(Jan 18) SOM 03.01 IV Sem Civil New

Unit 3
COLUMNS AND CYLINDERS
 Columns
 Classification of Columns based on the
Slenderness Ratio
 Classification of Columns Based on Load
 Assumptions Made in the Euler’s Theory of
Long Column
 Solved Problems on Euler’s Theory
 Rankine Gordan Formula
 Solved Problems on Rankine’s Gordan
Formula
 Rankine’s Formula for Eccentrically Loaded
Columns
 Core or Kernal of Section
 Solved Problems on Eccentrically Loaded
Columns
 Thick Cylinders and Thick Spherical Shells
 Solved Problems on Thick Cylinders
 Compound Cylinders
 Solved Problems on Compound Cylinders
 Solved Problems on Thick Spherical Shells
Columns and Cylinders 3.1
Unit - 3
COLUMNS AND CYLINDERS

3.1. COLUMNS
3.1.1. INTRODUCTION
Column or strut is defined as a member of a structure, which is subjected to

axial compressive load. The column or strut may be square, rectangular, circular,
Tee and channel section in cross-section.
Fig. 3.1. Column or strut

3.1.2. COLUMN
A column is a vertical member or vertical slender bar, subjected to an axial

compressive load and fixed rigidly at both ends.
The column also known as stanchion or pillar.
Example: A vertical pillar between the roof and floor.
3.1.3. STRUT
A strut is a member or slender bar in any position other than vertical, subjected
to a compressive load and fixed rigidly or hinged or pin jointed at one or both the
ends.
Example: Roof truss, piston rods and connecting rods.
3.2 Strength of Materials II (Civil)
3.1.4. UNSUPPORTED LENGTH (l)
The unsupported length or actual length (l) of a column or strut is the clear
distance between the end restrains.
3.1.5. EFFECTIVE LENGTH (le)
The distance between adjacent points of inflexion is called effective length or

equivalent length.
3.1.6. RADIUS OF GYRATION
Radius of gyration of a body about an axis is a distance such that its square
multiplied by the area gives moment of inertia of the area about the given axis.
If A k 2 = I, then k is known as radius of gyration about the given axis.
I
 k = A
3.1.7. SLENDERNESS RATIO ( )
The ratio of the actual length or unsupported length (l) of a column to the least
radius of gyration of a column is known as slenderness ratio.
The slenderness ratio is given by,
Unsupported length
Slenderness ratio = Least radius of gyration
l
Slenderness ratio = k
3.1.8. BUCKLING FACTOR
It is the ratio between the equivalent length of column to the minimum radius of
gyration.
le
Buckling factor = k
3.1.9. BUCKLING LOAD
The maximum limiting load at which the column tends to have lateral
displacement or buckle is called as buckling load or crippling load or critical load
or critical just.
3.1.10. SAFE LOAD
The safe load for the column is the load under which the column will not buckle.
It is the load to which a column is actually subjected to and is well below the
buckling load.
It is obtained by dividing the buckling load by a suitable factor of safety (FOS).
Buckling load
Safe load = Factor of safety
3.1.11. CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS BASED ON THE SLENDERNESS RATIO

(OR) LENGTH TO DIAMETER RATIO
Depending upon the slenderness ratio or length to diameter ratio, columns are
classified into three classes.
(a) Short column
Columns which have lengths less than 8 times their respective diameters or
slenderness ratio less than 32 are called short column or stocky struts. It is
subjected to direct compressive stresses only and the failure occurs purely due to
crushing.
(b) Medium column
Columns which have their lengths varying from 8 times their diameter to 30
times their respective diameters or their slenderness ratio lying between 32 and 120
are called medium size column. It is subjected to both the buckling as well as direct
stresses.
(c) Long column
Columns having their lengths more than 30 times their respective diameters or
slenderness ratio more than 120 are called columns. It is subjected to buckling
stress only.
3.1.12. CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMN BASED ON LOAD
Based on the load acting on the column, the columns are classified into two
types.
(a) Axially loaded column

Load is acting exactly at the centroid of the column is called as axially loaded
column.
Fig. 3.2. Axially loaded column
(b) Eccentrically loaded column

Load is acting away from the centroid of the column is known as eccentrically
loaded column.
Fig. 3.3. Eccentrically loaded column

3.1.13. EFFECTIVE LENGTH (l e) OF THE COLUMN FOR DIFFERENT END

CONDITIONS
S.No. End Conditions Figure Effective Length
1. Both ends pin jointed le = l

or hinged or rounded
or free
2. One end fixed and le = 2 l

other end free
3. One end fixed and l

le =
other pin jointed 2
4. Both ends fixed l

le = 2
3.1.14. ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN THE EULER’S THEORY OF LONG COLUMN
The following assumptions are made in the Euler’s column theory.

1. The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.
2. The material of the column is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and obeys
Hooke’s law.
3. The length of the column is very long as compared to its cross-sectional
dimensions.
4. The column is initially straight and the compressive load is applied axially.
5. The failure of column occurs due to buckling load.
6. The self-weight of column is negligible.
3.1.15. LIMITATIONS OF THE EULER’S THEORY
The following are the limitations due to which Euler’s formula is of little
practical use.
1. It takes no account of direct stress. It means that it may give a buckling load
for struts, far in excess of load which they can withstand under direct
compression.
2. It is applicable to an ideal strut only and in practice, there is always
crookedness in the column and the load applied may not be exactly co-axial.
3.1.16. SIGN CONVENTIONS
The following sign conventions are commonly used for bending of columns.
A moment which will tend to bend the column with convexity towards its initial
centre line is considered as positive.
Fig. 3.4.
A moment which will tend to bend the column with concavity towards its initial
centre line is considered as negative.
Fig. 3.5.
3.1.17. EXPRESSION FOR CRITICAL LOAD (OR) BUCKLING LOAD (OR) CRIPPLING
LOAD WHEN BOTH THE ENDS OF THE COLUMN ARE HINGED
Consider a column (RS) of length l, and uniform cross-sectional area A,

carrying a critical load P at R.
The column is hinged at both of its ends R and S.
Due to application of load, the column deflects into a curved form as shown in
Fig.3.6.
Fig. 3.6.
Consider any section at a distance x from the end S. Let y is a deflection at this
section.
The moment due to crippling load at the section is given by
Moment = Load  Distance
Moment = – P  y  (a)
(Negative sign due to concavity)
d 2y
But we know that, Moment = E I  (b)
dx 2
d 2y
Equating (a) and (b), –Py = EI
dx 2
d 2y
EI +Py = 0
dx 2
d 2y P
 2 +EIy = 0
dx
The solution of the above differential equation is,
 P   P 
y = A cos  x  + B sin  x   (c)
 EI   EI 
where A and B are constants
A and B are obtained as follows
Case (i): At S, x = 0 and y = 0
Substituting these values in equation (c)
0 = A+0
 A = 0
Case (ii): At R, x = l, y = 0
Substituting these values in equation (c)
 P   P 
0 = A cos  l   
 E I  + B sin  l EI 
 P 
 0 = 0 + B sin  l  [ A = 0]
 EI 
From this equation, we know that
 P 
Either B = 0 or sin  l 
 EI  = 0
If B = 0, y = 0 [ A = 0]
It means the bending of the column will be zero. It is not true.

 P 
So, sin  l 
 EI  = 0
 P 
 l 
 E I  = 0 or  or 2 or 3
Now taking the least significant value,
 P 
l 
 EI  = 
P 
 =
EI l
P 2
 EI = 2
l
2 E I
Critical load, P =  (3.1)
l2
3.1.18. COLUMN WITH ONE END IS FIXED AND THE OTHER END IS FREE
Fig. 3.7.
Consider a column RS of length l, and uniform cross-sectional area A, carrying
a critical load P at R.
The column is fixed at one end S and the other end is free.
Due to application of critical load P, the column will deflect as shown in Fig.3.7.
From Fig.3.7, we know that,
RS is the original position of the column and R′S is the deflected position due to
critical load P.
Consider any section at a distance x from the fixed end S. Let y is a deflection at
this section and q is a deflection at free end R.
The moment due to crippling load at this section is given by,
Moment = Load  Distance
Moment = P  (q – y)  (d)
[Positive sign due to convexity]
But we know that,
d 2y
Moment = E I  (e)
dx 2
Equating equations (d) and (e)
d 2y d 2y
P  (q – y) = E I  EI + P y = Pq
dx 2 dx 2
Dividing by E I,
d 2y Pq
EI 2 +Py = EI
dx
d 2y P Pq
+ y = EI
dx 2 E I
The solution of the above differential equation is
 P   P 
y = A cos  x  + B sin  x   (f)
 E I   E I +q
where A and B are constants.
A and B are obtained as follows.
dy
Case (i): At end S, x = 0, y = 0 and slope dx = 0 substituting these values in
equation (f)
 0 = A  cos 0 + B sin 0 + q
0 = A+q
 A = –q
dy
We know that, at S, x = 0 and dx = 0
So, differentiating equation (f) with respect to x,

dy  P  P  P  P
x  x 
EI 
= A (–1) sin + B cos
dx  EI  EI  EI +0
P P
 0 = – A sin 0  E I + B cos 0  EI
P
 0 = 0+B [ sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1]
EI
P
 E I = 0 or B = 0
P
EI  0
For critical load,
So, B = 0
Substituting A = – q and B = 0 values in equation (f)
 P 
 y = – q cos  x 
 EI +q
Case (ii): At R′ (free end), x = l and y = q

Substituting these values in equation (f)
 P 
 q = – q cos  l 
 EI +q
 P 
q – q = – q cos  l 
 EI 
 P 
0 = – q cos  l 
 EI 
 P 
 q cos  l 
 EI  = 0
 P 
Here, q = 0 or cos  l 
 EI  = 0
But q  0
 P 
So, cos  l 
 EI  = 0
 P   3 5
 cos  l  = cos or cos or cos
 EI  2 2 2
P  3 5
 l = or or
EI 2 2 2
Now taking least significant value,

P 
l =
EI 2
P 
=
EI 2l
P 2
E I = 4 l2
2 E I
 P =
4 l2
2 E I
Critical load, P =  (3.2)
4 l2
3.1.19. COLUMN WITH ONE END IS FIXED AND THE OTHER END IS HINGED
Fig. 3.8.

a critical load P at both ends R and S.
The column is fixed at end S and hinged at end R.
Due to application of load P, the column will deflect as shown in Fig.3.8. There
will be a horizontal reaction (H) at R as shown in Fig.3.8.
Moment due
 Moment due   to horizontal 
Moment at section A =  to critical  +  reaction (H) 
 load P   
at R
= – P  y + H (l – x)  (g)
We know that,
d 2y
Moment at section A = E I  (h)
dx 2
Equating (g) and (h)
d 2y
 – P y + H (l – x) = E I
dx 2
Dividing by E I,
–Py H d 2y
 E I + E I (l – x) = dx 2
d 2y Py H
 + E I = E I (l – x)
2
dx
d 2y P H P
 + E I y = E I (l – x)  P
2
dx
d 2y P P H
 + E I y = E I  P (l – x)
2
dx

 P   P  H
y = A cos  x     (i)
 E I  + B sin  x E I  + P (l – x)
where A and B are constants.
A and B are obtained as follows:

dy
Case (i): At fixed end S, x = 0, y = 0 and dx = 0
Substituting x = 0, y = 0 in equation (i)

H
 0 = A + P (l)
H
 A = – (l)
P
dy
We know that, at fixed end S, x = 0 and dx = 0
Differentiating equation (i) with respect to x,

dy  P  P
x 
EI 
= A (–1) sin
dx  EI
 P  P H
+ B cos  x 
 EI  EI –P
P H
0 = 0+B –
EI P
P H
 B EI P = 0
–
P H
 B EI = P
H EI
 B = P P
H EI
 B = P P
Hl H EI
Substituting A = – P and B = P P values in equation (i)
Hl  P  H EI  P  H
y = – P cos  x  x   (j)
EI +P sin
 P  E I  + P (l – x)
Case (ii): At hinged end R, x = l and y = 0.

Substituting these values in equation (j)
H  P  H EI  P 
 0 = – P l cos  l  l 
EI + P sin
 P  EI +0
H  P  H EI  P 
    
P l cos  l EI  = P P sin  l EI 
 P  EI  P 
 l cos  l  = sin  l 
 EI  P  EI 
 P 
sin  l 
l  EI 
 =
EI  P 
cos  l 
P  EI 
P  P 
 l  
E I = tan  l EI 
The solution of the above equation is
 P 
l 
 E I  = 4.5 radians
P 4.5
 =
EI l
P 20.25
=
EI l2
EI
 P =  20.25
l2
2 2
 P = 2 EI
l
[ 20.25 approximately equal to 22]
2 2 E I
 Critical load, P =  (3.3)
l2
3.1.20. COLUMN WITH BOTH ENDS ARE FIXED

a critical load P at both ends R and S.
The column is fixed at both of its ends R and S.

Due to application of load P, the column will deflect as shown in Fig.3.9.
Moment at section A = M – (P  y)  (k)
(negative sign due to concavity)
Fig. 3.9.
But we know that,
d 2y
Moment at section A = E I  (l)
dx 2
Equating (k) and (l),
d 2y
M – (P  y) = E I
dx 2
d 2y
EI +Py = M
dx 2
Dividing by E I,
d 2yP M M P P M
 +EIy = EI = EIP = EI P
2
dx
d 2yP P M
 +EIy = EI P
2
dx

 P   P  M
y = A cos  x  + B sin  x   (m)
 EI   EI + P
where A and B are constant.
A and B are obtained as follows:
dy
Case (i): At S, x = 0, y = 0 and dx = 0
Substituting x = 0, y = 0 in equation (m)

M
 0 = A cos 0 + B sin 0 + P
M
0 = A+ P [sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1]
M
 A = –
P
dy
We know that, at S, x = 0 and dx = 0
So, differentiating equation (m) with respect to x,

dy  P  P  P  P
x  x 
EI 
= A (–1) sin + B cos
dx  EI  EI  EI +0
P dy
 0 = 0+B [ x = 0, dx = 0]
EI
P
 B EI = 0
P
 B = 0 or EI = 0
P
EI  0
For critical load,
So, B = 0
M
Substituting A = – P and B = 0 values in equation (m)
M  P  M
 y = – P cos  x 
 EI +0+ P
M  P  M
y = – P cos  x   (n)
 EI + P
Case (ii): At end R, x = l and y = 0. Substituting these values in equation (n)
M  P  M
 0 = – P cos  l 
 EI + P
M  P  M
 P cos  l 
 EI  = P
 P 
 cos  l 
 EI  = 1
 P 
 cos  l 
 E I  = cos 0 or cos 2 or cos 4
P
 l E I = 0, 2, 4
Taking least significant value,
P
 l E I = 2
P 4 2
=
EI l2
4 2 E I
 P =
l2
4 2 E I
 Crippling load, P =  (3.4)
l2
3.1.21. EULER’S CRIPPLING LOAD OF COLUMN FOR DIFFERENT END

CONDITIONS
Buckling or Crippling Load

S.No. End Conditions
Effective Length Actual Length
1. Both ends are hinged. 2 E I 2 E I

l 2e l2
Buckling or Crippling Load

S.No. End Conditions
Effective Length Actual Length
2. One end is fixed and 2 E I 2 E I

other end is free. l 2e 4 l2
3. One end is fixed and 2 E I 2 2 E I

other is hinged. l 2e l2
4. Both ends are fixed. 2 E I 4 2 E I

l 2e l2
3.1.22. FORMULAE USED

Load P
1. Stress,  = Area = A
Change in length L
2. Strain, e = Original length = L
Stress 
3. Young’s modulus, E = Strain = e
4. Area of rectangular section, A = b  d


5. Area of circular solid section, A = D2
4

6. Area of circular hollow section, A = 4 [D2 – d 2]
7. Moment of inertia of rectangular section,

b d3
I x x = 12
b3 d
Iyy = 12
8. Moment of inertia of circular solid section,

I = 64 D4
9. Moment of inertia of circular hollow section,


I = 64 [D4 – d 4]
I
10. Radius of gyration (k) = A
Unsupported length l
11. Slenderness ratio = Least radius of gyration = k
Buckling load
12. Factor of safety = Safe load
2 E I
13. Euler’s buckling load, P =
l e2
14. Effective length of column for different end conditions,

(i) Both ends are hinged  le = l
(ii) One end is fixed and other end is free  le = 2 l
l
(iii) One end is fixed and other end is hinged  l e =
2
l
(iv) Both ends are fixed  le = 2
15. Crippling load for different end condition columns (Euler’s formulae)
2 E I
(i) Both ends are hinged  P =
l2
2 E I
(ii) One end is fixed and other end is free  P =
4 l2
2 2 E I
(iii) One end is fixed and other end is hinged  P =
l2
4 2 E I
(iv) Both ends are fixed  P =
l2
16. Deflection of simply supported beam with concentrated centre load,
W l3
 = 48 E I
17. Deflection of simply supported beam with udl,

5 w l4
 = 384 E I
18. Outer diameter of hollow cylinder (D)

= Inner diameter + 2 (thickness)
D = d +2t
3.1.23. SOLVED PROBLEMS ON EULER’S THEORY
Example 3.1 A steel rod 4 m long and 50 mm diameter is used as a column.

