixed network.
Allows the use of a different transport layer protocol between foreign agent
and mobile host.
Optimizations of new mechanisms are easy.
Disadvantages:
The loss of the end to end semantics of TCP cause problems if the foreign
agent portioning the TCP connection crashes.
42
An_ increased handover latency is more problematic in practical use
The_ foreign agent must be a trusted entity because the TCP connections end
at this point.
It wants
• To provide overall throughput
• To lower the delay
D
disconnection but not congestion cause current problems.
A
• To maintain end-to-end semantics of TCP
• To provide a more efficient handover.
10. What is fast retransmit?
SC
The gap in the packet stream is not due to severe congestion, but a simple packet
loss due to a transmission error. The sender can now retransmit the missing
packet before the timer expires. This behavior is called fast retransmit.
11. What is fast recovery?
43
Part-B
1 Describe the TCP / IP Protocol Suite and Architecture of TCP/IP. (10) TCP /
IP Protocol Suite:
The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed by DARPA to provide seamless
communication services across an internetwork consisting of a large number of
different networks. The TCP/IP protocol suite is a collection of a large number of
protocols. The protocol suite has been named after the two most important protocols
of the protocol suite:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).
The TCP/IP protocol stack consists of four layers of protocols. The four layers of the
protocol are: Application layer, Transport layer, Internet layer, and Network interface
layer
D
A
SC
The application programmers and end-users are mainly concerned with the
application layer protocols. The application layer protocols, in turn, make use of the
services provided by the lower layer protocols. An application layer protocol requiring
to send a message to another application (that may possibly be running on a different
44
host either in the same local network or in some remote network) makes use of a
transport layer protocol and passes it with the message to be transmitted.
Transport Layer:
The specific transport layer protocol converts the message into small parts and
attaches certain information to it. The transport layer protocol first converts a
message into segments and passes these segments to the Internet layer protocol
(IP).
IP Layer:
The IP layer protocol attaches certain information to the segments such as the
destination host address to form packets. A TCP segment is carried in one or more IP
packets. The IP passes on the packets to the network interface layer protocol.
Network Access Layer:
It converts the IP Packets to frames by adding certain additional information to the
packets such as checksum and then transmits them on the network.
Packet transfer in TCP/IP:
D
The reverse operation takes place when a frame arrives at a host. The network
interface layer protocol removes the information added by the corresponding network
interface layer protocol at the sender-end and passes on the packet to the IP layer.
The IP layer protocol at the destination removes the information added by the IP
layer
A
The transport layer protocol at the receiver strips the information added by the
transport layer protocol at the sender, reconstructs the message and sends it to the
application layer.
The application layer deals with messages; the transport layer deals with
SC
segments; the internet layer deals with packets; and the data link layer deals with
frames.
Architecture of TCP / IP:
The TCP/IP protocol consists of four layers. These layers are: Application layer, Transport
layer, Internet layer, and Network access layer
45
Application layer:
The protocols at this layer are used by applications to establish communication with
other applications which may possibly be running on separate hosts. Examples of
application layer protocols are http, ftp, and telnet.
Transport layer:
It provides reliable end-to-end data transfer services. The term end-to-end
means that the end points of a communication link are applications or processes.
Therefore, sometimes protocols at this layer are also referred to as host-to-host
protocols. Several applications or processes run on a host.
Thus, to identify the end point, it is not only the computer that needs to be
identified, but also the exact process or application that would receive the message
needs to be identified. This is efficiently accomplished by using the concept of a port
number.
D
An application or a process specifies a port number on which it would receive a
message. Once a message reaches a host, it is demultiplexed using the port number
at the transport layer for delivery to the appropriate application.
A
The transport layer provides its services by making use of the services of its
lower layer protocols. This layer includes both connection-oriented (TCP) and
connectionless (UDP) protocols.
SC
Internet layer:
The Internet layer packs data into data packets that are technically known as
IP datagrams. Each IP datagram contains source and destination address (also called
IP address) information that is used to forward the datagrams between hosts and
across networks.
The Internet layer is also responsible for routing of IP datagrams. In a nutshell,
this layer manages addressing of packets and delivery of packets between networks
using the IP address.
The main protocols included at the Internet layer are IP (Internet Protocol),
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol),
RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) and IGMP (Internet Group
Management Protocol).
46
Network access layer:
The functions of this protocol layer include encoding data and transmitting at
the signaling determined by the physical layer. It also provides error detection and
packet framing functionalities.
The functionalities of this layer actually consist of the functionalities of the two
lowermost layers of the ISO/ OSI protocol suite, namely data link and physical layers.
Data link Layer : The data link layer protocols help deliver data packets by making
use of physical layer protocols. A few popular data link layer protocols are Ethernet,
Token Ring, FDDI, and X.25. Ethernet is possibly the most common data link layer
protocol
Physical Layer:. The physical layer defines how data is physically sent through the
network, including how bits are electrically or optically signalled by hardware devices
that interface with a network medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fibre, or twisted
D
pair of copper wires.
b) Explain the structure of TCP segment and IP Datagram. (6) (Reg. 2013)
The message in the form of a block of data is passed to TCP by the sending
A
application. The TCP breaks it into many small parts and attaches certain control
information (called TCP header) to each small part. Each small part of the data along
with the TCP header is called a segment
The TCP header includes several items of information including the following:
SC
(i) Destination Port
(ii) Checksum
(iii) Sequence number
47
Fig. 3.4 Structure of IP Datagram
Version (Ver): The IP version number is defined in this field, e.g. IPV4 or IPV6.
Header length (Hlen): It defines the header length as multiples of four bytes.
D
Service type: It has bits that define the priority of the datagram itself.
Total length: This field is allotted 16 bits to define the length of IPdatagram.
Identification: It is mainly used to identify fragmentation that belongs todifferent
networks. 16 bits are allotted for this job.
A
Flags: It deals with fragmentation of the data.
Fragmentation offset: It is a pointer to the offset of the data in the originaldatagram.
Time to live: This field is used to define the total number of hops that adatagram has
to travel before discarding the operation.
SC
Protocol: This field has 16-bits. It defines which upper layer protocol data is
encapsulated at that time, say, for example TCP or UDP or ICMP, etc.
Header checksum: It has a 16-bit field to check the integrity of the packets.
Source address: It is a four byte (4 Destination address: It is a four byte (4 identify the
8
destination of datagram.
47
2. Discuss in detail about classical TCP improvements (or) TCP
Enhancements.
(Or)
a) Explain in detail Snooping TCP and its advantages and disadvantages.(8)
b) What is Transaction oriented TCP? Explain. (8)
Classical TCP improvements
Indirect TCP / I – TCP :
Two reasons that led to the development of indirect TCP are (I-TCP)
One is that TCP performs poorly together with wireless links;
The other is that TCP within the fixed network cannot be changed.
I-TCP segments a TCP connection into a fixed part and a wireless part. Figure
D
below shows an example with a mobile host connected via a wireless link and an
access point to the ‘wired’ internet where the correspondent host resides. The
correspondent node could also use wireless access.
The following would then also be applied to the access link of the correspondent host.
A
Standard TCP is used between the fixed computer and the access point. No
computer in the internet recognizes any changes to TCP. Instead of the mobile host,
the access point now terminates the standard TCP connection, acting as a proxy.
This means that the access point is now seen as the mobile host for the fixed host
SC
and as the fixed host for the mobile host. Between the access point and the mobile
host, a special TCP, adapted to wireless links, is used.
Foreign Agent:
A good place for segmenting the connection between mobile host and
correspondent host is at the foreign agent of mobile IP. The foreign agent controls the
mobility of the mobile host anyway and can also hand over the connection to the next
foreign agent when the mobile host Indirect TCP segments a TCP connection into two
parts moves on.
The correspondent host in the fixed network does not notice the wireless link or
the segmentation of the connection.
The foreign agent acts as a proxy and relays all data in both directions.
Mechanisms
If the correspondent host sends a packet, the foreign agent acknowledges this
packet and tries to forward the packet to the mobile host. If the mobile host receives
the packet, it acknowledges the packet. However, this acknowledgement is only used
48
by the foreign agent.
If a packet is lost on the wireless link due to a transmission error, the
correspondent host would not notice this. In this case, the foreign agent tries to
retransmit this packet locally to maintain reliable data transport.
Similarly, if the mobile host sends a packet, the foreign agent acknowledges this
packet and tries to forward it to the correspondent host.
If the packet is lost on the wireless link, the mobile hosts notice this much faster
due to the lower round trip time and can directly retransmit the packet. Packet loss in
the wired network is now handled by the foreign agent.
D
Fig. 3.5 Indirect TCP
I-TCP requires several actions as soon as a handover takes place. As
A
Figure below demonstrates, not only the packets have to be redirected using, e.g.,
mobile IP. In the example shown, the access point acts as a proxy buffering packets
for retransmission. After the handover, the old proxy must forward buffered data to
the new proxy because it has already acknowledged the data.
After registration with the new foreign agent, this new foreign agent can inform
SC
the old one about its location to enable packet forwarding. Besides buffer content, the
sockets of the proxy, too, must migrate to the new foreign agent located in the
accesspoint.
Fig. 3.6 Socket and state migration after handover of a mobile host
49
Advantages with I-TCP:
I-TCP does not require any changes in the TCP protocol as used by the hosts
in the fixed network or other hosts in a wireless network that do not use this
optimization.
Due to the strict partitioning into two connections, transmission errors on the wireless
link,
i.e., lost packets cannot propagate into the fixed network.
Optimizing of these new mechanisms is quite simple because they only cover one
single hop.
A very fast retransmission of packets is possible, the short delay on the mobile hop
is known.
