Jeppiaar Engineering College: Department of Management Studies BATCH 2017 - 2019 I Year / Ii Semester

BATCH 2017 – 2019 / I YEAR MBA / II SEMESTER - BA7207 BRM / QB & STUDY MATERIAL
JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE
DEPARTMENT OF MANAGEMENT STUDIES

BATCH 2017 – 2019
I YEAR / II SEMESTER
BA 5202: BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
Faculty In charge
Dr. R. AKILA & Dr. P. MATHURASWAMY
REGULATION 2017
ANNA UNIVERSITY CHENNAI - 25
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S.No Particulars Page

No
1 COLLEGE- MISSION/ VISION 03
2 MBA - MISSION/ VISION 04
3 SYLLABUS OF THE SUBJECT 05
4 LESS PLAN OF THE SUBJECT 06
5 STUDY MATERIAL 06
UNIT I 07
UNIT II 17
UNIT III 25
UNIT IV 33
UNIT V 44
6 QUESTIONS BNAK 51
UNIT I 51
UNIT II 56
UNIT III 62
UNIT IV 68
UNIT V 74
7 CASE STUDY 80
8 PREVIOUS YEAR UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS 82
9 GLOSSARY OF RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY 103
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VISION:
Jeppiaar Engineering College intent to be a leading, comprehensive school of

management, furthering our global reputation for educational experiences that make a
difference in the lives of our students. Through our actions and accomplishments, we will
inspire pride among the diverse members of our community. We will be renowned for adding
value and engaged service. We continue the upward increase in rankings and scholarly
productivity.
MISSION:
 To provide management education to all groups in the community.
 To practice management through scholarly research and education.
 To advance the practice of management within a global context,
 To provide management education to advance professional and community service.
PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs):

 To have a thorough understanding of the core aspects of the business
 To provide the learners with the management tools to identify, analyze and create
business opportunities as well as solve business problems.
 To inspire and make them practice ethical standards in business.
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs)

 Apply knowledge of management theories and practices to solve business problems.
 Foster Analytical and critical thinking abilities for data-based decision making.
 Ability to develop Value based Leadership ability.
 Ability to understand, analyze and communicate global, economic, legal, and ethical
aspects of business.
 Ability to lead themselves and others in the achievement of organizational goals,
contributing effectively to a team environment.
 Ability to upgrade their professional and managerial skills in their workplace.
 Ability to pursue lifelong business learning and fulfilling business career.
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JEPPIAAR ENGINEERING COLLEGE [MBA]
VISION:
To build Jeppiaar Engineering College [MBA] as an institution of academic
excellence in management education, leading to become a world class university.
MISSION:
 To excel in teaching and learning, research and innovation by promoting the
principles of scientific analysis and creative thinking.
 To participate in the production, development and dissemination of knowledge
and interact with national and international communities.
 To equip students with values, ethics and life skills needed to enrich their lives
and enable them to contribute for the progress of society.
 To prepare students for higher studies and lifelong learning, enrich them with the
practical skills necessary to excel as future professionals and entrepreneurs for the
benefit of Nation’s economy.
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BA7207 BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9
Business Research – Definition and Significance – the research process – Types of
Research – Exploratory and causal Research – Theoretical and empirical Research – Cross –
Sectional and time – series Research – Research questions / Problems – Research objectives –
Research hypotheses – characteristics – Research in an evolutionary perspective – the role of
theory in research.
UNIT II RESEARCH DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT 9
Research design – Definition – types of research design – exploratory and causal
research design – Descriptive and experimental design – different types of experimental
design – Validity of findings – internal and external validity – Variables in Research –
Measurement and scaling – Different scales – Construction of instrument – Validity and
Reliability of instrument.
UNIT III DATA COLLECTION 9
Types of data – Primary Vs Secondary data – Methods of primary data collection –
Survey Vs Observation – Experiments – Construction of questionnaire and instrument –
Validation of questionnaire – Sampling plan – Sample size – determinants optimal sample
size – sampling techniques – Probability Vs Non–probability sampling methods.
UNIT IV DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS 9
Data Preparation – editing – Coding –Data entry – Validity of data – Qualitative Vs
Quantitative data analyses – Bivariate and Multivariate statistical techniques – Factor
analysis – Discriminant analysis – cluster analysis – multiple regression and correlation –
multidimensional scaling – Application of statistical software for data analysis.
UNIT V REPORT DESIGN, WRITING AND ETHICS IN BUSINESS RESEARCH 9
Research report – Different types – Contents of report – need of executive summary –
chapterization – contents of chapter – report writing – the role of audience – readability –
comprehension – tone – final proof – report format – title of the report – ethics in research –
ethical behaviour of research – subjectivity and objectivity in research.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Donald R. Cooper, Pamela S. Schindler and J K Sharma, Business Research methods, 11th
Edition, Tata Mc Graw Hill, New Delhi, 2012.
2. Alan Bryman and Emma Bell, Business Research methods, 3rd Edition, Oxford
University Press, New Delhi, 2011.
3. Uma Sekaran and Roger Bougie, Research methods for Business, 5th Edition,
Wiley India, New Delhi, 2012.
4. William G Zikmund, Barry J Babin, Jon C.Carr, Atanu Adhikari,Mitch Griffin, Business
Research methods, A South Asian Perspective, 8th Edition, Cengage Learning, New Delhi,
2012.
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LESSON PLAN
SUBJECT : BA 5202 BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
SUBJECT CODE : BA5202
No Of
Units Topic Books Referred
Hours
Business Research – Definition and Significance – the
research process – Types of Research – Exploratory and Business
causal Research – Theoretical and empirical Research – Research
UNIT I Cross –Sectional and time – series Research – Research 9 Methods by
questions / Problems – Research objectives – Research Donald R.Cooper
hypotheses – characteristics – Research in an & Ramela. S
evolutionary perspective – the role of theory in research.
Research design – Definition – types of research design –

exploratory and causal research design – Descriptive and Business
experimental design – different types of experimental Research
UNIT II design – Validity of findings – internal and external 9 Methods by
validity – Variables in Research – Measurement and Donald R.Cooper
scaling – Different scales – Construction of instrument – & Ramela. S
Validity and Reliability of instrument.
Types of data – Primary Vs Secondary data – Methods of

primary data collection – Survey Vs Observation –
Experiments – Construction of questionnaire and Research
UNIT III instrument – Validation of questionnaire – Sampling plan 9 Methodology by
– Sample size – determinants optimal sample size – C.R.Kothari
sampling techniques – Probability Vs Non–probability
sampling methods.
Data Preparation – editing – Coding –Data entry –
Validity of data – Qualitative Vs Quantitative data Business
analyses – Bivariate and Multivariate statistical Research
UNIT IV techniques – Factor analysis – Discriminant analysis – 9 Methods by
cluster analysis – multiple regression and correlation – Donald R.Cooper
multidimensional scaling – Conjoint Analysis - & Ramela. S
Application of statistical software for data analysis.
Research report – Different types – Contents of report –
need of executive summary – chapterization – contents of
chapter – report writing – the role of audience – Research
UNIT –V readability – comprehension – tone – final proof – report 9 Methodology by
format – title of the report – ethics in research – ethical C.R.Kothari
behaviour of research – subjectivity and objectivity in
research.
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STUDY MATERIAL
UNIT I
UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Business Research – Definition and Significance – the research process – Types of
Research – Exploratory and causal Research – Theoretical and empirical Research – Cross –
Sectional and time – series Research – Research questions / Problems – Research objectives –
Research hypotheses – characteristics – Research in an evolutionary perspective – the role of
theory in research.
Business Research – Definition:
The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down the meaning of
research as “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any
branch of knowledge.” Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain
new knowledge.”
Features of Research:
 It means the discovery of new knowledge
 Is essentially an investigation
 Is related with the solution of a problem
 It is based on observation or experimental evidences.
 It demands accurate observation or experimentation.
 In research, the researchers try to find out answers for unsolved questions
 It should be carefully recorded and reported
Purpose / Aims / Objectives of Research
1. To find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered so far.
2. Aims at advancing systematic knowledge and formulating basic theories about the forces
influencing the relation between groups as well as those acting on personality development
and is adjustment with individuals.
3. Try to improve tools of analysis or to test these against the complex human behaviour and
institutions.
4. To understand social life and thereby to gain a greater measure of control over social
behaviour.
5. To provide an educational program in the accumulated knowledge of group dynamics, in
skills of research, in techniques of training leaders and in social action.
Criteria of Good Research:
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important
is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One
expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has
already been attained.
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3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data should
be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the
use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from
that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context
of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
Motivation in research:
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake
research studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment
conditions, curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social
thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to
perform research operations.
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Limitations of Research
 Conclusions in research are based upon data collected. Therefore when the data
collected are not valid or adequate, the conclusion will not be conclusive or
appropriate.
 Research results in theory
 Activities in a society are influenced by various internal and external factors Small
organizations cannot afford to have research on various issues. Many people in
society depend on customs, traditions, routines and practices for taking decision;
instead of going for research.
 Research is usually based on sample studies. But in many cases samples are not true
representatives. Therefore the research reports based on these samples may not be
accurate.
Significance of research:
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood;
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights;
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles
and creative work;
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new
theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an
important source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and
social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way.
Types of Research:
There are different types of research. The basic ones are as follows.
1. Descriptive Versus Analytical:
Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different types.
The main objective of descriptive research is describing the state of affairs as it prevails at the
time of study. The term ‘ex post facto research’ is quite often used for descriptive research
studies in social sciences and business research. The most distinguishing feature of this
method is that the researcher has no control over the variables here. He/she has to only report
what is happening or what has happened. Majority of the ex post facto research projects are
used for descriptive studies in which the researcher attempts to examine phenomena, such as
the consumers’ preferences, frequency of purchases, shopping, etc. Despite the inability of
the researchers to control the variables, ex post facto studies may also comprise attempts by
them to discover the causes of the selected problem. The methods of research adopted in
conducting descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including correlation and
comparative methods.
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2. Applied Versus Fundamental:

Research can also be applied or fundamental in nature. An attempt to find a solution
to an immediate problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a business organisation, or the
society is known as applied research. Researchers engaged in such researches aim at drawing
certain conclusions confronting a concrete social or business problem.
On the other hand, fundamental research mainly concerns generalizations and
formulation of a theory. In other words, “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is
termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research” (Young in Kothari, 1988). Researches relating to pure
mathematics or concerning some natural phenomenon are instances of Fundamental
Research. Likewise, studies focusing on human behaviour also fall under the category of
fundamental research.
Thus, while the principal objective of applied research is to find a solution to some
pressing practical problem, the objective of basic research is to find information with a broad
base of application and add to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
3. Quantitative Versus Qualitative:
Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in
terms of quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. Various available
statistical and econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such research. Which includes
correlation, regressions and time series analysis etc,.
On the other hand, Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, or more
specifically, the aspects related to or involving quality or kind. For example, an important
type of qualitative research is ‘Motivation Research’, which investigates into the reasons for
certain human behaviour. The main aim of this type of research is discovering the underlying
motives and desires of human beings by using in-depth interviews. The other techniques
employed in such research are story completion tests, sentence completion tests, word
association tests, and other similar projective methods. Qualitative research is particularly
significant in the context of behavioural sciences, which aim at discovering the underlying
motives of human behaviour. Such research helps to analyse the various factors that motivate
human beings to behave in a certain manner, besides contributing to an understanding of
what makes individuals like or dislike a particular thing. However, it is worth noting that
conducting qualitative research in practice is considerably a difficult task. Hence, while
undertaking such research, seeking guidance from experienced expert researchers is
important.
4. Conceptual Versus Empirical:
The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as Conceptual Research.
Generally, philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts or for reinterpreting
the existing ones. Empirical Research, on the other hand, exclusively relies on the
observation or experience with hardly any regard for theory and system. Such research is data
based, which often comes up with conclusions that can be verified through experiments or
observation. Empirical research is also known as experimental type of research, in which it is
important to first collect the facts and their sources, and actively take steps to stimulate the
production of desired information. In this type of research, the researcher first formulates a
working hypothesis, and then gathers sufficient facts to prove or disprove the stated
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hypothesis. He/she formulates the experimental design, which according to him/her would
manipulate the variables, so as to obtain the desired information. This type of research is thus
characterized by the researcher’s control over the variables under study. In simple term,
empirical research is most appropriate when an attempt is made to prove that certain variables
influence the other variables in some way. Therefore, the results obtained by using the
experimental or empirical studies are considered to be the most powerful evidences for a
given hypothesis.
5. Other Types of Research:
The remaining types of research are variations of one or more of the afore-mentioned
type of research. They vary in terms of the purpose of research, or the time required to
complete it, or may be based on some other similar factor. On the basis of time, research may
either be in the nature of one-time or longitudinal time series research. While the research is
restricted to a single time-period in the former case, it is conducted over several time-periods
in the latter case. Depending upon the environment in which the research is to be conducted,
it can also be laboratory research or field-setting research, or simulation research, besides
being diagnostic or clinical in nature. Under such research, in-depth approaches or case study
method may be employed to analyse the basic causal relations. These studies usually
undertake a detailed in-depth analysis of the causes of certain events of interest, and use very
small samples and sharp data collection methods. The research may also be explanatory in
nature. Formalized research studies consist of substantial structure and specific hypotheses to
be verified. As regards to historical research, sources like historical documents, remains, etc.
Are utilized to study past events or ideas. It also includes philosophy of persons and groups
of the past or any remote point of time. Research has also been classified into decision-
oriented and conclusion-oriented categories. The decision-oriented research is always carried
out as per the need of a decision maker and hence, the researcher has no freedom to conduct
the research according to his/her own desires. On the other hand, in the case of Conclusion-
oriented research, the researcher is free to choose the problem, redesign the enquiry as it
progresses and even change conceptualization as he/she wishes to. An operation research is a
kind of decision-oriented research, where in scientific method is used in providing the
departments, a quantitative basis for decision-making with respect to the activities under their
purview.
Research process:
Research process consists of a series of steps or actions required for effectively
conducting research. The following are the steps that provide useful procedural guidelines
regarding the conduct of research:
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1. Identifying, Evaluating and Formulating the Research Problems-:

After creating interest in a research work, a researcher has to think about formulating
the problem related to his research work. Choosing a correct problem for study is the most
important step in the entire research process. After selecting the problem, the researcher has
to formulate the problem.
2. Extensive Literature Survey:-
Before formulating the research it is desirable that researcher examines all available
literature, both conceptual and empirical. The conceptual literature is one which deals with
concepts and theories. Empirical literature is that which contains studies made earlier and so
it consists of many facts and figures observed in the earlier studies.
3. Writing a Primary Synopsis:-
After formulating the problems a brief summary of it should be written down. A
research worker has to write a synopsis of the topic selected for research work mentioning the
summary of what is going to be done under his research.
4. Indentifying and Labeling Variables: -
In any research the problem under study deals with relation between variables. The
variables whose change has affected the other variable, is called independent variable.
Therefore there is a cause and effect relation between the variables. The research problem
must be formulated in such a manner that it highlights the nature, extent and implications of
relation existing between the variables. It is only through this process of establishing the
effective relation between variables that meaningful conclusions are derived from the study.
5. Setting Up Of Hypothesis: -
Specification of working hypothesis is a basic step in the research process. A
hypothesis is a tentative conclusion logically drawn. The research work is conducted to test
the truth of this hypothesis.
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6. Preparing the Research Design:-

A research design is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant
to the research problem. It is a strategy which approach will be used for gathering and
analyzing the data. It includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under
these two constraints. A research design provides a rational approach to research enabling
one to decide in advance what to do, how to do, in investigating the subjects.
7. Determining the Sample Design:-
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected
for obtaining a sample from a given universe. Sample design refers to the technique or the
procedure which the researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling units from the
universe for drawing inferences about the universe. If the proper procedure is followed to
select the sample, definitely the sample will give all dependable information.
8. Collecting of Data: -
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data. Some of the methods of
collecting primary data are (1) Observation method. (2) Direct personal interview method. (3)
Telephone interview method. (4) Questionnaire method. (5) Schedule method. A choice of
one of these methods.
9. Execution of the Project: -
The researcher has to see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in
time. He should make necessary preparations for successful conduct of the project.
10. Processing, Analysis and Interpretation of Data by Statistical Methods: -
The processing of data consists of classification, tabulation and coding. By
classification and tabulation the unwieldy data can be condense into few manageable and
purposeful groups and tables so that further analysis becomes simple. Coding converts the
data into symbols and small figures so that the data can be dealt with in an easy manner.
Editing improves the quality of the data since it is at this stage that data which is irrelevant
can be dropped. Analysis and interpretation of data results in observation, analysis,
conclusion, induction and deduction. For this various statistical measures are computed.
11. Testing of Hypothesis: -
Depending upon the nature of data and conclusions to be arrived one or two of these
tests can be applied. Testing of hypothesis will results in either accepting or rejecting the
hypothesis. Testing of hypothesis may prove or disprove a theory and a theory facilitates
formulating of a further hypothesis. Testing of hypothesis will result in contribution to
existing theory or the generation of a new theory.
12. Preparation of the Report or Thesis:-
A report is a detailed description of what has been done and how it has been done
with respect to a particular area or topic. The report should contain the preliminary section,
the main body and the end matter. The preliminary section contains only titles, data,
acknowledgement foreword and table of contents. The important section of a report is its
main body. It carries introduction, methodology, and statements of findings, conclusions and
recommendations. The end matter includes appendix, literature selected and bibliography.
The appendix includes letters, questions or other tools used. Bibliography is the list of books,
journals. Reports, bulletins etc. used for reference.
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Hypothesis:
“Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an
explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely
as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation in the light of established facts”
(Kothari, 1988). A research hypothesis is quite often a predictive statement, which is capable
of being tested using scientific methods that involve an independent and some dependent
variables. For instance, the following statements may be considered:
i. “Students who take tuitions perform better than the others who do not receive tuitions” or,
ii. “The female students perform as well as the male students”.
These two statements are hypotheses that can be objectively verified and tested. Thus,
they indicate that a hypothesis states what one is looking for. Besides, it is a proposition that
can be put to test in order to examine its validity.
Role of Hypothesis:
• It guides the direction of the study
• It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not
• It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate
• It provides a frame work for organising the conclusions that result
Different Types of Hypothesis:
Descriptive Hypothesis – Describing the characteristics of a variable (may be an object,
person, organisation, event, and situation) • Eg. Employment opportunity of commerce
graduates is more than the arts students.
Relational Hypothesis – Establishes relationship between two variables. It may be positive,
negative or nil relationship. Eg. High income leads to high savings
Causal Hypothesis – The change in one variable leads to change in another variable i.e.
Dependent and independent variables, one variable is a cause and the other one is the effect
Statistical Hypothesis – association or difference between two variables are hypothesized
Null Hypothesis – it points out there is no difference between two populations in respect of
same property.
Alternative Hypothesis- when we reject the null hypothesis, we accept another hypothesis
known as alternate hypothesis.
Characteristics of Hypothesis:
A hypothesis should have the following characteristic features:-
i. A hypothesis must be precise and clear. If it is not precise and clear, then the inferences
drawn on its basis would not be reliable.
ii. A hypothesis must be capable of being put to test. Quite often, the research programmes
fail owing to its incapability of being subject to testing for validity. Therefore, some
prior study may be conducted by the researcher in order to make a hypothesis testable. A
hypothesis “is tested if other deductions can be made from it, which in turn can be
confirmed or disproved by observation” (Kothari, 1988).
iii. A hypothesis must state relationship between two variables, in the case of relational
hypotheses.
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iv. A hypothesis must be specific and limited in scope. This is because a simpler hypothesis
generally would be easier to test for the researcher. And therefore, he/she must formulate
such hypotheses.
v. As far as possible, a hypothesis must be stated in the simplest language, so as to make it
understood by all concerned. However, it should be noted that simplicity of a hypothesis
is not related to its significance.
vi. A hypothesis must be consistent and derived from the most known facts. In other words,
it should be consistent with a substantial body of established facts. That is, it must be in
the form of a statement which is most likely to occur.
vii. A hypothesis must be amenable to testing within a stipulated or reasonable period of
time. No matter how excellent a hypothesis, a researcher should not use it if it cannot be
tested within a given period of time, as no one can afford to spend a life-time on collecting
data to test it.
viii. A hypothesis should state the facts that give rise to the necessity of looking for an
explanation. This is to say that by using the hypothesis, and other known and accepted
generalizations, a researcher must be able to derive the original problem condition. Therefore,
a hypothesis should explain what it actually wants to explain, and for this it should also have
an empirical reference.
Theory and Concept:
Theory is defined as a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions and
propositions that are advanced to explain and predict a phenomenon. It may also specify
causal relationship among variables. A theory is an integrated body of definitions,
assumptions, and general propositions covering a given subject matter from which a
comprehensive and consistent set of specific and testable principles can be deducted
logically. This theory provides a basis for studying consumer behaviour and formulating
appropriate marketing strategies.
Requisites (Criteria) of Theory
Theory starts out as ideas. The criteria to be met by the set of ideas are:
 They must be logically consistent.
 They must be interrelated.
 The statements must be exhaustive.
 The propositions should be mutually exclusive.
 They must be capable of being tested through research.
Role of Theory in Research
1. Theory narrows the range of facts to be studied
2. Theory provides a conceptual framework for a study
3. Summarizes concisely what is already known about the object of study.
4. Theory states a general uniformity beyond the immediate observations.
5. Theoretical generalization can be used to predict further facts.
General Principles Regarding the Use of Theory in Research
1. Knowledge of the existing theory in one’s area of research is essential for conducting
research.
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2. Concepts are crucial components of theory and so their clear definitions are essential to the
designing of the study.
3. One should view theory as hypothetical proposition and not as conclusive fact.
4. One should pay attention to all odd and puzzling unexpected observations in one’s research
and enquire into them. They may be a source for new theoretical approaches.
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UNIT II
UNIT II RESEARCH DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT

Research design – Definition – types of research design – exploratory and causal
research design – Descriptive and experimental design – different types of experimental
design – Validity of findings – internal and external validity – Variables in Research –
Measurement and scaling – Different scales – Construction of `– Validity and Reliability of
instrument.
MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN:
“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data
in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure.” In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data.
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
Keeping in view the above stated design decisions; one may split the overall research design
into the following parts:
(a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the given study
(b) The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are
to be made;
(c) The statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
(d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified
in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design as
under:
(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem.
(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the
data.
(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints.
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(b) The observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations are
to be made;
(c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
(d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified
in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design as
under:
(i) It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research
problem.
(ii) It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analysing the
data.
(iii) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain—(a) a clear statement of the research
problem;
(b) procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information; (c) the population to be
studied; and (d) methods to be used in processing and analysing data.
Types of Research Design:
There are different types of research designs. They may be broadly categorized as:
(1) Exploratory Research Design;
(2) Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design; and
(3) Hypothesis-Testing Research Design.
1. Exploratory Research Design:
The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative research design. The main
objective of using such a research design is to formulate a research problem for an in-depth or
more precise investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis from an operational
aspect. The major purpose of such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore,
such a research design suitable for such a study should be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different dimensions of the problem under study. The in-built
flexibility in research design is required as the initial research problem would be transformed
into a more precise one in the exploratory study, which in turn may necessitate changes in the
research procedure for collecting relevant data. Usually, the following three methods are
considered in the context of a research design for such studies. They are (a) a survey of
related literature; (b) experience survey; and (c) analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ instances.
2. Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design:
A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a
particular individual or a group. Meanwhile, a diagnostic research design determines the
frequency with which a variable occurs or its relationship with another variable. In other
words, the study analyzing whether a certain variable is associated with another comprises a
diagnostic research study. On the other hand, a study that is concerned with specific
predictions or with the narration of facts and characteristics related to an individual, group or
situation, are instances of descriptive research studies. Generally, most of the social research
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design falls under this category. As a research design, both the descriptive and diagnostic
studies share common requirements, hence they are grouped together. However, the
procedure to be used and the research design need to plan carefully. The research design must
also make appropriate provision for protection against bias and thus maximize reliability,
with due regard to the completion of the research study in an economical manner. The
research design in such studies should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it must also focus
attention on the following:
a) Formulation of the objectives of the study,
b) Proper designing of the methods of data collection,
c) Sample selection,
d) Data collection,
e) Processing and analysis of the collected data, and
f) Reporting the findings.
3. Hypothesis-Testing Research Design:
Hypothesis-Testing Research Designs are those in which the researcher tests the
hypothesis of causal relationship between two or more variables. These studies require
procedures that would not only decrease bias and enhance reliability, but also facilitate
deriving inferences about the causality. Generally, experiments satisfy such requirements.
Hence, when research design is discussed in such studies, it often refers to the design of
experiments.
Tests of Sound Measurement
Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and practicality. In fact,
these are the three major considerations one should use in evaluating a measurement tool.
“Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to measure.
Reliability has to do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure ...
Practicality is concerned with a wide range of factors of economy, convenience, and
interpretability ...” We briefly take up the relevant details concerning these tests of sound
measurement.
1. Test of Validity*
Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an instrument
measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity can also be thought of as utility. In other
words, validity is the extent to which differences found with a measuring instrument reflect
true differences among those being tested. But the question arises: how can one determine
validity without direct confirming knowledge? The answer may be that we seek other
relevant evidence that confirms the answers we have found with our measuring tool. What is
relevant, evidence often depends upon the nature of the research problem and the judgement
of the researcher. But one can certainly consider three types of validity in this connection: (i)
Content validity; (ii) Criterion-related validity and (iii) Construct validity.
(i) Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate
coverage of the topic under study. If the instrument contains a representative sample of the
universe, the content validity is good. Its determination is primarily judgemental and
intuitive. It can also be determined by using a panel of persons who shall judge how well the
measuring instrument meets the standards, but there is no numerical way to express it.
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(ii) Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or estimate the
existence of some current condition. This form of validity reflects the success of measures
used for some empirical estimating purpose. The concerned criterion must possess the
following qualities:
Relevance: (A criterion is relevant if it is defined in terms we judge to be the proper
measure.)
Freedom from bias: (Freedom from bias is attained when the criterion gives each subject an
equal Opportunity to score well.)
Reliability: (A reliable criterion is stable or reproducible.)
Availability: (The information specified by the criterion must be available.)
In fact, a Criterion-related validity is a broad term that actually refers to (i) Predictive validity
and (ii) Concurrent validity. The former refers to the usefulness of a test in predicting some
future performance whereas the latter refers to the usefulness of a test in closely relating to
other measures of known validity. Criterion-related validity is expressed as the coefficient of
correlation between test scores and some measure of future performance or between test
scores and scores on another measure of known validity.
(iii) Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. A measure is said to possess
construct validity to the degree that it confirms to predicted correlations with other theoretical
propositions. Construct validity is the degree to which scores on a test can be accounted for
by the explanatory constructs of a sound theory. For determining construct validity, we
associate a set of other propositions with the results received from using our measurement
instrument. If measurements on our devised scale correlate in a predicted way with these
other propositions, we can conclude that there is some construct validity. If the above stated
criteria and tests are met with, we may state that our measuring instrument is valid and will
result in correct measurement; otherwise we shall have to look for more information and/or
resort to exercise of judgement.
2. Test of Reliability
The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A measuring
instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results. Reliable measuring instrument does
contribute to validity, but a reliable instrument need not be a valid instrument. For instance, a
scale that consistently overweighs objects by five kgs., is a reliable scale, but it does not give
a valid measure of weight. But the other way is not true i.e., a valid instrument is always
reliable. Accordingly reliability is not as valuable as validity, but it is easier to assess
reliability in comparison to validity. If the quality of reliability is satisfied by an instrument,
then while using it we can be confident that the transient and situational factors are not
interfering. Two aspects of reliability viz., stability and equivalence deserve special mention.
The stability aspect is concerned with securing consistent results with repeated measurements
of the same person and with the same instrument. We usually determine the degree of
stability by comparing the results of repeated measurements. The equivalence aspect
considers how much error may get introduced by different investigators or different samples
of the items being studied. A good way to test for the equivalence of measurements by two
investigators is to compare their observations of the same events. Reliability can be improved
in the following two ways:
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(i) By standardising the conditions under which the measurement takes place i.e., we must
ensure that external sources of variation such as boredom, fatigue, etc., are minimised to the
extent possible. That will improve stability aspect.
(ii) By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from group to group,
by using trained and motivated persons to conduct the research and also by broadening the
sample of items used. This will improve equivalence aspect.
3. Test of Practicality
The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of
economy, convenience and interpretability. From the operational point of view, the
measuring instrument ought to be practical i.e., it should be economical, convenient and
interpretable. Economy consideration suggests that some trade-off is needed between the
ideal research project and that which the budget can afford. The length of measuring
instrument is an important area where economic pressures are quickly felt. Although more
items give greater reliability as stated earlier, but in the interest of limiting the interview or
observation time, we have to take only few items for our study purpose. Similarly, data-
collection methods to be used are also dependent at times upon economic factors.
Convenience test suggests that the measuring instrument should be easy to administer. For
this purpose one should give due attention to the proper layout of the measuring instrument.
For instance, a questionnaire, with clear instructions (illustrated by examples), is certainly
more effective and easier to complete than one which lacks these features. Interpretability
consideration is especially important when persons other than the designers of the test are to
interpret the results. The measuring instrument, in order to be interpretable, must be
supplemented by (a) detailed instructions for administering the test; (b) scoring keys; (c)
evidence about the reliability and (d) guides for using the test and for interpreting results.
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING
The word scale or scaling is generally used for indicating measurements or measuring
something. Many aspects of social phenomena like emotion, attitude, faiths etc. are not
measurable directly. They are not quantitative in nature. In social phenomena there are two
types of variables quantitative and qualitative. Measurement or scaling implies conversion of
qualitative data into quantitative data and then measuring them. Various kinds of statistical
measurements are used for this purpose. Scaling is an attempt to bring about greater accuracy
which is desired in both physical and social sciences.
Essentials of Scaling (Criteria for Good Scaling)
Continuum means judging the scalability of the phenomenon under study.
Reliability means that it should consistently produce the same result when applied to the
same design.
Validity implies correct measurement. A scale is valid if it measures correctly what is
expected to measure.
weighting items means proper weights are to be provided to the attributes involved in the
study because they are not of equal importance.
Equality of units is a desirable characteristic but not essential for sound scientific
procedure. In order to make the units equal, sometimes subtraction or addition can be made.
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MEASUREMENT SCALES:
The most widely used classification of measurement scales are: (a) nominal scale; (b)
ordinal scale; (c) interval scale; and (d) ratio scale.
(a) Nominal scale: Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events
in order to label them. The usual example of this is the assignment of numbers of basketball
players in order to identify them. Such numbers cannot be considered to be associated with an
ordered scale for their order is of no consequence; the numbers are just convenient labels for
the particular class of events and as such have no quantitative value. Nominal scales provide
convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events. One cannot do much with the
numbers involved. For example, one cannot usefully average the numbers on the back of a
group of football players and come up with a meaningful value. Neither can one usefully
compare the numbers assigned to one group with the numbers assigned to another. The
counting of members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation when a nominal
scale is employed. Accordingly, we are restricted to use mode as the measure of central
tendency. There is no generally used measure of dispersion for nominal scales. Chi-square
test is the most common test of statistical significance that can be utilized, and for the
measures of correlation, the contingency coefficient can be worked out. Nominal scale is the
least powerful level of measurement. It indicates no order or distance relationship and has no
arithmetic origin. A nominal scale simply describes differences between things by assigning
them to categories. Nominal data are, thus, counted data. The scale wastes any information
that we may have about varying degrees of attitude, skills, understandings, etc. In spite of all
this, nominal scales are still very useful and are widely used in surveys and other ex-post-
facto research when data are being classified by major sub-groups of the population.
(b) Ordinal scale: The lowest level of the ordered scale that is commonly used is the ordinal
scale. The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no attempt to make the intervals of
the scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and are frequently
used in research relating to qualitative phenomena. A student’s rank in his graduation class
involves the use of an ordinal scale. One has to be very careful in making statement about
scores based on ordinal scales. For instance, if Ram’s position in his class is 10 and Mohan’s
position is 40, it cannot be said that Ram’s position is four times as good as that of Mohan.
The statement would make no sense at all. Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items
from highest to lowest. Ordinal measures have no absolute values, and the real differences
between adjacent ranks may not be equal. All that can be said is that one person is higher or
lower on the scale than another, but more precise comparisons cannot be made. Thus, the use
of an ordinal scale implies a statement of ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ (an equality statement is
also acceptable) without our being able to state how much greater or less. The real difference
between ranks 1 and 2 may be more or less than the difference between ranks 5 and 6. Since
the numbers of this scale have only a rank meaning, the appropriate measure of central
tendency is the median. A percentile or quartile measure is used for measuring dispersion.
Correlations are restricted to various rank order methods. Measures of statistical significance
are restricted to the non-parametric methods.
(c) Interval scale: In the case of interval scale, the intervals are adjusted in terms of some
rule that has been established as a basis for making the units equal. The units are equal only
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in so far as one accepts the assumptions on which the rule is based. Interval scales can have
an arbitrary zero, but it is not possible to determine for them what may be called an absolute
zero or the unique origin. The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true
zero; it does not have the capacity to measure the complete absence of a trait or characteristic.
The Fahrenheit scale is an example of an interval scale and shows similarities in what one can
and cannot do with it. One can say that an increase in temperature from 30° to 40° involves
the same increase in temperature as an increase from 60° to 70°, but one cannot say that the
temperature of 60° is twice as warm as the temperature of 30° because both numbers are
dependent on the fact that the zero on the scale is set arbitrarily at the temperature of the
freezing point of water. The ratio of the two temperatures, 30° and 60°, means nothing
because zero is an arbitrary point. Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than
ordinal scales for interval scale also incorporates the concept of equality of interval. As such
more powerful statistical measures can be used with interval scales. Mean is the appropriate
measure of central tendency, while standard deviation is the most widely used measure of
dispersion. Product moment correlation techniques are appropriate and the generally used
tests for statistical significance are the ‘t’ test and ‘F’ test.
(d) Ratio scale: Ratio scales have an absolute or true zero of measurement. The term
‘absolute zero’ is not as precise as it was once believed to be. We can conceive of an absolute
zero of length and similarly we can conceive of an absolute zero of time. For example, the
zero point on a centimetre scale indicates the complete absence of length or height. But an
absolute zero of temperature is theoretically unobtainable and it remains a concept existing
only in the scientist’s mind. The number of minor traffic-rule violations and the number of
incorrect letters in a page of type script represent scores on ratio scales. Both these scales
have absolute zeros and as such all minor traffic violations and all typing errors can be
assumed to be equal in significance. With ratio scales involved one can make statements like
“Jyoti’s” typing performance was twice as good as that of “Reetu.” The ratio involved does
have significance and facilitates a kind of comparison which is not possible in case of an
interval scale. Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of physical
dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc. are examples. Generally, all statistical
techniques are usable with ratio scales and all manipulations that one can carry out with real
numbers can also be carried out with ratio scale values. Multiplication and division can be
used with this scale but not with other scales mentioned above. Geometric and harmonic
means can be used as measures of central tendency and coefficients of variation may also be
calculated. Thus, proceeding from the nominal scale (the least precise type of scale) to ratio
scale (the most precise), relevant information is obtained increasingly. If the nature of the
variables permits, the researcher should use the scale that provides the most precise
description. Researchers in physical sciences have the advantage to describe variables in ratio
scale form but the behavioural sciences are generally limited to describe variables in interval
scale form, a less precise type of measurement.
What is the Validity of a Study?
Internal Validity – The degree to which changes in the dependent variable are affected by the
manipulated independent variable. Maintaining high internal validity means controlling for
all other independent variables other than the one(s) being studied
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External Validity – The degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to the “real
world”. Factors that negatively affect external validity also negatively affect the
generalizability of the results
Instrument Validity
Does an instrument measure what it is supposed to measure? Four types of instrument
validity are as follows:
– Construct
– Criterion related
– Content
– Inter-rater / Intra-rater
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
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UNIT III
UNIT III DATA COLLECTION
Types of data – Primary Vs Secondary data – Methods of primary data collection – Survey
Vs Observation – Experiments – Construction of questionnaire and instrument – Validation
of questionnaire – Sampling plan – Sample size – determinants optimal sample size –
sampling techniques – Probability Vs Non–probability sampling methods.
Types of data:
1. Primary data
Primary data those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character. There are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in
surveys and descriptive researches. Important ones are:
(i) Observation method
The observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own
direct observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study relating to
consumer behaviour, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist watch used by
the respondent, may himself look at the watch. The main advantage of this method is that
subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately. Secondly, the information
obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening; it is not complicated by
either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes. Thirdly, this method is
independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as such is relatively less
demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the case in
the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in studies
which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports
of their feelings for one reason or the other.
(ii) Interview method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli
and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
(iii) Through questionnaires
This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It
is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public
organisations and even by governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by
post) to the persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a
definite order on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who
are expected to read and understand the questions and write down the reply in the space
meant for the purpose in the questionnaire itself.
The merits claimed on behalf of this method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically,
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
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5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable
and reliable.
The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:
1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to
certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey) for
testing the questionnaires. In a big enquiry the significance of pilot survey is felt very much.
Pilot survey is in fact the replica and rehearsal of the main survey.
(iv) Through schedules
A schedule is a device used in collecting field data when survey method is applied. It is
used in direct interviews. It is a proforma containing a set of questions and tables. This
proforma is filled by field staffs who are specially appointed for the purpose.
Difference between Questionnaires and Schedules:
1. A schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the field worker.
Questionnaires are sent by post to respondent, to answer as specified in the covering letter.
2. Schedule is relatively more costly. Questionnaire is relatively cheap.
3. In the case of schedule the response is better since the enumerators clear the doubts of the
respondents and get the replies from the respondents at the spot itself. Response to the
questionnaire is poor.
4. In the case of schedule Time consumption is less. Time consumption is more in case of
questionnaire.
5. Throguh Schedule Direct personal contact is established with the respondents, In the case
of questionnaire there is no direct personal contact.
6. Schedules can be applied even if the respondents are not literate. Questionnaire can be
used only if the respondents are literates.
SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION:

(a) Warranty cards:
Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of consumer
durables to collect information regarding their products. The information sought is printed in
the form of questions on the ‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the package along with
the product with a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.
(b) Distributor audits:
Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as manufactures
through their salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited through
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salesmen and use such information to estimate market size, market share, and seasonal
purchasing pattern and so on. The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning but by
observation. For instance, in case of a grocery store audit, a sample of stores is visited
periodically and data are recorded on inventories on hand either by observation or copying
from store records. Store audits are invariably panel operations, for the derivation of sales
estimates and compilation of sales trends by stores are their principal ‘raison detre’. The
principal advantage of this method is that it offers the most efficient way of evaluating the
effect on sales of variations of different techniques of in-store promotion.
(c) Pantry audits:
Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket of goods at the
consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator collects an inventory of types, quantities
and prices of commodities consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the
examination of consumer’s pantry. The usual objective in a pantry audit is to find out what
types of consumers buy certain products and certain brands, the assumption being that the
contents of the pantry accurately portray consumer’s preferences. Quite often, pantry audits
are supplemented by direct questioning relating to reasons and circumstances under which
particular products were purchased in an attempt to relate these factors to purchasing habits.
A pantry audit may or may not be set up as a panel operation, since a single visit is often
considered sufficient to yield an accurate picture of consumers’ preferences. An important
limitation of pantry audit approach is that, at times, it may not be possible to identify
consumers’ preferences from the audit data alone, particularly when promotion devices
produce a marked rise in sales.
(d) Consumer panels:
An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis is known as ‘consumer
panel’, where a set of consumers are arranged to come to an understanding to maintain
detailed daily records of their consumption and the same is made available to investigator on
demands. In other words, a consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers who are
interviewed repeatedly over a period of time. Mostly consume panels are of two types viz.,
the transitory consumer panel and the continuing consumer panel.
(e) Using mechanical devices:
The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to collect information by way of
indirect means. Eye camera, Pupilometric camera, Psychogalvanometer, Motion picture
camera and Audiometer are the principal devices so far developed and commonly used by
modern big business houses, mostly in the developed world for the purpose of collecting the
required information.
(f) Through projective techniques:
Projective techniques (or what are sometimes called as indirect interviewing
techniques) for the collection of data have been developed by psychologists to use projections
of respondents for inferring about underlying motives, urges, or intentions which are such
that the respondent either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out himself. In
projective techniques the respondent in supplying information tends unconsciously to project
his own attitudes or feelings on the subject under study. Projective techniques play an
important role in motivational researches or in attitude surveys.
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(g) Depth interviews:

Depth interviews are those interviews that are designed to discover underlying
motives and desires and are often used in motivational research. Such interviews are held to
explore needs, desires and feelings of respondents. In other words, they aim to elicit
unconscious as also other types of material relating especially to personality dynamics and
motivations. As such, depth interviews require great skill on the part of the interviewer and at
the same time involve considerable time. Unless the researcher has specialised training, depth
interviewing should not be attempted.
2. Secondary data
The secondary data means which have already been collected by someone else and
which have already been passed through the statistical process. The researcher would have to
decide which sort of data he would be using (thus collecting) for his study and accordingly he
will have to select one or the other method of data collection.
Difference between Primary data and Secondary data:
1. Primary data is Original in character. Secondary data is not original
2. Collection of data is expensive in the case of primary data. Collection of secondary data is
less expensive.
3. Primary data is in the shape of raw materials. Secondary data is the shape of finished
products.
4. Primary data is adequate and suitable. Secondary data need no be ample and apposite.
Survey Vs Observation:
Observational Study - In an observational study, the sample population being studied is
measured, or surveyed, as it is. The researcher observes the subjects and measures variables,
but does not influence the population in any way or attempt to intervene in the study. There
is no manipulation by the researcher. Instead, data is simply gathered and correlations are
investigated. Since observational studies do not control any variable, the results can only
allow the researcher to claim association, not causation (not a cause-and-effect conclusion).
An example of an observational study:
Is there a correlation between attending an SAT Prep class and scores achieved on the
SAT Examination for this school year? In an attempt to investigate this possible correlation,
a group of students who took the SAT Examination are surveyed. The scores from students
who took an SAT Prep class are compared with the scores of those that did not take an SAT
Prep class. A statistical analysis is performed on the data. This is an observational study
since the researcher did not manipulate the sample set.
Surveys - Surveys are one form of an observational study, since the researchers do not
influence the outcomes. Statistical surveys collect information from a sample group to learn
about the entire population. A survey may focus on opinions or factual information
depending upon the purpose of the study. Surveys may involve answering a questionnaire or
being interviewed by a researcher. The U.S. Census is a type of survey.
Difference between Survey and Experiment
Primary data is described as a data originally collected; in essence, the data gathered
is afresh and for the first time. Surveys and Experiments are two important statistical
techniques used in research and data collection. When the research type is
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experimental, experiments are considered as a major source of primary data. On the other
end, surveys are performed when the research is descriptive in nature.
Comparison Chart:
BASIS FOR
SURVEY EXPERIMENT
COMPARISON
Meaning Survey refers to a technique of Experiment implies a scientific

gathering information regarding a procedure wherein the factor
variable under study, from the under study is isolated to test
respondents of the population. hypothesis.
Used in Descriptive Research Experimental Research
Samples Large Relatively small
Suitable for Social and Behavioral sciences Physical and natural sciences
Example of Field research Laboratory research
Data collection Observation, interview, questionnaire, Through several readings of

case study etc. experiment.
Construction of questionnaire:
1. The researcher must keep in view the problem he is to study for it provides the starting
point for developing the Questionnaire/Schedule. He must be clear about the various aspects
of his research problem to be dealt with in the course of his research project.
2. Appropriate form of questions depends on the nature of information sought, the sampled
respondents and the kind of analysis intended. The researcher must decide whether to use
closed or open-ended question. Questions should be simple and must be constructed with a
view to their forming a logical part of a well thought out tabulation plan. The units of
enumeration should also be defined precisely so that they can ensure accurate and full
information.
3. Rough draft of the Questionnaire/Schedule is prepared, giving due thought to the
appropriate sequence of putting questions. Questionnaires or schedules previously drafted (if
available) may as well be looked into at this stage.
4. Researcher must invariably re-examine, and in case of need may revise the rough draft for
a better one. Technical defects must be minutely scrutinised and removed.
5. Pilot study should be undertaken for pre-testing the questionnaire. The questionnaire may
be edited in the light of the results of the pilot study.
6. Questionnaire must contain simple but straight forward directions for the respondents so
that they may not feel any difficulty in answering the questions.
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Validation of questionnaire:
Validation is “The process of establishing that a method is sound.” Validation involves
establishing that the instrument produces data that are reliable and true. There are a number
of ways to define this, some of which outlined below.
Reliability: the degree to which a questionnaire will produce the same result if administered
again, or the “test-retest” concept. It is also a measure of the degree to which a questionnaire
can reflect a true change.
Validity: the degree to which a questionnaire reflects reality. There are a number of different
facets to validity. Internal validity: the degree to which questions within an instrument agree
with each other, i.e., that a subject will respond to similar questions in a similar way. It also
affects the likelihood of producing false positives and false negatives.
External validity: the ability to make generalizations about a population beyond that of the
sample tested.
Sensitivity: The degrees to which the instrument can identify a true positive, e.g., accurately
identify a person who does have the condition.
Specificity: similar to sensitivity, this is the degree, to which the instrument can identify a
true negative, e.g., correctly identify the people who do not have the disease. Sensitivity and
specificity are another side of the coin from internal validity.
Statistical validity: this is related to internal validity, and assesses whether the differences in
the questionnaire results between patient groups can appropriately be subjected to statistical
tests of significance.
Longitudinal validity: whether a questionnaire returns the same results in a given population
over time, assuming all else remains equal Linguistic validity: whether the wording of the
questionnaire is understood in the same way by everyone who completes it.
Discriminant validity: the ability of the questionnaire to detect true differences between
groups, and detect no difference when there isn’t one.
Construct validity: the ability of a measure to assess correctly a particular cause and effect
relationship between the measure and some other factor.
Sampling Plan:
Definition: A sampling plan is a term widely used in research studies that provide an outline
on the basis of which research is conducted. It tells which category is to be surveyed, what
should be the sample size and how the respondents should be chosen out of the population.
Sampling plan is a base from which the research starts and includes the following three major
decisions:
1. What should be the Sampling unit i.e. choosing the category of the population to be
surveyed is the first and the foremost decision in a sampling plan that initiates the research?
e.g. In the case of Banking industry, should the sampling unit consist of current account
holders, saving account holders, or both? Should it include male or female account holders?
These decisions once made the then sampling frame is designed to give everyone in the target
population equal chance of being sampled.
2. The second decision in sampling plan is determining the size of the sample i.e. how many
objects in the sample is to be surveyed. Generally, “the larger the sample size, the more is the
reliability” and therefore, researchers try to cover as many samples as possible.
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3. The final decision that completes the sampling plan is selecting the sampling procedure i.e.
which method can be used such that every object in the population has an equal chance of
being selected. Generally, the researchers use the probability sampling to determine the
objects to be chosen as these represents the sample more accurately.
Probability samples:
Simple Random Sample– where every item of the sample has an equal chance of getting
selected.
Stratified Sample– In this, the population is divided into mutually exclusive groups’ viz. age
group and then the choice is made randomly from each group.
Cluster Sample– It is also called area sampling, here the population is divided on the basis
of location viz. city and then selected randomly. In case the researcher finds probability
samples to be costly and time-consuming then the researcher can make use of non-probability
samples which means by choice.
Non-probability samples:
Convenience Sample– Here, the researcher selects the easiest and accessible population
member.
Judgment Sample-Here, the researcher select those members of the population whom he
thinks to contribute the accurate information.
Quota sample-Here, the researcher interviews the fixed number of members of each
category. Thus, a researcher can select any type of sample according to his convenience
provided it fulfils the purpose for which the research is conducted.
Determinants optimal sample size:
(i) Nature of universe: Universe may be either homogenous or heterogeneous in nature. If
the items of the universe are homogenous, a small sample can serve the purpose. But if the
items are heterogeneous, a large sample would be required. Technically, this can be termed as
the dispersion factor.
(ii) Number of classes proposed: If many class-groups (groups and sub-groups) are to be
formed, a large sample would be required because a small sample might not be able to give a
reasonable number of items in each class-group.
(iii) Nature of study: If items are to be intensively and continuously studied, the sample
should be small. For a general survey the size of the sample should be large, but a small
sample is considered appropriate in technical surveys.
(iv) Type of sampling: Sampling technique plays an important part in determining the size of
the sample. A small random sample is apt to be much superior to a larger but badly selected
sample.
(v) Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level: If the standard of accuracy or
the level of precision is to be kept high, we shall require relatively larger sample. For
doubling the accuracy for a fixed significance level, the sample size has to be increased
fourfold.
(vi) Availability of finance: In practice, size of the sample depends upon the amount of
money available for the study purposes. This factor should be kept in view while determining
the size of sample for large samples result in increasing the cost of sampling estimates.
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(vii) Other considerations: Nature of units, size of the population, size of questionnaire,
availability of trained investigators, the conditions under which the sample is being
conducted, the time available for completion of the study are a few other considerations to
which a researcher must pay attention while selecting the size of the sample.
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
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UNIT IV
UNIT IV DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS

Data Preparation – editing – Coding –Data entry – Validity of data – Qualitative Vs
Quantitative data analyses – Bivariate and Multivariate statistical techniques – Factor
analysis – Discriminant analysis – cluster analysis – multiple regression and correlation –
multidimensional scaling – Application of statistical software for data analysis.
Data Preparation:
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the
outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential
for a scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated
comparisons and analysis. Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding,
classification and tabulation of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. The term
analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of
relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, “in the process of analysis, relationships or
differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to
statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any
conclusions”.
Processing stages
There are four important stages in the processing of data. They are;
1. Editing
As soon as the researcher receives the data, he should screen it for accuracy. Editing
is the process of examining the data collected through various methods to detect errors and
omissions and correct them for further analysis. Though editing, it is ensured that the
collected data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered and well
arranged so that further analysis is made easier.
Practical guidelines for editing
While editing care has to be taken to see that the data are as accurate and complete as
possible.
The following points are to be noted;
1. The editor should familiarize with the copy of instructions given to the interviewers.
2. The original entry, if found incorrect, should not be destroyed or erased. On the other hand,
it should be crossed out in such a manner that it is still eligible.
3. Any, modification to the original entry by the editor must be specifically indicated.
4. All completed schedules must bear signature of the editor and the date.
5. Incorrect answer to the questions can be corrected only if the editor is absolutely sure of
the answer, otherwise leave it as such.
6. Inconsistent, incomplete or missing answers should not be used.
7. Sere that all numerical answers are converted to same units.
2. Coding
Coding is the process by which r response categories are summarized by numerals or
other symbols to carry out subsequent operations of data analysis. This process of assigning
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numerals or symbols to the responses is called coding. It facilitates efficient analysis of the
collected data and helps in reducing several replies to a small number of classes which
contain the critical information required for analysis. In general it reduces the huge amount of
information collected in to a form that is amenable to analysis.
Steps in coding
1. Study the answers carefully.
2. Develop a coding frame by listing the answers and by aligning codes to each of them.
3. Prepare a coding manual with the detail of variable names, codes and instructions.
4. If the coding manual has already been prepared before the collection of the data, make the
required additions for the open ended and partially coded questions.
Coding rules:
1. Give each respondent a code number for identification.
2. Provide code number for each question.
3. All responses including ‘don’t know’, ‘no opinion’. Etc is to be coded.
4. Assign additional codes to partially coded questions.
3. Classification
Classification is the process of reducing large mass of data in to homogeneous groups
for meaningful analysis. It converts data from complex to understandable and unintelligible
to intelligible forms. It divides data in to different groups or classes according to their
similarities and dissimilarities. When the data are classified, they give summary of whole
information.
Objectives of classification:
1. To organize data in to concise, logical and intelligible form.
2. To take the similarities and dissimilarities s between various classes clear.
3. To facilitate comparison between various classes of data.
4. To help the researcher in understanding the significance of various classes of data.
5. To facilitate analysis and formulate generalizations.
Types of classification:
A. Classification according to external characteristics:
In this classification, data may be classified either on geographical basis or periodical basis.
Classification on geographical basis
In this type of classification, the data that are collected from different places are placed in
different classes.
Classification on periodical basis (chronological classification)
In this type of classification, the data belonging to a particular time or period are put under
one class. This type of classification is based on period.
B. Classification according to internal characteristics
Data may be classified either according to attributes or according to the magnitude of
variables
Classification according to Attributes
In this type data are classified on the basis of some attributes characteristics.
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Simple Classification
If the classification is based on one particular attribute only it is called simple classification.
Eg; classification on the basis of sex.
Manifold Classification
If the classification is based on more than one or several attributes it is called manifold or
multiple classifications. In this data are classified in several groups.
C. Classification according variables
Here the data are classified to some characteristics that can be measured. Data are classified
on the basis of quantitative characteristics such as age, height; weight etc. quantitative
variables are grouped in to two:
a) Discrete variable
If the variables can take only exact value, it is called discrete variable.
b) Continuous variable
The variables that can take any numerical value within a specified range are called
continuous variable.
Characteristics of an ideal classification
1. Unambiguity- Classification should be unambiguous. The various classes should be
defined properly.
2. Stable- it should not change from enquiry to enquiry
3. Flexibility- classification should have the capacity of adjustment to new situations and
circumstances.
4. Homogeneity- each class should contain homogenous items.
5. Suitability- it should be suitable to objects of any statistical enquiry.
6. Exhaustiveness- there should be no item which does not find a class.
4. Tabulation
Tabulation is the next step to classification. It is an orderly arrangement of data in
rows and columns. It is defined as the “measurement of data in columns and rows”. Data
presented in tabular form is much easier to read and understand than the data presented in the
text the main purpose of tabulation is to prepare the data for final analysis. It is a stage
between classification of data and final analysis.
Objectives of Tabulation
1. To clarify the purpose of enquiry
2. To make the significance of data clear.
3. To express the data in least possible space.
4. To enable comparative study.
5. To eliminate unnecessary data
6. To help in further analysis of the data.
Types of Tables
Simple Table
Here the data are presented only for one variable or characteristic. Any frequency
distribution of a single variable is simple table.
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Complex table
In complex table, two or more characteristics are shown. If the study is related to
more than two variables, it is called multivariate analysis. They may be of the following
tables.
(a) One- way table
In this type of table, data of only one characteristic will be shown. It means that when
one type of information is secured about different groups or individuals, it can be displayed
with the help of one- way table
(b) Two- way table
When mutually related attributes of a phenomenon are to be displayed, two way tables
are used. In other words, this table shows two types of characteristics.
(c) Three-way table
It displays three types of attributes. It is used when three interrelated or mutually
related attributes or characteristics of a phenomenon are to be displayed,.
(d) Manifold tables
When information about different mutually attributes or characteristics of a
phenomenon is to be displayed, manifold table is used. Such tables display information about
various characteristics or attributes.
Parts of a statistical table
Following are the important parts of a statistical table.
1. Title of the table
The title of the table is placed above the table. If there are more than one table in a
research, each should bear a number for easy reference.
2. Caption or title of the column
It is also termed as “box head”. There may be sub- captions under the main caption.
3. Stub (row heading)
Stub refers to the title given to rows
4. Body (main data)
This is the main body of information needed for the research work.
5. End note (foot note)
This is placed below the table to convey the expansions of abbreviations to caption,
stub or main body.
6. Source note
If the table is based on outside information, it should be mentioned in the source note
below.
Tests of Sound Measurement:
Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and practicality. In fact,
these are the three major considerations one should use in evaluating a measurement tool.
“Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to measure.
Reliability has to do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure ...
Practicality is concerned with a wide range of factors of economy, convenience, and
interpretability ...”1 We briefly take up the relevant details concerning these tests of sound
measurement.
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1. Test of Validity
Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an instrument
measures what it is supposed to measure. Validity can also be thought of as utility. In other
words, validity is the extent to which differences found with a measuring instrument reflect
true differences among those being tested. But the question arises: how can one determine
validity without direct confirming knowledge? The answer may be that we seek other
relevant evidence that confirms the answers we have found with our measuring tool. What is
relevant, evidence often depends upon the nature of the research problem and the judgement
of the researcher. But one can certainly consider three types of validity in this connection: (i)
Content validity; (ii) Criterion-related validity and (iii) Construct validity.
(i) Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate
coverage of the topic under study. If the instrument contains a representative sample of the
universe, the content validity is good. Its determination is primarily judgemental and
intuitive. It can also be determined by using a panel of persons who shall judge how well the
measuring instrument meets the standards, but there is no numerical way to express it.
(ii) Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or estimate the
existence of some current condition. This form of validity reflects the success of measures
used for some empirical estimating purpose. The concerned criterion must possess the
following qualities:
Relevance: (A criterion is relevant if it is defined in terms we judge to be the proper
measure.)
Freedom from bias: (Freedom from bias is attained when the criterion gives each
subject an equal opportunity to score well.)
Reliability: (A reliable criterion is stable or reproducible.)
Availability: (The information specified by the criterion must be available.)
In fact, a Criterion-related validity is a broad term that actually refers to (i) Predictive
validity and (ii) Concurrent validity. The former refers to the usefulness of a test in predicting
some future performance whereas the latter refers to the usefulness of a test in closely
relating to other measures of known validity. Criterion-related validity is expressed as the
coefficient of correlation between test scores and some measure of future performance or
between test scores and scores on another measure of known validity.
(iii) Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. A measure is said to possess
construct validity to the degree that it confirms to predicted correlations with other theoretical
propositions. Construct validity is the degree to which scores on a test can be accounted for
by the explanatory constructs of a sound theory. For determining construct validity, we
associate a set of other propositions with the results received from using our measurement
instrument. If measurements on our devised scale correlate in a predicted way with these
other propositions, we can conclude that there is some construct validity. If the above stated
criteria and tests are met with, we may state that our measuring instrument is valid and will
result in correct measurement; otherwise we shall have to look for more information and/or
resort to exercise of judgement.
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2. Test of Reliability
The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A measuring
instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results. Reliable measuring instrument does
contribute to validity, but a reliable instrument need not be a valid instrument. For instance, a
scale that consistently overweighs objects by five kgs., is a reliable scale, but it does not give
a valid measure of weight. But the other way is not true i.e., a valid instrument is always
reliable. Accordingly reliability is not as valuable as validity, but it is easier to assess
reliability in comparison to validity. If the quality of reliability is satisfied by an instrument,
then while using it we can be confident that the transient and situational factors are not
interfering.
Two aspects of reliability viz., stability and equivalence deserve special mention. The
stability aspect is concerned with securing consistent results with repeated measurements of
the same person and with the same instrument. We usually determine the degree of stability
by comparing the results of repeated measurements. The equivalence aspect considers how
much error may get introduced by different investigators or different samples of the items
being studied. A good way to test for the equivalence of measurements by two investigators
is to compare their observations of the same events. Reliability can be improved in the
following two ways:
(i) By standardising the conditions under which the measurement takes place i.e., we must
ensure that external sources of variation such as boredom, fatigue, etc., are minimised to the
extent possible. That will improve stability aspect.
(ii) By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from group to group,
by using trained and motivated persons to conduct the research and also by broadening the
sample of items used. This will improve equivalence aspect.
3. Test of Practicality
The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of
economy, convenience and interpretability. From the operational point of view, the
measuring instrument ought to be practical i.e., it should be economical, convenient and
interpretable. Economy consideration suggests that some trade-off is needed between the
ideal research project and that which the budget can afford. The length of measuring
instrument is an important area where economic pressures are quickly felt. Although more
items give greater reliability as stated earlier, but in the interest of limiting the interview or
observation time, we have to take only few items for our study purpose. Similarly, data-
collection methods to be used are also dependent at times upon economic factors.
Convenience test suggests that the measuring instrument should be easy to administer. For
this purpose one should give due attention to the proper layout of the measuring instrument.
For instance, a questionnaire, with clear instructions (illustrated by examples), is certainly
more effective and easier to complete than one which lacks these features. Interpretability
consideration is especially important when persons other than the designers of the test are to
interpret the results. The measuring instrument, in order to be interpretable, must be
supplemented by (a) detailed instructions for administering the test; (b) scoring keys; (c)
evidence about the reliability and (d) guides for using the test and for interpreting results.
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Qualitative Vs Quantitative Data:

Qualitative Data refers to the data that provides insights and understanding about a
particular problem. It can be approximated but cannot be computed. Hence, the researcher
should possess complete knowledge about the type of characteristic, prior to the collection of
data.
The nature of data is descriptive and so it is a bit difficult to analyze it. This type of
data can be classified into categories, on the basis of physical attributes and properties of the
object. The data is interpreted as spoken or written narratives rather than numbers. It is
concerned with the data that is observable in terms of smell, appearance, taste, feel, texture,
gender, nationality and so on. The methods of collecting qualitative data are:
Focus Group
Observation
Interviews
Archival Materials like newspapers.
Definition of Quantitative Data
Quantitative Data, as the name suggests is one which deals with quantity or numbers.
It refers to the data which computes the values and counts and can be expressed in numerical
terms is called quantitative data. In statistics, most of the analyses are conducted using this
data.
Quantitative data may be used in computation and statistical test. It is concerned with
measurements like height, weight, volume, length, size, humidity, speed, age etc. The tabular
and diagrammatic presentation of data is also possible, in the form of charts, graphs, tables,
etc. Further, the quantitative data can be classified as discrete or continuous data. The
methods used for the collection of data are:
Surveys
Experiments
Observations and Interviews
Differences between qualitative and quantitative data are discussed below:
1. The data type, in which the classification of objects is based on attributes (quality), is
called qualitative data. The type of data which can be counted and expressed in
numbers and values is called quantitative data.
2. The research methodology is exploratory in qualitative data, i.e. to provide insights
and understanding. On the other hand, quantitative data is conclusive in nature which
aims at testing a specific hypothesis and examines the relationships.
3. The approach to inquiry in the case of qualitative data is subjective and holistic
whereas quantitative data has an objective and focused approach.
4. When the data type is qualitative the analysis is non-statistical. As opposed to
quantitative data which uses statistical analysis.
5. In qualitative data, there is an unstructured gathering of data. As against this, data
collection is structured in quantitative data.
6. While qualitative data determines the depth of understanding, quantitative data
ascertains the level of occurrence.
39
7. Quantitative data is all about ‘How much or how many’. On the contrary, qualitative
data asks ‘Why?’
8. In qualitative data the sample size is small and that too is drawn from non-
representative samples. Conversely, the sample size is large in quantitative data drawn
from the representative sample.
9. Qualitative data develops initial understanding, i.e. it defines the problem. Unlike
quantitative data, this recommends the final course of action.
Bivariate and Multivariate statistical techniques:
There are several methods of applying the two techniques, but the important
ones are as under: In case of bivariate population: Correlation can be studied through (a)
cross tabulation; (b) Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlation; (c) Karl Pearson’s
coefficient of correlation; whereas cause and effect relationship can be studied through
simple regression equations.
In case of multivariate population: Correlation can be studied through (a) coefficient
of multiple correlation; (b) coefficient of partial correlation; whereas cause and effect
relationship can be studied through multiple regression equations.
Factor analysis:
Basic concepts in factor analysis
The following are the key concepts on which factor analysis is based.
Factor:
A factor plays a fundamental role among a set of attributes or variables. These
variables can be filtered down to the factor. A factor represents the combined effect of a set
of attributes. Either there may be one such factor or several such factors in a real life problem
based on the complexity of the situation and the number of variables operating.
Factor loading:
A factor loading is a value that explains how closely the variables are related to the
factor. It is the correlation between the factor and the variable. While interpreting a factor, the
absolute value of the factor is taken into account.
Communality:
It is a measure of how much each variable is accounted for by the underlying factors
together. It is the sum of the squares of the loadings of the variable on the common factors. If
A,B,C,… are the factors, then the communality of a variable is computed using the relation
h2 = (The factor loading of the variable with respect to factor A) 2 +
(The factor loading of the variable with respect to factor B) 2 +
(The factor loading of the variable with respect to factor C) 2 + …..
Eigen value:
The sum of the squared values of factor loadings pertaining to a factor is called an
eigen value. It is a measure of the relative importance of each factor under consideration.
Total Sum of Squares (TSS)
It is the sum of the Eigen values of all the factors.
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Application of Factor Analysis:

1. Model Building for New Product Development:
As pointed out earlier, a real life situation is highly complex and it consists of several
variables. A model for the real life situation can be built by incorporating as many features of
the situation as possible. But then, with a multitude of features, it is very difficult to build
such a highly idealistic model. A practical way is to identify the important variables and
incorporate them in the model. Factor analysis seeks to identify those variables which are
highly correlated among themselves and find a common factor which can be taken as a
representative of those variables. Based on the factor loading, some of variables can be
merged together to give a common factor and then a model can be built by incorporating such
factors. Identification of the most common features of a product preferred by the consumers
will be helpful in the development of new products.
2. Model Building for Consumers:
Another application of factor analysis is to carry out a similar exercise for the
respondents instead of the variables themselves. Using the factor loading, the respondents in
a research survey can be sorted out into various groups in such a way that the respondents in
a group have more or less homogeneous opinions on the topics of the survey. Thus a model
can be constructed on the groups of consumers. The results emanating from such an exercise
will guide the management in evolving appropriate strategies towards market segmentation.
Merits: The main merits of factor analysis can be stated thus:
(i) The technique of factor analysis is quite useful when we want to condense and simplify
the multivariate data.
(ii) The technique is helpful in pointing out important and interesting, relationships among
observed data that were there all the time, but not easy to see from the data alone.
(iii) The technique can reveal the latent factors (i.e., underlying factors not directly observed)
that determine relationships among several variables concerning a research study. For
example, if people are asked to rate different cold drinks (say, Limca, Nova-cola, Gold Spot
and so on) according to preference, a factor analysis may reveal some salient characteristics
of cold drinks that underlie the relative preferences.
(iv) The technique may be used in the context of empirical clustering of products, media or
people i.e., for providing a classification scheme when data scored on various rating scales
have to be grouped together.
Limitations: One should also be aware of several limitations of factor analysis. Important
ones are as follows:
(i) Factor analysis, like all multivariate techniques, involves laborious computations
involving heavy cost burden. With computer facility available these days, there is no doubt
that factor analysis has become relatively faster and easier, but the cost factor continues to be
the same i.e., large factor analyses are still bound to be quite expensive.
(ii) The results of a single factor analysis are considered generally less reliable and
dependable for very often a factor analysis starts with a set of imperfect data. “The factors are
nothing but blurred averages, difficult to be identified.”4 To overcome this difficulty, it has
been realised that analysis should at least be done twice. If we get more or less similar results
from all rounds of analyses, our confidence concerning such results increases.
41
(iii) Factor-analysis is a complicated decision tool that can be used only when one has
thorough knowledge and enough experience of handling this tool. Even then, at times it may
not work well and may even disappoint the user.
Cluster Analysis:
Cluster analysis consists of methods of classifying variables into clusters. Technically,
a cluster consists of variables that correlate highly with one another and have comparatively
low correlations with variables in other clusters. The basic objective of cluster analysis is to
determine how many mutually and exhaustive groups or clusters, based on the similarities of
profiles among entities, really exist in the population and then to state the composition of
such groups. Various groups to be determined in cluster analysis are not predefined as
happens to be the case in discriminant analysis.
Steps: In general, cluster analysis contains the following steps to be performed:
(i) First of all, if some variables have a negative sum of correlations in the correlation matrix,
one must reflect variables so as to obtain a maximum sum of positive correlations for the
matrix as a whole.
(ii) The second step consists in finding out the highest correlation in the correlation matrix
and the two variables involved (i.e., having the highest correlation in the matrix) form the
nucleus of the first cluster.
(iii) Then one looks for those variables that correlate highly with the said two variables and
includes them in the cluster. This is how the first cluster is formed.
(iv) To obtain the nucleus of the second cluster, we find two variables that correlate highly
but have low correlations with members of the first cluster. Variables that correlate highly
with the said two variables are then found. Such variables along the said two variables thus
constitute the second cluster.
(v) One proceeds on similar lines to search for a third cluster and so on.
From the above description we find that clustering methods in general are judgemental and
are devoid of statistical inferences. For problems concerning large number of variables,
various cut-and try methods have been proposed for locating clusters. McQuitty has specially
developed a number of rather elaborate computational routines* for that purpose. In spite of
the above stated limitation, cluster analysis has been found useful in context of market
research studies. Through the use of this technique we can make segments of market of a
product on the basis of several characteristics of the customers such as personality, socio-
economic considerations, psychological factors, purchasing habits and like ones.
Multidimensional Scaling:
Multidimensional scaling (MDS) allows a researcher to measure an item in more than
one dimension at a time. The basic assumption is that people perceive a set of objects as
being more or less similar to one another on a number of dimensions (usually uncorrelated
with one another) instead of only one.
There are several MDS techniques (also known as techniques for dimensional
reduction) often used for the purpose of revealing patterns of one sort or another in
interdependent data structures. If data happen to be non-metric, MDS involves rank ordering
each pair of objects in terms of similarity. Then the judged similarities are transformed into
distances through statistical manipulations and are consequently shown in n-dimensional
42
space in a way that the interpoint distances best preserve the original interpoint proximities.
After this sort of mapping is performed, the dimensions are usually interpreted and labeled by
the researcher.
The significance of MDS lies in the fact that it enables the researcher to study “The
perceptual structure of a set of stimuli and the cognitive processes underlying the
development of this structure.... MDS provides a mechanism for determining the truly salient
attributes without forcing the judge to appear irrational.”6 With MDS, one can scale objects,
individuals or both with a minimum of information. The MDS analysis will reveal the most
salient attributes which happen to be the primary determinants for making a specific decision.
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
43
UNIT V
UNIT V REPORT DESIGN, WRITING AND ETHICS IN BUSINESS RESEARCH

Research report – Different types – Contents of report – need of executive summary –
chapterisation – contents of chapter – report writing – the role of audience – readability –
comprehension – tone – final proof – report format – title of the report – ethics in research –
ethical behaviour of research – subjectivity and objectivity in research.
Research report:
Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the
research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and/or written. As a matter
of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study,
and the most striking generalizations and findings are of little value unless they are
effectively communicated to others. The purpose of research is not well served unless the
findings are made known to others. Research results must invariably enter the general store of
knowledge. All this explains the significance of writing research report. There are people
who do not consider writing of report as an integral part of the research process. But the
general opinion is in favour of treating the presentation of research results or the writing of
report as part and parcel of the research project. Writing of report is the last step in a research
study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in respect of the
earlier stages of research. This task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost
care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose.
DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT
Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The
usual steps involved in writing report are: (a) logical analysis of the subject-matter; (b)
preparation of the final outline; (c) preparation of the rough draft; (d) rewriting and polishing;
(c) preparation of the final bibliography; and (f) writing the final draft. Though all these steps
are self explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of these will be appropriate for better
understanding.
Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with
the development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically
and (b) chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections
and associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment
often consists in developing the material from the simple possible to the most complex
structures. Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurrence. The directions for doing or making something usually follow the chronological
order.
Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines
are the framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the
logical organisation of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.”3
Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the
preparation of the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now
sits to write down what he has done in the context of his research study. He will write down
the procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various
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limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and
generalizations and the various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem
concerned.
Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of
all formal writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft.
The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing.
While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for weaknesses in logical
development or presentation. The researcher should also “see whether or not the material, as
it is presented, has unity and cohesion; does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a
definite pattern, like a marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and
loose brick.”4 In addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact that in his rough
draft he has been consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of writing—grammar,
spelling and usage.
Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of
the final bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report,
is a list of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain
all those works which the researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged
alphabetically and may be divided into two parts; the first part may contain the names of
books and pamphlets, and the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper
articles. Generally, this pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory
from the point of view of reader, though it is not the only way of presenting bibliography.
The entries in bibliography should be made adopting the following order:
For books and pamphlets the order may be as under::
1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.
4. Number of volumes.
Example
Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978.
For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under:
1. Name of the author, last name first.
2. Title of article, in quotation marks.
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
4. The volume or volume and number.
5. The date of the issue.
6. The pagination.
Example
Robert V. Roosa, “Coping with Short-term International Money Flows”, The Banker,
London, September, 1971, p. 995.
The above examples are just the samples for bibliography entries and may be used,
but one should also remember that they are not the only acceptable forms. The only thing
important is that, whatever method one selects, it must remain consistent.
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Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be written in a
concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as “it
seems”, “there may be”, and the like ones. While writing the final draft, the researcher must
avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon. Illustrations and examples based on common
experiences must be incorporated in the final draft as they happen to be most effective in
communicating the research findings to others. A research report should not be dull, but must
enthuse people and maintain interest and must show originality. It must be remembered that
every report should be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to
the solution of a problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the
reader.
LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT:
Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough
about the study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of
its methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this
purpose there is the need of proper layout of the report. The layout of the report means as to
what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report
should comprise (A) preliminary pages; (B) the main text; and (C) the end matter. Let us deal
with them separately.
(A) Preliminary Pages
In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of
contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody
interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the report.
(B) Main Text
The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all
details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and
then follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second
page. Each main section of the report should begin on a new page.
The main text of the report should have the following sections:
(i) Introduction; (ii) Statement of findings and recommendations; (iii) The results; (iv) The
implications drawn from the results; and (v) The summary.
(i) Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the
readers. It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough
background should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered
worth investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the
present study can be seen in that context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions
of the major concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of
the report. The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The
scientific reader would like to know in detail about such thing: How was the study carried
out? What was its basic design? If the study was an experimental one, then what were the
experimental manipulations? If the data were collected by means of questionnaires or
interviews, then exactly what questions were asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule
is usually given in an appendix)? If measurements were based on observation, then what
46
instructions were given to the observers? Regarding the sample used in the study the reader
should be told: Who were the subjects? How many were there? How were they selected? All
these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of generalizability of the
findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this, the
scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines be demarcated. The various
limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated.
(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research report
must contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-technical language so that
it can be easily understood by all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this
point they should be put in the summarised form.
(iii) Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the
form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing the
main text of the report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending over
several chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries and
reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical
sequence and splitted into readily identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place
in the report. But how one is to decide about what is relevant is the basic question. Quite
often guidance comes primarily from the research problem and from the hypotheses, if any,
with which the study was concerned. But ultimately the researcher must rely on his own
judgement in deciding the outline of his report. “Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he
states clearly the problem with which he was concerned, the procedure by which he worked
on the problem, the conclusions at which he arrived, and the bases for his conclusions.”5
(iv) Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again
put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications
that flow from the results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications
for understanding the human behaviour. Such implications may have three aspects as stated
below:
(a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be expected to
apply in similar circumstances.
(b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate
generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study.
(c) The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study
along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them. It is
considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summarises and
recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study should be
clearly related to the hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same
time, a forecast of the probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research
which needs to be done in that particular field is useful and desirable.
(v) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief
summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the
major conclusions drawn from the research results.
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(C) End Matter

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data
such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones.
Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of
names, places and topics along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which
they are mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report. The
value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the
report.
Types of reports
Reports may be categorized broadly as Technical Reports and General Reports based on
the nature of methods, terms of reference and the extent of in-depth enquiry made etc. On the
basis of usage pattern, the reports may also be classified as information oriented reports,
decision oriented reports and research based reports. Further, reports may also differ based on
the communication situation. For example, the reports may be in the form of Memo, which is
appropriate for informal situations or for short periods. On the other hand, the projects that
extend over a period of time, often call for project reports. Thus, there is no standard format
of reports. The most important thing that helps in classifying the reports is the outline of its
purpose and answers for the following questions:
 What did you do?
 Why did you choose the particular research method that you used?
 What did you learn and what are the implications of what you learned?
 If you are writing a recommendation report, what action are you recommending in
response to what you learned?
Two types of report formats are described below:
A Technical Report
A technical report mainly focuses on methods employed, assumptions made while
conducting a study, detailed presentation of findings and drawing inferences and comparisons
with earlier findings based on the type of data drawn from the empirical work.
An outline of a Technical Report mostly consists of the following:
Title and nature of the study:
Brief title and the nature of work sometimes followed by subtitle indicate more
appropriately either the method or tools used. Description of objectives of the study, research
design, operational terms, working hypothesis, type of analysis and data required should be
present.
Abstract of Findings:
A brief review of the main findings just can be made either in a paragraph or in
one/two pages.
Review of current status:
A quick review of past observations and contradictions reported, applications
observed and reported are reviewed based on the in-house resources or based on published
observations.
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Sampling and Methods employed

Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. In the case of experimental
methods, the nature of subjects and control conditions are to be specified. In the case of
sample studies, details of the sample design i.e., sample size, sample selection etc are given.
Data sources and experiment conducted
Sources of data, their characteristics and limitations should be specified. In the case of
primary survey, the manner in which data has been collected should be described.
Analysis of data and tools used.
The analysis of data and presentation of findings of the study with supporting data in
the form of tables and charts are to be narrated. This constitutes the major component of the
research report.
Summary of findings
A detailed summary of findings of the study and major observations should be stated.
Decision inputs if any, policy implications from the observations should be specified.
References
A brief list of studies conducted on similar lines, either preceding the present study or
conducted under different experimental conditions is listed.
Technical appendices
These appendices include the design of experiments or questionnaires used in
conducting the study, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular techniques of
analysis etc.
General Reports
General reports often relate popular policy issues mostly related to social issues. These
reports are generally simple, less technical, good use of tables and charts. Most often they
reflect the journalistic style. Example for this type of report is the “Best B-Schools Survey in
Business Magazines”. The outline of these reports is as follows:
1. Major Findings and their Implications
2. Recommendations for Action
3. Objectives of the Study
4. Method Employed for Collecting Data
5. Results
Writing Styles
There are at least 3 distinct report writing styles that can be applied by students of
Business Studies. They are called:
1. Conservative
2. Key points
3. Holistic
1. Conservative Style
Essentially, the conservative approach takes the best structural elements from essay
writing and integrates these with appropriate report writing tools. Thus, headings are used to
deliberate upon different sections of the answer. In addition, the space is well utilized by
ensuring that each paragraph is distinct (perhaps separated from other paragraphs by leaving
two blank lines in between).
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2. Key Point Style