Determine the crippling load by Euler’s formula when the given column with both
ends fixed. Take E = 2  105 N/mm2.
Given: Length of the rod, l = 4 m = 4000 mm
Diameter of the rod, d = 50 mm
Young’s modulus, E = 2  105 N/mm2
End condition: Both ends are fixed
To find: Critical load for the column by Euler’s formula when both ends are
fixed.
 Solution: We know that,
Critical load (P) for both ends are fixed
4 2 E I
P =
l2

where I = MOI = 64 d 4

= 64  504 = 30.68  10 4 mm4
4  2  2  105  30.68  10 4
P =
(4000)2
Critical load P = 151.4 kN
Alternate Method: We know that,
Critical load (P) by Euler’s formula based on effective length,
2 E I
P =
l 2e
where l e = Effective length
Effective length for both ends are fixed,

l
le = 2
4000
le = 2 = 2000
2 E I 2  2  105  30.68  10 4
 P = =
l 2e (2000)2
 Critical load P = 151.4 kN

Example 3.2 A steel rod 4m long and 40mm diameter is used as a column.
Determine the crippling load by Euler’s formula when the given column is used
with the following conditions.
Taking E = 2  105 N/mm2
(a) Both ends are hinged
(b) One end is fixed and other end is free
(c) Both ends are fixed
(d) One end is fixed and other end is hinged
Given: Length of the rod, l = 4 m = 4000 mm
Diameter of rod, d = 40 mm
To find: Critical load for the following conditions
(a) Both ends are hinged
(b) One end is fixed and other end is free
(c) Both ends are fixed
(d) One end is fixed and other end is hinged
Solution:
(a) We know that,
Critical load (P) for both ends are hinged condition,
2 E I
P =
l2

Where I = Moment of inertia = 64 d 4

= 64 (40)4
I = 12.56  104 mm4

2  2  105  12.56  104
 P = = 15495.2 N
(4000)2
Critical load, P = 15.495 kN
(b) We know that,
Critical load for one end is fixed and other end is free condition
2 E I
P =
4l 2
2  2  105  12.56  104
= = 3873.8 N
4  (4000)2
(c) We know that,
Critical load for both ends are fixed
42 E I
P =
l2
4  2  2  105  12.56  104
=
(4000)2
= 61981.1 N
Critical load P = 61.981 kN
(d) We know that,
Critical load for one end is fixed and other end is hinged condition
22 E I
P =
l2
2  2  2  105  12.56  104
=
(4000)2
= 30,990 N
Result:
(a) Critical load, P = 15.495 kN [Both ends are hinged]
(b) Critical load, P = 3.87 kN [One end is fixed and other end is free]
(c) Critical load, P = 61.981 kN [Both ends are fixed]
(d) Critical load, P = 30.990 kN [One end is fixed and other end is hinged]
Example 3.3 A section 0.2 m  0.3 m is used as a column of 5m long with
hinged at its both ends. Calculate
(a) Crippling load
(b) Safe load, if factor of safety = 4. Take E = 2  105 N/mm2
Given: Dimension of section = 0.2 m  0.3 m = 200 mm  300 mm
Actual length, l = 5 m = 5000 mm
Factor of safety = 4
To find: (a) Crippling load, P
(b) Safe load
Solution: We know that,
Crippling load for both ends are hinged condition.
2 E I
P =
l2
Where, I – Least value of moment of inertia – mm4
Fig. 3.10.
Moment of inertia about x – x axis

200  (300)3 
3
bd 
I xx = 12   Moment of inertia Ixx = 12 
 
I xx = 450  106 mm4
Moment of inertia about y – y axis
300  (200)3  b3d 
I yy = 12   Iyy = 12 
 
I yy = 200  106 mm4
Since I yy is less than Ixx .
So, moment of inertia, I = 200  106 mm4
Substitute I value in equation (A)
2  E  200  106
 P =
l2
2  2  105  200  106
= = 15.79  106 N
(5000)2
Critical load, P = 15.79  10 3 kN
Critical load 15.79  10 3
We know that, Safe load = Factor of safety = 4
Safe load = 3947 kN
Result:
(a) Critical load, P = 15.79  10 3 kN
(b) Safe load = 3947 kN
Example 3.4 A hollow tube 5000 mm long,
300 mm internal diameter and 50mm thick is used as a
column with both ends are fixed.
Calculate
(a) Critical load
(b) Safe load, if factor of safety = 3.
Take E = 2  105 N/mm2
Given: Length of tube, l = 5000 mm
Internal diameter, d = 300 mm

Thickness, t = 50 mm
External diameter, D = d + t + t = 300 + 50 +50
D = 400 mm
To find: (a) Critical load
(b) Safe load
Critical load when both ends are fixed
42 E I
P =
l2
Where, I – Moment of inertia – mm4

I = 64 [D4 – d 4]

I = 64 [(400)4 – (300)4]
I = 859  106 mm4

4  2  2  105  859  106
 Critical load, P =
(5000)2
= 271.29  106 N
Critical load, P = 271.29  10 3 kN
Critical load
271.29  10 3
= 3
Safe load = 90430 kN
Result: Critical load, P = 271.29  10 3 kN
Safe load = 90430 kN
Example 3.5 A simply supported beam of length 5 m is loaded at the centre

with a concentrated load of 1200 N and deflects 12mm at the centre. Determine the
critical load when this beam is used as a column and both the ends are hinged.
Given: Length, l = 5 m = 5000 mm
Load, W = 1200 N
Deflection,  = 12 mm
To find: Critical load [Both the ends are hinged]
Solution: Simply supported beam subjected to concentrated load at centre,
deflection () is given by,
W l3
 = 48 E I
W l3
 EI =
48 
1200  (5000)3
=
48  12
E I = 2.6  1011 Nmm2
We know that,
2 E I
Critical load, P = [Both ends are hinged]
l2
2  2.6  1011
=
(5000)2
P = 102.8  10 3 N
P = 102.8 kN
Result: Critical load, P = 102.8 kN
Example 3.6 A simply supported beam of length 6m is subjected to a
uniformly distributed load of 75 kN/m over the whole span and deflects 25mm at
the centre. Determine the crippling load when this beam is used as a column and
both the ends are fixed.
Load, w = 75 kN/m = 75  10 3 N/m
10 3 N
= 75  3 = 75 N/mm
10 mm
Deflection  = 25 mm
To find: Crippling load [Both the ends are fixed]
Solution: Simply supported beam subjected to uniformly distributed load,
deflection is given by
5 w l4
 =
384 E I
5 75  (6000)4
 25 = 384  EI
5 75  (6000)4
 E I = 384  25
 E I = 5.06  1013 Nmm2
We know that,
4 2 E I
Crippling load, P = [Both the ends are fixed]
l2
4  2  5.06  1013
=
(6000)2
= 55.4  106 N
P = 55.4  10 3 kN
Result: Crippling load, P = 55.4  10 3 kN
Example 3.7 A hollow tube 4 m long, 50mm external diameter and 40mm
internal diameter is subjected under tensile load of 40 kN and deflects 10mm. This
tube is used as a column with both ends hinged. Determine crippling load and also
safe load taking factor of safety as 3.
External diameter, D = 50 mm
Tensile load = 40 kN = 40000 N
To find: (a) Crippling load [Both ends are hinged]

(b) Safe load
 
Solution: Area of the tube, A = 4 [D2 – d 2] = 4 [502 – 402]
A = 706.85 mm2
We know that,
Tensile load 40000
Tensile stress = =
Area 706.85
Tensile stress = 56.58 N/mm2
Change in length 10
Tensile strain = Original length = 4000
Tensile strain = 2.5  10–3

We know that,
Tensile stress 56.58
Young’s modulus E = Tensile strain =
2.5  10 – 3
E = 22,632 N/mm2
We know that,

Moment of inertia, I = [D4 – d 4 ]
64

I = 64 [(50)4 – (40)4]
I = 1,81,132 mm4
2 E I
Crippling load, P = [Both ends are hinged]
l2
2  22,632  1,81,132
=
(4000)2
P = 2528.7 N
Crippling load, P = 2528.7 N
Crippling load 2528.7
Safe load = 842.9 N
Result:
1. Crippling load, P = 2528.7 N
2. Safe load = 842.9 N
Example 3.8 A hollow column of 60 mm external diameter, 40 mm internal
diameter and 600 cm length with one end fixed and other end free condition. Use
Euler’s formula and fixed Buckling load. Take E = 90 kN/mm2.
Given: External diameter, D = 60 mm

Length, l = 600 cm = 6000 mm
Young’s modulus, E = 90 kN/mm2
= 90  103 N/mm2
To find: Buckling Load (P)
[One end is fixed and other end is free]

2 E I
Buckling load, P =
4 l2
2  90  10 3  1
P =  (A)
4  (6000)2

Moment of inertia, I = 64 [D4 – d 4]

I = 64 [(60)4 – (40)4]
I = 510  10 3 mm4
2  90  10 3  510  10 3
(A)  P =
4  (6000)2
P = 3145 N
Result: Buckling load, P = 3145 N

Example 3.9 An I section joint 500mm  250mm  25mm and 5m long is

used as a column with both ends are fixed. Calculate critical load for the column.
Take E = 2  105 N/mm2
Fig. 3.11.
Given: Outer depth, d 2 = 500 m

Thickness = 25 mm
Inner depth, d 1 = 500 – 25 – 25
d 1 = 450 mm
Outer width, b2 = 250 mm
Inner width, b1 = 250 – 25 mm
b1 = 225 mm
Length, l = 5 m = 5000 mm
To find: Critical load

Solution: Moment of inertia about x – x axis
1
Ixx = 12 [b 2 d 32 – b1 d 31 ]
1
= 12 [250  (500)3 – 225  4503]
Ixx = 0.895  109 mm4

Moment of inertia about y – y axis

1 2  25  2503
Iyy = 12  450  253 + 12
Iyy = 65.6  106 mm4
Here, Iyy < Ixx
So, least value of the moment of inertia
Iyy = I = 65.6  106 mm4.
I = 65.6  106 mm4
42 E I
We know that, Critical load, P = [Both ends are fixed]
l2
4  2  2  105  65.6  106
P =
(5000)2
P = 20.7  106 N
Result: Critical load, P = 20.7  106 N = 20.7 MN.
Example 3.10 Calculate the crippling load for a ‘T’ section of dimensions
150 mm  120 mm  20 mm and of length 4m when it is used as strut with both of
its ends hinged. Take Young’s modulus E = 2.1  105 N/mm2.
Given: Dimensions = 150 mm  120 mm  20 mm
Young’s modulus, E = 2.1  105 N/mm2
Fig. 3.12.
To find: Crippling load

Solution: The given section is symmetrical about the axis Y – Y, So, the
centre of gravity (C.G) of the section lies on Y – Y axis.
–
Let y = Distance of C.G of the section from top end.
At section (1): a1 = 150  20 = 3000 mm2

a 1 = 3000 mm2
y1 = Distance of C.G of area a 1 from the top end
20
= 2
y1 = 10 mm
At section (2): a 2 = (120 – 20)  20 = 100  20

a 2 = 2000 mm2
y 2 = Distance of C.G of area a 2 from the top end
(120 – 20)
= 20 + = 20 + 50
2
y 2 = 70 mm
– a 1 y1 + a 2 y 2 3000  10 + 2000  70
We know that, y = =
a1 + a2 3000 + 2000
–
y = 34 mm
Moment of inertia of the section about the axis X – X
3 3
 150  (20)   20  (100) 
Ixx =  + 3000  (24)2  +  + 2000  (36)2 
 12   12 
Ixx = 6.08  106 mm4
3 3
 20  (150) 100  (20) 
Similarly, Iyy =  + 
 12 12 
Iyy = 5.69  106 mm4
Here Iyy < Ixx
So, least value of the moment of inertia

Iyy = I = 5.69  106 mm4
We know that,
2 E I
Crippling load [both ends are hinged] =
l2
2  2.1  105  5.69  106
P =
(4000)2
P = 7.37  105 N
Result: Crippling load, P = 7.37  105 N
Example 3.11 Determine the critical stresses for a series of columns having
slenderness ratio of 50, 100, 150 and 200 under the following condition by Euler’s
formula.
(a) Both ends hinged
(b) Both ends fixed. Take E = 2.1  105 N/mm2
l 
Given: Slenderness ratio,  k  = 50, 100, 150 and 200
 
To find: (1) Critical stresses for the following conditions

(a) Both ends hinged
(b) Both ends fixed
Critical load P 2 E I  2 E I 
Critical stress = Area = A = l 2e A P= 2 
 le 
2 E A k2
= [ I = A k2]
l 2e A
2 E
Critical stress =  (1)
 l e 2
 
k
Case (a): Critical stresses when both ends are hinged

2 E
Critical stress =
 l e 2
 
k
For both ends hinged, l e = l
2 E
 Critical stress = l  (2)
 e 2
 
k
When l/k = 50,
2 E 2  2.1  105
(2)  Critical stress = 2 =
(50) (50)2
Critical stress = 829.04 N/mm2
When l/k = 100,
2 E 2  2.1  105
(2)  Critical stress = =
(100)2 (100)2
When l/k = 150,
2 E 2  2.1  105
(150)2 (150)2
When l/k = 200,
2 E 2  2.1  105
(200)2 (200)2
Case (b): Critical stresses when both ends are fixed.
For both ends fixed, l e = l/2
Substitute l e = l/2 in equation (1),
2 E
(1)  Critical stresses =
 l 2
2k
 
42 E
Critical stress =  (3)
 l 2
 
k
When l/k = 50,
42 E
(3)  Critical stress =
(50)2
When l/k = 100,
4 2 E 4  2  2.1  105
(100)2 (100)2
When l/k = 150,
4 2 E 4  2  2.1  105
(150)2 (150)2
When l/k = 200,
4 2 E 4  2  2.1  105
(200)2 (200)2
3.1.24. RANKINE’S-GORDAN FORMULA
Euler’s formula gives correct results only for very long columns. Prof. Rankine,
after a number of experiments, established the following empirical formula which
is applicable to all columns whether they are short or long.
1 1 1
 (3.5)
P = PC + P E
Where, P – Crippling load by Rankine’s formula
PC – Crushing load for the column = c  A
2 E I
P E – Crippling load by Euler’s formula =
l 2e
1 1 1
(3.5)  = +
P PC P E
1 P E + PC
=
P PC P E
P E PC
P = P +P
E C
PC
P = PC
1+P
E
2 E I
Substituting PC = c  A and P E =
l 2e
c A c A
 P = = [ I = A k 2]
c A c A
1+ 2 1+ 2
 EI  E A k2
l 2e l 2e
c A
=
c  l e 2
1+ 2 k 
E  
c A c
P = [ a = ]
 l e 2 2E
1+a k 
 
c A
Crippling load, P =
 l e 2
1+a  
k 
Where, c – Crushing stress – N/mm2
A – Cross sectional area – mm2
 c 
a – Rankine’s constant =  2 
 E 
l e – Equivalent length of column – mm
k – Least radius of gyration – mm
3.1.25. SOLVED PROBLEMS (RANKINE’S FORMULA)

Example 3.12 A hollow cast iron column is 4 m length with both ends are
fixed. The internal diameter of the column is 40 mm and external diameter is
60 mm. Calculate the crippling load by using Rankine’s formula. Taking  c =
575 N/mm2 ; a = 1/1500.
Crushing stress, c = 575 N/mm2
Rankine’s constant, a = 1/1500
To find: Crippling load
Solution:

Area of the column, A = 4 [D2 – d 2]

= 4 [602 – 402]
A = 1570.79 mm2


= 64 [604 – 404]
I = 5.10  105 mm4

I 5.10  105
Least radius of gyration, k = A = 1570.79
k = 18.01 mm
We know that,
For both ends are fixed, effective length, l e = l/2.
4000
 le = 2
l e = 2000 mm
We know that,
c A
Crippling load, P =
 l e 2
1+a k 
 
575  1570.79
= 1  2000 2
1 + 1500  18.01 
 
P = 0.979  105 N
Result: Crippling load, P = 0.979  105 N
Example 3.13 A cast iron columns has circular cross section of 60 mm
diameter and 2m long. If one of the ends of the column is fixed position and other
end is free, calculate the safe load by using
1
(a) Rankine’s formula, take  c = 500 N/mm2 and a = 1600
(b) Euler’s formula take E = 1.2  105 N/mm2

The factor of safety of the column is 3.
Given: Diameter of the column, D = 60 mm
To find: Safe load by using
(a) Rankine’s formula
(b) Euler’s formula
Solution:
 
Area of the column, A = 4 D2 = 4 [60]2
A = 2827.43 mm2
 
Moment of inertia, I = 64 D4 = 64 [60]4
I = 63.62  104 mm4

I 63.62  104
k = 15 mm
We know that,
For one end is fixed and the other end is free, effective length, l e = 2l.
 l e = 2  2000
l e = 4000 mm
Case (a): Crippling load by using Rankine’s formula
c A
Crippling load, P =
 l e 2
1+a k 
 
500  2827.43
= 1  4000 2
1 + 1600  15 
 
P = 0.31  105 N
Crippling load 0.31  105
Safe load = 10.36  10 3 N
Case (b): Crippling load by using Euler’s formula
2 E I
P =
4 l2
2  1.2  105  63.62  104
=
4  (2000)2
P = 0.47  105 N
Safe load = Factor of safety = 3
Safe load = 15.69  10 3 N
Result:
(a) Safe load by Rankine’s formula = 10.36  10 3 N
(b) Safe load by Euler’s formula = 15.69  10 3 N
Example 3.14 A hollow cast iron is 6m long with both ends are fixed. The
internal diameter of the column is 200 mm and outside diameter is 250 mm.
Calculate the safe Rankine’s load. Take  c = 500 N/mm2, a = 1/1600 and factor of
safety = 5. 
Given: Internal diameter, d = 200 mm
To find: Safe Rankine load
Solution:
 2 
Area of the column, A = [D – d 2] = [2502 – 2002]
4 4
A = 17,671.45 mm2
 
Moment of inertia, I = 64 [D4 – d 4] = 64 [2504 – 2004]
I = 113.20  106 mm4

I 113.20  106
Least radius of gyration, k = A = 17,671.45
k = 80.03 mm
We know that,
For both ends are fixed, effective length, l e = l/2.
6000
 le = 2
l e = 3000 mm
We know that,
c A
Crippling load, P =
 l e 2
1+a k 
 
500  17,671.45
= 1  3000 2
1 + 1600  80.03 
 
P = 4.70  106 N
Safe load = Factor of safety = 5
Safe load = 9.40  105 N
Result: Safe Rankine load = 9.40  105 N
Example 3.15 A hollow cast iron whose outside diameter is 200 mm has a
thickness of 20mm. It is 4.5 m long and is fixed at both ends. Calculate the safe
load by Rankine’s formula using a factor of safety of 4. Calculate the slenderness
ratio and the ratio of Euler’s and Rankine’s critical loads. Take  c = 550 N/mm2,
a = 1/1600 and E = 9.4  104 N/mm2. (Anna University – 1991)
Given: Length, l = 4.5 m = 4500 mm
Outside diameter, D = 200 mm
Inside diameter, d = D – 2 t = 200 – 2  20 = 160 mm
Young’s modulus E = 9.4  104 N/mm2
To find:
(1) Safe load by Rankine’s formula
(2) Slenderness ratio
(3) Ratio of Euler’s and Rankine’s critical loads.
Solution:
 