D
any longer mean that a receiver really got a packet, foreign agents might crash
higher latency possible due to buffering of data within the foreign agent and
forwarding to a new foreign agent
Snooping:
S- TCP is a protocol that improves TCP performance by modifying the software at
the base station while preserving the end-to-end TCP semantic. The modified
software at the base station is known as snoop. It monitors every packet that passes
through the TCP connection in both directions,
A good place for the enhancement of TCP could be the foreign agent in the
Mobile IP. In this approach, the foreign agent buffers all packets with destination
mobile host and additionally ‘snoops’ the packet flow in both directions to recognize
acknowledgements. The reason for buffering packets toward the mobile node is to
enable the foreign agent to perform a local retransmission in case of packet loss on
the wireless link. The foreign agent buffers every packet until it receives an
acknowledgement from the mobile host.
50
If the foreign agent does not receive an acknowledgement from the mobile host
within a certain amount of time, either the packet or the acknowledgement has been
lost.
Alternatively, the foreign agent could receive a duplicate ACK which also shows
the loss of a packet. Now the foreign agent retransmits the packet directly from the
buffer, performing a much faster retransmission compared to the correspondent
host.
To remain transparent, the foreign agent must not acknowledge data to the
correspondent host. This would make the correspondent host believe that the mobile
host had received the data and would violate the end-to-end semantic in case of a
foreign agent failure.
However, the foreign agent can filter the duplicate acknowledgements to avoid
unnecessary retransmissions of data from the correspondent host.
D
A
SC
Fig 3.7 Snooping TCP
If the foreign agent now crashes, the time-out of the correspondent host still works
and triggers a retransmission. The foreign agent may discard duplicates of packets
already retransmitted locally and acknowledged by the mobile host. This avoids
unnecessary traffic on the wireless link.
Data transfer from the mobile host with destination correspondent host works as
follows. The foreign agent snoops into the packet stream to detect gaps in the
sequence numbers of TCP. As soon as the foreign agent detects a missing packet, it
returns a negative acknowledgement (NACK) to the mobile host. The mobile host can
now retransmit the missing packet immediately. Reordering of packets is done
automatically at the correspondent host by TCP.
Advantages of Snooping TCP
The end-to-end TCP semantic is preserved.
The correspondent host does not need to be changed; most of the enhancements
are in the foreign agent.
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It does not matter if the next foreign agent uses the enhancement or not. If not,
the approach automatically falls back to the standard solution. This is one of the
problems of I- TCP, since the old foreign agent may have already signaled the correct
receipt of data via acknowledgements to the correspondent host and now has to
transfer these packets to the mobile host via the new foreign agent.
Disadvantages of Snooping TCP:
Snooping TCP does not isolate the behavior of the wireless link as well as I-TCP.
Using negative acknowledgements between the foreign agent and the mobile
host assumes additional mechanisms on the mobile host
All efforts for snooping and buffering data may be useless if certain encryption
schemes are applied end-to-end between the correspondent host and mobile host.
Mobile TCP
Special handling of lengthy and/or frequent disconnections, M-TCP splits as I-TCP
does. In mobile wireless networks, users would badly suffer from unacceptable delays
in TCP communications and frequent disconnections caused by events such as signal
D
fades, lack of bandwidth, handoff, unless these are explicitly handled by the protocol.
The M-TCP protocol tries to avoid the sender window from shrinking or reverting to
slow-start when bit errors cause a packet loss.
The TCP connection between the fixed host and the mobile host is segmented
into wired and wireless parts — the wired part connection between the fixed host (FH)
A
and the supervisory host (SH) and the wireless part connection between the SH and
the mobile host (MH).
Many MHs are connected to SH through several base stations as shown in Fig. .
The SH supervises all the packets transmitted to MH and the acknowledgements sent
by MH. It is also used as an interface between FH and MH and vice versa.
SC
When a packet is sent to FH by MH using SH, the wired part uses the normal
unmodified TCP and the wireless part uses the modified version of TCP known as M-
TCP to deliver data to MH. This packet is acknowledged only when the MH receives
the packet.
52
Thus, it maintains the TCP semantics, unlike the I-TCP. In case the
acknowledgement is not received by FH, SH decides that MH is disconnected and
sets the sender FH window size to zero. This prevents re-transmission. When SH
notices that the MH is connected, it sets the fullwindows size of the sender FH. When
MH moves from its current SH region to a new SH region, a state transfer take
places, so that the new SH can maintain TCP connection between FH and MH.
Advantages
maintains semantics, supports disconnection, no buffer forwarding
Disadvantages
loss on wireless link propagated into fixed network
adapted TCP on wireless link
Transaction oriented TCP
TCP phases
D
messages need a minimum of 7 packets.
Transaction oriented TCP
RFC1644, T-TCP, describes a TCP version to avoid this
overhead connection setup, data transfer and connection release
A
can be combined thus, only 2 or 3 packets are needed
Advantage:
Efficiency
Disadvantage:
SC
Requires changed TCP
Mobility not longer
transparent
53
for the same TCP segment are inferred as a packet loss by the host-end TCP, and it
is also inferred that the connection is live, thereby causing the fast retransmit
behaviour of TCP.
Advantage:
The advantage of this scheme is that it reduces the time for the MH to get
reconnected, otherwise FH would wait for RTO unnecessarily.
Disadvantages:
The disadvantage of this approach is that it does not propose a general
approach for TCP communication in mobile wireless networks.
It does not address the specific error characteristics of the wireless medium.
Transmission / Time out Freezing (Or) Freeze TCP :
The basic idea in this scheme is to “freeze” the TCP senders’ streams, little before a
disconnection is to occur. This is done by artificially sending a “Zero Windows
Advertisement” informing the sender that the receiver cannot receive data at the
D
moment.
When the sender resumes its connectivity, the receiver can unfreeze the sender by
sending the value of its actual receiver window.
Advantages:
The avoidance of the slow-start period upon re-establishment of connectivity.
A
It does not require the involvement of the intermediate nodes and hence it can
be used if the IP payload is encrypted.
This method offers a promising approach for use in Virtual Private Networks
(VPNs)
Selective retransmission
SC
• Change of foreign agent often results in packet loss
• TCP reacts with slow-start although there is no congestion
• Forced fast retransmit
• as soon as the mobile host has registered with a new foreign agent, the MH
sends duplicated acknowledgements on purpose
• This forces the fast retransmit mode at the communication partners
• Additionally, the TCP on the MH is forced to continue sending with the actual
window size and not to go into slow-start after registration
Advantage
simple changes result in significant higher performance
Disadvantage
Further mix of IP and TCP, no transparent approach
54
3. a) Discuss in detail about traditional TCP in detail. (8)
b) Explain the implications of mobility. (8)
Traditional TCP
Congestion control
A transport layer protocol such as TCP has been designed for fixed
networks with fixed end-systems. Data transmission takes place using network
adapters, fiber optics, copper wires, special hardware for routers etc. This hardware
typically works without introducing transmission errors. If the software is mature
enough, it will not drop packets or flip bits, so if a packet on its way from a sender to a
receiver is lost in a fixed network, it is not because of hardware or software errors.
D
packet buffers of a router are filled and the router cannot forward the packets fast
enough because the sum of the input rates of packets destined for one output link is
higher than the capacity of the output link. The only thing a router can do in this
situation is to drop packets. A dropped packet is lost for the transmission, and the
A
receiver notices a gap in the packet stream. Now the receiver does not directly tell the
sender which packet is missing, but continues to acknowledge all in-sequence
packets up to the missing one.
The sender notices the missing acknowledgement for the lost packet and
SC
assumes a packet loss due to congestion. Retransmitting the missing packet and
continuing at full sending rate would increase the congestion. Although it is not
guaranteed that all packets of the TCP connection take the same way through the
network, this assumption holds for most of the packets. To mitigate congestion, TCP
slows down the transmission rate dramatically. All other TCP connections
experiencing the same
congestion do exactly the same so the congestion is soon resolved. This cooperation
of TCP connections in the internet is one of the main reasons for its survival as it is
today. Using UDP is not a solution, because the throughput is higher compared to a
TCP connection just at the beginning. As soon as everyone uses UDP, this
advantage disappears. After that, congestion is standard and data transmission
quality is unpredictable. Even under heavy load, TCP guarantees at least sharing of
the bandwidth.
55
Slow start
TCP’s reaction to a missing acknowledgement is quite drastic, but it is
necessary
to get rid of congestion quickly. The behavior TCP shows after the detection of
congestion is called slow start. The sender always calculates a congestion window for
a receiver. The start size of the congestion window is one segment (TCP packet). The
sender sends one packet and waits for acknowledgement. If this
acknowledgement arrives, the sender increases the congestion window by one,
now sending two packets (congestion window = 2). After arrival of the two
corresponding acknowledgements,the sender again adds 2 to the congestion window,
one for each of the acknowledgements. Now the congestion window equals 4. This
scheme doubles the congestion window every time the acknowledgements come
back, which takes one round trip time (RTT). This is called the exponential growth of
the congestion window in the slow start mechanism. It is too dangerous to double the
congestion window each time because the steps might become too large. The
exponential growth stops at the congestion threshold.
D
As soon as the congestion window reaches the congestion threshold,
further increase of the transmission rate is only linear by adding 1 to the congestion
window each time the acknowledgements come back. Linear increase continues until
a time-out at the sender occurs due to a missing acknowledgement, or until the
A
sender detects a gap in transmitted data because of continuous acknowledgements
for the same packet. In either case the sender sets the congestion threshold to half of
the current congestion window. The congestion window itself is set to one segment
and the sender starts sending a single segment. The exponential growth (as
described above) starts once more up to the new congestion threshold, then the
SC
window grows in linear fashion.
b) Implications of Mobility:
While slow start is one of the most useful mechanisms in fixed networks,
it drastically decreases the efficiency of TCP if used together with mobile receivers
or senders. The reason for this is the use of slow start under the wrong assump-
tions. From a missing acknowledgement, TCP concludes a congestion situation.
While this may also happen in networks with mobile and wireless end-systems, it is
not the main reason for packet loss.