This style utilizes all of the report writing tools and is thus more overtly ‘report-
looking’. Use of headings, underlining, margins, diagrams and tables are common.
Occasionally reporting might even use indentation and dot points. The important thing to
remember is that the tools should be applied in a way that adds to the report. The question
must be addressed and the tools applied should assist in doing that. An advantage of this style
is the enormous amount of information that can be delivered relatively quickly.
3. Holistic Style
The most complex and unusual of the styles, holistic report writing aims to answer the
question from a thematic and integrative perspective. This style of report writing requires the
researcher to have a strong understanding of the course and is able to see which outcomes are
being targeted by the question.
RESEARCH ETHICS
In doing any research there is an ethical responsibility to do the work honestly and
with integrity. If you do not conduct your work in an ethical manner you will fail. This will
apply to all stages of the research cycle. Fraud must be avoided in research and this can come
in several forms:
_ Being selective in sampling.
_ Not reporting survey response/participation rates.
_ Deliberately biasing the data collection instruments—for example, asking leading questions
in surveys.
_ Making up data—because you can’t be bothered doing the data collection.
_ Falsifying results—to make them fit your conclusion.
_ Trimming—removing data that does not fit in with your analysis. This may be a legitimate
thing to do but you must make it clear what has been done and why.
_ Biased or inappropriate analysis. The choice of techniques for doing analysis can lead to
widely varying conclusions.
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
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QUESTION BANK
UNIT-1
PART-A
1. What is Basic Research? (Nov/Dec 2007)
Basic or pure research attempts to expand the limits of knowledge. Research aim is
to solve perplexing questions of a theoretical nature, with little direct influence on
actions, performance or policy
2. Differentiate Prepositions and Hypothesis (Nov/Dec 2006) (June 2011) ( 2016 Dec)
Prepositions (or more generally, appositions, see below) are a grammatically distinct class of
words whose most central members characteristically express spatial relations (such as the
English words in, under, toward) or serve to mark various syntactic functions and semantic
roles (such as the English words of, for). In that the primary function is relational, a
preposition typically combines with another constituent (called its complement) to form
a prepositional phrase, relating the complement to the context in which the phrase occurs.
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be put
forward as a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it. Scientists
generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be
explained with the available scientific theories. Even though the words "hypothesis" and
"theory" are often used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific
theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis proposed for
further research
3. What are the features of an Applied Research (Nov/Dec 2006)
 Action research
 Applied to find solution for immediate problems.
 Aims at conclusion
4. What are the Special features of an applied research (May/June) 2009?
Research conducted in a particular setting with the specific objective of solving an existing
problem in the situation. An attempt to find a solution to an immediate problem encountered
by a firm, an industry, a business organization, or the society is known as Applied Research.
Examples: Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a
particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain
communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research evaluation research
are examples of applied research.
5. Define null hypothesis? (May/June 2009) (Nov/Dec 2012) (Nov/Dec 2016)
The null hypothesis is a proposition that states a definitive, exact relationship between two
variables. That is, it states that population correlation between two variables is equal to zero.
In general the null hypothesis is expressed as no significant relationship between two
variables or no significant difference between two groups. Example: There is no relationship
between age and job satisfaction.
51
6. What is qualitative Research? (November / December 2010)

Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in terms of
quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. The various available statistical
and econometric methods are adopted for analysis in such research. Some such includes
correlation, regressions and time series analysis.
7. Define Research Problem (November / December 2010)
The first and foremost stage in the research process is to select and properly define the
research problem. A researcher should first identify a problem and formulate it, so as to make
it amenable or susceptible to research. In general, a research problem refers to an unanswered
question that a researcher might encounter in the context of either a theoretical or practical
situation, which he/she would like to answer or find a solution to.
8. How does exploratory research differ from casual research? (June 2011)
Exploratory research seeks to explore a market and its key issues. Usual techniques include
observation, literature review, pulling secondary data, and, at times, focus groups and in-
depth executive interviews. Exploratory research is usually descriptive in nature, providing a
picture of the market. At times, quantitative issues my be included such as the potential
market size or purchase frequency. Causal research seeks to uncover cause and effect
relationships. For instance, does an increase in advertising truly drive purchases? and, if so,
by how much. Causal research almost always requires hypothesis creation, tests of the
hypothesis, and regression analysis to quantify the relationship.
9. What are One Tailed and Two Tailed Tests? (Nov/Dec 2007)
The two-tailed test is a statistical test used in inference, in which a given statistical
hypothesis, H0 (the null hypothesis), will be rejected when the value of the test statistic is
either sufficiently small or sufficiently large. This contrasts with a one-tailed test, in which
only one of the rejection regions "sufficiently small" or "sufficiently large" is preselected
according to the alternative hypothesis being selected, and the hypothesis is rejected only if
the test statistic satisfies that criterion
10. What are the Special features of an applied research? (May/June) 2009
Examples:
Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular
institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be
read and understood) or the marketing research evaluation research are examples of applied
research.
11. What is Confounding variable? (Nov/Dec2010)
A confounding variable, also known as a third variable or a mediator variable, can adversely
affect the relation between the independent variable and dependent variable. This may cause
the researcher to analyze the results incorrectly. The results may show a false
correlation between the dependent and independent variables, leading to a rejection of
the null hypothesis.
52
12. Diagnostic research (May/June-2008)

Diagnostic research should aim to quantity the added value of a test to clinical information
that is commonly available before the test will be applied.
13. State Research problem (May/June-2008)
A research problem is the situation that causes the researcher to feel apprehensive, confused
and ill at ease. It is the demarcation of a problem area with in a certain context involving the
WHO or WHAT, the WHERE and the WHY of the problem situation. Research can thus be
aimed at clarifying or substantiating an existing theory, at clarifying contradictory findings, at
correcting a faulty methodology, at correcting the inadequate or unsuitable use of statistical
techniques, at reconciling conflicting opinions, or at solving existing practical problems.
14. Define Experimental research (Nov / Dec 2008)
Experimental research designs are used for the controlled testing of causal processes. The
general procedure is one or more independent variables are manipulated to determine their
effect on a dependent variable. These designs can be used where:
1. There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect),
2. There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same
effect), and
3. The magnitude of the correlation is great.
15 Define Hypothesis (Nov / Dec 2008) (May/June 2013) ( Dec 2016)
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. For a hypothesis to be put
forward as a scientific hypothesis, the scientific method requires that one can test it.
Scientists generally base scientific hypotheses on previous observations that cannot
satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. Even though the words
"hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously, a scientific hypothesis is not the
same as a scientific theory. A working hypothesis is a provisionally accepted hypothesis
proposed for further research.
16. What is Empirical Research? (May/June 2013)
Empirical research is based on observed and measured phenomena and derives knowledge
from actual experience rather than from theory or belief.
17. What is Library Research?
Library Research is conducted with the help of written materials mostly located in large
libraries. This research is concerned with the evolution of theories, study involving cause-
and-effect relationship and seeking out significant facts and interpretation of the past data
which are found in journals, reports and directories
18. What is Motivational research?
 A particular data gathering technique directed toward surfacing information, ideas and
thoughts that are not either easily verbalized or remain at the unconscious level in the
respondents.
 The motivation research which investigates into the reasons for human behaviour.
 The main aim of this type of research is discovering the underlying motives and
desires of human beings by using in-depth interviews.
53
19. What is Conceptual research?

The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as conceptual research.
Generally, philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts or for reinterpreting
the existing ones.
20. What is Clinical Research?
 The kinds of research follow case-study methods or in-depth approaches to reach the
basic casual relations.
 Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using
very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices.
21. State the Functions of hypothesis:
 It guides the direction of the study.
 It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not.
 It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate.
 It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result.
22. What is broad problem area?
Broad Problem area refers to the entire situation where one sees a possible need for research
and problem solving. Examples:
 The sales volume of a product is not picking up.
 Training programs are perhaps not as effective as anticipated.
23. What is meant by theoretical framework?
A theoretical framework is none other than identification the network of relationship among
the variables considered important to the study of any given problem situation.
24. What is applied research?
Examples:
Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular
institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be
read and understood) or the marketing research evaluation research are examples of applied
research.
25. What is Analytical Research? (May 2007)
The researcher has to use facts or information already available and analyze these to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
26. What is Correlation Research?
The main emphasis in a correlation research is to discover or establish the existence of a
relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.
Examples:
 What is the impact of an advertising campaign on the sale of a product?
 What is the relation between technology and unemployment?
 Are smoking and cancer related?
54
27. What is an exploratory research?

A research study where very little knowledge or information is available on the subject under
investigation. Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not
been clearly defined. The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-
making by themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation.
28. Define Alternative Hypothesis?
In statistical hypothesis testing, the alternative hypothesis (or maintained hypothesis or
research hypothesis) and the null hypothesis are the two rival hypotheses which are compared
by a statistical hypothesis test.
29. What is Diagnostic research design? (Dec 2016)
Identification of a condition, disease, disorder, or problem by systematic analysis of the
background or history, examination of the signs or symptoms, evaluation of the research or
test results, and investigation of the assumed or probable causes.
30. Define Hypothesis and its types (Nov/Dec 2007)
A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. A
hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study.
Statistical and Null Hypothesis are its type.
PART-B
1. Describe the steps in research process with an example (Nov/Dec 2007) (Nov/Dec2008)
(May/ June 2013) Refer pg no: (Research methodology by C.R. Kothari 10 -20)
2. Describe various forms of hypothesis using demographic and sales variables. How does the
hypothesis formulated for testing analysis of variance and chi-square test. (May/June-2008)
Hypothesis Testing (Nov/Dec2010) (May/June 2013) Refer pg no: (Research methodology
by C.R. Kothari 191 -192)
3. Explain the various types of research with appropriate illustrative problems (May / June
2013) Refer pg no: (Research methodology by C.R. Kothari 2 -4)
4. Write in detail about factors affecting Business research. (MAY/JUNE 2014) Refer pg no:
(Business Research methods by Cooper 14 - 17)
5. Discuss the role of theory. (MAY/JUNE 2014)
6. Illustrate with simple examples the role of exploratory research. (MAY/JUNE 2014)
7. What is Causal Research, and Why is it Important?
8. How would you describe research process (May 2017) Refer pg no: (Research
methodology by C.R. Kothari 10 -20)
9. Is there an advantage in stating the hypothesis both in the null and in the alternate? Justify
your answer with an example. (May 2017). Refer pg no: (Research methods for Business by
Uma Sekaran 112)
10. “Research is much concerned with proper fact finding, analysis and evaluation”. Do you
agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your answer. (Elucidate in the class)
55
UNIT-2
PART- A
1. Discuss the difference between Reliability and Validity (Nov/Dec 2007)
(May/June 2013)
Reliabilty(Nov/Dec 2012) Validity

It is the degree to which a measurement It is test for determining whether a measure
procedure produces similar outcomes when it is measuring the concept that the researcher
is repeated. thinks is being measured
A Reliable Test is not necessarily valid A Valid test is always Reliable
2. What are the advantages of Field Experiment? (Nov/Dec 2007)
 Greater ecological validity than laboratory experiment.
 Less sample bias.
 Fewer demand characteristics if participants are unaware.
3. What is experimental design? (Nov/Dec 2008)
In general usage, design of experiments (DOE) or experimental design is the design of any
information-gathering exercises where variation is present, whether under the full control of
the experimenter or not. However, in statistics, these terms are usually used for controlled
experiments. Other types of study, and their design, are discussed in the articles on opinion
polls and statistical surveys (which are types of observational study), natural experiments and
quasi-experiments (for example, quasi-experimental design). See Experiment for the
distinction between these types of experiments or studies.
4. Differentiate between questionnaire and interview schedule. (Nov/Dec 2007)
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts
for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Interview Schedule is also used as
a method of data collection but in this case, the data is collected by an interviewer rather than
through a self-administered questionnaire. Interviewers read the questions exactly as they
appear on the survey questionnaire. The choice of answers to the questions is often fixed
(close-ended) in advance, though open-ended questions can also be included within a
structured interview.
5. What is Internal Validity? (Nov/Dec 2007)
Internal Validity is the approximate truth about inferences regarding cause-effect or causal
relationships. Thus, internal validity is only relevant in studies that try to establish a causal
relationship. It's not relevant in most observational or descriptive studies, for instance.
6. What is Criterion Validity? (Nov/Dec 2006)
Criterion Validity is a valid measure actually measures what it says it will measure. To define
a measure as valid, one can assess different types of validity. The type of validity of
measurement assessed depends on what the researcher wants to know. Criterion validity is
one method for assessing the validity of a measure nal statistics than, for example, single-case
designs.
56
7. Mention the various methods of reliability? (Nov/Dec 2006)

 Inter-rater reliability is the variation in measurements when taken by different persons
but with the same method or instruments.
 Test-retest reliability is the variation in measurements taken by a single person or
instrument on the same item and under the same conditions. This includes intra-rater
reliability.
 Inter-method reliability is the variation in measurements of the same target when
taken by a different methods or instruments, but with the same person, or when inter-
rater reliability can be ruled out. When dealing with forms, it may be termed parallel-
forms reliability.
 Internal consistency reliability assesses the consistency of results across items within
a test.
8. Define Experimental research. (Nov / Dec 2008)
Experimental research designs are used for the controlled testing of causal processes. The
general procedure is one or more independent variables are manipulated to determine their
effect on a dependent variable. These designs can be used where:
 There is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect),
 There is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same
effect), and
 The magnitude of the correlation is great.
9. What are the various types of reliability (May/June) 2009?
Reliability means the extent to which the measurement process is free from errors. It is an
indication of the stability and consistency with which the instrument measures the concept
and helps to assess the goodness of a measure.
10. Content Validity? (Nov/Dec 2010)
Content validity (also known as logical validity) refers to the extent to which a measure
represents all facets of a given social construct. For example, a depression scale may lack
content validity if it only assesses the affective dimension of depression but fails to take into
account the behavioural dimension.
11. What do you mean by quasi experiments? (June 2011)
A quasi-experiment is an empirical study used to estimate the causal impact of an
intervention on its target population. Quasi-experimental research designs share many
similarities with the traditional experimental design or randomized controlled trial, but they
specifically lack the element of random assignment to treatment or control. Instead, quasi-
experimental designs typically allow the researcher to control the assignment to the treatment
condition, but using some criterion other than random assignment (e.g. eligibility cutoff
scores). In some cases, the researcher may have no control over assignment to treatment
condition.
12. Define Validity and point out the different types of validity (June 2011)
Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test
to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted.
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Types
 Content validity
 Criterion-related Validity
 Construct Validity
13. Draw the format of ANNOVA Table? (Nov/Dec2012)
14. Give an example for each Nominal and Ordinal scales. (Nov/Dec2012)
Nominal - Qualitative variable with out order (only categorization possible) Example:
Gender, departments, etc. Ordinal - Qualitative variable with order (categorization and order)
example Rank, credit rating as High risk, medium risk, Low risk etc.
15. Explain Thurston Measurement Scale (May / June 2013)
In psychology and sociology, the Thurstone scale was the first formal technique to measure
an attitude. It was developed by Louis Leon Thurstone in 1928, as a means of measuring
attitudes towards religion. It is made up of statements about a particular issue, and each
statement has a numerical value indicating how favorable or unfavorable it is judged to be.
People check each of the statements to which they agree, and a mean score is computed,
indicating their attitude.
16. Define research design.
 Research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data.
 Research design aids the researcher in the allocation of limited resources by
posing crucial choices in methodology.
 Research design is the plan and structure of investigation conceived as to obtain
answers to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme or program of the
research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing
hypothesis and their operational implications to the final analysis of data.
17. What is Experimental design?
A set of procedures for devising an experiment such that a change in a dependent variable
may be attributed solely to the change in independent variables.
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18. Mention the various notations used in experimental design.

 X --- Represents the introduction of an experimental stimulus to a group. The
effect of this independent variable(s) is of major interest. The manipulation or change
of an independent variable.
 O --- Identifies a measurement or observation activity.
 R --- Indicates that the group members have been randomly assigned to a
group.
E ---- Experimental effect: that is, the change in the dependent variable due to the
independent variable.
19. Classify the experimental design.
The various experimental designs are as follows:
 “Quasi-” and “true” experimental designs
 Purely post-design
 Before-after design
 Factorial design
 Latin square design
 Ex-post facto design
20. What is Quasi and True experimental design?
 Quasi designs: designs which do not properly control for the effects of extraneous
variables.
 True designs: designs which properly control for the effects of extraneous variables
and isolate the effects of independent variables on the dependent variables.
21. What is Ex-post Facto Design?
With an ex post _facto design, investigators have no control over the variables in the sense of
being able to manipulate them. They can only report what has happened or what is
happening.
22. What is Simulation?
 Simulation uses a model-building technique to determine the effects of changes, and
computer-based simulations are becoming popular in business research.
 For example, in the study by Koolstra and Beentijes (1999), elementary students
participated in different television-based treatments in vacant school rooms similar to
their actual classrooms.
23. What is the prospective study design?
The prospective studies refer to the likely prevalence of a phenomenon, Situation, problem,
attitude or outcome in the future.
Examples:
 To determine, under field conditions, the impact of maternal and child health
services on the level of infant mortality.
 To establish the effects of a counselling service on the extent of marital problems.
 To find out the effect of parental involvement on the level of academic
achievement of their children.
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24. What is the retrospective- prospective study design?