Area of the column, A = 4 [D2 – d 2] = 4 [2002 – 1602]
A = 11,309.7 mm2


= 64 [2004 – 1604]
I = 46.37  106 mm4

I 46.37  106
k = 64.03 mm
We know that,
For both ends are fixed, effective length, l e = l/2
4500
 le = 2
l e = 2250 mm
We know that,
c A
(i) Crippling load, P =
 l e 2
1+a k 
 
550  11309.7
= 1  2250 2
1 + 1600  64.03 
 
P = 3.51  106 N  (1)
Crippling load
3.51  106
= = 877.7  10 3 N
4
Safe load by Rankine’s formula = 877.7  103 N  (2)
(ii) Slenderness ratio

We know that,
l 4500
Slenderness ratio = k = 64.03
Slenderness ratio = 70.28

(iii) Crippling load by using Euler’s formula
4 2 E I
P =
l2
4 2  9.4  104  46.37  106
=
(4500)2
P = 8.49  106 N  (3)
Ratio of Euler’s and Rankine’s critical loads
8.49  106
= = 2.42
3.51  106
Result:
1. Safe load by Rankine’s formula = 877.7  10 3 N
2. Slenderness ratio = 70.28
3. Ratio of Euler’s and Rankine’s critical loads = 2.42
Example 3.16 A hollow cylindrical cast iron internal diameter is 0.6 times
the external diameter. The length of the column is 5m with both ends fixed. If the
column carry a safe load of 200  10 3 N with a factor of safety of 6, find minimum
diameter of column. Take  c = 550 N/mm2 and a = 1/1600.
Internal diameter, d = 0.6  D
Safe load = 200  10 3 N
To find: Minimum diameter, (i.e.,) D and d

Crippling load
Crippling load
200  10 3 = 6
Crippling load, P = 12  105 N

 
= 4 [D2 – (0.6 D)2] = 4 [D2 – 0.36 D2]
A = 0.16  D2

 
= 64 [D4 – (0.6 D)4] = 4 [D4 – 0.129 D4]
I = 0.014  D4
I 0.014  D4
Least radius of gyration, k = A = 0.16  D2
k = 0.29 D
We know that,
For both ends are fixed, effective length, l e = l/2
5000
 le = 2
l e = 2500 mm
We know that,
c A
(i) Crippling load, P =
 l e 2
1+a k 
 
550  0.16  D2
12  105 = 1  2500 2
1 + 1600  0.29 D 
 
12  105 D2
=
550  0.16   1  2500 2
1 + 1600  0.29D 
 
D2
 4340.59 =
46.44  10 3
1+
D2
D2  D2
 4340.59 = 2
D + 46.44  10 3
 [D2 + 46.44  10 3] 4340.59 = D 4
 4340.59 D2 + 201.57  10 6 = D4
 D4 – 4340.59 D2 – 201.57  106 = 0
The above equation is in the form of quadratic equation.
4340.59 ± (4340.59)2 + 4  (1)  201.57  106
 D2 =
21
 –b ± b2 – 4 a c 
  Roots = 2a 
 
4340.59 ± 28724.91
 D2 = [ Neglect negative root]
2
D2 = 16532.75
 D = 128.56 mm
Internal diameter, d = 0.6  D = 0.6  128.56
d = 77.14 mm
Result: External diameter, D = 128.56 mm
Internal diameter, d = 77.14 mm
3.1.26. RANKINE-GORDAN FORMULA FOR ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMNS

Let, P = An eccentrical load to which a short column is subjected.
e = Eccentricity from the centroid axis
A = Area of cross-sectionof column
l e = Effective length of column
 max = Maximum compressive stress
Now,  max = d + b
P Pe P Pe P ey
= A+ I y = A+ y = A1+ 2 
A k2  k 
 max  A
 P =
 ey
1+ 2 
 k 
Safe load for the column at the eccentricity e is given by,
c  A
P =
 ey
1+ 2 
 k 
Safe load for the column at the eccentricity ‘e’ with buckling effect is given by
c  A
P =
 ey   a l 2e 
1+ 2  1+ 2 
 k  k 
3.1.27. EULER’S METHOD FORMULA FOR ECCENTRICALLY LOADED COLUMN

 max = d + b
le P
P  e sec 2
P EI
 max = A+  (3.6)
Z
3.1.28. SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 3.17 A column of circular section made of cast iron 200 mm

external diameter and 20 mm thick is used as a column 4 metres long. Both ends of
the column are fixed. The column carries a load of 150 kN at an eccentricity of 25
mm from the axis of the column. Find the extreme stresses on the column and find
maximum eccentricity in order there may be no tension anywhere in the section.
Take E = 94000 N/mm2.
Given: Outer diameter, D = 200 mm
Inner diameter, d = D – 2 t = 200 – (2  20)
= 160 mm
Length of column, l = 4 m = 4000 mm

Load, P = 150 kN = 150  103 N
Eccentricity, e = 25 mm
Young’s modulus, E = 94000 N/mm2
End condtion: Both ends fixed
To find: 1. Extreme stresses in the column ( max)
2. Maximum eccentricity in order there may be no tension in the
section anywhere (e max)
 Solution:
1. Extreme stresses ( max )

Area of the column = A = 4 (2002 – 1602) = 11310 mm2

Moment of inertia, I = 64 (2004 – 1604) = 4.637  107 mm4
4.637  107
Section modulus, Z = = 4.637  105 mm3
100
l 4000
Effective length, l e = 2 = 2 = 2000 mm
le P
Maximum bending moment, M = P e sec 2 EI
le P
Let us determine the angle 2 EI
le P 150  103
2 E I = 1000 94000  4.637  107
= 0.1855 radian
= 10.63 = 10 38′ say 10 40′
sec 10 40′ = 1.017
 Maximum bending moment
M = 150  103  25  1.017 = 3813750 N-mm
 Maximum compressive stress,

P M 150  103 3813750
 max = A + Z = 11310 +
4.637  105
 max = 13.26 + 8.22
  max = 21.48 N/mm2
2. Maximum eccentricity, e max
P M
=
A Z
le P
P e max sec 2
P EI
A = Z
150  103 150  103  e max  1.017
11310 = 4.637  105
4.637  105
 e max = = 40.33 mm
11310  1.017
3.1.29. ECCENTRICALLY LOADED SHORT COLUMN
Fig. 3.13. Eccentrically loaded short column

Fig.3.13 shows a short column of section, of area A carrying a vertical point
load P eccentrically. Let the eccentricity e.
The section of the column subjected to direct and bending stress.
Hence, stress  = d ± b
P
where, d = Direct stress = A
M
b = Bending stress = Z
P M
 = A± Z
P Pe
 = ± [ M = P e]
A Z
P Pe I
 = A± I y [ Z = y ]
The resultant stresses are,

P Pe
 max = d + b = A + Z
P Pe
 min = d – b = A – Z
Fig. 3.14.
If d > b, the stresses on the section are wholly compressive.

If d = b, we have
 max = d + b = 2 d and  min = d – b = 0
For this case, the stresses on the section are wholly compressive and the stress
intensity varies uniformly from zero at one extremity to a maximum value at the
other extremity.
If d < b, we have
 max = d + b and  min = d – b = – (b – d)
For this case,  max is compressive and  min is tensile.
If the stresses are to be wholly compressive, i.e., if tensile stress should not
occur.
b  d
Pe P
 Z  A
Z
 e 
A
3.1.30. MIDDLE THIRD RULE FOR RECTANGULAR SECTION
Consider a rectangular section of cross-section b  d .

For the section,
b2 d
6 and Area, A = b  d
Section modulus, Z =
Hence, the condition for that tensile stress should not occur is
Z b2 d b
e  A = 6b d = 6
b
 e must be less than or equal to 6 . Hence the greatest eccentricity of the load is
b
6 from the axis xx.
b
Hence if the load is applied at any distance less than 6 from the axis on any side
of the axis xx, the stresses wholly compressive.
Hence the range within which the load can be applied so as not to produce any
tensile stress, is within the middle third of the base is known as middle third rule.
Similarly, if the load had eccentric with respect to the axis yy, the condition that
tensile stress will not occur is when the eccentricity of the load with respect to this
d
axis yy does not exceed 6 .
Fig. 3.15.
Fig. 3.16.
3.1.31. MIDDLE QUARTER RULE FOR CIRCULAR SECTION
Consider a circular column section of cross-section as shown in Fig.

We know that condition for no tensile stresses
Z
e  A
Let the diameter of the section ‘d ’.

 d3
Section modulus, Z = 32
 d2
Area, A =
4
 d3 4 d
 e   2  e =
32  d 8
Hence, in general, if the load to applied anywhere within circle of diameter d /4,
the stresses will remain wholly compressive.
Thus, in order that tension is no developed, the load must be fall within middle
fourth of the section is known middle fourth rule.
3.1.32. CORE OR KERNAL OF SECTION
The portion within which the load may be applied anywhere so as not to
produce tensile stress in any part of the entire section is called as the core or kernal
of the section.
(i) Rectangular section
From the Fig.3.17, ABCD rhombus is known as core or kernal for rectangular
section.
b d
The eccentricity from the middle third rule, e = 6 for xx axis and e = 6 for yy
b d
axis and the diagonals are and is the rhombus ABCD.
3 3
Fig. 3.17.
(ii) Circular section
For circular section, the core or kernal of the section is the concentric circle of
d
diameter 4 .
Fig. 3.18.
3.1.33. SOLVED PROBLEMS ON ECCENTRICALLY LOADED SHORT COLUMN
Example 3.18 A rectangular column of width 250 mm and thickness of

150 mm. It carries a load of 80 kN at an eccentricity of 20 mm in a plane bisecting
thickness. Find the maximum and minimum intensities of stress in the section.
Given: Width of column, b = 250 mm
Thickness of column, d = 150 mm
Load, P = 80 kN = 80  103 N
To find: 1. Maximum stress ( max)

2. Minimum stress ( min)
Fig. 3.19.
 Solution:
Area of column, A = b  d = 250  150
= 37500 mm2
P 80  103
Direct stress, d = A = 37500 = 2.13 N/mm2
b2 d 2502  150
Section modulus, Z = =
6 6
= 1.56  106 mm3
M Pe
Bending stress, b = Z = Z
80  103  20
b = = 1.025 N/mm2
1.56  106
1. Maximum stress ( max )
 max = d + b
 max = 2.13 + 1.025
 max = 3.15 N/mm2
2. Minimum stress ( min )
 min = d – b
 min = 2.13 – 1.025
 min = 1.1 N/mm2
Alternative Method:
From the bending equation, the stress formula for rectangular section,
P 6e
 = A1± b 
 
P 6e 
 max = A  1 + b 
 
80  103  6  20 
=  
37500  1 + 250 
 max = 3.15 N/mm2
P 6e
 min = A  1 – b 
 
80  103  6  20 
 min = 37500  1 – 250 
 
  min = 1.1 N/mm2
Result:
1. Maximum stress ( max) = 3.15 N/mm2
2. Minimum stress ( min) = 1.1 N/mm2
Example 3.19 If in problem 3.18, the minimum stress on the section is given
zero, then find the eccentricity of the point load of 80 kN acting on the rectangular
column. Also calculate the corresponding maximum stress on the section.
Load, P = 80 kN = 80  103 N
Minimum stress,  min = 0
Fig. 3.20.
To find: 1. Eccentricity (e) of the load
2. Maximum stress ( max) for the eccentricity
 Solution:
Area of column, A = b  d = 250  150 = 37500 mm2
b 2 d 2502  150
Section modulus, Z = 6 = 6
= 1.56  106 mm3
1. Eccentricity (e)
We know that,  min = d – b
P M
 min = A – Z
P Pe
 min = A – Z
If  min = 0, then
P Pe
0 = A– Z
P Pe
A = Z
80  103 80  103  e
=
37500 1.56  106
 e = 41.6 mm
P Pe
 max = A + Z
80  103 80  103  41.6

 max = 37500 + 1.56  106
  max = 4.26 N/mm2
Result: 1. Eccentricity, e = 41.6 mm
2. Maximum stress,  max = 4.26 N/mm2
Example 3.20 If in problem 3.18, the eccentricity is given 70 mm instead of
20 mm, then find the maximum and minimum stresses on the section. Draw stresses
diagram.
Load, P = 80 kN = 80  103 N
To find: 1. Minimum stress,  min
2. Maximum stress,  max
 Solution: Area of column, A = b  d = 250  150 = 3750 mm2
b 2 d 2502  150
Section modulus, z = 6 = 6
= 1.56  106 mm3

 min = d – b
P Pe
 min = A – Z
80  103 80  103  70
 min = 37500 –
1.56  106
  min = – 1.45 N/mm2
[negative indicates tensile]
 max = d + b
P Pe
 max = A + Z
80  103 80  103  70
 max = 37500 +
1.56  106
  max = 5.71 N/mm2
[positive indicates compressive]
Result:
1. Minimum stress ( min) = – 1.45 N/mm2
2. Maximum stress ( max) = 5.71 N/mm2
Fig. 3.21.
Note: From the above three problems, we have
250 b
(i) The minimum stress is zero when e = 6 mm or 6 mm. This is clear from
problem.
b
(ii) The minimum stress is positive (i.e., compressive) when e < 6 . This is clear
250
from problem in which e = 20 mm which is less than 6 (i.e., 41.6 mm).
b
(iii) The minimum stress is negative (i.e., tensile) when e > 6 . This is clear from
250
problem in which e = 70 mm which is more than 6 (i.e., 41.6 mm).
Example 3.21 A short column of hollow cylindrical section 500 mm outside

diameter and 300 mm inside diameter carries a vertical load of 500 kN along one
of the diameter planes 10 cm away from the axis of the column. Find the extreme
intensities of stresses and state their nature.
Given: External diameter, D = 500 mm
Load, P = 500 kN = 500  103 N
Eccentricity, e = 10 cm = 100 mm
To find: 1. Maximum stress,  max
2. Minimum stress,  min
 
 Solution: Area, A = 4 [D2 – d 2] = 4 [5002 – 3002]
= 125.66  103 mm2



I = 64 [5004 – 3004] = 2.67  109 mm4
D 500
Centroid, y max = 2 = 2 = 250 mm
I 2.67  109
Section modulus, Z = y = = 10.68  106 mm3
max 250
P 500  103
Direct stress, d = A = = 3.97 N/mm2
125.66  103
Pe 500  103  100

Bending stress, b = Z =
10.68  106
 b = 4.68 N/mm2
Fig. 3.22.
 max = d + b
 max = 3.97 + 4.68
  max = 8.65 N/mm2
 min = d – b
 min = 3.97 – 4.68
  min = – 0.71 N/mm2
  min = 0.71 N/mm2
[negative sign indicates tensile]
Result:
1. Maximum stress,  max = 8.65 N/mm2 (compressive)
2. Minimum stress,  min = 0.71 N/mm2 (tensile)
Example 3.22 A hollow rectangular masonry pier is 1.5 m  1.0 m, overall

the wall thickness being 0.2 m. A vertical load of 150 kN is transmitted in the
vertical plane bisecting 1.5 m side at an eccentricity of 0.1 m from the geometric
axis of the section. Calculate the maximum and minimum stress intensities in the
section.
Outside dimension 
of the section  = 1.5 m  1.0 m
Given: 
= 1500 mm  1000 mm
Thickness of wall = 0.2 m = 200 mm
Inside dimension 
of the section  = (1.5 – 2.  0.2)  (1.0 – 2  0.2)

= 1.1 m  0.6 m
= 1100 mm  600 mm
Load, P = 150 kN = 150  103 N
Eccentricity, e = 0.1 m = 100 mm
Fig. 3.23.
To find: 1. Maximum stress intensity,  max

2. Minimum stress intensity,  min
 Solution: Area of hollow rectangular section,

A = [B  D] – [b  d ]
A = [1500  1000] – [1100  600]
A = 840000 mm2
Moment of inertia of the hollow rectangular section,
B D3 b d 3
I = 12 – 12
1500  10003 1100  6003
= –
12 12
I = 1.052  1011 mm4
1000
y = 2 = 500 mm
I 1.052  1011 mm4

Z = y= 500 mm
= 210.4  106 mm3
P 150  103
Direct stress, d = A = 840000 = 0.178 N/mm2
P e 150  103  100

Bending stress, b = Z =
210.4  106
= 0.072 N/mm2
 max = d + b
= 0.178 + 0.072
  max = 0.25 N/mm2
 min = d – b
= 0.178 – 0.072
 min = 0.106 N/mm2
Result: 1. Maximum stress,  max = 0.25 N/mm2
2. Minimum stress,  min = 0.106 N/mm2
Example 3.23 Draw neat sketch (for the rectangular section 200 mm  400
mm) of Kernal.
Given: b = 200 mm
d = 400 mm
To draw: Kernal of the section
b 200
 Solution: e  6  6  33.33 mm
Hence, OA = OC = 33.33 mm
d 400
e  6  6 = 66.66 mm
 Hence, OB = OD = 66.66 mm
Fig. 3.24.
3.1.34. ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 3.24 A slender pin ended column (aluminium) 1.8 m long of

circular cross-section is to have outer diameter 50 mm. Calculate the necessary
internal diameter to prevent failure by buckling if the actual load applied is
30.6 kN and critical load applied is twice the actual load. Take E = 70 GN/m2.
(Nov/Dec 2010)
Given: Length of column, l = 1.8 m = 1800 mm

Outer diameter, D = 50 mm
Load, P = 30.6 kN = 30.6  103 N
Young’s modulus, E = 70 GN/m2 = 70  103 N/mm2
Critical load = 2  safe load
= 2  30.6  103
= 61.2  103 N
Effective length, l e = l = 1.8 m = 1800 mm
To find: Inner diameter, d
2 E I
 Solution: Euler’s formula, P =
l 2e