Error rates on wireless links are orders of magnitude higher compared
to fixed fiber or copper links. Packet loss is much more common and cannot
always be compensated for by layer 2 retransmissions (ARQ) or error correction
D
(FEC). Trying to retransmit on layer 2 could, for example, trigger TCP retrans-
mission if it takes too long. Layer 2 now faces the problem of transmitting the same
packet twice over a bad link. Detecting these duplicates on layer 2 is not an option,
because more and more connections use end-to-end encryption, making it
A
impossible to look at the packet.
Mobility itself can cause packet loss. There are many situations where a
soft handover from one access point to another is not possible for a mobile end-
system. For example, when using mobile IP, there could still be some packets in
transit to the old foreign agent while the mobile node moves to the new foreign
SC
agent. The old foreign agent may not be able to forward those packets to the new
foreign agent or even buffer the packets if disconnection of the mobile node takes
too long. This packet loss has nothing to do with wireless access but is caused by
the problems of rerouting traffic.
The TCP mechanism detecting missing acknowledgements via time-outs
and concluding packet loss due to congestion cannot distinguish between the
different causes. This is a fundamental design problem in TCP: An error control
mechanism (missing acknowledgement due to a transmission error) is misused for
congestion control (missing acknowledgement due to network overload). In both
cases packets are lost (either due to invalid checksums or to dropping in routers).
However, the reasons are completely different. TCP cannot distinguish between
these two different reasons. Explicit congestion notification (ECN) mechanisms are
currently discussed and some recommendations have been already given (RFC
3168, Ramakrishnan, 2001). However, RFC 3155 (Dawkins, 2001b) states that ECN
cannot be used as surrogate for explicit transmission error notification. Standard
TCP reacts with slow start if acknowledgements are missing, which does not help in
57
the case of transmission errors over wireless links and which does not really help
during handover. This behavior results in a severe performance degradation of an
unchanged TCP if used together with wireless links or mobile nodes.
However, one cannot change TCP completely just to support mobile
users or wireless links. The same arguments that were given to keep IP
unchanged also apply to TCP. The installed base of computers using TCP is too
large to be changed and, more important, mechanisms such as slow start keep the
internet operable. Every enhancement to TCP, therefore, has to remain compatible
with the standard TCP and must not jeopardize the cautious behavior of TCP in
case of congestion. The following sections present some classical solutions before
discussing current TCP tuning recommendations.
The current internet draft for TCP over 2.5G/3G wireless networks
D
(Inamura, 2002) describes a profile for optimizing TCP over today’s and tomorrow’s
wire- less WANs such as GSM/GPRS, UMTS, or cdma2000. The configuration
optimizations recommended in this draft can be found in most of today’s TCP
implementations so this draft does not require an update of millions of TCP stacks.
The focus on 2.5G/3G for transport of internet data is important as already more
A
than 1 billion people use mobile phones and it is obvious that the mobile phone
systems will also be used to transport arbitrary internet data.
The following characteristics have to be considered when deploying appli-
cations over 2.5G/3G wireless links:
SC
● Data rates: While typical data rates of today’s 2.5G systems are 10–
20 kbit/s uplink and 20–50 kbit/s downlink, 3G and future 2.5G systems will initially
offer data rates around 64 kbit/s uplink and 115–384 kbit/s downlink. Typically,
data rates are asymmetric as it is expected that users will down- load more data
compared to uploading. Uploading is limited by the limited battery power. In cellular
networks, asymmetry does not exceed 3–6 times, however, considering broadcast
systems as additional distribution media (digital radio, satellite systems),
asymmetry may reach a factor of 1,000. Serious problems that may reduce
throughput dramatically are bandwidth oscillations due to dynamic resource
sharing. To support multiple users within a radio cell, a scheduler may have to
repeatedly allocate and deallo- cate resources for each user. This may lead to a
periodic allocation and release of a high-speed channel.
● Latency: All wireless systems comprise elaborated algorithms for
error cor- rection and protection, such as forward error correction (FEC), check
summing, and interleaving. FEC and interleaving let the round trip time (RTT)
grow to several hundred milliseconds up to some seconds. The cur- rent GPRS
58
standard specifies an average delay of less than two seconds for the transport
class with the highest quality.
● Jitter: Wireless systems suffer from large delay variations or ‘delay
spikes’. Reasons for sudden increase in the latency are: link outages due to
temporal loss of radio coverage, blocking due to high-priority traffic, or handovers.
Handovers are quite often only virtually seamless with outages reaching from some
10 ms (handover in GSM systems) to several seconds (intersystem handover,
e.g., from a WLAN to a cellular system using Mobile IP without using additional
mechanisms such as multicasting data to multiple access points).
● Packet loss: Packets might be lost during handovers or due to
corruption. Thanks to link-level retransmissions the loss rates of 2.5G/3G systems
due to corruption are relatively low (but still orders of magnitude higher than, e.g.,
fiber connections!). However, recovery at the link layer appears as jitter to the
higher layers.
D
con- figuration parameters to adapt TCP to wireless environments:
D
A
SC
60
UNIT – IV
D
Modulation, spreading, demodulation, despreading of physical channels
Frequency and time (chip, bit, slot, frame) synchronization
Fast closed-loop power control
Power weighting and combining of physical channels
Radio frequency (RF) processing.
A
2. What are the responsibilities of RNCs?
61
• Iub’s user plane protocols termination
3. What is the use of ALCAP?
The transport network control plane contains access link control application part
(ALCAP) required to set up the transport bearers (data bearers) for the user plane.
4. State the four functions provided by the ?
Basic inter-RNC mobility support
Dedicated channel traffic support
Common channel traffic support
Global resource management support
5. How UMTS differs from 2G networks?
UMTS networks are different from the 2G networks in the following respects:
Higher speech quality – It supports the adv the UMTS supports the advanced
data and information services and can be called a true multimedia network.
Higher data rate - The UMTS supports 2 Mbps data rate, which is much higher
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than that supported by the 2G mobile systems.
Virtual home environment (VHE) - A user roaming from his network to other
UMTS networks will not feel any discontinuity or service difference, thus giving a
“feeling” of being in the home network.
6. What are the elements of UMTs network?
A
There are three elements included in UMTs network architecture:
User Equipment (UE): The User Equipment (UE) is the name by which a cell
phone is referred.
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Radio Network Subsystem (RNS): The RNS is the equivalent of the Base
Station Subsystem (BSS) in GSM. It provides and manages the wireless
interface for the overall network.
Core Network: The core network is the equivalent of the GSM Network
Switching Subsystem (NSS).
• Bringing some key functions, such as scheduling of data packet transmission and
processing of retransmissions (in case of transmission errors) into the base
station — that is, closer to the air interface.
• Using a short frame length to further accelerate packet scheduling for
transmission.
• Employing incremental redundancy for minimizing the air-interface load caused by
retransmissions.
• Adopting a new transport channel type, known as high-speed downlink shared
channel (HS-DSCH) to facilitate air interface channel sharing between several
users.
10.
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• Adapting the modulation and coding scheme according to the quality of the radio
link
What is the primary objective behind the HSDPA?
The primary objective behind HSDPA is to provide a cost-effective,
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high bandwidth, low-delay, packet-oriented service within UMTS.
11. Summarize the various protocol entities present in the LTE architecture.
Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) performs IP header compression
to reduce the number of bits necessary to transmit over the radio interface.
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Radio Link Control (RLC) is responsible for segmentation/concatenation,
retransmission handling, and in-sequence delivery to higher layers.
Medium Access Control (MAC) handles hybrid-ARQ retransmissions and uplink
and downlink scheduling.
Physical Layer (PHY), handles coding/decoding, modulation/demodulation,
multi-antenna mapping, and other typical physical layer functions.
12. What are the logical channels specified for LTE.
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
Paging Control Channel (PCCH)
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
Multicast Control Channel (MCCH)
Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH)
Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH)
13. What are the transport channels specified for LTE?
Broadcast Channel (BCH)
Paging Channel (PCH)
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Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH)
Multicast Channel (MCH)
Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH)
Part – B
CDMA 2000 and UMTS were developed separately and are two separate ITU
approved 3G standards. In these networks, coverage is provided by a combination of
various cell sizes, ranging from “in building” pico cells to global cells provided by
satellites, giving service to the remote regions of the world.
The UMTS was developed mainly for countries with GSM networks, and it is
expected that all GSM networks will be upgraded to UMTS networks. Because it is a
new technology, a whole new radio access network has to be built. An important
advantage of UMTS is that it gives significantly enhanced capacities to operators.
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The UMTS specification has been designed so that the UMTS systems are
compatible with GSM networks. Therefore, the UMTS networks can easily work with any
existing GSM/GPRS network. The UMTS systems use different frequency bands, so the
BTSs do not interfere with each other. UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications
Service) is a third- generation (3G) broadband, packet-based transmission of text,
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digitized voice, video, and multimedia at data rates up to 2 megabits per second (Mbps).
UMTS offers a consistent set of services to mobile computer and phone users,
no matter where they are located in the world. UMTS is based on the Global System for
Mobile (GSM) communication standard. It is also endorsed by major standards bodies
SC
and manufacturers as the planned standard for mobile users around the world.
Once UMTS is fully available, computer and phone users can be constantly
attached to the Internet wherever they travel and, as they roam, will have the same set
of capabilities. Users will have access through a combination of terrestrial wireless and
satellite transmissions. Until UMTS is fully implemented, users can use multi-mode
devices that switch to the currently available technology (such as GSM 900 and 1800)
where UMTS is not yet available.
The UMTS networks are different from the 2G networks in the following respects:
Higher speech quality: In addition to speech traffic, the UMTS supports the advanced
data and information services and can be called a true multimedia network.
Higher data rate: The UMTS supports 2 Mbps data rate, which is much higher than
that supported by the 2G mobile systems.
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Virtual home environment (VHE): A user roaming from his network to other UMTS
networks will not feel any discontinuity or service difference, thus giving a “feeling” of
being in the home network. In contrast, in a 2G network, a user is registered to a visitor
location and is also charged a roaming overhead.