 Studies focus on past trends in a phenomenon and study it into the future.
 In a retrospective-prospective study a part of the data is collected retrospectively
from the existing records before the intervention is introduced and then the study
population is followed to ascertain the impact of the intervention
 Example:
 Trend studies.
25. What are Cohort studies?
 Cohort studies are based upon the existence of a common characteristic such as
year of birth, graduation or marriage, within a subgroup of a population.
 Example:
 Suppose you want to study the employment patterns of a batch of accountants
who graduated from a university in 1975 or to study the fertility behaviour of
women who were married in 1930.
26. What are solomon four group designs?
 The experimental design that sets up two experimental groups and two control
groups, subjecting one experimental group and one control group to both the pre-
test and the post test, and the other experimental and control group to only the post
test.
Group Pre-test Treatment Post test
1. Experimental O1 X O2
2. Control O3 O4
3. Experimental X O5
4. Control O6
Treatment effect (E) could be judged by:
E= (O2-O1)
E= (O2-O4)
E= (O5-O6)
E= (O5-O3)
E= [(O2-O1)-(O4-O3)]
If all Es are similar, the cause and effect relationship is highly valid.
27. What is interviewing Variable?
An interviewing variable is one that surfaces between the time the independent variables start
operating to influence the dependent variable and the time their impact is felt on it.
28. What is External validity?
Refers to the extent of generalizability of the results of a causal study to other settings, people
or events.
29. What are the factors affecting internal validity?
 History
 Maturation
 Testing
 Instrumentation
 Selection
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 Statistical regression
 Experimental mortality
30. What is a longitudinal study? (May/June) 2009
A research study for which data are gathered at several points in time to answer a research
question is called longitudinal study. A longitudinal study is like a cross sectional an
observational one.
For example
We might choose to look at the change in cholesterol levels among women over 40 who walk
daily for a period of 20 years. The Longitudinal study design would account for cholesterol
levels at the onset of a walking regime and the walking behaviour continued over time. The
researcher might want to study employees’ behaviour before and after a change in the top
management, so as to know what effects the change accomplished.
PART-B
1. Explain Focus Groups. Static and Dynamic Data Collection methods. When each one of them
to be used? (Nov/Dec2006) (Nov / Dec 2012) Refer pg no: 220 Uma Sekaran.
2. Explain the Factors affecting of internal validity and external validity and their
interrelationship (MAY/JUNE2009), (JUNE 2011), (NOV/DEC 2014) Refer pg no: 151-158.
Uma Sekaran.
3. Describe the different types of research designs with relevant research Problems (May /
June 2013) (Nov / Dec 2012) Refer pg no: 117-125. Uma Sekaran.
4. What is focus group interview? And its advantages. (May/June 2014) 220 Uma Sekaran.
5. Explain in detail in-depth of interviews. (May/June 2014) Refer pg no: 97 - 100 C.R.
Kothari.
6. Distinguish between nominal scale and ordinal scale as well as between interval scale and
ratio scale – Give simple examples. (Nov/Dec 2014). Refer pg no: 185-192. Uma Sekaran.
7. Explain the concept of trade off between internal validity and external validity”. (May
2017) Refer pg no: 151-158. Uma Sekaran.
8. Briefly explain the types of experimental designs used in business. (April 2015)
9. Discuss the various types of measurement scales (April 2015) Refer pg no: 185-192. Uma
Sekaran.
10. Illustrate the research design process, types and benefits in the context of any functional
management research. (June 2016). Refer pg no: 117-125. Uma Sekaran.
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UNIT-3
PART-A
1. What are the determinants of optimal sample size? (Nov/Dec 2016)
 The number of elementary units in a sample is called sample size.
 The first factor that must be considered in estimating the sample size, is the
permissible error (E)
 Greater the desired precision, larger will be the sample size.
 Higher the confidence level in the estimate, the lager the sample must be. There is a
trade off between the degree of confidence and degree of precision with a sample of
fixed size.
 The greater the number of sub-groups of interest within the sample, the greater the
size must be.
2. Distinguish between primary data and secondary data (Nov / Dec 2008)
Primary data uses an immediate data, whereas secondary data is means to reprocess and reuse
collected information.
3. Distinguish between normal scale and ordinal scale (Nov / Dec 2008)
A categorical variable, also called a nominal variable, is for mutual exclusive, but not
ordered, categories. For example, your study might compare five different genotypes. You
can code the five genotypes with numbers if you want, but the order is arbitrary and any
calculations (for example, computing an average) would be meaningless.
A ordinal variable is one where the order matters but not the difference between values. For
example, you might ask patients to express the amount of pain they are feeling on a scale of 1
to 10. A score of 7 means more pain that a score of 5, and that is more than a score of 3. But
the difference between the 7 and the 5 may not be the same as that between 5 and 3. The
values simply express an order. Another example would be movie ratings.
4. Define non-probability sampling (Nov / Dec 2008)
No probability sampling techniques cannot be used to infer from the sample to the general
population. Any generalizations obtained from a non probability sample must be filtered
through one's knowledge of the topic being studied. Performing no probability sampling is
considerably less expensive than doing probability sampling, but the results are of limited
value.
5. What is Category Scale?
The category scale uses multiple items to elicit a single response as per the following
example. This also uses the nominal scale. E. g. Where in northern California do you reside?
1. North Bay
2. South Bay
3. East Bay
4. Peninsula
5. Other
6. What are the various types of measurement scale? (May/June) 2009
 Nominal scale
 Ordinal scale
 Interval scale
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 Ratio scale
7. What is optimum sampling? (Nov/Dec 2010)
When clusters are in the form of some geographic subdivisions, then cluster sampling is
termed as area sampling. That is, when the primary sampling unit represents a cluster of units
based on geographic area, the cluster designs are distinguished as area sampling. The merits
and demerits of cluster sampling are equally applicable to area sampling.
8. What is Focus group Interview? (Nov/Dec 2010)
A focus group is a form of in which a group of people are asked about their perceptions,
opinions, beliefs and attitudes towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, or
packaging
9. What is Data Mining? (June 2011)
Data mining (the analysis step of the knowledge discovery in databases process, or KDD), a
relatively young and interdisciplinary field of computer science is the process of discovering
new patterns from large data sets involving methods at the intersection of artificial
intelligence, machine learning, statistics and database systems. The goal of data mining is to
extract knowledge from a data set in a human-understandable structure and involves database
and data management, data preprocessing, model and inference considerations,
interestingness metrics, complexity considerations, post-processing of found structure,
visualization and online updating.
10. How is sample size determined? (June 2011)(May / June 2013)
Determinants of Sample Size
 Type of analysis to be employed
 The level of precision needed
 Population homogeneity/heterogeneity
 Available resources
 Sampling technique used
11. What is snowball sampling? (Nov/Dec2009)
In sociology and statistics research, snowball sampling (or chain sampling, chain-referral
sampling, referral sampling) is a non-probability sampling technique where existing study
subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances. Thus the sample group
appears to grow like a rolling snowball. As the sample builds up, enough data is gathered to
be useful for research. This sampling technique is often used in hidden populations which are
difficult for researchers to access; example populations would be drug users or sex workers.
As sample members are not selected from a sampling frame, snowball samples are subject to
numerous biases. For example, people who have many friends are more likely to be recruited
into the sample.
12. Semantic differential scale (May/June 2008)
The semantic differential measures peoples reactions to stimulus words and concepts in terms
of ratings on bipolar scales defined with contrasting adjective at each end. The semantic
differential scale asks a person to rate a product, brand, or company based upon a seven-point
rating scale that has two bi-polar adjectives at each end. The following is an example of
semantic differential scale question.
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Example:
Would you say our website is?
 (7) very active
 (6)
 (5)
 (4)
 (3)
 (2)
 (1) very unattractive
13. Intension to buy scale (May/June-2008)

Intent to buy scale translation is a mathematical technique used by marketers to converts
stated purchase intentions into purchase probabilities , that is, into an estimate of actual
buying behavior, it takes survey data on consumes purchase intentions and converts its into
actual purchase probabilities.
A survey might ask a question using a five point scale such as:
______ i definitely would use product X
______ I probably would use product X
______ I might use product X
______ I probably would not use product X
______ I definitely would not use product X
14. Household consumer panel (May/June-2008)
Household consumer panel data is collected after each panel list shopping trip. Members of
the panel record their purchases, capturing not only what is purchased, but also where the
purchases was made (store or channel), and whether the purchases were the results of a
promotional deal. This purchase information is then tied back to the general demographics of
the household.
Household panel data allows marketers to measure the ongoing purchase habits and practices
of household and demographic groups. Trackling and analyzing this information over time
can reveal the dynamics of consumer purchasing-such as who is buying your product, how
often they buy, and the competitive products your buyers are also purchasing, and whether
buyers are deal sensitive. Panel sensitive. Pael data quantities the composition of category or
brand volume. Which can then be used to identify the appropriate marketing strategies to
drive growth or defend against competitive actions. Key issues such as consumer purchase
behaviour, shopping habits, demographics, attitudes and opinions elements the panel can
deliver
15. What is Dichotomous Scale?
The dichotomous scale is used to elicit a Yes or No answer, as in the example below. Note
that a nominal scale is used to elicit the response. e.g. Do you own a car? Yes No
16. What are the characteristics of secondary data collection? (May / June 2013)
1. Reliability of Data :
2. Suitability of Data
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3. Adequacy of Data
4. Continuity of Data
17. What is Rosenthal Effect?
Inferences about cause-consequence relationships may not be generalizable to other
investigators or researchers.
18. What is dependent variable?
 The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher.
 The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable or to
explain its variability or predict it.
 Example
 A manager is concerned that the sale of a new product introduced after test
marketing it do not meet with his expectations.
 The dependent variable here is sales.
 Since the sales of the product can vary – can be low, medium or high – it is a
variable.
 Since sales in the main focus of interest to the manager, it is the dependent
variable.
19. What is independent variable?
 An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a
positive or negative way.
 That is, when the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also
present and with each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase
or decrease in the dependent variable also.
 Example
 Research studies indicate that successful new product development has an influence
on the stock market price of the company. Therefore the success of the new product is
the independent variable and stock market price the dependent variable.
20. What is moderating variable?
 The moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the independent
variable – dependent variable relationship. That is the presence of a third variable
(mv) modifies the original relationship between the independent and dependent
variables.
21. What are variables in Research?
 A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.
 The values can differ at various times for the same object or person or at the same
time for different objects or persons.
 Examples
 Production Units
 Absenteeism
Motivation
22. What is Likert Scale?
The Likert scale is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or disagree with
statements on a 5-point scale with the following anchors:
65
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree Nor Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5
23. What is Numerical Scale?
The numerical scale is similar to the semantic differential scale, with the difference that
numbers on a 5 point or 7 point scale are provided, with bipolar adjectives at both ends, as
illustrated below. This is also an interval scale.
E.g.
How pleased are you with your new real estate agent?
Extremely Pleased 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Extremely
Displeased
24. What is Fixed or Constant Sum Scale?
The respondents are here asked to distribute a give number of points across various items as
per the example below. This is more in the nature of an ordinal scale.
25. What is Stapel scale?
This scale simultaneously measures both the direction and intensity of the attitude toward the
items under study. The characteristic of interest to the study is placed at the centre and a
numerical scale ranging, say, from +3 to -3, on either side of the item as illustrated below.
This gives an idea of how close or distant the individual response to the stimulus is, as shown
in the example below. Since this does not have an absolute zero point, this is an interval
scale.
26. What is Graphic Rating Scale?
A graphical representation helps the respondents to indicate on this scale their answers to a
particular question by placing a mark at the appropriate point on the line, as in the following
example. This is an ordinal scale, though the following example might appear to make it look
like an interval scale.
27. What is meant by Test / Re-test reliability?
 This is a commonly used method for establishing the reliability of a research tool.
 In the test/re test an instrument is administered once, and then again, under the same
or similar conditions. The ratio between the test and re test scores is an indication of
the reliability of the instrument.
 The greater the value of the ratio, the higher the reliability of the instrument.
28. What is meant by the split – half technique?
A test given and divided into halves and are scored separately, then the score of one half of
test are compared to the score of the remaining half to test the reliability (Kaplan &
Saccuzzo, 2001).
29. Define concurrent validity.
Concurrent Validity refers to a measurement device’s ability to vary directly with a measure
of the same construct or indirectly with a measure of an opposite construct.
30. Define predictive validity.
 In order for a test to be a valid screening device for some future behavior, it must
have predictive validity.
 The SAT is used by college screening committees as one way to predict college
grades.
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 The GMAT is used to predict success in business school. And the LSAT is used as
a means to predict law school performance.
PART-B
1. Briefly explain various sampling techniques available to the researcher.
(Nov/Dec2010)(May / June 2013) (May / June 2012) Refer Cooper Pg (428- 439)
2. Explain various rating and ranking scales used in Business Research (Nov/Dec 2007) Refer
Cooper Pg (337- 354)
3. What are the factors to determine the sample size (june 2010) (May/June 2013) Refer C.R.
Kothari Pg. (175 – 181)
4. List and explain about eight most essential factors to be borne in mind while designing
questionnaires. (Nov/Dec 2014) Refer Uma Sekaran Pg. (237 - 244)
5. Find out the sample size needed to determine the average monthly income per student –
customer for a university –cafeteria: whereas some students spend up to range of Rs. 360 per
head per month, other students do not patronize the cafeteria at all. The cafeteria –
management wants you to find out with 95 percent confidence (Z = 1.96) and error not
exceeding plus or minus Rs.5 the sample size needed. (Elucidate in the class)
6. Discuss the role of direct observation as a business research method. (May/June 2014)
Refer Cooper Pg (212- 214)
7. Discuss the importance of sampling design. (May/June 2014). Refer Uma Sekaran Pg. (294
- 295)
8. Explain the principles of wording, stating how these are important in questionnaire design,
citing a few examples. (May 2017) Refer Uma Sekaran Pg. (237 - 244)
9. Differentiate probability method of sampling from that of non-probability method of
sampling providing examples for each. (June 2016) Refer Cooper Pg (428- 438)
10. List out the different methods of primary data collection to carry out a business research
and explain the purpose of every method. (June 2016) Refer Uma Sekaran Pg. (218 - 256)
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UNIT-4
PART A
1. What is internal statistics? (Nov/Dec 2006)
Internal statistics is an inductive estimate of the degree to which conclusions about causal
relationships can be made (e.g. cause and effect), based on the measures used, the research
setting, and the whole research design. Good experimental techniques, in which the effect of
an independent variable on a dependent variable is studied under highly controlled
conditions, usually allow for higher degrees of inter
2. Describe Confidence level and Confidence Interval. (Nov/Dec 2006)
The confidence interval is the plus-or-minus figure usually reported in newspaper or
television opinion poll results. For example, if you use a confidence interval of 4 and 47%
percent of your sample picks an answer you can be "sure" that if you had asked the question
of the entire relevant population between 43% (47-4) and 51% (47+4) would have picked that
answer.
3 What is varimax method? (Nov / Dec 2008)
Varimax methods use the idea of maximizing the sum of the variances of the square of the
loadings
4. What is discriminant analysis? (Nov / Dec 2008)
Discriminant analysis is a technique for classifying a set of observations into predefined
classes.
5. What is the statistical test is used to compare the difference of mean? (Nov/Dec 2010)
A statistical hypothesis test is a method of making decisions using data, whether from
a controlled experiment or an observational study (not controlled). In statistics, a result is
called statistically significant if it is unlikely to have occurred by chance alone, according to a
pre-determined threshold probability, the significance level.
6. Types of correlation? (Nov/Dec 2010)
 Positive,
 Negative
 no
 Perfect
 Strong ,
 Weak
7. Distinguish between R and adjusted R2. (June 2011)
R2 is a statistic that will give some information about the goodness of fit of a model. In
regression, the R2 coefficient of determination is a statistical measure of how well the
regression line approximates the real data points. An R2 of 1.0 indicates that the regression
line perfectly fits the data.
8. What is cluster analysis? (June 2011)
Cluster analysis, also called as classification analysis or numerical taxonomy is a class of
techniques used to classify objects or cases into relatively homogeneous groups called
clusters. Objects within a cluster are similar and between the clusters are dissimilar
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9. When to use parametric test? (Nov/Dec2009)

Parametric statistics is a branch of statistics that assumes that the data has come from a type
of probability distribution and makes inferences about the parameters of the distribution.
Most well-known elementary statistical methods are parametric. Generally speaking
parametric methods make more assumptions than non-parametric methods. If those extra
assumptions are correct, parametric methods can produce more accurate and precise
estimates. They are said to have more statistical power.
10. k-mean cluster (May/June-2008)
K-means clustering is an algorithm to classify or to group your objects based on
attributes/featuring into k number of group. K is positive integer number. The grouping is
done by minimizing the sum of squares of distance between data and the corresponding
cluster centroid. Thus the purpose of k-mean clustering is to classify the data.
11. Discriminant analysis (May/June-2008)
Discriminant analysis is a technique for classifying a set of observations into predefined
classes. The purpose is to determine the class of an observation based on a set of variable.
The model is built based on asset of variable known as predictors or input variables. The
model is built based on a set of observations for which the classes are known. The set of
observations is sometimes referred to as the training set. Based on the training set, the
technique contructs a set of linear functions of the predictors, known as discriminant
coefficients, the x’s are the input variables or predictors are c is a constant.
12. What is scaling?
The assignment of numbers or symbols to an indicant of a property or objects to impart some
of the characteristics of the numbers to the property; assigned according to a value or
magnitude.
13. What is meant by Parallel forms of the same test?
 In this procedure you construct two instruments that are intended to measure the same
phenomenon.
 The two instruments are then administered to two similar populations.
 The results obtained from one test are compared with those obtained from the other.
 If they are similar, it is assumed that the instruments are reliable.
14. What is meant by loaded questions?
Questions that would elicit highly biased emotional responses from subjects. Example:
 Do you think the civic body is inc 5
 To what extend do you think the management is likely to be vindictive if the union
decides to go on strike?
 Here the words- incompetent, strike and vindictive are loaded.
15. What is meant by Personification?
Participants are asked to imagine inanimate objects with the traits, characteristics and features
and personalities of humans. “If brand X were a person, what type of person would brand x
be?
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16. What is meant by Simple Tabulation or One-way Tabulation?

When the data are tabulated to one characteristic, it is said to be simple tabulation or one-way
tabulation. For Example: Tabulation of data on population of world classified by one
characteristic like Religion is example of simple tabulation.
17. What is meant by Double Tabulation or Two-way Tabulation?
When the data are tabulated according to two characteristics at a time. It is said to be double
tabulation or two-way tabulation. For Example: Tabulation of data on population of world
classified by two characteristics like Religion and Sex is example of double tabulation.
18. What is meant by Complex Tabulation?
When the data are tabulated according to many characteristics, it is said to be complex
tabulation. For Example: Tabulation of data on population of world classified by two
characteristics like Religion, Sex and Literacy etc…is example of complex tabulation.
19. What is Qualitative Data Analysis?
Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures whereby we move
from the qualitative data that have been collected into some form of explanation,
understanding or interpretation of the people and situations we are investigating.
20. What is meant by correlation?
 Correlation is a technique which measures the strength of association between two
variables.
 When the changes in one variable appear to be linked with the changes in the other
variable, the two variables are said to be correlated.
 When the two variables are meaningfully related and both increase or both decrease
simultaneously, then the correlation is termed as positive.
 If increase in any one variable is associated with decrease in the other variable, the
correlation is termed as negative or inverse.
21. What is meant by Linear and non linear Correlation?

Correlation is said to be linear if the ratio of change is constant. The amount of output in a
factory is doubled by doubling the number of workers is the example of linear correlation. In
other words it can be defined as if all the points on the scatter diagram tends to lie near a line
which are look like a straight line, the correlation is said to be linear, as shown in the figure.
Non Linear (Curvilinear) Correlation:
Correlation is said to be non linear if the ratio of change is not constant. In other words it can
be defined as if all the points on the scatter diagram tends to lie near a smooth curve, the
correlation is said to be non linear (curvilinear), as shown in the figure.
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22. What is meant by Positive and negative Correlation?

Positive correlation: The correlation in the same direction is called positive correlation. If
one variable increase other is also increase and one variable decrease other is also decrease.
For example, the length of an iron bar will increase as the temperature increases.
Negative Correlation: The correlation in opposite direction is called negative correlation, if
one variable is increase other is decrease and vice versa, for example, the volume of gas will
decrease as the pressure increase or the demand of a particular commodity is increase as price
of such commodity is decrease.
No Correlation or Zero Correlation: If there is no relationship between the two variables
such that the value of one variable change and the other variable remain constant is called no
or zero correlation.
23. What is meant Multidimensional scaling?

 Multidimensional scaling transforms consumer judgments/perceptions of similarity or
preferences in a multidimensional space (usually 2 or 3 dimensions).
 It is useful for designing products and services.
 In fact, MDS is a set of procedures for drawing pictures of data so that the researcher can:
 Visualize relationships described by the data more clearly.
 Offer clearer explanations of those relationships.
24. State the Uses of MDS.
1) Illustrating market segments based on preference and judgments.
2) Determining which products are more competitive.
3) Deriving the criteria used by people while judging objects (products, brands,
advertisements etc.)
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25. Define Factor analysis.