I = 64 [504 – d 4]

2  70  103  64 [504 – d 4]
 61.2  103 =
(1800)2
5.846  106 = 504 – d 4
d 4 = 404  103
d = 25.2 mm
Result: Inner diameter, d = 25.2 mm
Example 3.25 A bar of length 4 m when used as a simply supported beam
and subjected to a udl of 30 kN/m over the whole span deflects 15 mm at the centre.
Find the EI value for the above beam and hence determine the crippling load when
it is used as a column with the following end conditions.
(i) Both ends are pin jointed.
(ii) One end is fixed and the other end is hinged.
(iii) Both ends are fixed. (May/June 2013)

Load, udl = 30 kN/m = 30 N/mm
To find: 1. Flexural rigidity, EI

2. Crippling load, P
 Solution:
5 w l4
1. Maximum deflection  = 384 E I
5  30  (4000)4
15 =
384  E I
 E I = 6.67  1012 N-mm2
2 E I
2. Crippling load, P =
l 2e
(i) Both ends are pin jointed

le = l
2 E I 2  6.67  1012
P = =
l 2e (4000)2
= 4.114  106 N
 P = 4114 kN
(ii) One end is fixed and other end is hinged

l 4000
le = =
2 2
= 2.83 m = 2830 mm
2 E I 2  6.67  1012
P = =
l 2e (2830)2
= 8.219  106 N
 P = 8219 kN
(iii) Both ends are fixed

l 4000
l e = 2 = 2 = 2000 mm
2 E I 2  6.67  1012
P = =
l 2e (2000)2
= 16.457  106 N
 P = 16457 kN
Result:
1. Flexural rigidity, EI = 6.67  1012 N-mm2
2. Crippling load
(i) Both ends are pin-joined, P = 4.114 kN
(ii) One end is fixed and other end is hinged, P = 8219 kN
(iii) Both ends are fixed, P = 16457 kN
Example 3.26 Find the greatest length for which a mild steel, strut of
T-shaped cross-section, the area of which is 30 cm2 and the least moment of inertia
of which is 240 cm4 may be used with one end is fixed and other end is free in order
to carry a working load of 70 MN/m2 of section, the working load being one-fourth
1
the crippling load. Rankine’s constant for mild steel are a = 7500 ,
c = 330 MN/m2. (May/June 2010)
Given: Area, A = 30  102 mm2 = 3000 mm2
Moment of inertia, I = 240 cm4 = 240  10 4 mm4
Working stress = 70 MN/m2 = 70 N/mm2
1
a = 7500
c = 330 MN/m2 = 330 N/mm2

End condition: One end is fixed and other end is free
To find: Length of strut, l
 Solution:
I 240  10 4
Radius of gyration, k = A = 3000 = 28.3 mm
k 2 = (28.3)2 = 800 mm2
Load
We know that, Stress = Area
Safe load = Stress  Area

= 70  3000 = 210  103 N
Crippling load = Safe load  FOS
= 210  103  4 = 840  103 N
We know that, Rankine’s formula for crippling load,
c  A
P =
 le  2
1+a k 
 
330  3000
840  103 = 2
1  le 
1 + 7500  800 
 
2
1  le  330  3000
1 + 7500 800  =

  840  103
2
1  le 
1 + 7500  800  = 1.18
 
2
1  le 
 
7500  800  = 1.18 – 1
2
1  le 
 
7500  800  = 0.18
l e2
= 0.18
7500  800
l e2
= 0.18
6  106
l e2 = 1.08  106
 le = 1.08  106
 l e = 1039 mm
For end condition, one end fixed and other is free,
le 1039
le = 2 l  l = 2 = 2
 l = 520 mm
Result: Length of strut, l = 520 mm
Example 3.27 A hollow CI column whose outside diameter is 200 mm has a
thickness of 20 mm. It is 4.5 m long and fixed at both ends. Calculate the safe load
by Rankine’s Gordon formula using a factor of safety of 4. Take the crushing
1
strength of material as 550 N/mm2 and Rankine’s constant as 1600 .
Given: Outer diameter, D = 200 mm

Inner diameter, d = D – 2 t
= 200 – 2  20 = 160 mm
Length, l = 4.5 m = 4500 mm
FOS = 4
End condition: Both ends are fixed
l 4500
Effective length, l e = 2 = 2 = 2250 mm
To find: Safe load by Rankine’s Gordon formula

 Solution:

Area of the column, A = 4  [D2 – d 2]

= 4  [2002 – 1602]
A = 11309.74 mm2

Moment of inertia, I = 64  [D4 – d 4]

I = 64  [2004 – 1604] = 46.37  106 mm4
I 46.37  106
k 2 = A = 11309.74 = 4100 mm2
We know that Rankine’s formula

c A
P =
 l e2 
1+a  k 
 
550  11309.74 3
P = 2 = 3510  10 N
1  2250 
1 + 1600  4100 
 
 P = 3510 kN
Crippling load 3510
Safe load = = 4 kN
FOS
 Safe load = 877.5 kN
Result: Safe load = 877.5 kN
Example 3.28 Compare the crippling loads given by Rankine’s and Euler’s
formula for tubular strut 2.25 m long having outer and inner diameters of 37.5 mm
and 32.5 mm loaded through pin-jointed at both ends. Take yield stress as
1
315 MN/m2, a = 7500 and E = 200 GN/m2. (Nov/Dec 2012)
Given: Length, l = 2.25 m = 2250 mm

Outer diameter, D = 37.5 mm
Inner diameter, d = 32.5 mm
c = 315 MN/m2 = 315 N/mm2
1
a = 7500
E = 200 GN/m2 = 200  103 N/mm2

Pin jointed both ends, l e = l = 2250 mm
To find: Compare the loads of Rankine’s and Euler’s formula.

 Solution:

Area of the column, A = 4  [D2 – d 2]

A = 4  [37.52 – 32.52]
A = 274.89 mm2

Moment of inertia, I = 64  [D4 – d 4]

I = 64  [37.54 – 32.54]
I = 42.3  103 mm4

I 42.3  103
k 2 = A = 274.89 = 152.8 mm2
2 E I 2  200  103  42.3  103

(i) Euler’s formula: P = =
l 2e (2250)2
 P = 16.49  103 N
 P = 16.5 kN
c  A 315  274.89
(ii) Rankine’s formula: P = 2 =
 le  1  22502 
1+a  2 1 + 7500  152.8 
k   
P = 15.98  103 N
 P = 15.98 kN
Ratio of Euler’s crippling load to Rankine’s crippling load

16.5 kN
 15.98 kN
 1.032
Result: The ratio of Euler’s load to Rankine’s load 1.032.
Example 3.29 A hollow cylindrical cast iron column is 4 m long with both
ends fixed. Determine the minimum diameter of the column. If it has to carry a safe
load of 250 kN with a factor safety of 5. Take the internal diameter as 0.8 times the
1
external diameter a = 1600 , c = 550 MN/m2. (Nov/Dec 2011)

Internal diameter, d = 0.8 D
Crushing stress, c = 550 MN/m2 = 550 N/mm2
1
Rankine’s constant, a = 1600
Safe load = 250 kN = 250  103 N
To find: Minimum diameter i.e., D and d
Crippling load
Crippling load
250  103 = 5
Crippling load, P = 1250  103 N


A = 4 [D2 – (0.8 D)2]

A = 4 [D2 – 0.64 D2]
A = 0.09  D2


I = [D4 – (0.8 D)4]
64

I = 64 [D4 – 0.4096 D4]
I = 0.0092  D4
I 0.0092  D4
Radius of gyration, k = A = 0.09  D2
 k = 0.319 D
k 2 = 0.102 D2
We know that, for both ends are fixed,
l
Effective length, l e = 2
4000
le = 2 = 2000 mm
We know that,
c  A
Crippling load, P =
 l e 2
1+a k 
 
3 550  0.09  D2
1250  10 =
1  20002 
1 + 1600  0.102 D 
 
1250  103 D2
=
550  0.09  24.5  103
1+
D2
D2  D2
8038.13 =
D2 + 24.5  103
(D2 + 24.5  103) 8038.13 = D4
D4 – 8038.13 D2 – 196.93  106 = 0
The above equation in the form of quadratic equation,
8038.13 ± (8038.13)2 + 4  (1)  196.93  106
 D2 =
21
–b ± b 2 – 4 ac
[ Roots = ]
2a
8038.13 ± 29192.66
 D2 = 2
D2 = 18615.3 [ D2 cannot be negative]

D = 136.43 mm
 d = 0.8  D = 0.8  136.43
 d = 109.15 mm
Result: 1. Outer diameter, D = 136.43 mm
2. Inner diameter, d = 109.15 mm
Example 3.30 A rectangular strut is 20 cm wide and 15 cm thick. It carries
a load of 60 kN at an eccentricity of 2 cm in a plane bisecting the thickness. Find
the maximum and minimum intensities of stress in the section. (Nov/Dec 2011)
Given: Width, b = 20 cm = 200 mm
Thickness, d = 15 cm = 150 mm
Load, P = 60 kN = 60  103 N
Eccentricity, e = 2 cm = 20 mm
Fig. 3.25.
To find: (i) Maximum stress,  max
(ii) Minimum stress,  min
 Solution:
Area of the column, A = b  d
= 200  150 = 30000 mm2
b 3 d 2003  150
Moment of inertia, I = 12 = 12
= 100  106 mm4
b 200
y = 2 = 2 = 100 mm
I 100  106
Section modulus, Z = y = 100 = 1  106 mm3
P
Direct stress, d = A
60  103
d = 30000
 d = 2 N/mm2
M Pe
Bending stress, b = Z = Z
60  103  20
b =
1  106
 b = 1.2 N/mm2
Maximum stress,  max = d + b = 2 + 1.2
  max = 3.2 N/mm2
Minimum stress,  min = d – b = 2 – 1.2
  min = 0.8 N/mm2
Result: 1. Maximum stress,  max = 3.2 N/mm2

2. Minimum stress,  min = 0.8 N/mm2
3.1.35. TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Define column and strut.

A column is a long vertical bar or vertical member, subjected to an axial
compressive load and fixed rigidly at both ends.
Example: A vertical pillar between the floors.
A strut is a slender bar or a member in any position other than vertical,
subjected to a compressive load and fixed rigidly or hinged or pin-jointed at
one or both the ends.
Example: Piston rod and connecting rod
2. What is slenderness ratio? What is its relevance in column? (Nov/Dec 2013)
The ratio of the actual length of a column to the least radius of gyration of a
column is known as slenderness ratio.
Actual length
Slenderness ratio = Least radius of gyration
Slenderness ratio is used to differentiate the type of column. Strength of the

column depends upon the slenderness ratio.
3. What are the factors affect the strength of column?
1. Slenderness ratio: Strength of the column depends upon the slenderness
ratio. If the slenderness ratio is increased, the compressive strength of the
column decreases as the tendency to buckle is increased.
2. End conditions: Strength of the column depends upon the end condition
also.
4. Differentiate short and long column.
S.No. Short column Long column

1. It is subjected to direct It is subjected to buckling stress
compressive stresses only. only.
2. Slenderness ratio is less than 32. Slenderness ratio is more than 120.
3. Columns have lengths less than 8 Columns have lengths more than
times their respective diameter. 30 times their respective diameters.
5. Write the assumptions made in Euler’s equation.

(May/June 2013, Nov/Dec 2011)
1. The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.
2. The material of the column is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and obeys
Hooke’s law.
3. The column is initially straight and the compressive load is applied
axially.
4. The failure of column occurs due to buckling alone.
5. The self-weight of column is negligible.
6. What are the limitations of the Euler’s formula?
1. It is applicable to ideal strut only.
2. It does not take the direct stress. But in excess of load, it can withstand
under direct compression only.
7. Define equivalent length of the column.
The distance between the adjacent points of inflexion is called effective length
or equivalent length.
8. Define safe load.
The safe load for the column is the load under which the column will not
buckle. It is the load to which a column is actually subjected to and is well
below the buckling load.
It is obtained by dividing the buckling load by a suitable factor of safety
(FOS).
Buckling load
9. Define buckling factor and buckling load.

Buckling factor: It is the ratio between the equivalent length of the column to
the minimum radius of gyration.
Buckling load: The maximum limiting load at which the column tends to have
lateral displacement (or) tends to buckle is called buckling (or) crippling load.
10. Write the Euler’s formula for different end conditions. (Nov/Dec 2012)
1. Both ends fixed
4 2 E I
P =
l2
2. Both ends hinged
2 E I
P =
l2
3. One end fixed, other end hinged
2 2 E I
P =
l2
4. One end fixed and other end free
2 E I
P =
4 l2
where, L = Length of the column
E = Young’s modulus
I = Moment of inertia
11. Give Rankine’s-Gordon formula. (Nov/Dec 2012, Apr/May 2010)
c  A
P =
 le  2
1+a k 
 
where, P = Rankine’s critical load
c = Yield stress
A = Cross-sectional area
a = Rankine’s constant
l e = Effective length
k = Radius of gyration
12. What are the advantages of Rankine’s-Gordon formula? (Nov/Dec 2012)
 In case of short column or strut, Euler’s load will be very large.
 Therefore, Euler’s formula is not valid for short column.
 To avoid this limitation, Rankine’s formula is designed. The Rankine’s

formula is applicable for both long and short column.
13. How columns are classified depending upon slenderness ratio?
(Apr/May 2011)
(i) Short column – slenderness ratio less than 32.
(ii) Medium column – slenderness ratio between 32 and 120.
(iii) Long column – slenderness ratio greater than 120.
14. Define eccentrically loaded short column. (Nov/Dec 2010)
When the load is acting away from the centroidal axis in one or two direction
is known as eccentrically loaded column.
The eccentricity distance is represented by ‘e’.
15. Write Euler’s formula for maximum stress for an eccentrically loaded
column.
P M
Extreme stress,  max = A + Z
 le P 
where, M = P e sec  2  
 EI 
where, P = Axial load
A = Cross-sectional area
e = Eccentricity
Z = Section modulus
E I = Flexural rigidity
16. Define middle third rule. (May/June 2013)
In a rectangular section, the range within which the load can be applied so as
not to produce any tensile stress, is within the middle third of the base is
known as middle third rule.
17. Define core or kernel of section.
(May/June 2012, Nov/Dec 2011, Apr/May 2010)
The portion within which the load may be applied anywhere so as not to
produce tensile stress in any part of the entire section is called the core or
kernel of the section.
3.1.36. PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE (COLUMNS)
1. A strut 6 m long is 120 mm in diameter. One end of the strut is fixed while its
other end is hinged. Allowing a FOS of 3. Find the safe compressive load
using Euler’s formula. Take E = 2  105 N/mm2.
2. A column of timber section 200 mm  200 mm is 7 metres long both ends
being fixed. Find the safe load for the column. Use Euler’s formula and allow a
factor of safety 3. Take E = 18000 N/mm2.
3. An I section 300 mm  150 mm is provided with a flange plate 300 mm  12
mm for each flange. The composite member is used as a column with one end
fixed and other end hinged. Calculate the length of the member for which the
crippling load by Rankine’s and Euler’s formula. Take E = 2.1  105 N/mm2.
1
c = 330 N/mm2 and a = 7500.
4. A strut 3000 mm long with both ends hinged consists of two equal angles. 75
mm  75 mm  10 mm the spacing between the angles being 10 mm. Find the
safe compressive load for the strut allowing a factor of safety 4. Use Rankine’s
1
formula. Take c = 320 N/mm2 and a = 7500. Properties of one angle is A =
14.02 cm2, I x x = I y y = 71.4 cm4.
5. Find the minimum value of the slenderness ratio of a mild steel column for
which Euler’s formula is valid. Take c = 330 N/mm2 and E = 2.0  105
N/mm2.
6. A rectangular strut is 200 mm wide and 100 mm thick. It carries a load of
50 kN at an eccentricity of 10 mm is a plane bisecting thickness. Find the
maximum and minimum stress in the section.
7. A short column of hollow cylindrical section is 200 mm outside diameter and
150 mm inside diameter carries a vertical load of 300 kN along one of the
diameter planes 10 cm away from the axis. Find the extreme intensities of
stresses.
3.2. THICK CYLINDERS AND THICK SPHERICAL SHELLS
3.2.1. INTRODUCTION
The ratio of thickness (t) to internal diameter (d ) of a cylindrical shell is less

than about 1/20, then the cylindrical shell is known as thin cylinders. For thin
cylinders the hoop stress and longitudinal stresses are constant over thickness.
The ratio of thickness (t) to internal diameter (d ) of a cylindrical shell is more
than 1/20, then the cylindrical shell is known as thick cylinders. The hoop stress in
the thick cylinder will not be uniform across thickness. Actually the hoop stress
will vary from a maximum value at the inner circumference to a minimum value at
the outer circumference.
The variation in the radial as well as circumferential stress across the thickness
are obtained with the help of Lame’s theory.
3.2.2. ASSUMPTIONS OF LAME’S THEORY
The assumptions made in Lame’s theory are as follows:

1. The material is homogeneous and isotropic.
2. The material is stressed within elastic limit.
3. Plane section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the cylinder remain
plane after the application of internal pressure.
4. All the fibres of the material are to expand or contract independently
without being constrained by the adjacent fibres.
3.2.3. STRESSES IN THICK CYLINDER
Fig.3.26 shows that the thick cylinder subjected to internal and external radial
pressure.
Let, r1 = Internal radius of the thick cylinder
r2 = External radius of the thick cylinder
p1 = Pressure on the inner surface of the cylinder
p2 = Pressure on the outer surface of the cylinder
The thickness of thick cylinder may be taken to consists of a number of

concentric element rings. Consider one such elemental ring of radius ‘r’ and
thickness ‘dr’.
Fig. 3.26.
Let, r = Internal radial pressure (stress) on the elemental ring.