UMTS specifies a complete network system, which includes the radio access
network (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, or UTRAN), the core network
(Mobile Application Part, or MAP) and the authentication of users via SIM (subscriber
identity module) cards. The technology described in UMTS is sometimes also referred
to as Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA). UMTS should also provide several
bearer services, real-time and non real time services, circuit and packet switched
transmission, and many different data rates.
Handover should be possible between UMTS cells, but also between UMTS and
GSM or satellite networks. To reflect the asymmetric bandwidth needs of typical users,
UMTS should provide a variable division of uplink and downlink data rates. Finally,
UMTS has to fit into the IMT-2000 framework. As the global UMTS approach is rather
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ambitious, a more realistic alternative for the initial stages would be UMTS cells in cities
providing a subset of services.
Features of UMTS
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UMTS supports maximum theoretical data transfer rates of 42 M bit/s. UMTS
networks in many countries have been or are in the process of being upgraded with
High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA), sometimes known as 3.5G. The high
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data speeds of UMTS are now most often utilized for Internet access
The above diagram shows the very simplified UMTS reference architecture which
applies to both UTRA solutions. The UTRA network (UTRAN) handles cell level mobility
and comprises several radio network subsystems (RNS). The functions of the RNS
include radio channel ciphering and deciphering, handover control, radio resource
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management etc. UTRAN communicates with the core network (CN). The CN contains
functions for inter-system handover, gateways to other networks (fixed or wireless), and
performs location management if there is no dedicated connection between UE and
UTRAN.
UMTS further subdivides the above simplified architecture into so-called domains
The user equipment domain is assigned to a single user and comprises all the functions
that are needed to access UMTS services. Within this domain are the USIM domain and
the mobile equipment domain. The USIM domain contains the SIM for UMTS which
performs functions for encryption and authentication of users, and stores all the
necessary user-related data for UMTS.
Typically, this USIM belongs to a service provider and contains a micro processor
for an enhanced program execution environment (USAT, UMTS SIM application toolkit).
The end device itself is in the mobile equipment domain. All functions for radio
transmission as well as user interfaces are located here.
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The infrastructure domain is shared among all users and offers UMTS services to
all accepted users. This domain consists of the access network domain, which contains
the radio access networks (RAN), and the core network domain, which contains access
network independent functions. The core network domain can be separated into three
domains with specific tasks.
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The serving network domain comprises all functions currently used by a user for
accessing UMTS services. All functions related to the home network of a user, e.g.,
user data look-up, fall into the home network domain. Finally, the transit network domain
may be necessary if, for example, the serving network cannot directly contact the home
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network.
The UMTS network architecture can be divided into three main elements:
User Equipment (UE)
The User Equipment (UE) is the name by which a cell phone is referred to. The
new name was chosen because of the considerably greater functionality that the UE
incorporates compared to a cell phone. It can be thought of as both a mobile phone
used for talking and a data terminal attached to a computer with no voice capability.
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Fig. 4.2 UMTS Domain and Reference points
The RNS is the equivalent of the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) in GSM. It
A
provides and manages the wireless interface for the overall network.
Core Network
The core network is the equivalent of the GSM Network Switching Subsystem
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(NSS). The CN contains functions for inter-system handover, gateways to other
networks (fixed or wireless) and performs location management if there is no dedicated
connection between UE and UTRAN
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traffic, performing the actions on the user data streams that are necessary to access
the radio bearers. The responsibilities of an RNC are:
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• Iub’s user plane protocols termination
A Node B is responsible for radio transmission and reception in one or more cells
to/from the user equipment (UE). The logical architecture for Node B is shown in
Figure 15.22.
A
The following are the responsibilities of the Node B:
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Fig. 4.3 UTRAN Logical Architecture
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A
SC
(b) Role of the access link control application part (ALCAP) in the UMTS.
The transport network control plane carries all control signaling within the transport
layer. It does not include radio network layer information. It contains access link control
application part (ALCAP) required to set up the transport bearers (data bearers) for the
user plane. It also includes the signaling bearer needed for the ALCAP.
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The transport plane lies between the control plane and the user plane. The addition
of the transport plane in UTRAN allows the application protocol in the radio network
control plane to be totally independent of the technology selected for the data bearer in
the user plane.
With the transport network control plane, the transport bearers for data bearers in
the user plane are set up in the following way. There is a signaling transaction by
application protocol in the control plane that initiates set-up of the data bearer by the
ALCAP protocol specific for the user plane technology.
The independence of the control plane and user plane assumes that an ALCAP
signaling occurs. The ALCAP may not be used for all types of data bearers. If there is
no ALCAP signaling transaction, the transport network control plane is not required.
This situation occurs when preconfigured data bearers are used. Also, the ALCAP
protocols in the transport network control plane are not used to set up the signaling
bearer for the application protocol or the ALCAP during real-time operation.
3.
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Discuss Iu, Iur, and Iub interfaces in the UMTS.
In UTRAN protocol structure is designed so that layers and planes are logically
independent of each other and, if required, parts of protocol structure can be
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changed in the future without affecting other parts.
The protocol structure contains two main layers, the radio network layer (RNL)
and the transport network layer (TNL). In the RNL, all UTRAN-related functions
are visible, whereas the TNL deals with transport technology selected to be used
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for UTRAN but without any UTRAN-specific changes. A general protocol model
for UTRAN interfaces is shown in Figure 15.23.
The control plane is used for all UMTS-specific control signaling. It includes the
application protocol (i.e., radio access network application part (RANAP) in Iu,
radio network subsystem application part (RNSAP) in Iur and node B application
part (NBAP) in Iub). The application protocol is used for setting up bearers to the
UE. In the three-plane structure the bearer parameters in the application protocol
are not directly related to the user plane technology, but rather they are general
bearer parameters.
The control plane is used for all UMTS-specific control signaling. It includes the
application protocol (i.e., radio access network application part (RANAP) in Iu,
radio network subsystem application part (RNSAP) in Iur and node B application
part (NBAP) in Iub). The application protocol is used for setting up bearers to the
UE. In the three-plane structure the bearer parameters in the application protocol
are not directly related to the user plane technology, but rather they are general
bearer parameters.
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User information is carried by the user plane. The user plane includes data
stream(s), and data bearer(s) for data stream(s). Each data stream is
characterized by one or more frame protocols specified for that interface.
lu Interface
The UMTS Iu interface is the open logical interface that interconnects one UTRAN to
the UMTS core network (UCN). On the UTRAN side the Iu interface is terminated at
the RNC, and at the UCN side it is terminated at U-MSC.
The Iu interface consists of three different protocol planes — the radio network control
plane (RNCP), the transport network control plane (TNCP), and the user plane (UP).
The RNCP performs the following functions:
• It carries information for the general control of UTRAN radio network operations.
• It carries information for control of UTRAN in the context of each specific call.
• It carries user call control (CC) and mobility management (MM) signaling messages.
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A
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The control plane serves two service domains in the core network, the
packet-switched (PS) domain and circuit-switched (CS) domain. The CS domain
supports circuit-switched services. Some examples of CS services are voice and
fax. The CS domain can also provide intelligent services such as voice mail and free
phone. The CS domain connects to PSTN/ISDN networks. The CS domain is
expected to evolve from the existing 2G GSM
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The PS domain deals with PS services. Some examples of PS services are
Internet access and multimedia services. Since Internet connectivity is provided, all
services currently available on the Internet such as search engines and e-mail are
available to mobile users. The PS domain connects to IP networks. The PS domain
is expected to evolve from the GPRS PLMN.
The Iu circuit-switched and packet-switched protocol architecture are shown
in Figures 15.24 and 15.25.
The control plane protocol stack consists of RANAP on the top of signaling system 7
(SS7) protocols. The protocol layers are the signaling connection control part
(SCCP), the message transfer part (MTP3-B), and signaling asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM) adaptation layer for network-to-network interface (SAAL-NNI). The
SAAL-NNI is divided into service-specific coordination function (SSCF), the service-
specific connection-oriented protocol (SSCOP), data to ATM cells. As an
alternative, an IP-based signaling bearer is specified for the Iu PS control plane. The
IP-based signaling bearer consists of SS7-MTP3—user adaptation layer (M3UA),
simple control transmission protocol (SCTP), IP, and AAL5. The SCTP layer is
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specifically designed for signaling transport on the Internet. The transport network
control plane (TNCP) carries information for the control of transport network used
within UCN.
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Fig. 4.6 PS Protocol architecture on lu interfaces
The user plane (UP) carries user voice and packet data information. AAL2 is used for
the following services: narrowband speech (e.g., EFR, AMR); unrestricted digital
information service (up to 64 kbps, i.e., ISDN B channel); any low to average bit rate
CS service (e.g., modem service to/from PSTN/ISDN). AAL5 is used for the
following services: non-real-time PS data service (i.e., best effort packet access) and
real-time PS data.
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A
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Iur Interface
The connection between two RNCs (serving RNC (SRNC) and drift RNC (DRNC)) is
the Iur interface. It is used in soft handoff scenarios when different macro diversity
streams of one communication are supported by Node Bs that belong to different
RNCs. Communication between one RNC and one Node B of two different RNCs
are realized through the Iur interface. Three different protocol planes are defined for
it:
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• Radio network control plane (RNCP)
• Transport network control plane (TNCP)
• User plane (UP)
The Iur interface is used to carry:
• Information for the control of radio resources in the context of specific service request
of one mobile on RNCP
• Information for the control of the transport network used within UTRAN on TNCP
• User voice and packet data information on UP
The protocols used on this interface are:
• Radio access network application part (RANAP)
• DCH frame protocol (DCHFP)
• RACH frame protocol (RACHFP)
• FACH frame protocol (FACHFP)
• Access link control application part (ALCAP)
• Q.aal2
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• Message transfer part 3-B (MTP3-B)
• Signaling ATM adaptation layer for network-to-network interface (SAAL- NNI) (SAAL-
NNI is further divided into service specific coordination function for network to
network interface (SSCF-NNI), service specific connection oriented protocol
(SSCOP), and ATM adaptation layer 5 (AAL5)).