 Factor analysis is a set of techniques which by analyzing correlation between
variables, reduces their number into fewer factors which explain much of
original data, more economically.
 It is a class of procedures primarily used for data reduction and summarization.
 The purpose of factor analysis is to simplify the data
 Each factor will account for one or more component.
 Each factor is a combination of many variables.
26. Define Factor loadings.
 Factor loadings are those values which explain how closely the variables are related to
each one of the factors discovered.
 They are also known as factor-variable correlations.
 In fact, factor loadings work as key to understanding what the factors mean.
 It is the absolute size of the loadings that is important in the interpretation of a factor.
27. What is meant Communality (h2)?
 It shows how much of each variable is accounted for by the underlying factor taken
together.
 A high value of communality means that not much of the variable is left over after
whatever the factors represent is taken into consideration.
 It is worked out in respect of each variable a under:
 H2 of the ith variable= ( ith factor loading of factor A)+( ith factor loading of factor
B)+…..
28. What is meant by Eigen value (latent root)?
 When we take the sum of squared values of factor loadings relating to a factor, then
such sum is referred as Eigen value or latent root.
 Eigen value indicates the relative importance of each factor in accounting for the
particular set of variables being analyzed
29. What is meant Factor scores?
 Factor scores represents the degree to which each respondent gets high scores on the
group of items that load high on each factor.
 Factor scores can help explain what the factors mean. With such scores, several other
multivariate analyses can be performed.
30. What is meant by Principle component analysis?
When the objective is to summarize information from a large set of variables into
fewer factors, principle component factor analysis is used.
PART-B
1. What are the variation fields of the application in using multiple regressions? How does
the regression analysis used in demand forecasting? (May/June-2008) Refer by Cooper
P.g. 672)
2. What is discriminant analysis? What are the methods involved in discriminant
analysis?(June2011) Refer by Kothari P.g. 318 -321)
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3. Explain the series of steps to be taken in the application of multivariate regression. Give
example.(June2011) (May/june 2014) Refer by Cooper P.g. 678- 681)
4. Explain the following terms: (Elucidate in the class)
 Communality
 Unique variance
 Eigen value
 Pie chart
 Line chart
 Bar chart
5. Describe the data preparation process, commencing from the stage of questionnaire
checking, up to the stage of selecting a data analysis strategy. (Nov/Dec 2014) Refer Uma
Sekaran Pg. (237 - 244)
6. Illustrate with any three simple practical examples, the concept of discriminanat analysis.
(Nov/Dec 2014) Refer by Kothari P.g. 318 -321)
7. Explain the terms: (May/June 2014) (Elucidate in the class)
a. Cross Tabulation
b. Multi – Collinearity
c. Coefficient of variation.
d. Analysis of variance.(ANOVA)
8. What is the significance of using multiple discriminant analysis? Explain the technical
details involved in a techniques. ( May 2017) Refer by Kothari P.g. 318 -321)
9. Discuss about measures of central tendency and how they are useful in any business
research work. (June 2016). Refer by Kothari P.g. 318 -321)
10. Explain the objective, process and application of multiple regression, and correlation
analysis to solve business research problems. (June 2016). Refer by Cooper P.g. 672)
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UNIT-5
PART A
1. What is a Synopsis? Why should it be presented? (Nov/Dec 2006)
A synopsis is only a brief overview of the entire report and may either highlight the main
points as they appear in the report or simply inform the reader as to the content of the report.
It provides an overview of the research problem identified and highlights the important
information such as the sampling design, data collection method used, results of data analysis,
findings and recommendation The purpose of synopsis is to entice the audience to read the
report.
2. Enumerate the guidelines for preparing bibliography. (Nov / Dec 2008)
It is a brief summary of all the published work relating to the research topic
 Author’s Name
 Year of publication
 Full title of the paper
 Source of publication
 Edition, issue no., volume no.
 Page no.’s
 Place of publication/publisher
3. Give a brief account of typing/printing instructions while preparing a research report
(Nov / Dec 2008)
Most scientific research reports, irrespective of the field, parallel the method of scientific
reasoning. That is: the problem is defined, a hypothesis is created, experiments are devised to
test the hypothesis, experiments are conducted, and conclusions are drawn. The exact format of
scientific reports is often discipline dependent with variations in order and content.
4. Why synopsis is essential for research report? (May/June 2009), (May/June 2008)
A synopsis is a brief summary of the major points of a written work, either as prose or as a
table; an abridgment or condensation of a work.
5. What is long report? (Nov/Dec 2010)
A Long report is the document which contains details of the study into pages and pages with
some systematic structure.
6. What are the different types of Diagrams known to you? (Nov/Dec 2010)
 A histogram consists of tabular frequencies, shown as adjacent rectangles, erected over
discrete intervals (bins), with an area equal to the frequency of the observations in the
interval.
 A bar chart is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values that
they represent. The bars can be plotted vertically or horizontally.
 A pie chart shows percentage values as a slice of a pie.
 A line chart is a two-dimensional scatter plot of ordered observations where the
observations are connected following their order
7. Define Synopsis. (June 2011)
A synopsis is a brief summary of the major points of a written work, either as prose or as a
table; an abridgment or condensation of a work.
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8. How do findings differ from conclusions in research report? (June 2011)

The conclusion is where you build upon your discussion and try to refer your findings to
other research and to the world at large. This is probably the most variable part of any
research paper, and depends upon the results and aims of the experiment. For quantitative
research, it is a presentation of the numerical results and data, whereas for qualitative
research it should be a broader discussion of trends, without going into too much detail. .
9. Deductive method of interpretation (May/June-2008)
The deductive method is a very important method for testing theories or hypotheses. It is
sometimes said to be “the scientific method”. This is not quite correct because surely there is
not quite correct because surely there is not just this one method is of central importance ,
because it is one of the more basic methods common to all scientific disciplines, whether it is
economics, physics, or biochemistry.
10. Steps in data preparation? (May / June 2013)
 Questionnaire
• Editing
• Coding
 Transcribing:
• Cleaning:
• Statistical adjustments:
• Analysis strategy selection
11. List down any two widely used statistical software for data analysis. (May / June 2013)
 SPSS
 AMOS
 SEM
 EXCEL
 SYSTAT
12. List down the types of reports.(May / June 2013)
I. On the Basis Of Legal Formalities:
a. Informal Report
b. Formal Reports
II. On the Basis Of Frequency
a. Periodic or Routine
b.Special Reports
III. On the Bases of Function:
a. Information
b. Interpretative
IV. On the Bases of the Nature of the Subject dealt with
a. Problem determining report
b. Technical Report
75
13. What is meant by Cluster analysis?

 Cluster analysis, also called as classification analysis or numerical taxonomy is a class
of techniques used to classify objects or cases into relatively homogeneous groups
called clusters.
 Objects within a cluster are similar and between the clusters are dissimilar.
14. Explain the different distance measures used in cluster analysis.
 The Euclidean distance is the most commonly used measure. It is the square root of
the sum of the squared differences in values for each variable.
 The city-block or Manhattan distance measure the distance between two objects in
terms of the sum of the absolute differences in values for each variable.
 The chebychev distance between two objects id the maximum absolute difference in
values for any variable.
15. What is meant by Variance methods?
 The variance method attempts to minimize the within cluster variance.
 Wards procedure is a commonly used variance method.
 For each cluster, the means of all the variables are computed; subsequently for each
object the squared Euclidean distance to the clusters means is calculated.
 The distances are summed for all the objects.
At each stage, the two clusters with the smallest increase in the overall sum of squares
within the cluster are combined.
16. What is meant by Research report?
The documents that describes the research project, its findings, analysis of findings,
interpretations, conclusions, and, sometimes, recommendations is called research report.
Types of report:
There are two types of reports:
 Oral report
 Written report
17. State the types of report.
 Short report
 Long report
 Formal report
 Informal report
 Government report
18. What is meant by Bibliography?
A bibliography, also called a works cited page, provides source information, and helps
keep all resources and references together and organized, and helps people know where
you got your sources. Most important, it lets readers know that you did not plagiarize any
part of your paper.
19. Define Ethics.
 Ethics are norms or standards of behaviour that guide moral choices about our
behaviour and our relationship with others.
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 The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse
consequences from research activities.
 According to Collins Dictionary, ethical means “in accordance with principles of
conduct that are considered correct, especially those of a given profession or
group”.
 Ethics is nothing but the accepted code of conduct.
20. What is meant by informed consent?
Informed consent implies that subjects are made adequately aware of the type of information
you want from them, why the information is being sought, what purpose it will be put to, how
they are expected to participated in the study, and how it will directly or indirectly affect
them.
21. What is meant by harm in conducting research?
Harm includes not only hazardous medical experiments but also any social research that
might involve such things as discomfort, anxiety, harassment, invasion of privacy, or
demeaning or dehumanising procedures.
21. Mention any four statistical packages used for data analysis
 SPSS
 SAS
 MATLAB
 MINITAB
 SYSSTAT
 AMOS
 PLS
22. What is meant by in depth interviews?
In depth interviewing is “repeated face to face encounters between the researcher and
informants directed towards understanding informants’ perspectives on their lives,
experiences or situations as expressed in their own words”.
23. What is meant by harm in conducting research?
Harm includes not only hazardous medical experiments but also any social research that
might involve such things as discomfort, anxiety, harassment, invasion of privacy, or
demeaning or dehumanizing procedures.
24. What is meant by informed consent?
Informed consent implies that subjects are made adequately aware of the type of information
you want from them, why the information is being sought, what purpose it will be put to, how
they are expected to participated in the study, and how it will directly or indirectly affect
them.
25. What is meant by SPSS?
SPSS (originally, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) was released in its first version
in 1968 after being developed by Norman H. Nie and C. Hadlai Hull. Norman Nie was then a
political science postgraduate at Stanford University, and now Research Professor in the
Department of Political Science at Stanford and Professor Emeritus of Political Science at the
University of Chicago.
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26. How do you overcome subjectivity in research?

Subjectivity is a central philosophical concept, related to consciousness, agency, personhood,
reality, and truth, which has been variously defined by sources. ... Something being a subject,
narrowly meaning an individual who possesses conscious experiences, such as perspectives,
feelings, beliefs, and desires.
27. What are the quality factors of the report writing?
A well written report will demonstrate your ability to:
 understand the purpose of the report brief and adhere to its specifications;
 gather, evaluate and analyse relevant information;
 structure material in a logical and coherent order; present your report in a
consistent manner according to the instructions of the report brief;
 make appropriate conclusions that are supported by the evidence and analysis of
the report;
 Make thoughtful and practical recommendations where required.
28. State the need of executive’s summary in research report.
The purpose of the executive summary is to explain the main features of your business in a
way that will make the reader want to learn more. Yet it must also include enough
information that investors can see the potential behind your business without having to read
the entire plan.
29. What are the steps in processing of DATA?
 Preparing raw data.
 Editing
 Coding
 Tabulation
 Summarizing the data
 Usage of statistical tools.
30. What is meant by Editing?
 Editing is nothing but process of ensuring that the data are clean-that is free from
inconsistencies and incompleteness.
 Editing detects errors and omissions, corrects them when possible, and certifies
that maximum data quality standards are achieved.
 The editor’s purpose is to guarantee that data are:
 Accurate
 Consistent with the intent of the question and other information in the
survey.
 Uniformly entered
 Arranged to simplify coding and tabulation.
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PART-B
1. Describe in detail how a research report should be written and its format.
(Nov/Dec2007), (May/June 2009), (June2010), (June2011), May/June2008, (May/ June
2013), (Nov/Dec 2012) (May/June 2014). Refer by C.R. Kothari Pg. (346 – 350)
2. Draft the proposal for the conducting focus the groups with selected manner of the
consumer groups. Explain (May/June-2008). (Elucidate in the class)
3. Explain the types of reports. (Nov / Juan 2012). Refer by C.R. Kothari Pg. (351 – 352)
4. Explain about eight vital guidelines that the client should remember while evaluating
the goodness of a research report. (Nov/.Dec 2014). Refer by C.R. Kothari Pg. (353 –
358)
5. Discuss the ethical issues to be taken care of at the research design stage, field work
stage, data analysis stage and findings presentation stage. (Nov/.Dec 2014). Refer by
Uma Sekaran Pg. (17,260,165,51-52)
6. Discuss the different stages in report writing. Refer by C.R. Kothari Pg. (347 – 348)
7. How does technical advancement helped in writing and presenting research reports?
Why is it necessary specify the limitations of the study in the research reports? (May
2017). (Elucidate in the class)
8. Write a short notes on: (Elucidate in the class)
a) Characteristics of a good research report.
b) Bibliography and its importance in context of research report.
9. Discuss the importance of language, Chapterization, tone, and proof reading in a
research report preparation. Refer by C.R. Kothari Pg. (346 – 350)
10. State the precautions in writing a research report. Refer by C.R. Kothari Pg. (358 –
359)
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CASE STUDY
1. The Diet drink manufacturer in the study finds that young women are more health
conscious and are looking at low calories options. Thus, any communication or advertisement
for the product has to emphasize the health aspect. The purchase probability is also
influenced by their education level and the nature of their profession. Other factors such as
available brands, celebrity endorsement and dieticians recommendations also have an impact
on them.
a) Identify your research problem and hypothesis. (5marks) b) Identify and classify the
variables under study. (5marks) c) is it possible to generate a theoretical framework for the
study? (5marks)
2. The Indian Army wants to ascertain why young students do not select the armed forces as a
career option in their graduation.
a) How would you formulate a research problem to resolve the dilemma? (5marks) b) What
would be the variables under study? (5marks) c) How would you generate the descriptive and
relational hypothesis for the study? (5marks).
3. Shameem answered that the team was apathetic and there could be multiple reasons for this
apathy.Thus, it was essential that the team be studied to identified what was the group
reaction to the working conditions at Danish.Also it was important to identify what was
perceived as the major problem area. Shameem was also of the opinion that there might be a
difference between the old and new employees. Thus this angle also was to be given due
recognition when conducting a survey. Raghu said,this seems to be a logical approach to the
problem, but don’t you think before you go to the team members you must at least identify
what could be the reasons for the lackluster performance at Danish by looking at the other
organizations or by talking to the HR consultants who have some experience of the
same”.Shameem listened attentively and said, “I think there is a lot of merit in what you say.
So this is what I will do__________________”
Questions: a) What is the research design(s) Shameem is likely to recommend? Why?
(10marks) b) Identify the variables, hypotheses and the units under the study. (5marks).
4. You are employed by the product manager of Tarai Foods Ltd. Who wants to know the
ideal price differential between the company frozen vegetables and those marketed by Mother
diary. The customers of the frozen vegetables are mostly working women. Identify the
Variables, test units, Hypotheses and research design.
5. You are the HRD Manager with ABB (India) .ABB has recently taken over a major unit in
Kolkata. You are sent on a posting there and are given the task of introducing a new
operation scheme which your parent organization feels will improve efficiency. But you
perceive during your stay that there is an underlying dissatisfaction amongst the employees
and it is essential to gauge their views and opinion about the takeover and their expectations
before introducing the scheme. What is the recommended research design? What would be
the variables, hypotheses and the population under study?
6. Develop a likert scale to measure the perception of bank customers towards the concept of
internet banking.
7. Sridhar from Bengaluru, had developed an electric car- VERVE ( it is fully automatic, no
clutch, no gears) two – door hatch back, easily seating two adults and two children with a
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small turning radius of just 3.5 meters). It runs on batteries and as compared to other electric
vehicles, has an onboard charger to facilitate easy charging which can be carried out by
plugging into any 15 amp socket at home or work. A full battery charge takes less than seven
hours and gives a range of 80 km. A full charge consumes just about 9 units of electricity.
Somehow the product did not take off the way he expected. He is contemplating about
repositioning the car. As he stood looking at the prototype, he knew that there were a couple
of questions to which he must find answers before he undertook the repositioning exercise.
Who should be the targeted segment- old people, young students, just going to college,
housewives? What should be the positioning stance? What kind of image would these
customers relate to? Was a new name or punch0 line required? How should the promotions
be undertaken? Hyundai had done it with Shah Rukh Khan, should he also consider a
celebrity? If yes who?
Questions: 1. What kind of research study should Sridhar undertake? Define the objectives of
his research. (5marks) 2. Do the stated objectives have scope for a qualitative research?
(5marks) 3. Which methods would you recommend and why? (5marks).
8. Indicate the type of measurement scale you would use for each of the following
characteristics. Why did you choose the scale you did? Develop the appropriate question for
each characteristic and the scale chosen. • Colour of a dishwasher • Age of a TV • Occupation
Brand Loyalty • Readership of a newspaper • Intention to purchase a TV.
9. Mr.Mohan Mehta has a chain of restaurants in many cities of northern India and was
interested in diversifying his business. His only son, Kamal, never wanted to be in the
hospitality line. To settle Kamal into a line which would intrest him, Mr.Mehta decided to
venture into a garment manufacturing. He gave this idea to his son, who liked it very much.
Kamal had already done a course in fashion designing and wanted to do something different
for the consumers of this industry. An idea struck him that he should design garments for
people who are very bulky but want a lean look after wearing readymade garments. The first
thing that came to his mind was to have an estimate of people who wore large sized shirts(40
size and above) and large sized trousers (38 size and above)A meeting was called of experts
from the garment industry and a number of fashion designers to discuss on how they should
proceed. A common for many of them was to know the size of such a market. Another issue
that was bothering them was how to approach the respondents, It was believed that asking
people about the size of their shirt or trouser may put them off and there may not be any
worthwhile response. A Suggestion that came up was that they should employ some
observers at entrances of various malls and their jobs would be to look at people who walked
into the malls and see whether the concerned person was wearing a big size shirt or trouser.
This would be a better way of approaching the respondents .This procedure would help them
to estimate in a very simple way the proportion of people who wore a big sized garments.
Questions: a. Name the sampling design that is being used in the study. (3 marks) b. What are
the limitations of the design so chosen? (5 marks) c. Can you suggest a better design? (3
marks) d. What method of data collection is being employed? (4marks).
10. Identify an organization and prepare a report which contains recommendations for
improving its operations in India.
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GLOSSARY OF RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY
 Accuracy
o A term used in survey research to refer to the match between the target
population and the sample.
 Affective Measures
o Procedures or devices used to obtain quantified descriptions of an individual's
feelings, emotional states, or dispositions.
 Aggregate
o A total created from smaller units. For instance, the population of a county is
an aggregate of the populations of the cities, rural areas, etc. that comprise the
county. As a verb, it refers to total data from smaller units into a large unit.
 Baseline
o A control measurement carried out before an experimental treatment.
 Benchmarking
o Systematically measuring and comparing the operations and outcomes of
organizations, systems, processes, etc., against agreed upon "best-in-class"
frames of reference.
 Bias
o A loss of balance and accuracy in the use of research methods. It can appear in
research via the sampling frame, random sampling, or non-response. It can
also occur at other stages in research, such as while interviewing, in the design
of questions, or in the way data are analyzed and presented. Bias means that
the research findings will not be representative of, or generalizable to, a wider
population.
 Case Study
o The collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular
participant or small group, frequently including data derived from the subjects
themselves.
 Causal Hypothesis –
o A statement hypothesizing that the independent variable affects the dependent
variable in some way.
 Causal Relationship
o The relationship established that shows that an independent variable, and
nothing else, causes a change in a dependent variable. It also establishes how
much of a change is shown in the dependent variable.
 Causality
o The relation between cause and effect.
 Central Tendency
o Any way of describing or characterizing typical, average, or common values
in some distribution.
103
 Chi-square Analysis
o A common non-parametric statistical test which compares an expected
proportion or ratio to an actual proportion or ratio.
 Claim
o A statement, similar to a hypothesis, which is made in response to the research
question and that, is affirmed with evidence based on research.
 Classification
o Ordering of related phenomena into categories, groups, or systems according
to characteristics or attributes.
 Cluster Analysis
o A method of statistical analysis where data that share a common trait are
grouped together. The data is collected in a way that allows the data collector
to group data according to certain characteristics.
 Confidentiality –
o A research condition in which no one except the researcher(s) knows the
identities of the participants in a study. It refers to the treatment of information
that a participant has disclosed to the researcher in a relationship of trust and
with the expectation that it will not be revealed to others in ways that violate
the original consent agreement, unless permission is granted by the participant.
 Construct
o Refers to any of the following: something that exists theoretically but is not
directly observable; a concept developed [constructed] for describing relations
among phenomena or for other research purposes; or, a theoretical definition
in which concepts are defined in terms of other concepts. For example,
intelligence cannot be directly observed or measured; it is a construct.
o Seeks an agreement between a theoretical concept and a specific measuring
device, such as observation.
 Content Analysis
o The systematic, objective, and quantitative description of the manifest or latent
content of print or non-print communications.
 Control Group
o The group in an experimental design that receives either no treatment or a
different treatment from the experimental group. This group can thus be
compared to the experimental group.
 Controlled Experiment
o an experimental design with two or more randomly selected groups [an
experimental group and control group] in which the researcher controls or
introduces the independent variable and measures the dependent variable at
least two times [pre- and post-test measurements].
 Correlation
o A common statistical analysis, usually abbreviated as r that measures the
degree of relationship between pairs of interval variables in a sample. The
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range of correlation is from -1.00 to zero to +1.00. Also, a non-cause and