(r + dr) = External radial pressure (stress) on the elemental ring.
c = Hoop stress intensity induced in the elemental ring.
Bursting force = [r  2 r l] – [(r + dr)  (2 (r + dr) l)]
= 2 l [– r dr – r dr – dr  dr]
= – 2 l [r dr + r dr]
[ Neglecting the product of small quantities.]
Resisting force = 2 c l dr
Equating resisting force to bursting force, we get
2 c  l  dr = – 2 l (r dr + r dr)
dr
 c = – r – r dr  (3.7)
Now we will obtain another relation between the radial pressure and hoop stress
by using the condition that the longitudinal strain at any point in the section is the
same.
p1   r 21 p1 r 21
The longitudinal stress, 1 = =
 (r 22 – r 21 ) (r 22 – r 21 )
Hence at any point in the section of the elemental ring considered above, the
following three principal stresses exist:
(i) The radial pressure (r)
(ii) The hoop stress or circumferential stress (c)
(iii) The longitudinal tensile stress (l)
Since the longitudinal strain (e 1) is constant, we have
l c r 1
e1 = E – mE + mE = constant [m = Poisson’s ratio]
But, since l , m and E are constant.

 c – r = constant  (3.8)
Let c – r = 2 a
Putting c = (r + 2 a) in equation (3.7), we get
dr
(r + 2 a) = – r – r  dr
dr 2 (r + a) dr – 2 dr

 dr = – or =  (3.9)
r r + a r
Integrating both sides, we get

loge (r + a) = – 2 loge r + loge b
(where, loge b = constant of integration)
b
 loge (r + a) = loge
r2
b
 r + a =
r2
b
(or)  r = 2 – a  (3.10)
r
Also from equation (3.8),
b
 c = +a  (3.11)
r2
The constants a and b can be evaluated from the known internal and external
radial pressure and radius.
The equation (3.10) and (3.11) are called Lame’s equation.
Longitudinal Stress
Force acting on the end cover due
to internal pressure
Longitudinal stress, l = Area of cross-section of
the cylinder
 r 21  p
l =
 (r 22 – r 21 )
 r 12 
 l =  2 2  p
 r2 – r1 
Shear Stress
The maximum shear stress is given by,
 c – (– r) 
max =   [ r is compressive]
 2 
1  b   b 
= 2  2+a –a – 2
r   r 
b
 max =  (3.12)
r2
3.2.4. FORMULAE USED IN THICK CYLINDER

b
1. Radial pressure (stress) r = –a
r2
b
2. Circumferential or hoop stress, c = +a
r2
c 1 r 1 l
3. Circumferential strain, e c = E + m E – m E
 r 21 
4. Longitudinal stress, l =  2 2 p
 r2 – r1 
c – (– r) b
5. Shear stress,  m a x = =
2 r2
Change in volume V
6. Volumetric strain, e v = Orignal volume = V
Change in dimension d
7. Strain (e) = Original dimension = d
3.2.5. SOLVED PROBLEMS ON THICK CYLINDERS
Example 3.31 A pipe of 600 mm internal diameter and 800 mm external

diameter contains a fluid pressure of 8 N/mm2. Find the minimum and maximum
hoop stress across the section. Also, sketch the radial pressure distribution and
hoop stress distribution across the section.
Given: Internal diameter, d1 = 600 mm
External diameter, d2 = 800 mm
d1 600
Internal radius, r1 = 2 = 2 = 300 mm
d2 800
External radius, r2 = 2 = 2 = 400 mm
Pressure of fluid, p1 = 8 N/mm2
Fig. 3.27.
To find: 1. To find the maximum and minimum hoop stress or circumferential
stress (c).
2. To draw the radial and hoop stress distribution
 Solution: We know that the Lame’s equations,
b
r = –a  (1)
r2
b
and c = +a  (2)
r2
At, r = r1 = 300 mm and r = p1 = 8 N/mm2
and, r = r2 = 400 mm and r = p2 = 0
Substituting in equation (1),

b
8 = – a  8 = 1.11  10–5 b – a  (3)
(300)2
b
0 = – a  0 = 6.25  10–6 b – a  (4)
(400)2
Fig. 3.28.
Equation (3) and (4) becomes
a – 1.11  10–5 b = – 8  (5)
a – 6.25  10–6 b = 0  (6)
Solving equation (5) and (6),
a = 10.3, b = 1645715
Substituting values of a and b in equation (2),
At r = r1 = 300 mm,
b 1645715
c = 2 + a  c = + 10.3
(300) (300)2
 c = 28.58 N/mm2
At r = r2 = 400 mm,
b 1645715
c = 2 + a  c = + 10.3
(400) (400)2
 c = 20.58 N/mm2
Result:
1. Maximum hoop stress, c = 28.58 N/mm2
2. Minimum hoop stress, c = 20.58 N/mm2
Example 3.32 Find the thickness of metal necessary for a cylindrical shell
of internal diameter 150 mm to withstand an internal pressure of 25 N/mm2. The
maximum hoop stress in the section is not to exceed 125 N/mm2.
d1 150
Internal pressure, p1 = 25 N/mm2

Maximum hoop stress, c = 125 N/mm2
To find: Thickness of the metal (t)
 Solution: The lame’s equations are
b
r = –a  (1)
r2
b
and c = +a  (2)
r2
At r = r1 = 75 mm and r = p1 = 25 N/mm2,
(c)max = 125 N/mm2
Substituting in equation (1) and (2), we get
b
25 = –a  25 = 1.78  10– 4 b – a  (3)
(75)2
b
125 = +a  125 = 1.78  10– 4 b + a  (4)
(75)2
Equation (3) and (4) becomes,
a – 1.78  10– 4 b = – 25  (5)
–4
– a – 1.78  10 b = – 125  (6)
Solving equation (5) and (6), we get
a = 50 and b = 421349
At r = r2 and r = p2 = 0
b 421349
 0 = 2–a  0 = – 50
r r 22
421349
 50 =  50 r 22 = 421349
r 22
 r2 = 92 mm
 Thickness of metal (t) = r2 – r1 = 92 – 75
 Thickness (t) = 17 mm
Result: Thickness of metal (t) = 17 mm
Example 3.33 A steel cylinder of 1200 mm inside diameter is to be designed
for an internal pressure of 5 N/mm2. Calculate
(a) The thickness if the maximum shearing stress is not to exceed 20 N/mm2.
(b) The increase in volume, due to working pressure if the cylinder is 7 m long
with closed ends.
Neglect any constraints due to ends.
Take E = 200  103 N/mm2. Poisson’s ratio = 0.33.
d1 1200
Internal pressure, p1 = 5 N/mm2

Maximum shearing stress,  m a x = 20 N/mm2
Length of cylinder, l = 7 m = 7000 mm
1
Poisson’s ratio ( or m ) = 0.33
To find:
 Solution:
(a) Wall thickness: The Lame’s equations are,
b
r = 2 – a  (1)
r
b
and c = +a  (2)
r2
1 b
We know that, max = [  – (–  ) ] =
2 c r
r2
Absolute maximum shearing stress will act on the internal surface,
b b
  m a x = 2  20 =
r1 (600)2
 b = 7200000
Also at inner surface, r = r1 = 600 mm and r = p1 = 5 N/mm2
b 7200000
 r = 2 –a  5= –a
r1 (600)2
 a = 15
At r = r2 and r = p2 = 0
b 7200000
 r = –a  0 = – 15
r 22 r 22
r2 = 693.8 mm
Wall thickness = r2 – r1 = 693.8 – 600 = 93.8 mm
Wall thickness, t = 93.8 mm
(b) Increase in volume,  V:
b 7200000
At r = r1 = 600 mm, c = 2 + a  c = + 15
r1 (600)2
 c = 20 + 15 = 35 N/mm2
p1 r 21
Longitudinal stress, l =
r 22 – r 21
5  6002
= = 14.83 N/mm2
(693.82 – 6002)
1  1 
 (e c)r = E  c + m (r – l) 
1  
1
= [ 35 + (0.33) (5 – 14.83)]
200  103
= 1.588  10– 4
1  1 
Also (e l )r = E  l + m (r – c) 
1  
1
= [ 14.83 + (0.33) (5 – 35)]
200  103
= 2.465  10–5
V
 Volumetric strain (e v ) = V = 2 (e c)r + (e l )r
1 1
V
 V = 2 (1.588  10– 4) + (2.465  10–5)
= 3.42  10– 4
i.e., V = 3.42  10– 4  (Internal volume (v))

V = 3.42  10– 4  4  12002  7000
 V = 2.7  106 mm3
Result: 1. Thickness of wall, t = 93.8 mm

2. Increase in volume (V) = 2.7  106 mm3
3.2.6. COMPOUND (OR) SHRUNK CYLINDERS
In case of thick cylinders that when a thin cylinder is wound with wire under
tension, the whole shell will be in a state of initial compression; but when fluid is
admitted, the circumferential stress is reduced. This method can also be used in
case of thick cylinders to reduce the maximum circumferential stress.
Another method is to shrink one cylinder over the other. Due to this, the inner
cylinder will be put into initial compression whereas the outer cylinder will be put
into initial tension. If now the compound cylinder is subjected to internal fluid
pressure, both the inner and outer cylinders will be subjected to hoop tensile stress.
The net effect of the initial stresses due to shrinking and those due to internal fluid
pressure is to make the resultant stresses more or less uniform.
Fig. 3.29. Compound cylinder

Fig.3.29 shows a compound thick cylinder made up of two cylinders.
Let r1 = Inner radius of compound cylinder
r3 = Outer radius of compound cylinder
r2 = Radius at the junction
Initial Stresses: Let p = The shrinkage pressure
r2 = Radius at the common surface
Inner tube: Inner radius = r1, Outer radius = r2
b
The Lame’s equations r = –a  (1)
r2
b
and c = +a  (2)
r2
At r = r1, r = 0
r = r2, r = p
Outer tube: Inner radius = r2 , Outer radius = r3
b′
The Lame’s equations r = – a′  (3)
r2
b′
c = + a′  (4)
r2
At r = r2, r = p
r = r3, r = 0
Stresses due to fluid pressure:

In the compound cylinder, when the fluid is admitted, the intensity of pressure is
resisted jointly by the section. By applying Lame’s equations to the compound
cylinder (under initial pressure).
At r = r1, r = p
r = r3, r = 0
Final stresses:
Stresses due 
Final stresses   Initial  
  + to fluid 
(compound cylinder)  =  stresses  
 pressure 
3.2.7. SOLVED PROBLEMS ON COMPOUND CYLINDERS
Example 3.34 A compound cylinder, formed by shrinking one tube to
another is subjected to an internal pressure of 80 N/mm2. Before the fluid is
admitted, the internal and external diameters of the compound cylinder are 200
mm and 300 mm respectively and the diameter at the junction is 240 mm. If after
shrinking on, the radial pressure at the common surface is 8 N/mm2, determine the
final stresses developed in the compound cylinder.
Given: Internal pressure in the cylinder, p1 = 80 N/mm2

Internal diameter, d1 = 200 mm
d1 200
External diameter, d 3 = 300 mm

d 3 300
External radius, r3 = = = 150 mm
2 2
Diameter at the junction, d2 = 240 mm
d2 240
Radius at the junction, r2 = 2 = 2 = 120 mm
Radial pressure at the junction, p = 8 N/mm2
To find: Final stresses in the compound cylinder

 Solution:
Lame’s equations:
b
Inner tube: r = –a  (1)
r2
b
and c = +a  (2)
r2
b′
Outer tube: r = – a′  (3)
r2
b′
and c = + a′  (4)
r2
(a) Before the fluid is admitted:
Inner tube: At r = r1 = 100 mm, r = 0

b
 – a = 0  1  10– 4 b – a = 0  (5)
(100)2
At r = r2 = 120 mm, r = 8 N/mm2
b
 – a = 8  6.9  10–5 b – a = 8  (6)
(120)2
By solving equations (5) and (6), we get
b = – 258065 and a = – 25.8
Hence circumferential stress at any point in the inner tube will be given by,
b – 258065
c = 2 + a  c = – 25.8
r r2
Negative sign indicates wholly compressive,
At r = r1 = 100 mm,
– 258065 2
(c)100 = 2 – 25.8 = 51.6 N/mm (compressive)
(100)
At r = r2 = 120 mm,
– 258065
(c)120 = – 25.8 = 43.7 N/mm2 (compressive)
(120)2
Outer tube: At r = r3 = 150 mm, r = 0

b′
 – a′ = 0  4.44  10–5 b′ – a′ = 0  (7)
(150)2
At r = r2 = 120 mm, r = 8 N/mm2
b′
 – a′ = 0  6.95  10–5 b′ – a′ = 8  (8)
(120)2
By solving equation (7) and (8), we get
b′ = 318725 and a′ = 14.15
b′ 318725
 c = 2 + a′  c = + 14.15
r r2
Positive sign indicates wholly tensile,
At r = r3 = 150 mm,
318725
(c)150 = + 14.15 = 28.3 N/mm2 (tensile)
(150)2
At r = r2 = 120 mm,
318725
(c)120 = + 14.15 = 36.3 N/mm2 (tensile)
(120)2
(b) After the fluid is admitted:
b
The Lame’s equation, r = –a
r2
At r = r1 = 100 mm, r = 80 N/mm2 = p1
b
 80 = –a
(100)2
80 = 1  10– 4 b – a  (9)
At r = r3 = 150 mm, r = p = 0
b
 0 = – a  0 = 4.44  10–5 b – a  (10)
(150)2
b = 1438850 and a = 64
Hence hoop stress at any point in the compound tube is given by

b
c = 2 + a
r
1438850
c = + 64
r2
At r = r1 = 100 mm,
1438850
(c)100 = + 64 = 207.8 N/mm2 (tensile)
1002
At r = r2 = 120 mm,
1438850
(c)120 = + 64 = 163.9 N/mm2 (tensile)
1202
At r = r3 = 150 mm,
1438850
(c)150 = + 64 = 127.9 N/mm2 (tensile)
1502
(–)  compressive; (+)  tensile

Inner tube Outer tube
Hoop stress
r = r1 = r = r2 = r = r3 = r = r3 =
N/mm2
100 mm 120 mm 120 mm 150 mm
Initial – 51.6 – 43.7 28.3 36.3
Due to fluid pressure + 207.8 163.9 163.9 127.9
Final + 156.2 + 120.2 + 192.2 + 164.2
Result: The final circumferential or hoop stresses are:

Inner tube: (c)100 = 156.2 N/mm2 (tensile)
(c)120 = 120.2 N/mm2 (tensile)
Outer tube: (c)120 = 192.2 N/mm2 (tensile)
(c)150 = 164.2 N/mm2 (tensile)
3.2.8. THICK SPHERICAL SHELLS
Fig.3.30 shows a thick spherical shell.

Let r1 = Inner radius;
r2 = Outer radius;
p = Internal fluid pressure
Consider an elemental disc of the spherical shell at a radius r, having thickness
dr. Let this elemental part subtend an angle do at the centre.
 + d r = Radial compressive stress at radius (r + dr)
Fig. 3.30.
Let us consider the forces on a elementary spherical shell of radius r and
thickness dr, to form equation between the principal stresses r and a.
The bursting force on any diameteral plane on the section of the elemental shell
= r  r 2 – (r + r r)  (r + dr)2
Resisting force = c  (2 r dr)
Equating the resisting force and the bursting force, we get
c  2 r dr = r  r 2 – (r + dr)  (r + dr)2
Neglecting squares and products of very small quantities, then

dr
2 c = – 2 r – r dr
or  (3.13)
r dr
c = – r – 2 dr
At any point at radius ‘r’, the principal stresses are,
(i) The radial stress (pressure) r [compressive]
(ii) The circumferential stress, c [tensile]
(iii) The circumferential stress ′c = c [tensile] on a plane at right angles.
r 2 c
The Radial strain, er = E + m E (compressive)
1  2 c 
= – E  r + m  (tensile)  (3.14)
 
c c r
The circumferential strain, ec = E – m E + m E (tensile)
1 m –1 r 
 ec = E  m  c + m   (3.15)
 
Differentiating the equation (3.13), we get
2
dc dr 1  d r dr 
   (3.16)
dr = – dr – 2  r dr2 + dr 
Due to internal pressure, let the radius increase from r to (r + u ).
d (r + u ) – dr
 Radial strain, er =  (3.17)
dr
or
du
er = dr  (3.18)
(r + u ) d  – r d 
and Circumferential strain, ec =
r d
or
u
ec = r  (3.19)
The above strains are tensile if positive.