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The bearer is AAL2. The protocol structure of the Iur interface is shown in
Figure 15.26. Initially, this interface was designed to support the inter-RNC soft
handoff, but more features were added during the development of the standard. The
Iur provides the following four functions:
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1. Basic inter-RNC mobility support
• Support of SRNC relocation
• Support of inter-RNC cell and UTRAN registration area update
• Support of inter-RNC packet paging
• Reporting of protocol errors
2. Dedicated channel traffic support
• Establishment, modification, and release of a dedicated channel in the
DRNC due to hard and soft handoff in the dedicated channel state
• Setup and release of dedicated transport connections across the Iur interface
• Transfer of DCH transport blocks between SRNC and DRNC
• Management of radio links in the DRNS via dedicated measurement report
procedures and power setting procedures
3. Common channel traffic support
• Setup and release of the transport connection across the Iur for common
channel data streams
• Splitting of the MAC layer between the SRNC (MAC-d) and DRNC
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(MAC-c and MAC-sh); the scheduling for downlink data transmission is
performed in the DRNC
• Flow control between the MAC-d and MAC-c/MAC-sh
4. Global resource management support
• Transfer of cell measurements between two RNCs
• Transfer of Node B timing between two RNCs
lub Interface
• The connection between the RNC and Node B is the Iub interface. There is one
Iub interface for each Node B. The Iub interface is used for all of the
communications between Node B and the RNC of the same RNS. Three
different protocol planes are defined for it.
• Radio network control plane (RNCP)
• Transport network control plane (TNCP)
• User plane (UP)
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A
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• MTP3-B
• SAAL-UNI (SSCF-UNI, SSCOP, and AAL5)
When using multiple low-speed links in the Iub interface, Node B supports inverse
multiplexing for ATM (IMA). The bearer is AAL2. The protocol structure for the interface
Iub is shown in Figure 15.27.
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Uu Interface
The UMTS Uu interface is the radio interface between a Node B and one of its UE. The
Uu is the interface through which UE accesses the fixed part of the system.
Distribution of UTRAN Functions
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Located in the RNC
• Radio resource control (L3 Function)
• Radio link control (RLC)
• Macro diversity combining
• Active cell set modification
• Assign transport format combination set (centralized data base function)
Multiplexing/demultiplexing of higher layer PDUs into/from transport block delivered
to/from the physical layer on shared dedicated transport channels (used for soft
handover)
• L1 function: macro diversity distribution/combining (centralized multipoint termination)
• Selection of the appropriate transport format for each transport channel depending upon
the instantaneous source rate — collocate with RRC
• Priority handling between data flows of one user
. Basic inter-RNC mobility support
• Support of SRNC relocation
• Support of inter-RNC cell and UTRAN registration area update
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• Support of inter-RNC packet paging
• Reporting of protocol errors
2. Dedicated channel traffic support
• Establishment, modification, and release of a dedicated channel in the
DRNC due to hard and soft handoff in the dedicated channel state
• Setup and release of dedicated transport connections across the Iur interface
• Transfer of DCH transport blocks between SRNC and DRNC
• Management of radio links in the DRNS via dedicated measurement report
procedures and power setting procedures
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A
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A
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The Iub interface is used to carry:
• Information for the general control of Node B for radio network operation on RNCP
• Information for the control of radio resources in the context of specifi service request of
one mobile on RNCP
• Information for the control of a transport network used within UTRAN on TCNP
• User CC and MM signaling message on RNCP
• User voice and packet data information on UP
The protocols used on this interface include:
• Node B application part protocol (NBAP)
• DCH frame protocol (DCHFP)
• RACH frame protocol (RACHFP)
• FACH frame protocol (FACHFP)
• Access link control application part (ALCAP)
• Q.aal2
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• SSCP or TCP and IP
• MTP3-B
• SAAL-UNI (SSCF-UNI, SSCOP, and AAL5)
When using multiple low-speed links in the Iub interface, Node B supports inverse
multiplexing for ATM (IMA). The bearer is AAL2. The protocol structure for the
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interface Iub is shown in Figure 15.27.
Uu Interface
The UMTS Uu interface is the radio interface between a Node B and one of its UE. The
Uu is the interface through which UE accesses the fixed part of the system.
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Distribution of UTRAN Functions
Located in the RNC
• Radio resource control (L3 Function)
• Radio link control (RLC)
• Macro diversity combining
• Active cell set modification
• Assign transport format combination set (centralized data base function)
Multiplexing/demultiplexing of higher layer PDUs into/from transport block delivered
to/from the physical layer on shared dedicated transport channels (used for soft
handover)
• L1 function: macro diversity distribution/combining (centralized multipoint termination)
• Selection of the appropriate transport format for each transport channel depending upon
the instantaneous source rate — collocate with RRC
• Priority handling between data flows of one user
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A
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Fig. 4.11 Protocol structure of lub interface
Located in Node B
• Scheduling of broadcast, paging, and notification messages; location in Node B — to
reduce data repetition over Iub and reduce RNC CPU load and memory space
• Collision resolution on RACH (in Node B — to reduce nonconstructive traffic over Iub
interface and reduce round trip delay)
• Multiplexing/demultiplexing of higher layer PDUs to/from transport blocks delivered
to/from the physical layer on common transport channels
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4. Explain in detail about UMTS Core Network Architecture.
UMTS Core Network Architecture
Figure shows the UMTS core network (UCN) in relation to all otherentities
within the UMTS network and all of the interfaces to the associated
networks. The UCN consists of a CS entity for providing voice and CS data
services and a PS entity for providing packet-based services. The logical
architecture offers a clear separation between the CS domain and PS
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(DNS), dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) server, packet
charging gateway, and firewalls. The core network can be split into the
following different functional areas:
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• Functional entities needed to support PS services (e.g. 3G-SGSN, 3G-
GGSN)
• Functional entities needed to support CS services (e.g. 3G-MSC/VLR)
• Functional entities common to both types of services (e.g. 3G-HLR)
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Other areas that can be considered part of the core network include:
• Network management systems (billing and provisioning, service manage-
ment, element management, etc.)
• IN system (service control point (SCP), service signaling point (SSP), etc.)
• ATM/SDH/IP switch/transport infrastructure
Figure 15.29 shows all the entities that connect to the core network —
UTRAN, PSTN, the Internet and the logical connections between
terminal equipment (MS,UE), and the PSTN/Internet.
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Fig. 4.12 UMTS Core Network Archtecture
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Fig. 4.13 Logical architecture of the UMTS Core Network
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4.1 3G-MSC
The 3G-MSC is the main CN element to provide CS services. The
3G-MSC also provides the necessary control and corresponding
signaling interfaces including SS7, MAP, ISUP (ISDN user part), etc.
The 3G MSC provides the interconnection to external networks like
PSTN and ISD N. The following functionality is provided by the 3G-
MSC:
Mobility management: Handles attach, authentication, updates to the
HLR, SRNS relocation, and intersystems handover.
Call management: Handles call set-up messages from/to the UE.
Supplementary services: Handles call-related supplementary services
such as call waiting, etc.
CS data services: The IWF provides rate adaptation and message
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translation for circuit mode data services, such as fax.
Vocoding
SS7, MAP and RANAP interfaces: The 3G-MSC is able to complete
originating or terminating calls in the network in interaction with other
entities of a mobile network, e.g., HLR, AUC (Authentication center). It
also controls/ communicates with RNC using RANAP which may use
the services of SS7.
ATM/AAL2 Connection to UTRAN for transportation of user plane
traffic across the Iu interface. Higher rate CS data rates may be
supported using a different adaptation layer.
Short message services (SMS): This functionality allows the user to
send and receive SMS data to and from the SMS-GMSC/SMS-
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IWMSC (Inter working MSC).
VLR functionality: VLR is a database that may be located within the
3G-MSC and can serve as intermediate storage for subscriber data in
order to support subscriber mobility.
IN and CAMEL.
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OAM (operation, administration, and maintenance) agent functionality.
4.2 3G-SGSN
The 3G-SGSN is the main CN element for PS services. The
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3G-SGSN provides the necessary control functionality both toward the
UE and the 3G-GGSN. It also provides the appropriate signaling and
data interfaces including connection to an IP-based network toward
the 3G-GGSN, SS7 toward the HLR/EIR/AUC andTCP/IP or SS7
toward the UTRAN.
The 3G-SGSN provides the following functions:
• Session management: Handles session set-up messages from/to the
UE and the GGSN and operates Admission Control and QoS
mechanisms.
• Iu and Gn MAP interface: The 3G-SGSN is able to complete originating
or terminating sessions in the network by interaction with other entities
of a mobile network, e.g., GGSN, HLR, AUC. It also
controls/communicates with UTRAN using RANAP.
• ATM/AAL5 physical connection to the UTRAN for transportation of user
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data plane traffic across the Iu interface using GPRS tunneling
protocol (GTP).
• Connection across the Gn interface toward the GGSN for transportation
of user plane traffic using GTP. Note that no physical transport layer is
defined for this interface.
• SMS: This functionality allows the user to send and receive SMS data to
and from the SMS-GMSC /SMS-IWMSC.
• Mobility management: Handles attach, authentication, updates to the
HLR and SRNS relocation, and intersystem handover.
• Subscriber database functionality: This database (similar to the VLR) is
located within the 3G-SGSN and serves as intermediate storage for
subscriber data to support subscriber mobility.
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Charging: The SGSN collects charging information related to radio network
usage by the user.
• OAM agent functionality.
4.3 3G-GGSN
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The GGSN provides interworking with the external PS network.
It is connected with SGSN via an IP-based network. The GGSN may
optionally support an SS7 interface with the HLR to handle mobile
terminated packet sessions.
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The 3G-GGSN provides the following functions:
• Maintain information locations at SGSN level (macro-mobility)
• Gateway between UMTS packet network and external data networks
(e.g. IP, X.25)
• Gateway-specific access methods to intranet (e.g. PPP termination)
• Initiate mobile terminate Route Mobile Terminated packets
• User data screening/security can include subscription based, user
controlled, or network controlled screening.