From equation (3.17) and (3.18), we have
d
er = dr (r  ec)
d ec
er = ec + r  dr  (3.20)
Substituting the value of er and ec from equations (3.14) and (3.15), we get
1 2 c  1m –1 r r  m – 1 dc 1 dr 
– E  r + m  = E  m  c + m  + E  m dr + m dr 
     
Simplifying and rearranging, we have
dc dr
(m + 1) (r + c) + (m – 1) r  dr + r dr = 0
dc
Substituting the values of c and dr from equation (3.13) and (3.16),
  d 1  d 2 dr  
r dr  – r– r  r dr
(m+1)  r – r – 2  dr  + (m–1) r +  + r
   dr 2  dr2 dr   dr = 0
 
On simplification, we get
d 2r 4 dr
2 + r  dr = 0
dr
dr dz dz dr
Let dr = z, then r dr + 4 z = 0.  z = – 4  r
Integrating both sides, we get

loge z = – 4 loge r + loge C1
[where loge C1 = constant]
 C1 
 loge z = loge  4 
r 
C1
 z = 4
dr C1 dr
 dr = 4 or dr = C1  4
r r
C1
Integrating both sides, we get r = + C2
3 r3
where C2 = constant
r dr
We know that, c = – r – 2 dr
 C1  r dr
or c = –  – 3 + C2 – 2  dr
 3r 
C1 r C1
= 3– 2 4
3r r
C1 C1
= 3 – C2 –
3r 2 r3
C1
 c = – – C2  (3.21)
6 r3
Now, let us consider the two expression for r and c,
C1
r = – + C2
3 r3
C1
c = – – C2
6 r3
Putting C1 = – 6 b and C2 = – a, we get
2b
 r = –a  (3.22)
r3
b
c = +a  (3.23)
r3
Applying the given conditions, we get
at r = r1, r = p
r = r2 , r = 0
2b
 p = 3 –a  (3.24)
r1
and
2b
0 = 3 –a  (3.25)
r2
Solving equation (3.24) and (3.25), we get

p r 31 r 32 p r 31
b = and a =
2 (r 32 – r 31 ) r 32 – r 31
3.2.9. SOLVED PROBLEMS ON THICK SPHERICAL SHELLS
Example 3.35 A thick spherical shell of 200 mm internal diameter is

subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 20 N/mm2. If the permissible stress is 100
N/mm2, find the thickness of the shell.
d1 200
Pressure of fluid, p = 20 N/mm2

Permissible stress, c = 100 N/mm2
To find: Thickness of spherical shell (t)
 Solution: We know that, for thick spherical shell
2b
r = 3 – a  (1)
r
b
c = +a  (2)
r3
At r = r1 = 100 mm and r = p = 20 N/mm2,
2b
 20 = –a
1003
20 = 2  10–6 b – a
 2  10–6 b – a = 20  (3)
At r = r1 = 100 mm, c = 100 N/mm2
b
 100 = +a
1003
100 = 1  10–6 b + a
 1  10–6 b + a = 100  (4)
Solving equation (3) and (4), we get

b = 40000000
a = 60
Let r2 = External radius
Then, r = r2, r = 0
2  40000000
 – 60 = 0
r 32
80000000
= 60
r 32
 r2 = 110 mm
 Thickness of shell, t = r2 – r1 = 110 – 100 = 10 mm
t = 10 mm
Result: Thickness of shell, t = 10 mm
3.2.10. ANNA UNIVERSITY SOLVED PROBLEMS
Example 3.36 A pipe of 200 mm internal diameter and 50 mm thickness

carries a fluid at a pressure of 10 MN/m2. Calculate the maximum and minimum
intensities of circumferential stresses across the section. Also sketch the radial
pressure and circumferential stress distribution across the section.
(May/June 2011) (May/June 2013)
Given: Internal diameter of the pipe, d1 = 200 mm
d1 200
Internal radius of the pipe, r1 = 2 = 2 = 100 mm
External diameter of the pipe, d2 = d1 + 2 t

= 200 + (2  50) = 300 mm
d2 300
External radius of the pipe, r2 = 2 = 2 = 150 mm
Internal fluid pressure, p1 = 10 MN/m2 = 10 N/mm2

To find: 1. Maximum and minimum hoop stresses
2. Sketch of radial and hoop stresses
 Solution: The Lame’s equations are,

b
r = –a  (1)
r2
b
and c = +a  (2)
r2
Fig. 3.31.
At r = r1 = 100 mm, r = p1 = 10 N/mm2
and r = r2 = 150 mm, r = p2 = 0
b
 10 = – a  10 = 1  10– 4 b – a  (3)
(100)2
b
0 = – a  0 = 4.45  10–5 b – a  (4)
(150)2
b = 180000 and a = 8
180000
At r = r1 = 100 mm, c = + 8 = 26 N/mm2
(100)2
180000
At r = r2 = 150 mm, c = + 8 = 16 N/mm2
(150)2
Result: 1. Maximum hoop stress, c = 26 N/mm2
2. Minimum hoop stress, c = 16 N/mm2
3.2.11. TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Define thick cylinder. [Apr/May 2011] [Nov/Dec 2010]

A cylinder is called as a thick cylinder when the ratio of thickness (t) to
internal diameter (d ) of cylinder is more than 1/20.
2. In a thick cylinder will the radial stress vary over the thickness of wall?
[Apr/May 2011] [Nov/Dec 2010]
Yes, in thick cylinders radial stress is maximum at inner and minimum at the
outer radius.
3. How many stresses are developed in thick cylinders? Name them.
[May/June 2012]
Three types of stresses are developed in thick cylinders.
1. Radial stress (r)
2. Hoop stress (c)
3. Longitudinal stress (l)
4. Define compound cylinders. [Nov/Dec 2010]
Compound cylinders are thick cylinders shrinking one tube on the other tube to
reduce circumferential stress.
5. Assumptions made in Lame’s theory. [Nov/Dec 2013]

 The material is homogeneous and isotropic.
 The material is stressed within elastic limit.
 Plane section perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the cylinder remain
plane after the application of internal pressure.
 All the fibres of the material are to expand or contract independently
without being constrained by the adjacent fibres.
6. Write Lame’s equation to find out stresses in a thick cylinder.
b
Radial stress, r = 2 – a
r
b
Hoop stress, c = +a
r2
3.2.12. PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
1. A pipe of 800 mm internal diameter and 100 mm thickness contains a fluid at a

pressure of 7 N/mm2. Find the maximum and minimum hoop stresses across
the section. Also sketch the radial pressure distribution across this section.
2. Find the thickness of metal necessary for a steel cylindrical shell of internal
diameter 350 mm to withstand an internal pressure of 36 N/mm2. The
maximum hoop stress in the section is not to exceed 150 N/mm2.
3. A compound tube is composed of a tube 300 mm internal diameter and 20 mm
thick shrunk of a tube of 300 mm external diameter and 20 mm thick. The
radial pressure at the junction is 8 N/mm2. Find the variation of the hoop stress
over the wall of the compound tube.
3.3. THIN CYLINDRICAL AND SPHERICAL SHELLS
3.3.1. INTRODUCTION
Generally, the thin cylindrical and spherical shells are used to contain fluids or
gas such as in tanks, boilers, compressed air receivers, pipes, pump cylinders etc. A
cylinder is called as thin cylinders when the ratio of wall thickness to the diameter
of cylinder is less than 1/20. In such a case, the hoop or circumferential stress
developed in its wall is assumed to be constant throughout the thickness. This
section mainly consists of stresses developed in thin cylinder and shells of both
cylindrical and spherical types under internal pressure.
3.3.2. STRESSES IN THIN CYLINDERS
When the pressure inside the cylinder is developed, the cylinder walls are
subjected to tensile stresses. There are two types of tensile stresses developed
according to the direction in which they are acting.
(a) Circumferential or hoop stress
(b) Longitudinal stress
When these stresses exceed the permissible limit, the cylinder is likely to fail in
the following two ways.
(i) It may split up into two semi circular halves along the cylinder axis as
shown in Fig.3.32(i) and
(ii) It may split up into two cylinders as shown in Fig.3.32(ii).
Fig. (i) Fig. (ii)
Fig. 3.32.
(a) Circumferential or hoop stress

The stress in the circumferential direction due to tendency of bursting the
cylinder along the longitudinal axis is called circumferential stress or hoop stress.
Simply the stress acting along the circumference of the cylinder is called
circumferential or hoop stress.
Consider a thin cylindrical pipe of diameter d and wall thickness t subjected to
an internal fluid pressure p.
Fig. 3.33.
We know that the circumferential stress is developed due to tendency of

bursting along the longitudinal axis.
The bursting force along diameter of cylinder,
F = Pressure  Area of cross section
= pd l
Bursting force
Circumferential stress,  c = Resisting area
Since there are two thickness resisting the bursting force,

The total resisting area = 2  t  l
p  d  l
  c =
2  t  l
p d
c =  (3.26)
2 t
Fig. 3.34.
(b) Longitudinal stress
The stress in the longitudinal direction due to tendency of bursting the cylinder
along the transverse plane is called longitudinal stress. Simply the stress acting
along the length of the cylinder is known as longitudinal stress.
Consider a thin cylindrical shell of diameter d and wall thickness t and length l
subjected to an internal pressure p.
Fig. 3.35.
Considering the axial bursting force tending to break the cylinder along the
circumference,
Axial bursting force, F = Intensity of stress  Area of cross section

= p  4 d2
Axial bursting force
Longitudinal stress,  a = Resisting area
Resisting area of cross section =  d t


p  4 d2
  a =
d t
pd
a =  (3.27)
4t
pd 1 pd
From equation (3.27), a = =  c [ a = ]
22t 2 2t
  Longitudinal stress = Half of the circumferential stress.
3.3.3. CHANGE IN DIMENSIONS OF A THIN CYLINDER DUE TO INTERNAL

PRESSURE
Due to internal pressure, the cylindrical shells are subjected to lateral and linear
strain. Thus the change in dimensions such as length, diameter may increase. Now
consider a thin cylindrical shell of same dimensions as in previous case for the
following analysis.
We know that,
d c a
Circumferential strain, e c = d = E – m E
Where,  d – Change in diameter

1
m – Poisson’s ratio
E – Young’s modulus
pd pd
 ec = 2 t E – 4 t m E
pd  1 
ec = 1 –   (3.28)
2t E  2m
Change in diameter, d = e c  d

p d2  1 
d = 2 t E 1 – 2 m   (3.29)
 
l a c
Longitudinal strain, e a = l = E – m E
pd pd
= 4 t E – 2 t mE
pd 1 1 
ea =  –   (3.30)
2t E 2 m
Change in length,  l = e a  l
p d l 1 1 
l = 2 t E 2–m  (3.31)
 
Final volume – Initial volume
Volumetric strain, e v = Initial volume
 2  2
(d +  d) (l + l) –
4 4 d l
=
 2
4 d l
By neglecting higher order terms of  d and  l

2d l
ev = + l
d
= 2 ec + ea
2pd  1  pd 1 1 
= 2t E 1–2m+2t E 2–m
   
pd  2 1 1
= 2 t E 2 – 2 m + 2 – m 
 
pd  1 2
= 2t E 2 + 2 – m 
 
pd 5 2 
ev =  –   (3.32)
2t E2 m
Change in volume,  v = e v  v
p d v 5 2 
= 2 t E 2–m  (3.33)
 
c  5 2 
v = v  E  2 – m   (3.34)
 
3.3.4. THIN SPHERICAL SHELLS
A thin spherical shell of internal diameter d and wall thickness ‘t’ subjected to
an internal fluid pressure ‘p’ as shown in Fig.3.36. The spherical shell wall to fail
along the circumferential area as shown in the Fig., breaking into two hemisphere.
Fig. 3.36.
The bursting force acting along the center of the sphere
F = Intensity of stress  Area of cross section

= p  4 d2
Resisting area of cross section =  d  t

Bursting force
Hoop stress,  c = resisting area

p  4 d2
=
d t
pd
c =  (3.35)
4t
3.3.5. CHANGE IN DIMENSIONS OF SPHERICAL SHELL DUE TO INTERNAL

PRESSURE
Increase in diameter due to internal pressure may be found as follows,

d c a
Circumferential strain, e c = d = E – m E
pd pd
= 4t E – 4t mE
pd  1 
ea = 1 –   (3.36)
4t E m
Change in diameter,  d = e c  d
p d2  1 
= 4 t E 1 – m   (3.37)
 
If  D is the change in diameter due to p then

The final volume of shell = 6 (d +  d)3
Final volume – Initial volume
Volumetric strain, e v = Initial volume
 3 
(d +  d) – 6 d3
6
=
 3
6 d
By neglecting higher order terms of  d
d
ev = 3  d = 3  ec
3pd  1 
ev = 1 –   (3.38)
4t E m
Change in volume, v = e v  v
3pd  1 
= v  4 t E 1 – m 
 
 d3 3 p d  1 
= 6  4 t E 1 – m 
 
 p d4  1 
v = 8 t E 1 – m   (3.39)
 
3.3.6. WIRE – WOUND THIN CYLINDER
From article 3.3.2, the hoop stress on the thin cylinder is two times the
longitudinal stress. Hence the failure of a thin cylinder will be due to hoop stress.
The hoop stress due to internal fluid pressure is also tensile in nature. In order to
increase the tensile strength of a thin cylinder to withstand high internal pressure
without excessive increase in wall thickness, they are sometimes prestressed by
winding with a steel wire under tension. The effect of the wire is to put the cylinder
wall under an initial compressive stress. If now a fluid pressure is applied into the
pipe, the bursting force will be resisted jointly by the pipe as well as the wires. A
pipe closely wound by wires can therefore withstand a higher fluid pressure than an
unbound pipe.
3.3.7. SOLVED PROBLEMS ON THIN CYLINDERS AND SHELLS
Example 3.37 A mild steel pipe of diameter 1.3 m and thickness 12 mm is

subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 1 N/mm2. Calculate the hoop stress and
longitudinal stress developed in the pipe.
Given: Diameter of pipe, d = 1.3 m = 1300 mm
Thickness of pipe, t = 12 mm
Internal pressure, p = 1 N/mm2
 Solution:
pd
Hoop stress developed in the pipe,  c = 2 t [From equation (3.26)]
1  1300
=
2  12
 c = 54.167 N/mm2
Longitudinal stress developed in the pipe,
pd
a = 4 t [From equation (3.27)]
1  1300
=
4  12
 a = 27.1 N/mm2
Result: Hoop stress,  c = 54.167 N/mm2

Longitudinal stress,  a = 27.1 N/mm2
Example 3.38 A thin cylinder of 1 m diameter is required to convey water

under a head of 120 m. Determine the thickness of the cylinder, if the allowable
stress in the pipe material is 90 N/mm2.
Given: Diameter of cylinder, d = 1 m = 1000 mm
Head of water, h = 120 m
Allowable stress in the pipe material,  = 90 N/mm2
 Solution: Pressure due to 120 m head of water,
p = w  h = 9810  120
p = 1177200 N/m 2 = 1.1772 N/mm2
[ w of water = 9810 N/m3]
Maximum or allowable stress in the pipe material means the circumferential
stress,
 c = 90 N/mm2
pd
Hoop or circumferential stress,  c = 2 t
1.1772  1000
90 =
2t
t = 6.54 mm say 6.6 mm
Result: Thickness of the cylinder, t = 6.6 mm
Example 3.39 A cylinder air receiver for a compressor has an internal

diameter of 2 m and thickness of 15 mm. If the tensile stress in the material is not to
exceed 85 N/mm2, determine the maximum safe air pressure.
Thickness of cylinder, t = 15 mm
Tensile stress in the material, c = 85 N/mm2
pd
 Solution: p stress, c = 2 t
p  2000
85 =
2  15
p = 1.275 N/mm2
Result: Maximum safe air pressure, p = 1.275 N/mm2.
Example 3.40 The shell of a boiler is 2.25 m in diameter and made of

15 mm thick plates. If the hoop and longitudinal stresses in the material are not to
exceed 95 N/mm2 and 58 N/mm2 respectively, find the maximum allowable pressure
of the steam inside the boiler.
Given: Diameter of cylinder, d = 2.25 m = 2250 mm
Hoop stress,  c = 95 N/mm2
Longitudinal stress,  a = 58 N/mm2
pd
 Solution: Hoop stress,  c = 2 t
p  2250
95 =
2  15
p = 1.2667 N/mm2
pd
Longitudinal stress,  a = 4 t
p  2250
58 =
4  15
p = 1.546 N/mm2
From the above two values of pressure, take the minimum pressure as a
allowable pressure, since it is the limiting pressure.
Result: The maximum allowable pressure of steam inside the boiler shell is
1.2667 N/mm2.
Example 3.41 A thin cylindrical pipe of internal diameter 1.5 m contains a

fluid at a pressure of 1.87 N/mm2. Determine the thickness of the pipe wall if the
hoop and longitudinal stresses in the pipe material are not to exceed
60 N/mm2 and 46 N/mm2 respectively.
Given: Diameter of pipe, d = 1.5 m = 1500 mm

Pressure of fluid, p = 1.87 N/mm2
Hoop stress,  c = 60 N/mm2
Longitudinal stress,  a = 46 N/mm2
pd
 Solution: Hoop stress,  c = 2 t
1.87  1500
60 =
2t
t = 23.375 mm
pd
Longitudinal stress,  a = 4 t
1.87  1500
46 =
4t
t = 15.24 mm
From the above two values of t, we should take 23.375 mm as the minimum
thickness of the pipe wall. If we take 15.24 mm, the pipe will burst due to
circumferential stress.
Result: Thickness of pipe wall, t = 23.375 mm.
Example 3.42 A hollow cylindrical drum 750 mm in diameter and 2.5 m

long has a shell thickness of 10 mm. If the drum is subjected to an internal pressure
of 2.6 N/mm2.
Determine (i) Change in diameter
(ii) Change in length and
(iii) Change in volume.
Take E = 2.1  105 N/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Given: Diameter of cylinder, d = 750 mm
Length of cylinder, l = 2.5 m = 2500 mm

Internal pressure, p = 2.6 N/mm2

1
Poisson’s ratio, m = 0.3
 Solution:
(i) Change in diameter: We know that,
p d2  1 
Change in diameter, d = 2 t E  1 – 2 m  [From equation (3.29)]
 
2.6  7502  1 
= 5 1 – 2  0.3
2  10  2.1  10  
= 0.3482 (1 – 0.15)
d = 0.296 mm
(ii) Change in length: We know that,

p dl 1 1 
Change in length, l = 2 t E 2 – m [From equation (3.31)]
 
2.6  750  2500 1 
= 2 – 0.3
2 10  2.1  105  
= 1.16 (0.5 – 0.3)

 l = 0.232 mm
(iii) Change in Volume: We know that,

pd v 5 2 
Change in volume, v = 2 t E 2 – m [From equation (3.33)]
 

Original volume, v = 4 d 2  l

= 4 (750)2  2500
v = 1.104  109 mm3

2.6  750  1.104  109 5 
 v = 2 – 2  0.3
2  10  2.1  10 5
 
  v = 973885.71 mm3
Result:
(i) Change in diameter,  d = 0.296 mm
(ii) Change in length,  l = 0.232 mm
(iii) Change in volume,  v = 973885.71 mm3
Example 3.43 A cylindrical shell of 1 m long, 150 mm interval diameter

having thickness of metal as 7 mm is filled with fluid at atmosphere pressure. If an
additional 25 cc of fluid is pumped into the cylinder, find the pressure exerted by
the fluid on the cylindrical shell and the resulting hoop stress. Assume E = 2  105
N/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio = 0.27.
Given: Length of shell, l = 1 m = 1000 mm
Diameter of shell, d = 150 mm
Thickness of shell, t = 7 mm
Volume of additional fluid, v = 25 cc
= 25 cm3 = 25  103 mm3
E = 2  105 N/mm2
1
m = 0.27
c  5 2 
v = v  E  2 – m   (1)
 