• User level address allocation: The GGSN may have to allocate
(depending on subscription) a dynamic address to the UE upon PDP
context activation. This functionality may be carried out by use of the
DHCP function.
• Charging: The GGSN collects charging information related to external
data network usage by the user.
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• OAM functionality
4.4 SMS-GMSC/SMS-IWMSC
The overall requirement for these two nodes is to handle the
SMS from point to point. The functionality required can be split into
two parts. The SMS-GMSC is an MSC capable of receiving a
terminated short message from a service center, interrogating an HLR
for routing information and SMS information, and delivering the short
message to the SGSN of the recipient UE. The SMS-GMSC provides
the following functions:
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• Interrogation of HLR for routing information
• Forwarding of the short message PDU to the MSC or SGSN using the
routing information
The SMS-IWMSC is an MSC capable of receiving an originating short
message from within the PLMN and submitting it to the recipient
service center.
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The SMS-IWMSC provides the following functions:
• Reception of the short message PDU from either the 3G-SGSN or 3G-
MSC
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Establishing a link with the addressed service center
• Transferring the short message PDU to the service center
Note: The service center is a function that is responsible for relaying,
storing, and forwarding a short message. The service center is not
part of UCN, although the MSC and the service center may be
integrated.
4.5 Firewall
This entity is used to protect the service providers’ backbone
data networks from attack from external packet data networks. The
security of the backbone data network can be ensured by applying
packet filtering mechanisms based on access control lists or any other
methods deemed suitable.
4.6 DNS/DHCP
The DNS server is used, as in any IP network, to translate host
86
names into IP addresses, i.e., logical names are handled instead of
raw IP addresses. Also, the DNS server is used to translate the
access point name (APN) into the GGSN IP address. It may optionally
be used to allow the UE to use logical names instead of physical IP
addresses.
A dynamic host configuration protocol server is used to manage the
allocation of IP configuration information by automatically assigning IP
addresses to systems configured to use DHCP.
D
In third-generation partnership project (3GPP) standards,
Release 4 specifications provide efficient IP support enabling
provision of services through an all-IP core network (see Figures
15.32 and 15.33). Release 5 specifications focus on HSDPA to
A
provide data rates up to approximately 8–10 Mbps to support packet-
based multimedia services. Multi input and multi output (MIMO)
systems are the work item in Release 6 specifications, which will
support even higher data transmission rates of up to 20 Mbps. HSDPA
is evolved from and backward compatible with Release 99 WCDMA
SC
systems.
HSDPA is based on the same set of technologies as high data rate
(HDR) to improve spectral efficiency for data services — such as
shared downlink packet data channel and high peak data rates —
using high-order modulation and adaptive modulation and coding,
hybrid ARQ (HARQ) retransmission schemes, fast scheduling and
shorter frame sizes.
HSDPA marks a similar boost for WCDMA that EDGE does for GSM.
It provides a two-fold increase in air interface capacity and a five-fold
increase in data speeds in the downlink direction. HSDPA also
shortens the round-trip time between the network and terminals and
reduces variance in downlink transmission delay. The improvements
in performance are achieved by:
87
• Bringing some key functions, such as scheduling of data packet
transmission and processing of retransmissions (in case of
transmission errors) into the base station — that is, closer to the air
interface.
• Using a short frame length to further accelerate packet scheduling for
transmission.
• Employing incremental redundancy for minimizing the air-interface load
caused by retransmissions.
• Adopting a new transport channel type, known as high-speed downlink
shared channel (HS-DSCH) to facilitate air interface channel sharing
between several users.
D
• Adapting the modulation and coding scheme according to the quality of
the radio link
A
SC
88
D
A
Fig. 4.15 All-IP core network architecture for UMTS
89
physical layer like the use of a shorter transmission time interval (TTI)
(2 ms), and the use of adaptive modulation and coding. HS-DPCCH is
used to carry the acknowledgment signals to Node B for each block. It
is also used to indicate channel quality (CQI) used for adaptive
modulation and coding. HS-DSCH uses 2 ms TTI to reduce trip time,
to increase the granularity in the scheduling process, and to track the
time varying radio channel better.
The basic operational principles behind HSDPA are relatively simple.
The RNC routes data packets destined for a particular UE to the
appropriate Node B. Node B takes the data packets and schedules
their transmission to the mobile terminal over the air interface by
matching the user’s priority and estimated channel operating
D
environment with an appropriately chosen coding and modulation
scheme (that is, 16-QAM vs. QPSK).
The UE is responsible for acknowledging receipt of the data packet
and providing Node B with information regarding channel condition,
power control, and so on. Once it sends the data packet to the UE,
A
Node B waits for an acknowledgment. If it does not receive one within
a prescribed time, it assumes that the data packet was lost and
retransmits it.
HSDPA continuously strives, with some modest constraints, to give
SC
the maximal bandwidth to the user with the best channel conditions.
The data rates achievable with HSDPA are more than adequate for
supporting multimedia streaming services (refer to Table 15.10).
Although conceptually simple, HSDPA’s implementation within the
context of a Node B does raise some architectural issues for the
designer. In a typical network deployment, the Node B radio cabinet
sits in proximity to the radio tower and the power cabinet. For indoor
deployments the radio cabinet may be a simple rack, while in outdoor
deployments it may be an environmental-control unit. The guts of the
radio cabinet are an antenna interface section (filters, power
amplifiers, and the like), core processing chassis (RF transceivers,
combiner, high performance channel cards, network interface and
system controller card, timingcard, back-plane, and so on), plus
mechatronics (power supply, fans, cables, etc.) and other
90
miscellaneous elements. The core processing chassis is the
cornerstone of Node B and bears most of the cost. It contains the RF
transceiver, combiner, network interface and system controller, timing
card, channel card and backplane. Of the core processing chassis
elements, only the channel card needs to be modified to support
HSDPA.
D
A
The typical UMTS channel card comprises a general-purpose
processor that handles the miscellaneous control tasks, a pool of
digital signal processor (DSP) resources to handle symbol-rate
processing and chip-rate assist functions, and a pool of specialized
SC
ASIC (application specific intergrated circuit) devices to handle
intensive chip-rate operations such as spreading, scrambling,
modulation, rake receiving, and preamble detection.
To support HSDPA, two changes must be made to the channel card.
First, the downlink chip-rate ASIC must be modified to support the
new 16-QAM modulation schemes and new downlink slot formats
associated with HSDPA. In addition, the downlink symbol-rate
processing section must be modified to support HSDPA extensions.
The next change requires a new processing section, called the MAC-
hs, which must be added to the channel card to support the
scheduling, buffering, transmission, and retransmission of data blocks
that are received from the RNC. This is the most intrusive
augmentation to the channel card because it requires the introduction
91
of a programmable processing entity together with a retransmission
buffer.
Since the channel card already contains both a general-purpose
processor and a DSP, one can make convincing arguments that the
MAC-hs could be effectively realized using either of the two types of
devices. Nonetheless, many designers are finding that, because of the
close ties between the MAC-hs function and the lower-layer symbol
and chip-rate functions, the DSP is the more practical choice.
Simulations have shown that a retransmission buffer of approximately
2.5 Mbits in size is adequate to handle the buffering requirement of a
standard cell with 75 or so users.
The new channels introduced in HSDPA are high-speed downlink
D
shared channel (HS-DSCH), high-speed shared control channel (HS-
SCCH), and high- speed dedicated physical control channel (HS-
DPCCH). The HS-DSCH is the primary radio bearer. Its resources can
be shared among all users in a particular sector. The primary channel
multiplexing occurs in a time domain, where each TTI consists of three
A
time slots (each 2 ms). TTI is also referred to as a sub-frame. Within
each 2 ms TTI, a constant spreading factor (SF) of 16 is used for code
multiplexing, with a maximum of 15 parallel codes allocated to HS-
DSCH. Codes may all be assigned to one user, or may be split across
SC
several users. The number of codes allocated to each user depends
on cell loading, QoS requirements, and UE code capabilities (5, 10, or
15 codes).
The HS-SCCH (a fixed rate 960 kbps, SF 128) is used to carry
downlink signaling between Node B and UE before the beginning of
each scheduled TTI. It includes UE identity, HARQ-related information
and the parameters of the HS-DSCH transport format selected by the
link-adaptation mechanism. Multiple HS-SCCHs can be configured in
each sector to support parallel HS-DSCH trans- missions. A UE can
be allocated a set of up to four HS-SCCHs, which need to be
monitored continuously.
The HS-DPCCH (SF 256) carries ACK/NACK signaling to indicate
whether the corresponding downlink transmission was successfully
decoded, as well as a channel quality indicator (CQI) to be used for
92
the purpose of link adaptation. The CQI is based on a common pilot
channel (CPICH) and is used to estimate the transport block size,
modulation type, and number of channelization codes that can be
supported at a given reliability level in downlink transmission. The
feedback cycle of CQI can be set as a network parameter in
predefined steps of 2 ms.
UE capabilities include the maximum number of HS-DSCHs
supported simultaneously (5, 10, or 15), minimum TTI time (minimum
time between the beginning of two consecutive transmissions to the
UE), the maximum number of HS-DSCH transport block (TB) bits
received within an HS-DSCH TTI, the maximum number of soft
channel bits over all HARQ and supported modulations (QPSK only or
D
both QPSK and 16-QAM). Table 15.11 gives UE categories.
93
the radio interface.
The header-compression mechanism is based on ROHC [64], a
standardized header-compression algorithm used in WCDMA as well
as several other mobile-communication standards. PDCP is also
responsible for ciphering and integrity protection of the transmitted data.
At the receiver side, the PDCP pro- tocol performs the corresponding
deciphering and decompression operations. There is one PDCP entity
per radio bearer configured for a mobile terminal.