[From equation (3.34)]
pd p  150
Where, Hoop stress, c = 2 t = = 10.714 p
27

Volume, v = 4 d 2  l

= 4 (150)2  1000 = 1.767  107 mm3
1
Substituting the values m ,  c ,  v and v in equation (1),
10.714 p  5 
 25  103 = 1.767  107  5  2 – 2  0.27
2  10  
25  103 = 1855.45 p
p = 13.47 N/mm2
p d 13.47  150
Hoop stress, c = 2 t =
27
c = 144.32 N/mm2
Result:
Pressure on the cylindrical shell, p = 13.47 N/mm2
Hoop stress, c = 144.32 N/mm2
Example 3.44 A closed cylindrical drum 600 mm in diameter and 2 m long

has a shell thickness of 12 mm. If it carries a fluid under a pressure of 3 N/mm2,
calculate the longitudinal and hoop stress in the drum wall and also determine the
change in diameter, change in length and change in volume of the drum. Take E =
1
200 GPa and m = 0.3.
Given: Length of drum, l = 2 m = 2000 mm

Diameter of drum, d = 600 mm
Thickness of drum, t = 12 mm
Pressure of fluid, p = 3 N/mm2
E = 200 GPa = 2  105 N/mm2
1
m = 0.3
 Solution:
pd 3  600
Longitudinal stress, a = 4 t =
4  12
a = 37.5 N/mm2
p d 3  600
2  12
c = 75 N/mm2
p d2  1 
Change in diameter, d = 2 t E  1 – 2 m 
 
3  6002  1 
= 5  1 – 2  0.3
2  12  2  10  
d = 0.19 mm
pd l 1 1 
Change in length, l = 2 t E  2 – m 
 
3  600  2000 1 
= 2 – 0.3
2  12  2  105  
l = 0.15 mm
pd 5 2 
Change in volume, v = v  2 – m
2t E  
 
Volume, v = 4 d 2  l = 4 (600)2  2000
v = 5.655  108 mm3

3  600 5 
  v = 5.655  108  5  2 – 2  0.3
2  12  2  10  
 v = 402909.25 mm3
Result: Longitudinal stress, a = 37.5 N/mm2
Hoop stress, c = 75 N/mm2
Change in diameter,  d = 0.19 mm
Change in length,  l = 0.15 mm
Change in volume,  v = 402909.25 mm3
Example 3.45 A thin cylindrical shell 400 mm in diameter has shell

thickness of 6 mm subjected to an internal pressure which produces a strain of
1
2000 in diameter. Calculate the internal pressure and corresponding hoop and
1
longitudinal stresses. Take E = 2.1  105 N/mm2 and m = 0.26.
Given: Diameter of shell, d = 400 mm

d 1
Circumferential strain, e c = d = 2000

1
 Solution:
d pd  1 
Circumferential strain, e c = d = 2 t E  1 – 2 m 
 
1 p  400  1 
2000 = 2  6  2.1  105  1 – 2  0.26
p = 3.62 N/mm2
p d 3.62  400
26
c = 120.69 N/mm2
pd 3.62  400
46
a = 60.34 N/mm2
Result: Internal pressure, p = 3.62 N/mm2

Hoop stress, c = 120.69 N/mm2
Longitudinal stress, a = 60.34 N/mm2
Example 3.46 A thin cylindrical shell 3 m long, 1.2 m in diameter is

subjected to an internal pressure of 1.67 N/mm2. If the thickness of the shell is
13 mm, find the circumferential and longitudinal stresses. Also find the maximum
shear stress and change in dimensions of the shell. Assume E = 2  105 N/mm2 and
1
m = 0.28.
Given: Length of shell, l = 3 m = 3000 mm
Diameter of shell, d = 1200 mm
1
 Solution:
pd 1.67  1200
Circumferential stress, c = 2 t =
2  13
c = 77.08 N/mm2
pd 1.67  1200
4  13
a = 38.54 N/mm2
c – a 77.08 – 38.54
Maximum shear stress, max = =
2 2
max = 19.27 N/mm2
c a
Circumferential strain, e c = E – m E
77.08 38.54
= 5 –  0.28
2  10 2  105
e c = 3.314  10–4
d
We know that, ec = d
   d = e c  d = 3.314  10–4  1200
   d = 0.398 mm
a c
Longitudinal strain, e a = E – m E
38.54 77.08
= 5 –  0.28
2  10 2  105
e a = 8.478  10–5
l
We know that, ea = l
  l = ea  l
= 8.478  10–5  3000

  l = 0.254 mm
Volumetric strain, e v = 2 e c + e a
= 2  3.314  10–4 + 8.478  10–5

e v = 7.476  10–4
v
We know that, ev = v
  v = ev  v
 
v = 4 d 2  l = 4 (1200)2  3000
v = 3.393  109 mm3

  v = 7.476  10–4  3.393  109
 v = 2536506.3 mm3
Note: The same problem can also be solved in a similar manner as that of
problem 3.44.
Result: Circumferential stress, c = 77.08 N/mm2

Longitudinal stress,  a = 38.54 N/mm2
Maximum shear stress, max = 19.27 N/mm2
Change in diameter, d = 0.398 mm
Change in length, l = 0.254 mm
Change in volume, v = 2536506.3 mm3
Example 3.47 A steel cylindrical pipe with closed ends is 75 mm internal

diameter and 3 mm thick. The pipe is axially loaded in tension with a load of 12 kN
and is subjected to an axial torque of 2  106 N-mm under an internal pressure of
5.5 N/mm2. Determine the principle stresses and maximum shear stress on the pipe.
Given: Diameter of pipe, d = 75 mm
Axial load, P = 12 kN = 12000 N
Axial torque, T = 2  106 N–mm
 Solution:
pd 5.5  75
Circumferential stress, c = 2 t =
23
c = 68.75 N/mm2
Longitudinal stress will be produced by means of internal pressure as well as
axial load.
Longitudinal stress due to pressure,
p d 5.5  75
a1 = 4 t =
43
a1 = 34.375 N/mm2
Longitudinal stress due to axial load,

Load
a2 = Area
Cross sectional area of the pipe, A =  dt =   (75 + 3)  3

A = 735.13 mm2
12000
a2 = 735.13 = 16.32 N/mm2
Total longitudinal stress, a = a1 + a2
= 34.375 + 16.32
a = 50.698 N/mm2
Shear stress will be produced in the tube due to the torque.

We know that,
Shear force
Shear stress,  = Area
Torque 2  106
Shear force = Radius = 75/2 = 5.33  104 N
Area =  dt
=   75  3 = 706.86 mm2
5.33  104
  = 706.86
 = 74.45 N/mm2
c + a 1
Maximum principle stress, 1 = +2 (c – a)2 + 4 2
2
68.75 + 50.698 1
= +2 (68.75 – 50.698)2 + 4  75.452
2
1 = 135.713 N/mm2 (Tensile)
c + a 1
Minimum principle stress, 2 = – (c – a)2 + 4 2
2 2
68.75 + 50.698 1
= – (68.75 – 50.698)2 + 4  75.452
2 2
2 = – 16.265 N/mm2 (Compressive)
1 – 2
Maximum shear stress, max = 2
135.713 – (– 16.265)
= 2
 max = 75.989 N/mm2
Result: Maximum principle stress, 1 = 135.713 N/mm2
Maximum principle stress, 2 = – 16.265 N/mm2
Maximum shear stress, max = 75.989 N/mm2
Example 3.48 A steel cylinder is made of 12 mm thick plate has 2 m long

and 1.2 m diameter. It is filled with water until the pressure is 2.5 N/mm2. On
relieving the pressure, the water outlet measured 50  10 5 mm3. Calculate the bulk
modulus of water if E for steel is 2  10 5 N/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio is 0.3.
Given: Thickness of cylinder, t = 12 mm
Length of cylinder, l = 2 m = 2000 mm
Diameter of cylinder, d = 1.2 m = 1200 mm
Pressure of water, p = 2.5 N/mm2
Volume of water relieved, v = 50  105 N/mm3
1
 Solution: For steel cylinder:

pd v 5 2 
Change in volume,  v 1 = 2 t E  2 – m 
 

Volume of cylinder, v = 4 d 2  l

= 4 (1200)2  2000
v = 2.2619  109 mm3

2.5  1200  2.2619  109  5 

  v1 =  2 – 2  0.3 
2  12  2  10 5
 
Increase in volume of the cylinder,
 v 1 = 2686061.719 mm3
For water under pressure:

p
Volumetric strain of water = K  v
2.5  2.2619  109 5.6548  109

= =
K K
 Volume of water   Increase in   Decrease in 


received
 =  volume  +  volume 
   of cylinder   of water 
5 5.6548  109
50  10 = 2686061.719 + K
5.6548  109
2313938 = K
K = 2443.8 N/mm2
Result: Bulk modulus of water, K = 2443.8 N/mm2
Example 3.49 A thin spherical vessel of 1.5 m internal diameter and 15 mm

shell thickness is completely filled with a fluid at 1.75 N/mm2. Determine the stress
induced in the material of the vessel.
Given: Diameter of vessel, d = 1.5 m = 1500 mm
Thickness of vessel, t = 15 mm
Pressure of fluid, p = 1.75 N/mm2
 Solution:
pd
Stress induced in the material, c = 4 t [From equation (3.35)]
1.75  1500
=
4  15
c = 43.75 N/mm2
Result: Stress induced in the material,
c = 43.75 N/mm2
Example 3.50 A vessel in the shape of a spherical shell 600 mm in diameter

is subjected to an internal pressure of 1.2 N/mm2. Find the thickness of the plate
required if maximum stress is not to exceed 72 N/mm2.
Given: Diameter of spherical shell, d = 600 mm
Maximum stress, c = 72 N/mm2
pd
 Solution: Maximum stress, c =
4t
1.2  600
72 =
4t
t = 2.5 mm
Result: Thickness of the plate required,
t = 2.5 mm
Example 3.51 A thin spherical shell 750 mm diameter and 8 mm thick is

filled with water at 1.8 N/mm2. Determine the change in dimensions of the
1
spherical shell. Take E = 2  105 N/mm2 and m = 0.3.
Given: Diameter of spherical shell, d = 750 mm

Thickness of spherical shell, t = 8 mm
Pressure of water, p = 1.8 N/mm2
1
 Solution:
p d2  1
Change in diameter,  d = 4 t E 1 – m  [From equation (3.37)]
 
1.8  (750)2
= (1 – 0.3)
4  8  2  105
 d = 0.1107 mm
 p d4  1
Change in volume,  v = 8 t E 1 – m  [From equation (3.39)]
 
  1.8  (750)4
= (1 – 0.3)
8  8  2  105
 v = 97848.8 mm3
Result: Change in diameter,  d = 0.1107 mm
Change in volume,  v = 97848.8 mm3
Example 3.52 A spherical vessel 250 mm in diameter, with a wall thickness

6 mm, is full of water at atmosphere pressure. If an additional 7500 mm3 of fluid is
pumped into the cylinder, find the pressure exerted by the fluid on the wall of the
1
sphere. Take E = 2.1  105 N/mm2 and m = 0.3.
Given: Diameter of vessel, d = 250 mm

Thickness of vessel, t = 6 mm
Additional liquid pumped,  v = 7500 mm3
1
 p d4  1
 Solution: Change in volume,  v = 8 t E 1 – m 
 
  p  (250)4
7500 = (1 – 0.28)
8  6  2.1  105
p = 8.556 N/mm2
Result: Pressure exerted by the fluid,
p = 8.556 N/mm2
Example 3.53 A spherical shell is made of 12 mm thick steel plate and has
an internal diameter of 1.25 m. It is filled with oil at a pressure of 3 MPa. Owing to
a leakage, oil escapes until the pressure falls to 1.5 MPa. Calculate the volume of
oil that has escaped and also the change in the internal diameter of shell due to
1
this leakage. Bulk modulus of oil is 2.8 GPa. Take E = 200 GPa and m = 0.3.
Given:
Diameter of spherical shell, d = 1.25 m = 1250 mm
Initial oil pressure, p1 = 3 MPa = 3 N/mm2
Final oil pressure, p2 = 1.5 MPa
= 1.5 N/mm2
Bulk modulus, K = 2.8 GPa
= 2.8  103 N/mm2
Young’s modulus, E = 200 GPa
= 2  105 N/mm2
1
 Solution: At 3 MPa:
Change in volume of the shell due to internal pressure of 3 MPa.
 p1 d 4  1
dv 1 = 8t E   1 – m 
  3  (1250)4
= (1 – 0.3)
8  12  2  105
(dv 1)shell = 838895.75 mm3
p1 3
Volumetric strain of oil, e v1 = K =
2.8  103
= 1.07  10–3
(dv 1)oil = e v1  v
4
= 1.07  10–3  3  r 3
4
= 1.07  10 – 3  3 (625)3
= 1095700.563 mm3
Total change in volume of oil,
dv 1 = 838895.74 + 1095700.563
dv 1 = 1934596.3 mm3
At 1.5 MPa:
Change in volume of the shell due to 1.5 MPa
  1.5  (1250)4
dv 2 = (1 – 0.3)
8  12  2  105
(dv 2)shell = 419447.87 mm3

p2
Volumetric strain of oil, e v2 = K
1.5
=
2.8  103
= 5.357  10–4
(dv 2)oil = e v2  v
4
= 5.357  10–4   r3
3
4
= 5.357  10–4  3  (625)3
(dv 2)oil = 547835.67 mm3
Total change in volume,

dv 2 = 419447.87 + 547835.67
dv 2 = 967312.758 mm3
Volume of oil that escaped due to change in pressure
dv = dv1 at 3 MPa – dv2 at 1.5 MPa
= 1934596.3 – 967312.758
dv = 967312.758 mm3
Change in diameter due to 3 MPa,

p1 d 2  1
 d 1 = 4 t E 1 – m 
 
3  (1250)2
= (1 – 0.3)
4  12  2  105
= 0.3418 mm
Change in diameter due to 1.5 MPa,

p2 d 2  1
 d2 = 4 t E 1 – m 
 
1.5  (1250)2
= (1 – 0.3)
4  12  2  105
= 0.17089 mm
Net change in diameter due to leakage
d = 0.3418 – 0.17089
d = 0.171 mm
Result: Volume of oil escaped due to leakage = 967312.758 mm3
Change in diameter due to leakage = 0.171 mm.
Example 3.54 A thin spherical vessel 1.5 m in diameter and made of 10 mm
thick steel is first filled with water at atmospheric pressure. What additional
volume of water must be pumped into the vessel to raise the internal water pressure
to 1.5 MPa?
1
Take E = 2  105 N/mm2, K = 2.2 GPa, m = 0.3.
Given:
Diameter of spherical shell, d = 1.5 m = 1500 mm
Internal pressure, p = 1.5 MPa
= 1.5 N/mm2
Bulk modulus, K = 2.2 GPa

= 2.2103 N/mm2
1
 Solution: Change in volume of the shell due to 1.5 MPa pressure

 p d4  1
 v1 =  1– 
8t E  m
  1.5  (1500)4
= (1 – 0.3)
8  10  2  105
 v 1 = 1.0437  106 mm3
Change in volume of water due to 1.5 MPa pressure
p p 4 3
  v2 = K  v = K 3 r
1.5 4 3
= 3  3  (750)
2.2  10
  v 2 = 1.20487  106 mm3
Total change in volume, dv =  v 1 +  v 2

= 1.0437  106 + 1.20487  106
= 2.2486  106 mm3
Result: Additional volume of water pumped
= 2.2486  106 mm3
Example 3.55 A vessel in the shape of a spherical shell of 1.2 m internal

diameter and 10 mm thickness is filled with a fluid at atmospheric pressure. If
additional 500 c.c, of fluid is pumped into the shell at atmospheric pressure, find
the internal pressure exerted on the wall of the shell. Find also the resulting
1
change in volume of sphere. Take E = 2.1  105 N/mm2, m = 0.28 and K for fluid
as 2.4 GPa.
Given: Diameter of spherical shell, d = 1.2 m = 1200 mm

Additional fluid pumped = 500 c.c
= 500  103 mm3
Bulk modulus, K = 2.4103 N/mm2
1
 Solution:
Change in volume of the shell
 p d4  1
 v = 8 t E 1 – m 
 
  p  (1200)4
= (1 – 0.28)
8  10  2.1  105
 v = 279188.85 p mm3
Total volume of fluid at atmospheric pressure
4
=  r 3 + additional volume of fluid pumped
3
4
= 3  (600)3 + 500  103 = 9.05278  108 mm3
p p
Volumetric strain of fluid = K =
2.4  103
Change in volume of fluid due to pressure
p
=  9.05278  108
2.4  103
= 377011.95 p mm3
4
Final volume of shell = 3  r 3 +  v
4
= 3  (600)3 + 279188.85 p
= 9.047  108 + 279188.85 p

Final volume of fluid = 9.047  108 – 377011.95 p

 9.047  108 + 279188.85 p – (9.047  108 – 377011.95 p)
= 500  10 3
656200.8 p = 500  103
p = 0.76 N/mm2
Change in volume of sphere,  v = 279188.85  0.76
 v = 212183.526 mm3
Result: Pressure exerted, p = 0.76 N/mm2

Change in volume,  v = 212183.526 mm3 
Example 3.56 A cast iron pipe 300 mm in diameter, 10 mm length and

10 mm thick is closely wound with one layer of 5 mm steel wire under a tension of
40 N/mm2. Calculate the radial stress which may be exerted on the inside wall of
the pipe if the stress in the pipe section due to water pressure is 8 N/mm2. Calculate
also the stress in the steel wire. Take E for steel = 2  105 N/mm2 and E for cast
iron = 1  105 N/mm2. Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Given: Diameter of pipe, d = 300 mm
Length of pipe, l = 10 mm
Diameter of wire = 5 mm
Tension in wire,  s = 40 N/mm2
Water pressure, p = 8 N/mm2

E for steel, Es = 2  105 N/mm2
E for cast iron, Ec = 1  105 N/mm2

1
Poisson’s Ratio, m = 0.3
 Solution:
Before water is admitted under pressure in the pipe:
It will be under compression due to tension of wound wire.
Number of turns of wire in 10 mm length
Length of pipe
= Diameter of wire
10
= 5 = 2
The compressive force exerted by two turns of the wire on the pipe is given by,
Fc = 2  2  Cross sectional area of wire  s
2  2 are for two cross sections of wires on each side of the pipe.

Fc = 2  2  4  52  40 = 3141.59 N
If c is the compressive stress induced in the pipe due to Fc ,

Total compressive force
c = Sectional area of cylinder
3141.59
= [ Sectional area = 2  l  t]
2  10  10
c = 15.7 N/mm2
Therefore the stresses in the pipe and wire before the water is admitted is
In the pipe = 15.7 N/mm2
In the wire = 40 N/mm2
When the water pressure of 8 N/mm2 is introduced

Let, p – Stress in the pipe due to water pressure alone
w – Stress in the wire due to water pressure alone
The bursting force of fluid per 10 mm length of pipe

= p  dl = 8  300  10 = 24000 N
The bursting force is resisted by the wire as well as pipe

The resisting force of wire = Number of turns  (2  4  d 2)
 Stress in wire due to water pressure


= 2  2  4  52   w = 78.54  w
 Stress in 
the pipe   Resisting area of pipe
The resisting force of pipe =  

= p  2 l t
= p  2  10  10 = 200  p
 Total resisting force = 200 p + 78.54  w
Equating the resisting force to the bursting force

200 p + 78.54 w = 24000 ... (i)
We know that, the circumferential strain in the pipe and wire must be the same.
The circumferential strain in the pipe
Circumferential stress Longitudinal stress
= –
Ec m Ec
pd
p  4t 
 
= E – mE
c c
1  8  300
= E  p – 0.3  
c  4  10 
1
= E (p – 18)
c
w
The circumferential strain the steel wire = E
s
Equating the strain wire and pipe

w 1
E s = Ec (p – 18)
Es
w = E (p – 18)
c
2  105
w = ( – 18)
1  105 p
 w = 2 (p – 18)
Substituting the value of w in (i)
200 p + 78.54 [2 (p – 18)] = 24000
200 p + 157.08 p – 2827.44 = 24000
357.08 p = 26827.44
 p = 75.13 N/mm2 (Tensile)
w = 2(75.13 – 18)
w = 114.26 N/mm2 (Tensile)
Resultant stresses in pipe and wire:

Stress due 
 Initial  
Resultant stress in pipe =   +  to water 
 stress  
 pressure 
= – 15.7 + 75.13 [15.7 compressive]
= 59.43 N/mm2
 Initial   Stress due to 
Resultant stress in wire =    
 stress  +  water pressure 
= 40 + 114.26 [ Both are tensile]
= 154.26 N/mm2
Result: Resultant stress in wire = 154.26 N/mm2
Resultant stress in pipe = 59.43 N/mm2
3.3.8. SOLVED UNIVERSITY PROBLEMS
Example 3.57 A spherical shell of 80 mm diameter has to withstand an

internal pressure of 280 N/cm2. Calculate the thickness of the shell wall if the
maximum permissible stress is 30 N/mm2. [MU – Apr’95]
Note: Same as Example 3.50.
Ans: t = 1.867 mm
Example 3.58 An cylindrical shell 1 m diameter and 3 m length is subjected

to an internal pressure of 2 MPa. Calculate the minimum thickness if the stress
should not exceed 50 MPa. Find the change in diameter and volume of the shell.
Poisson’s ratio = 0.3 and E = 200 kN/mm2. [MU – Apr’96]
Length of cylinder, l = 3 mm = 3000 mm
Internal pressure, p = 2 MPa = 2 N/mm2
Maximum stress, c = 50 MPa = 50 N/mm2
Young’s modulus, E = 200 k N/mm2
= 2  105 N/mm2
1
Poisson’s ratio, m = 0.3.
 Solution:
pd
 Circumferential stress, c = 2 t [From equation (3.26)]
2  1000
50 =
2t
t = 20 mm
p d2  1 
Change in diameter,  d = 2 t E 1 – 2 m  [From equation (3.29)]
 
2  (1000)2  1 
= 5  1 – 2  0.3 
2  20  2  10  
 d = 0.2125 mm
pd v 5 2 
Change in volume,  v = 2 t E 2–m [From equation (3.33)]
 

Volume of cylinder, v = 4 d 2  l

= 4 (1000)2  3000
v = 2.3562  109 mm3

2  1000  2.3562  109
 v = (2.5 – 2  0.3)
2  20  2  105
 v = 1119195 mm3
Results: Thickness of cylinder, t = 20 mm

Change in diameter,  d = 0.2125 mm
Change in volume,  v = 1119195 mm3
Example 3.59 A spherical shell of internal diameter 1 m and thickness of

10 mm is subjected to an internal pressure of 1.5 MPa. Determine the increase in
diameter and volume, E = 200 kN/mm2. Poisson’s ratio is 0.3. [MU – Oct’96]
Ans: Change in diameter,  d = 0.13125 mm
Change in volume,  v = 206167 mm3
Example 3.60 A cylindrical shell 3 m long, 1 m in diameter and 10 mm thick
is subjected to an internal pressure of 2 MPa. Calculate the change in dimensions
of the shell.
E = 2  105 MPa. Poisson’s ratio = 0.3. [MU – Oct’98]
Ans: (i) Change in diameter,  d = 425 mm
(ii) Change in length,  l = 0.3 mm
(iii) Change in volume,  v = 2.2384  106 mm3
Example 3.61 A thin spherical shell of 2 m diameter and of thickness 10 mm

is filled with an incompressible liquid. Estimate the quantity of liquid that should
be pumped in so as to raise the pressure to 5 N/mm2. Take E = 200 kN/mm2 and
 MU – Oct’99]
Given: Diameter of spherical shell, d = 2 m = 2000 mm
Pressure of liquid, p = 5 N/mm2
Young’s modulus, E = 200 kN/mm2
= 2  105 N/mm2
1
Poisson’s ratio,  = m = 0.3
 Solution: Amount of liquid to be pumped to raise the pressure to 5 N/mm2.

Amount of liquid to be pumped = Change in volume of cylinder.
 p d4  1
 v = 8 t E 1 – m  [From equation (3.39)]
 
  5  (2000)4
= (1 – 0.3)
8  10  2  105
 v = 10.99  106 mm3
Result: Amount of liquid to be pumped,  v = 10.99  106 mm3
Example 3.62 A cylindrical shell 3 m long, 1 m internal diameter and

10 mm thick is subjected to an internal pressure of 1.5 N/mm2. Calculate the
changes in length, diameter and volume of the cylinder. E = 200 kN/mm2, poisson’s
ratio = 0.3. [AU – Apr’2003]
Ans:
(i) Change in length,  l = 0.322 mm
(ii) Change in diameter,  d = 0.31875 mm
(iii) Change in volume,  v = 1678788.57 mm3
3.3.9. TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. When will you call a cylinder as thin cylinder?

A cylinder is called as a thin cylinder when the ratio of wall thickness to the
diameter of cylinder is less than 1/20.
2. In a thin cylinder will the radial stress vary over the thickness of wall?
[MU – Apr’95]
No, In thin cylinders radial stress developed in its wall is assumed to be
constant since the wall thickness is very small as compared to the diameter of
cylinder.
3. What is the ratio of circumferential stress to longitudinal stress of a thin
cylinder? [MU – Apr’95]
c
The ratio of = 2.
a
4. In a thin cylinder maximum principle stress is ––––––. [MU – Apr’95]
Circumferential stress.
5. In a thin cylinder the maximum shear is –––––––. [MU – Apr’95]
c – a
max = 2
6. For the thin cylinder, write down the equation for strain along the
circumferential direction. [MU – Apr’95]
d pd  1 
Circumferential strain, e c = d = 2 t E  1 – 2 m 
 
7. For a thin cylinder, write down the equation for strain along the longitudinal
direction. [MU – Apr’95]
p d 1 1 
Longitudinal strain, e a = 2 t E 2 – m 
 
8. Write down the expression for hoop stress in thin cylinder due to internal
pressure p. [MU – Apr’96, Apr’97]
pd
Hoop stress, c = 2 t
9. Write the expression for longitudinal stress in thin cylinder due to internal
pressure p.
pd
Longitudinal stress, a = 4 t
10. For a thin cylinder, write down the expression for volumetric strain.
p d 5 2 
Volumetric strain, e v = 2 t E 2 – m 
 
11. What is the circumferential stress in a thin spherical shell subjected to
internal pressure ‘p’. [MU – Oct’96, Apr’98]
pd
Circumferential stress,  c = 4 t
12. Write down the volumetric strain in a thin spherical shell subjected to
internal pressure ‘p’. [MU – Apr’96, Apr’97]
3pd  1
Volumetric strain, e v = 3  e c = 4 t E  1 – m 
 
13. Write the circumferential strain in thin spherical shell.
pd  1
Circumferential strain, e c = 4 t E  1 – m 
 
14. In a thin cylindrical shell if hoop strain is 0.2  10–3 and longitudinal strain
is 0.05  10–3, find out volumetric strain. [MU – Oct’99]
Volumetric strain, e v = 2 e c + e a
= 2 (0.2  10–3) + 0.05  10–3
e v = 0.45  10–3
15. Differentiate between thin cylinder and thick cylinder.
[MU – Apr’98, Apr’2000]
Thin cylinder Thick cylinder

1. Ratio of wall thickness to the 1. Ratio of wall thickness to the
diameter of cylinder is less than diameter of cylinder is more than
1/20. 1/20.
2. Circumferential stress is assumed to 2. Circumferential stress various from
be constant throughout the wall inner to outer wall thickness.
thickness.
16. Distinguish between cylindrical shell and spherical shell. [MU – Apr’99]
Cylindrical shell Spherical shell

1. Circumferential stress is twice the 1. Only hoop stress presents.
longitudinal stress.
2. It withstands low pressure than 2. It withstands more pressure than
spherical shell for the same cylindrical shell for the same
diameter. diameter.
17. Write the equation for the change in diameter and length of a thin cylinder
shell, when subjected to an internal pressure. [MU – Apr’99]
p d2  1 
Change in diameter,  d = 2 t E  1 – 2 m 
 
p d l 1 1 
Change in length,  l = 2 t E 2 – m 
 
18. What is the effect of riveting a thin cylindrical shell? [MU – Apr’99]
Rivetting reduces the area offering the resistance. Due to this, the
circumferential and longitudinal stresses are more. It reduces the pressure
carrying capacity of the shell.
19. In thin spherical shell, volumetric strain is –––––– times the circumferential
strain. [MU – Apr’2000]
Three
20. What do you understand by the term wire winding of thin cylinder?
[MU – Oct’99]
In order to increase the tensile strength of a thin cylinder to withstand high
internal pressure without excessive increase in wall thickness, they are
sometimes pre-stressed by winding with a steel wire under tension.
3.3.10. REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. A thin cylinder of diameter ‘d’ is subjected to internal pressure ‘p’. Write
down the expression for hoop stress and longitudinal stress.
2. Derive an expression for volumetric strain of a thin cylinder of diameter ‘d’
and wall thickness ‘t’ subjected to an internal pressure ‘p’.
3. Write an expression for change in diameter and change in length of the thin
cylinder when it is subjected to internal pressure.
4. Derive an expression for maximum shear stress at any point in a thin cylinder
subjected to internal fluid pressure.
5. Show that in thin cylinder subjected to internal fluid pressure, the hoop stress
is twice the longitudinal stress.
6. Derive an expression for circumferential stress in a thin spherical shell
subjected to internal fluid pressure ‘p’.
7. Write an expression for the change in volume of a thin cylindrical shell
subjected to internal fluid pressure.
3.3.11. PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE
1. A thin cylindrical shell has an internal diameter 350 mm, and is 3.5 mm thick.
It is subjected to an internal pressure of 2 N/mm2. Calculate the circumferential
and longitudinal stresses.
2. A cylinder of internal diameter 3 m and of thickness 20 mm contains a fluid. If
the tensile stress in the material is not to exceed 75 N/mm2, estimate the
internal pressure of the gas.
3. A 1 m diameter pipe contains a fluid at a pressure of 30 N/mm2. If the
permissible stress in tension is 90 N/mm2. Find the minimum thickness of the
pipe.
4. A hollow cylinder drum with closed ends, 2 m long, 1 m in diameter, thickness
of metal 10 mm is subjected to an internal fluid pressure of 1.4 MN/m2.
Calculate the maximum shear stress induced and also the changes in
dimensions of the shell. Take E = 2  105 N/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
5. A steel cylindrical tube of 80 mm internal diameter, 1 m long and 1.55 thick
has closed ends and is filled with a fluid under pressure. Neglecting any
distortion of the ends plates, determine the alteration of pressure when an
additional volume of 5 c.c., of fluid is pumped into the tube. Given E = 200
1
GPa, m = 0.3 and bulk modulus of water K = 2 GPa.
6. A steel cylinder is 2.5 m long, 1.2 m diameter, thickness of the metal 12 mm.
After being filled with a liquid at atmosphere level, more liquid is pumped
until the pressure is 2.5 MPa, on relieving the pressure, the liquid escaped until
the pressure falls to atmospheric pressure. Estimate the amount of liquid that
has escaped, if E for steel is 2 105 N/mm2, Poisson’s ratio = 0.3 and bulk
modulus of liquid 2.67 GPa.
7. A thin cylinder of 75 mm internal diameter and wall thickness 2 mm is
subjected to an internal pressure of 1.5 N/mm2. The cylinder is also subjected
to a torque of 50 N-m, the axis of the torque coinciding with that of the
cylinder. Find the principle stress and the maximum shear stress at a point on
the surface of the cylinder.
8. A closed thin copper cylinder of 200 mm internal diameter having a wall
thickness of 5 mm is closely wound with a layer 2.5 mm diameter steel wire
under a tensile stress is 55 N/mm2. Find the stresses induced in the cylinder
and wire when the cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 3.5 MPa. For
copper take E c = 1  105 N/mm2, Poisson’s ratio = 0.3. For steel take
E s = 2  105 N/mm2.
9. A thin spherical shell 2 m diameter is subjected to an internal pressure of 1.8
N/mm2. If the permissible stress in the plate material is 120 N/mm2. Find the
minimum thickness.
10. A seamless spherical shell, 750 mm diameter is 12 mm thick. It is being filled
with a fluid under pressure until its volume increases by 250 c.c. Calculate the
pressure exerted by the fluid on the shell. Given E = 2  105 N/mm2, Poisson’s
ratio = 0.29.
11. A thin spherical vessel 150 mm diameter and 14 mm thick is filled with water.
More water is pumped in until the pressure reaches 3.8 MPa. How much extra
water was required to reach this pressure?
12. A thin spherical copper shell of internal diameter 500 mm and thickness 3 mm
is subjected to an internal pressure of 1.65 N/mm2. Calculate the increase in
diameter and increase in volume of the shell. Take E = 1  105 N/mm2,
1
m = 0.28.


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Unit 3

COLUMNS AND CYLINDERS

COLUMNS AND CYLINDERS

Column or strut is defined as a member of a structure, which is subjected to

Fig. 3.1. Column or strut

A column is a vertical member or vertical slender bar, subjected to an axial

3.1.4. UNSUPPORTED LENGTH (l)

3.1.5. EFFECTIVE LENGTH (le)

The distance between adjacent points of inflexion is called effective length or

3.1.6. RADIUS OF GYRATION

3.1.7. SLENDERNESS RATIO ( )

3.1.8. BUCKLING FACTOR

3.1.9. BUCKLING LOAD

3.1.10. SAFE LOAD

3.1.11. CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMNS BASED ON THE SLENDERNESS RATIO

3.1.12. CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMN BASED ON LOAD

(a) Axially loaded column

Fig. 3.2. Axially loaded column

(b) Eccentrically loaded column

Fig. 3.3. Eccentrically loaded column

3.1.13. EFFECTIVE LENGTH (l e) OF THE COLUMN FOR DIFFERENT END

S.No. End Conditions Figure Effective Length

1. Both ends pin jointed le = l

2. One end fixed and le = 2 l

3. One end fixed and l

4. Both ends fixed l

3.1.14. ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN THE EULER’S THEORY OF LONG COLUMN

The following assumptions are made in the Euler’s column theory.

3.1.15. LIMITATIONS OF THE EULER’S THEORY

3.1.16. SIGN CONVENTIONS

Consider a column (RS) of length l, and uniform cross-sectional area A,

It means the bending of the column will be zero. It is not true.

So, differentiating equation (f) with respect to x,

Case (ii): At R′ (free end), x = l and y = q

Now taking least significant value,

Consider a column RS of length l, and uniform cross-sectional area A, carrying

The solution of the above differential equation is

A and B are obtained as follows:

Substituting x = 0, y = 0 in equation (i)

Differentiating equation (i) with respect to x,

Case (ii): At hinged end R, x = l and y = 0.

3.1.20. COLUMN WITH BOTH ENDS ARE FIXED

Consider a column RS of length l, and uniform cross-sectional area A, carrying

The column is fixed at both of its ends R and S.

The solution of the above differential equation is

Substituting x = 0, y = 0 in equation (m)

So, differentiating equation (m) with respect to x,

3.1.21. EULER’S CRIPPLING LOAD OF COLUMN FOR DIFFERENT END

Buckling or Crippling Load

1. Both ends are hinged. 2 E I 2 E I

Buckling or Crippling Load

2. One end is fixed and 2 E I 2 E I

3. One end is fixed and 2 E I 2 2 E I

4. Both ends are fixed. 2 E I 4 2 E I

3.1.22. FORMULAE USED

4. Area of rectangular section, A = b  d

7. Moment of inertia of rectangular section,

9. Moment of inertia of circular hollow section,

14. Effective length of column for different end conditions,

17. Deflection of simply supported beam with udl,

18. Outer diameter of hollow cylinder (D)

3.1.23. SOLVED PROBLEMS ON EULER’S THEORY

Example 3.1 A steel rod 4 m long and 50 mm diameter is used as a column.

Effective length for both ends are fixed,

 Critical load P = 151.4 kN

I = 12.56  104 mm4

Moment of inertia about x – x axis