• Radio Link Control (RLC) is responsible for
segmentation/concatenation, retransmission handling, and in-sequence
delivery to higher layers. Unlike WCDMA, the RLC protocol is located in
the eNodeB since there is only a sin- gle type of node in the LTE radio-
D
access-network architecture. The RLC offers services to the PDCP in
the form of radio bearers. There is one RLC entity per radio bearer
configured for a terminal.
• Medium Access Control (MAC) handles hybrid-ARQ retransmissions
and uplink and downlink scheduling. The scheduling functionality is
A
located in the eNodeB, which has one MAC entity per cell, for both
uplink and downlink.
The hybrid-ARQ protocol part is present in both the transmitting and
receiving end of the MAC protocol. The MAC offers services to the RLC
SC
in the form of logical channels.
• Physical Layer (PHY), handles coding/decoding,
modulation/demodulation, multi-antenna mapping, and other typical
physical layer functions. The physical layer offers services to the MAC
layer in the form of transport channels.
The following sections contain a more detailed description of the LTE RLC
and MAC protocols. An overview of the physical layer as seen from the
MAC layer is also provided, while the full details of the LTE physical layer
are captured in Chapter 16. Additional details can be found in the LTE
specification [110] and references therein.
94
RLC: radio link control
The LTE RLC is, similar to WCDMA/HSPA, responsible for segmentation of
(header-compressed) IP packets, also known as RLC SDUs, from the
PDCP into smaller units, RLC PDUs.2 It also handles retransmission of
erroneously received PDUs, as well as duplicate removal and
concatenation of received PDUs. Finally, RLC ensures in-sequence
delivery of RLC SDUs to upper layers.
D
A
SC
95
D
A
Fig. 4.16 LTE protocol architecture (Downlink)
The RLC retransmission mechanism is responsible for providing error-free deliv- ery of
SC
data to higher layers. To accomplish this, a retransmission protocol operates between the
RLC entities in the receiver and transmitter. By monitoring the incom- ing sequence
numbers, the receiving RLC can identify missing PDUs.
Status reports are fed back to the transmitting RLC, requesting retransmission of
missing PDUs. When to feedback a status report is configurable, but a report typically con-
tains information about multiple PDUs and is transmitted relatively infrequently. Based on
the received status report, the RLC entity at the transmitter can take the appropriate
action and retransmit the missing PDUs if requested.
When the RLC is configured to request retransmissions of missing PDUs as described
above, it is said to be operating in Acknowledged Mode (AM). This is similar to the
corresponding mechanism used in WCDMA/HSPA. AM is typically used for TCP-based
services such as file transfer where error-free data delivery is of primary interest.
Similarly to WCDMA/HSPA, the RLC can also be configured in Unacknowledged Mode
(UM) and Transparent Mode (TM). In UM, in-sequence delivery to higher layers is
provided, but no retransmissions of missing PDUs are requested. UM is typically used
for services such as VoIP where error-free delivery is of less importance compared to
91
short delivery time. TM, although supported, is only used for specific purposes such as
random access.
Although the RLC is capable of handling transmission errors due to noise, unpre-
dictable channel variations, etc, this is in most cases handled by the MAC-based
hybrid-ARQ protocol. The use of a retransmission mechanism in the RLC may
therefore seem superfluous at first. However, as will be discussed in Section 15.2.4
below, this is not the case and the use of both RLC and MAC-based retransmission
mechanisms is in fact well motivated by the differences in the feedback signaling.
D
In addition to retransmission handling and in-sequence delivery, the RLC is also
responsible for segmentation and concatenation as illustrated in Figure 15.2.
Depending on the scheduler decision, a certain amount of data is selected for
A
transmission from the RLC SDU buffer and the SDUs are segmented/concatenated to
create the RLC PDU. Thus, for LTE the RLC PDU size varies dynamically, whereas
WCDMA/HSPA prior to Release 7 uses a semi-static PDU size.3 For high data rates, a
large PDU size results in a smaller relative overhead, while for low data rates, a small
PDU size is required as the payload would otherwise be too large. Hence, as the LTE
SC
data rates may range from a few kbit/s to well above one hundred Mbit/s, dynamic PDU
sizes are motivated for LTE. Since the RLC, scheduler and rate adaptation
mechanisms are all located in the eNodeB, dynamic PDU sizes are easily sup ported
for LTE.
D
• Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH), used for transmission of user data to/from a mobile
terminal. This is the logical channel type used for transmission of all uplink and non-
MBMS downlink user data.
• Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH), used for downlink transmission of MBMS services.
A
A similar logical-channel structure is used for WCDMA/HSPA. However, compared to
WCDMA/HSPA, the LTE logical-channel structure is somewhat simplified, with a
reduced number of logical-channel types.
From the physical layer, the MAC layer uses services in the form of Transport Channels.
SC
A transport channel is defined by how and with what characteristics the information is
transmitted over the radio interface. Following the notation from HSPA, which has been
inherited for LTE, data on a transport channel is organized into transport blocks. In each
Transmission Time Interval (TTI), at most one transport block of a certain size is
transmitted over the radio interface in absenceof spatial multiplexing. In case of spatial
multiplexing (‘MIMO’), there can be up to two transport blocks per TTI.
Associated with each transport block is a Transport Format (TF), specifying how the
transport block is to be transmitted over the radio interface. The transport format includes
information about the transport-block size, the modulation scheme, and the antenna
mapping. Together with the resource assignment, the resulting code rate can be derived
from the transport format. By varying the transport format, the MAC layer can thus
realize different data rates. Rate control is therefore also known as transport-format
selection.
The set of transport-channel types specified for LTE includes:
• Broadcast Channel (BCH) has a fixed transport format, provided by the spec-
93
ifications. It is used for transmission of the information on the BCCH logical channel.
• Paging Channel (PCH) is used for transmission of paging information on the PCCH
logical channel. The PCH supports discontinuous reception (DRX) to allow the mobile
terminal to save battery power by sleeping and waking up to receive the PCH only at
predefined time instants. The paging mechanism is described in somewhat more
details in Chapter 17.
• Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) is the transport channel used for trans- mission
of downlink data in LTE. It supports LTE features such as dynamic rate adaptation and
channel-dependent scheduling in the time and frequency domains, hybrid ARQ, and
spatial multiplexing. It also supports DRX to reduce mobile-terminal power
consumption while still providing an always- on experience, similar to the CPC
mechanism in HSPA. The DL-SCH TTI is 1 ms.
• Multicast Channel (MCH) is used to support MBMS. It is characterized by a semi-
static transport format and semi-static scheduling. In case of multi-cell transmission
using MBSFN, the scheduling and transport format configuration is coordinated among
the cells involved in the MBSFN transmission.
D
• Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) is the uplink counterpart to the DL-SCH.
Part of the MAC functionality is multiplexing of different logical channels and mapping of
the logical channels to the appropriate transport channels. Unlike the MAC-hs in
A
HSDPA,4 the MAC in LTE supports multiplexing of RLC PDUs from different radio
bearers into the same transport block.
SC
As there is some relation between the type of information and the way it should be
transmitted, there are certain restrictions in the mapping of logical channels to transport
chan- nels. An example of mapping of logical channels to transport channels is given in
Figure 15.3. Other mappings may also be envisioned.
PHY: physical layer
The physical layer is responsible for coding, physical-layer hybrid-ARQ pro- cessing,
modulation, multi-antenna processing, and mapping of the signal to the appropriate
physical time-frequency resources. A simplified overview of the pro- cessing for the DL-
SCH is given in Figure 15.7. Physical-layer blocks which are dynamically controlled by
94
the MAC layer are shown in grey, while semi-statically configured physical-layer blocks
are shown in white.
When a mobile terminal is scheduled during a TTI on the DL-SCH, the phys- ical layer
receives one transport block (two transport blocks in case of spatial
multiplexing) of data to transmit. To each transport block, a CRC is attached and each
such CRC-attached transport block is separately coded. The channel coding rate,
including the rate matching necessary, is implicitly determined by the transport-block size,
the modulation scheme, and the amount of resources assigned for transmission. All these
quantities are selected by the downlink scheduler. The redundancy version to use is
controlled by the hybrid-ARQ protocol and affects the rate-matching processing to
generate the correct set of coded bits. Finally, in case of spatial multiplexing, the
antenna mapping is also under control of the downlink scheduler.
D
A
SC
The scheduled mobile terminal receives the transmitted signal and performs the reverse
physical-layer processing. The physical layer at the mobile terminal also informs the
hybrid-ARQ protocol whether the transmission was successfully decoded or not. This
information is used by the MAC part of the hybrid-ARQ functionality in the mobile
terminal to determine whether a retransmission shall be requested or not.
The physical-layer processing for the UL-SCH follows closely the processing for the DL-
SCH. However, note that the MAC scheduler in the eNodeB is responsible for selecting
the mobile terminal transport format and resources to be used for uplink transmission as
95
described in Section 15.2.3. The UL-SCH physical layer processing is shown, in
simplified form, in Figure 15.8.
LTE states
In LTE, a mobile terminal can be in several different states as illustrated in Figure 15.9.
At power-up, the mobile terminal enters the LTE_DETACHED state. In this state, the
mobile terminal is not known to the network. Before any fur- ther communication can
take place between the mobile terminal and the network, the mobile terminal need to
register with the network using the random-access
procedure to enter the LTE_ACTIVE state. LTE_DETACHED is mainly a state used at
power-up; once the mobile terminal has registered with the network, it is typically in one
of the other states, LTE_ACTIVE or LTE_IDLE.
D
A
Fig. 4.20 LTE States
SC
LTE_ACTIVE is the state used when the mobile terminal is active with transmitting and
receiving data. In this state, the mobile terminal is connected to a specific cell within the
network. One or several IP addresses have been assigned to the mobile terminal, as well
as an identity of the terminal, the Cell Radio-Network Temporary Identifier (C-RNTI), used
for signaling purposes between the mobile terminal and the network.
LTE_ACTIVE can be said to have two substates, IN_SYNC and OUT_OF_SYNC,
depending on whether the uplink is synchronized to the network or not. Since LTE uses an
orthogonal FDMA/TDMA-based uplink, it is necessary to synchronize the uplink
transmission from different mobile terminals such that they arrive at the eNodeB at
(approximately) the same time. The procedure for obtaining and maintaining uplink
synchronization is described in Chapter 16, but in short the eNodeB measures the arrival
time of the transmissions from each actively transmitting mobile terminal and sends
timing-correction commands in the downlink. As long as the uplink is in IN_SYNC, uplink
transmission of user data and L1/L2 control signaling is possible. In case no uplink
transmission has taken place within a given time window, timing alignment is obviously not
possible and the uplink is declared to be OUT-OF-SYNC. In this case, the mobile terminal
needs to perform a random-access procedure to restore uplink synchronization.
96
LTE_IDLE is a low activity state in which the mobile terminal sleeps most of the time in
order to reduce battery consumption. Uplink synchronization is not maintained and
hence the only uplink transmission activity that may take place is random access to move
to LTE_ACTIVE. In the downlink, the mobile terminal can periodically wake up in order to be
paged for incoming calls as described in Chapter
17. The mobile terminal keeps its IP address(es) and other internal information in order
to rapidly move to LTE_ACTIVE when necessary. The position of the mobile terminal is
partially known to the network such that the network knows at least the group of cells in
which paging of the mobile terminal is to be done.
Data flow
To summarize the flow of downlink data through all the protocol layers, an example
illustration for a case with three IP packets, two on one radio bearer and one on another
radio bearer, is given in Figure 15.10. The data flow in case of uplink transmission is
similar. The PDCP performs (optional) IP header compression, followed by ciphering. A
PDCP header is added, carrying information required for deciphering in the mobile
D
terminal. The output from the PDCP is fed to the RLC.
A
SC
97
UNIT – V
4G NETWORKS
Part – A
3G including 2.5G
(EDGE) 4G
Details
D
driving driven, Converge data and voice
data was always add
architecture on over IP
Network
architecture Wide area cell-based Hybrid-integration of
A WLAN (WiFi, Bluetooth)
and wireless wide-area
networks
Speeds 384 kbps to 2 Mbps 20 to 100 Mbps in mobile
mode
SC
Dependent on country
Frequency band or Higher frequency bands
continent (1.8 to 2.4
GHz) (2 to 8 GHz)
Bandwidth 5 to 20 MHz 100 MHz or more
Switching design
basis Circuit and packet All digital with packetized
voice
Access
technologies WCDMA, cdma2000 OFDM and multicarrier
(MC)-CDMA
Convolutional codes
Forward error rate 1/2,
1/
correction 3 Concatenated coding
schemes
Component Optimized antenna
design design, Smart antenna, software-
multiband adapters defined multiband and
wideband radios
Internet protocol Number of airlink All IP (IPv6.0)
98
(IP) protocol
including IPv5.0
Mobile top speed 200 km/h 200 km/h
Personalization
Integrated services
D
The following are some of the applications of the 4G system:
Virtual presence — 4G will provide user services at all times, even if the user is
off-site.
A
Virtual navigation — 4G will provide users with virtual navigation through which a
user can access a database of streets, buildings, etc., of a large city. This
requires high speed transmission.
7. What is OFDM?
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing.
The OFDM-MIMO system transmits independent OFDM modulated data from
multiple antennas simultaneously. At the receiver, after OFDM demodulation, MIMO
decodes each subchannel to extract data from all transmit antennas on all the
subchannels.
D
High throughput is achieved by using a suitable automatic repeat request (ARQ)
scheme combined with an adaptive modulation and coding sys-tem, and a time-slot
scheduler that uses channel predictions.
A
This way, the lower layers are adapted to channel conditions while still providing
some robustness through retransmission. The time-slot scheduler shares the
spectrum efficiently between users while satisfying the QoS requirements.
100
Part – B
Some key features (primarily from users’ points of view) of 4G mobile networks are
as follows:
D
multimedia services.
To support multimedia services, high-data-rate ser-vices with system reliability will
be provided. At the same time, a low per-bit transmission cost will be maintained by an
improved spectral efficiency of the system.
Personalized service will be provided by 4G networks. It is expected that when 4G
A
services are launched, users in widely different locations, occupations, and economic
classes will use the services.
SC
Fig:4G Features
In order to meet the demands of these diverse users, service providers will design
personal and customized service for them. 4G systems will also provide facilities for
integrated services.
Users can use multiple services from any service provider at the same time.
To migrate current systems to 4G with the above-mentioned features, we have to face
a number of challenges. Table lists the key challenges and their proposed solutions
101
Table : 4G Key challenges and their proposed solutions.
Mobile Station
D
A
SC
102
System
D
A
SC
103
MCM is a baseband process that uses parallel equal bandwidth subchannels to
transmit information and is normally implemented with fast Fourier transform (FFT)
techniques.
The difference, D, of the peak-to-average ratio between MCM and a single carrier
system is a function of the number of subcarriers, N, as:
D
they increase the cost of the system.
If Lb is the original length of block, and the channel’s response is of length Lc, the
cyclically extended symbol has a new length Lb Lc 1. The new sym-bol of length Lb Lc 1
sampling periods has no inter-symbol interference.
The cost is an increase in energy and uncoded bits are added to the data. At the
A
MCM receiver, only Lb samples are processed and Lc 1 samples are discarded,
resulting in a loss in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) as:
Lb−Lc−1
SC
(SNR)Loss = 10log (dB) (5.2)
La
Two different types of MCM are likely candidates for 4G. These include multi carrier
code division multiple access (MC-CDMA) and orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing (OFDM) using time division multiple access (TDMA). (MC-CDMA is
actually OFDM with a CDMA overlay.
Similar to single-carrier CDMA systems, the users are multiplexed with orthogonal
codes to distinguish users in MC-CDMA.
However, in MC-CDMA, each user can be allocated several codes, where the data
is spread in time or frequency. Either way, multiple users simultaneously access the
system. In OFDM with TDMA, the users are assigned time slots to transmit and receive
data.
Typically MC-CDMA uses quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) for modu-lation,
while OFDM with TDMA could use more high-level modulations, such as multilevel
quadrature amplitude modulation (M-QAM) (where M 4 to 256).
104
However, to optimize overall performance, adaptive modulation can be used, where
the level of quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) for all subcarriers is chosen based
on measured parameters. In OFDM the subcarrier pulse shape is a square wave.
The task of pulse forming and modulation is performed by a simple inverse fast
Fourier transform (IFFT) which can be implemented very efficiently.
To decode the transmission, a receiver needs only to implement FFT.The OFDM
divides a broadband channel into many parallel subchannels. The subchannel pulse
shape is a square wave.
The OFDM receiver senses the channel and corrects distortion on each
subchannel before the transmitted data can be extracted.
In OFDM, each of the frequencies is an integer multiple of a fundamental
frequency.This ensures that even though subchannels overlap, they do not interfere
with each other.
D
Smart antenna techniques, such as multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO)
systems, can extend the capabilities of the 3G and 4G systems to provide customers
with increased data throughput for mobile high-speed data applications.
MIMO systems use multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to
A
increase the capacity of the wireless channel (see Figure 23.7). With MIMO systems, it
may be possible to provide in excess of 1 Mbps for 2.5G wireless TDMA EDGE and as
high as 20 Mbps for 4G systems.
SC
With MIMO, different signals are transmitted out of each antenna simul-taneously in
the same bandwidth and then separated at the receiver. With four antennas at the
transmitter and receiver this has the potential to provide four times the data rate of a
single antenna system without an increase in transmit power or bandwidth.
MIMO techniques can support multiple independent channels in the same
bandwidth, provided the multipath environment is rich enough.
What this means is that high capacities are theoretically possible, unless there is a
direct line-of-sight between the transmitter and receiver.The number of transmitting
antennas is M, and the number of receiving antennas is N, where N M. We examine
four cases:
105
Single-input, single-output: The channel bandwidth is B, the transmitter power is Pt,
the signal at the receiver has an average signal-to-noise ratio of SNR0, then the
Shannon limit on channel capacity C is
D
C = B log2 (1+ N× SNR0) (5.5)
M2 [(signal power)/M]
SNR = (5.6)
SC
noise
Assuming N ≥ M, we can send different signals using the same bandwidth and still be
able to decode correctly at the receiver. Thus, we are creating a channel for each one
of the transmitters. The capacity of each one of these channels is roughly equal to
N
C = B log( 1 + ×SNR0 ) (5.8)
M
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Since we have M of these channels (M transmitting antennas), the total capacity of the
system is
N
𝐶 = MB log(1 + M ×SNR0) (5.9)
On the other hand, a wireless network uses a time varying channel where packet
D
losses may be common due to severe fading.
If the channel quality for each radio link can be predicted for a short duration (say
about 10 ms) into the future and accessible by the link layer, then ARQ along with an
adaptive modulation and coding system can be selected for each user to satisfy the bit
error rate (BER) requirement and provide high through-put.
The scheduler uses this information about individual data streams (along with
predicted values of different radio links and selected modulation and coding systems
by the link layer) and distributes the time slots among the users.
The planning is done so that the desired QoS and associated priority to different
users are guaranteed while channel spectrum is efficiently utilized.
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5.What is Cognitive Radio?
D
add smarts to the software that allows it to determine when frequencies are free to use
and then use them in the most efficient manner possible.
Most of the research work currently is focusing on spectrum sensing cogni-tive radio
particularly on the utilization of TV bands for communication.
A
The essential problem of spectrum sensing CR is the design of high quality sensing
devices and algorithms for exchanging spectrum sensing data between nodes.
It has been shown in [6] that a simple energy detector cannot guarantee accurate
detection of signal presence.
SC
This calls for more sophisticated spectrum sensing techniques and requires that
information about spectrum sensing be exchanged between nodes regularly.
It is not implicit that a CR must be software-defined radio. It is possible to implement
CR features — the ability to detect and avoid (protect) incumbent users — while using
relatively conventional radio transmitter/receiver architectures and techniques.
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