effect relationship between two variables.
 Covariate
o A product of the correlation of two related variables times their standard
deviations. Used in true experiments to measure the difference of treatment
between them.
 Credibility
o A researcher's ability to demonstrate that the object of a study is accurately
identified and described based on the way in which the study was conducted.
 Data
o Factual information [as measurements or statistics] used as a basis for
reasoning, discussion, or calculation.
 Data Quality
o This is the degree to which the collected data [results of measurement or
observation] meet the standards of quality to be considered valid [trustworthy]
and reliable [dependable].
 Dependability
o Being able to account for changes in the design of the study and the changing
conditions surrounding what was studied.
 Dependent Variable
o A variable that varies due, at least in part, to the impact of the independent
variable. In other words, its value “depends” on the value of the independent
variable. For example, in the variables “gender” and “academic major,”
academic major is the dependent variable, meaning that you’re major cannot
determine whether you are male or female, but your gender might indirectly
lead you to favor one major over another.
 Deviation
o The distance between the mean and a particular data point in a given
distribution.
 Discrete Variable
o A variable that is measured solely in whole units, such as, gender and number
of siblings.
 Distribution
o The range of values of a particular variable.
 Effect Size
o The amount of change in a dependent variable that can be attributed to
manipulations of the independent variable. A large effect size exists when the
value of the dependent variable is strongly influenced by the independent
variable. It is the mean difference on a variable between experimental and
control groups divided by the standard deviation on that variable of the pooled
groups or of the control group alone.
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 Empirical Research
o The process of developing systematized knowledge gained from observations
that are formulated to support insights and generalizations about the
phenomena being researched.
 Expectancy Effect
o Any unconscious or conscious cues that convey to the participant in a study
how the researcher wants them to respond. Expecting someone to behave in a
particular way has been shown to promote the expected behaviour.
Expectancy effects can be minimized by using standardized interactions with
subjects, automated data-gathering methods, and double blind protocols.
External Validity
o The extent to which the results of a study are generalizable or transferable.
 Factor Analysis
o A statistical test that explores relationships among data. The test explores
which variables in a data set are most related to each other. In a carefully
constructed survey, for example, factor analysis can yield information on
patterns of responses, not simply data on a single response. Larger tendencies
may then be interpreted, indicating behaviour trends rather than simply
responses to specific questions.
 Field Studies
o Academic or other investigative studies undertaken in a natural setting, rather
than in laboratories, classrooms, or other structured environments.
 Focus Groups
o Small, roundtable discussion groups charged with examining specific topics or
problems, including possible options or solutions. Focus groups usually
consist of 4-12 participants, guided by moderators to keep the discussion
flowing and to collect and report the results.
 Framework
o The structure and support that may be used as both the launching point and the
on-going guidelines for investigating a research problem.
 Generalizability
o The extent to which research findings and conclusions conducted on a specific
study to groups or situations can be applied to the population at large.
 Group Behaviour
o Behaviours of a group as a whole, as well as the behaviour of an individual as
influenced by his or her membership in a group.
 Hypothesis
o A tentative explanation based on theory to predict a causal relationship
between variables.
 Independent Variable
o The conditions of an experiment that are systematically manipulated by the
researcher. A variable that is not impacted by the dependent variable and that
itself impacts the dependent variable. In the earlier example of "gender" and
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"academic major," (see Dependent Variable) gender is the independent

variable.
 Internal Consistency
o The extent to which all questions or items assess the same characteristic, skill,
or quality.
 Internal Validity
o The rigor with which the study was conducted [e.g., the study's design, the
care taken to conduct measurements, and decisions concerning what was and
was not measured]. It is also the extent to which the designers of a study have
taken into account alternative explanations for any causal relationships they
explore. In studies that do not explore causal relationships, only the first of
these definitions should be considered when assessing internal validity.
 Margin of Error
o The permittable or acceptable deviation from the target or a specific value.
The allowance for slight error or miscalculation or changing circumstances in
a study.
 Measurement
o Process of obtaining a numerical description of the extent to which persons,
organizations, or things possess specified characteristics.
 Meta-Analysis
o An analysis combining the results of several studies that address a set of
related hypotheses.
 Methodology
o A theory or analysis of how research does and should proceed.
 Methods
o Systematic approaches to the conduct of an operation or process. It includes
steps of procedure, application of techniques, systems of reasoning or analysis,
and the modes of inquiry employed by a discipline.
 Modeling
o The creation of a physical or computer analogy to understand a particular
phenomenon. Modeling helps in estimating the relative magnitude of various
factors involved in a phenomenon. A successful model can be shown to
account for unexpected behaviour that has been observed, to predict certain
behaviours, which can then be tested experimentally, and to demonstrate that a
given theory cannot account for certain phenomenon.
 Models
o Representations of objects, principles, processes, or ideas often used for
imitation or emulation.
 Naturalistic Observation –
o Observation of behaviours and events in natural settings without experimental
manipulation or other forms of interference.
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 Null Hypothesis
o The proposition, to be tested statistically, that the experimental intervention
has "no effect," meaning that the treatment and control groups will not differ
as a result of the intervention. Investigators usually hope that the data will
demonstrate some effect from the intervention, thus allowing the investigator
to reject the null hypothesis.
 Panel Study
o A longitudinal study in which a group of individuals is interviewed at intervals
over a period of time.
 Participant
o Individuals whose physiological and/or behavioural characteristics and
responses are the object of study in a research project.
 Peer-Review
o The process in which the author of a book, article, or other type of publication
submits his or her work to experts in the field for critical evaluation, usually
prior to publication. This is standard procedure in publishing scholarly
research.
 Phenomenology
o A qualitative research approach concerned with understanding certain group
behaviours from that group's point of view.
 Philosophy
o Critical examination of the grounds for fundamental beliefs and analysis of the
basic concepts, doctrines, or practices that express such beliefs.
 Population
o The target group under investigation. The population is the entire set under
consideration. Samples are drawn from populations.
 Predictive Measurement
o Use of tests, inventories, or other measures to determine or estimate future
events, conditions, outcomes, or trends.
 Principal Investigator
o The scientist or scholar with primary responsibility for the design and conduct
of a research project.
 Probability
o The chance that a phenomenon will occur randomly. As a statistical measure,
it is shown as p [the "p" factor].
 Questionnaire
o Structured sets of questions on specified subjects that are used to gather
information, attitudes, or opinions.
 Random Sampling
o A process used in research to draw a sample of a population strictly by chance,
yielding no discernible pattern beyond chance. Random sampling can be
accomplished by first numbering the population, then selecting the sample
according to a table of random numbers or using a random-number computer
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generator. The sample is said to be random because there is no regular or

discernible pattern or order. Random sample selection is used under the
assumption that sufficiently large samples assigned randomly will exhibit a
distribution comparable to that of the population from which the sample is
drawn. The random assignment of participants increases the probability that
differences observed between participant groups are the result of the
experimental intervention.
 Reliability
o The degree to which a measure yields consistent results. If the measuring
instrument [e.g., survey] is reliable, then administering it to similar groups
would yield similar results. Reliability is a prerequisite for validity. An
unreliable indicator cannot produce trustworthy results.
 Representative Sample
o Sample in which the participants closely match the characteristics of the
population, and thus, all segments of the population are represented in the
sample. A representative sample allows results to be generalized from the
sample to the population.
 Rigor
o Degree to which research methods are scrupulously and meticulously carried
out in order to recognize important influences occurring in an experimental
study.
 Sample
o The population researched in a particular study. Usually, attempts are made to
select a "sample population" that is considered representative of groups of
people to whom results will be generalized or transferred. In studies that use
inferential statistics to analyze results or which are designed to be
generalizable, sample size is critical, generally the larger the number in the
sample, the higher the likelihood of a representative distribution of the
population.
 Sampling Error
o The degree to which the results from the sample deviate from those that would
be obtained from the entire population, because of random error in the
selection of respondent and the corresponding reduction in reliability.
 Social Theories
o Theories about the structure, organization, and functioning of human societies.
 Standard Deviation
o A measure of variation that indicates the typical distance between the scores of
a distribution and the mean; it is determined by taking the square root of the
average of the squared deviations in a given distribution. It can be used to
indicate the proportion of data within certain ranges of scale values when the
distribution conforms closely to the normal curve.
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 Statistical Analysis
o Application of statistical processes and theory to the compilation, presentation,
discussion, and interpretation of numerical data.
 Statistical Bias
o characteristics of an experimental or sampling design, or the mathematical
treatment of data, that systematically affects the results of a study so as to
produce incorrect, unjustified, or inappropriate inferences or conclusions.
 Statistical Significance
o The probability that the difference between the outcomes of the control and
experimental group are great enough that it is unlikely due solely to chance.
The probability that the null hypothesis can be rejected at a predetermined
significance level [0.05 or 0.01].
 Statistical Tests
o Researchers use statistical tests to make quantitative decisions about whether a
study's data indicate a significant effect from the intervention and allow the
researcher to reject the null hypothesis. That is, statistical tests show whether
the differences between the outcomes of the control and experimental groups
are great enough to be statistically significant. If differences are found to be
statistically significant, it means that the probability [likelihood] that these
differences occurred solely due to chance is relatively low. Most researchers
agree that a significance value of .05 or less [i.e., there is a 95% probability
that the differences are real] sufficiently determines significance.
 Testing
o The act of gathering and processing information about individuals' ability,
skill, understanding, or knowledge under controlled conditions.
 Theory
o A general explanation about a specific behaviour or set of events that is based
on known principles and serves to organize related events in a meaningful
way. A theory is not as specific as a hypothesis.
 Treatment
o The stimulus given to a dependent variable.
 Trend Samples
o Method of sampling different groups of people at different points in time from
the same population.
 Validity
o The degree to which a study accurately reflects or assesses the specific
concept that the researcher is attempting to measure. A method can be reliable,
consistently measuring the same thing, but not valid.
 Variable
o Any characteristic or trait that can vary from one person to another [race,
gender, academic major] or for one person over time [age, political beliefs].
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 Weighted Scores
o Scores in which the components are modified by different multipliers to
reflect their relative importance.
 Research
o It is a process if gathering information to answer a question
 Basic research
o Research done mainly to enhance the understanding of certain problems that
commonly occur in an organization setting and seeking method of solving is
called basic research
 Applied research
o Research done with the intention of applying the results of the findings to
solve Specific problems currently being experience in an organization
 Exploratory research
o The purpose of exploratory research is to seek new insights and find out what
is happening
 Explanatory research
o This research explain a situation or problem usually in the form in the form of
casual relationships
 Descriptive research
o This type of research sets out to provide an accurate profile of situation,
people, or events.
 Quantitative research
o Is a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data is utilized to
obtain information about the world?
 Qualitative research
o In formal, subjective research approach that usually emphasis words rather
than numbers in the collection.
 Action research
o Research aimed at helping powerless people in society to solve their problems
and be empowered to fight for social justice.
 Applied research
o Research carried out for practical applications and problem-solving functions.
 Basic research
 Research carried out to discover something simply for the sake of knowledge to
improve our understanding of the world, and for academic rather than commercial
purposes.
 Bibliography
o A list of all sources of information consulted for the study, some of which may
not have been cited within the body of the publication.
 Case studies
o A case study is the in-depth examination of just one or a few cases, instances
or ‘objects of Interest’ to analyze a complex, contemporary phenomenon.
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 Causality
o Examining if one variable causes changes in another, in a given phenomenon.
This cause and effect link is examined using experimental research where the
time order release of the two variables is controlled, to see if the cause
precedes the effect.
 Census
o A sample that includes every member of the targeted population of the
research study.
 Closed system
o A system that is unaffected by external factors or the environment as it cannot
interact or be influenced by them.
 Concept
o A name or label given to a specific phenomenon, which is easily recognizable
and distinguishable.
 Confidentiality
o A situation where the identities of the respondents are protected and not made
pubic by the researcher.
 Constructs
o Since concepts are abstract and unobservable, they need to be assigned a
specifically created construct for a given research project that carries a specific
meaning within that context.
 Content analysis
o A quantitative research method used to analyze the manifest content (literal
meaning) of messages in a systematic and objective manner to measure and
compare their various characteristics.
 Convenience or availability sample
o A sample made up of readily available subjects used in a research study.
 Correlations
o Interdependence between factors within a system.
 Cost-benefit analysis
o An analysis that explores how to reach the desired goal at the lowest cost or in
the most efficient manner.
 Cross-sectional study
o A one-off study conducted using a representative sample from the relevant
population. It provides a snapshot of the present with findings that are limited
in scope.
 Cultural studies
o This perspective is also credited to the Birmingham school. It looks at
‘representation’ or how meanings are given to different things depicted in a
text. It also looks at how the same text may be ‘read’ or interpreted in different
ways by different people, how it works and in what contexts.
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 Dependent variable
o The variable the researcher seeks to explain. These are always measured or
observed – not manipulated.
 Depth interviews
o A method of qualitative data collection used when the phenomenon under
study cannot be directly observed or measured. Interviewers will ask people
for their opinions, views, experiences, recollections, feelings etc. on the topic,
issue or phenomenon under study.
 Descriptive studies
o A study where the researcher provides a description of their observations,
findings, results of data analyses, what people said during interviews etc. of a
phenomenon under study..
 Discourse analysis
o A method of data analysis used to examine how a topic or subject gets ‘talked
about’ in society and in media messages, to uncover the power relations
embedded in society.
 Evaluation research
o Research carried out to gauge the relevance, suitability and effectiveness of a
specific (public relations or other) campaign or program, being implemented.
It is also known as program evaluation.
 Experimental research
o A research methodology used to examine the behaviour of people in
controlled settings.
 Explanatory studies
o The researcher provides a causal explanation of ‘why it is so?’ or a functional
explanation of ‘how is it so?’ for a phenomenon under study.
 Exploratory studies
o Preliminary research that explores a relatively new or unknown topic to gain a
basic understanding of it, but not to provide satisfactory answers to a research
question.
 External validity
o The generalisability of research findings to those other than the sample or
population used in the study.
 Focus groups
 Grounded theory
o A systematic method of analysing qualitative data.
 Hypothesis
o A formal statement made about the predicted relationship between variables in
a research study, which is directly tested by the researcher. Generally linked to
deductive reasoning.
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 Independent variable
o The variable that is systematically changed or manipulated by the researcher,
which creates changes in the dependent variable. These are measured and
observed or manipulated.
 Interrelationships
o Relationships between factors within a system.
 Interval level variables
o Variable categories which carry names or labels indicating some rank order,
have equal distances between adjacent categories, but have no true zero.
 Intra coder reliability
o In a content analysis when only one person carried out all the coding, 10% of
the units of analysis are randomly selected and recoded by the same person at
a later stage to examine the agreement between them, for reliability and
consistency.
 Intuition
o Seeing truth as obvious, self-evident or based on commonsense knowledge.
 Likert scale
o Also known as the summated ratings approach, a Likert scale has several
statements that address the concept under examination with an interval scale,
prepared by the researcher. The numbers given by a respondent to each of the
statements on the interval scale are added to obtain a composite score.
 Linear relationship
o A situation where one or more of the dependent variables will change when
the independent variable changes.
 Literature review
An examination of the existing research publications on the topic area of a
new study, to discuss their theorizing, research designs, data collection
methods, findings, strengths, limitations and contexts as relevant to the new
one. This also includes the researcher’s own views and observations, and
alternative explanations of the findings as to what other factors may have
given rise to those findings.
 Longitudinal study
o A study that collects data from the same population (but different samples) at
different points in time.
 Mean
o Also known as the ‘average’, it is the median of a set of values.
 Measurement
o The way data are collected and observations made for a given concept or
variable. Measurement error Errors in the findings caused by the shortcomings
of the research instrument used to collect the data.
 Median
o The mid-point of a set of values, when they are arranged in ascending or
descending order. Methodological triangulation Use of several methods of
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data collection in the same research project to obtain several perspectives of

the same phenomenon.
 Methodologies
o The strategic plan of action, process or design used in a research study, e.g.
experimental research, ethnography.
 Methods
o The various data collection and analysis techniques, practices and procedures
followed in research, e.g. survey questionnaires, focus groups.
 Mode
o The value that occurs most often in a distribution of values for a given
variable.
 Moderator
o The person conducting a focus group.
 Multi-method research
o Research that uses more than one paradigm, methodological tool or data
collection method in the same study to obtain a more holistic view.
 Multivariate analysis
o A study which has more than one independent variable or several dependent
variables under analysis.
 Narrative analysis
o Describes the formal narrative (story telling) structure of a message and is a
form of qualitative content analysis of latent messages.
 Negative relationship
o When the value of the independent variable increases, the value of the
dependent variable decreases.
 Nominal level variables
o Variable categories, which are simply given names or labels.
 Non-linear relationship
o A situation where no predictable pattern or relationship seems to exist between
the independent and dependent variable in the phenomenon.
 Non-participant observation
o A field study where the researcher does not take part in the activities of the
setting being observed or studied.
 Non-probability sampling
o A sample where each member or unit in the study population does not have an
equal chance of being selected.
 Non-representative sample
o A sample that does not include cases or individuals from all subgroups of the
targeted population. Findings of such as study are not generalisable to the
population.
 Non-response rate
o The percentage of the respondents that did not answer a specific question.
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 Non-scholarly sources
o Newspapers, magazines, trade journals, websites and other sources examined
for suitable articles and information for a research study.
 Normative theories
o Scholarly theories that suggest ways to improve everyday or professional
practice.
 Objectivity
o An objective researcher is assumed to be free of individual views, biases and
prejudices during the research process.
 Operational definitions
o The procedure followed in measuring, observing or experiencing a variable or
construct. Ordinal level variables Variable categories which carry names or
labels but which indicate some ranks orders.
 Panel studies
o The same sample of subjects is studied at regular intervals to observe changes
over time within the sample and subjects.
 Paradigm
o A paradigm is a way or framework of looking at something.
 Participant observation
o A field study where the researcher does take part in the activities of the setting
being observed or studied.
 Population
o All members of a group, case or class of subjects, variables or phenomena
under study.
 Positive relationship
o When the value of the independent variable increases, the value of the
dependent variable also increases.
 Postmodernism
o An artistic movement, time in history and a style of criticism since the late
20th century. Commonly seen in the deliberate mixing of existing texts,
artistic styles, genres and media, when creating new texts.
 Post structuralism
o Relates to the phenomenon of a message having several different meanings for
its different receivers.
 Primary sources
o Scholarly publications written by those who conducted the research. Generally
published as journal articles, books etc.
 Probability sampling
o A sample where each member or unit in the study population has an equal
chance of being selected.
 Purposive sample
o A sample made up of cases or individuals who meet the requirements of the
study’s design and possess the required characteristics.
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 Qualitative
o Data that is non-numerical and embedded in their context. e.g. responses to
open ended questions in a survey; opinions of people.
 Quantitative
o Data that is numerical and can be ‘counted’. E.g. responses to close-ended
questions in a survey.
 Quota sample
o A sample that selects subjects to include known or pre-determined percentages
(quotas) of people from various groups, based on their actual distribution in
the population.
 Random error
o Errors in the findings caused by unexpected, uncontrolled and unknown
factors.
 Ratio level variables
o Variable categories which carry names or labels, indicate some rank order,
have equal distances between adjacent categories, and have a true zero.
 Rationale
o The researcher’s explanation as to why the study is important, what purpose it
serves and what will be its outcome to society or the academic field.
 Reference list
o A list of all sources of information used in writing-up the research findings
and cited within the body of the publication. Listed under authors’ last names
in alphabetical order.
 Reliability
o The consistency of the findings when the study is repeated at different times or
by different researchers, using the same methods and procedures.
 Representative sample
o A sample that includes cases or individuals from all subgroups of the targeted
population.
 Research case study
o A report of a research study, based on actual research and written in the style
of a standard research report.
 Research questions
o Used when the researcher is not sure what to look for. It indicates the general
areas of the phenomenon under study. Data is then collected to examine the
research questions.
 Response rate
o The percentage of the sample that returned the completed surveys.
 Sample
o A selected number of individual cases or research subjects, drawn from a
larger population for a specific study.
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 Sampling error
o Errors in the findings caused by differences between the sample and the
targeted population.
 Sampling frame
o A complete list of all members of the target population.
 Scholarly theories
o Social scientific theories developed using scholarly research, systematic
observation, inquiry, analysis, generalisation, and prediction.
 Science
o Knowledge based on objective principles and systematic observation.
 Scope
o Indicates how comprehensive, inclusive or general a theory is to explain a
range of situations rather than just one.
 Screener questions
o The set of questions used when selecting suitable participants for a focus
group, based on the requirements of the research design.
 Secondary sources
o Summaries of existing research, literature reviews, analyses, commentaries,
opinions, textbooks etc written by those who did not carry out the original
research. Helps identify the key research studies, theories and scholars in the
area.
 Semantic differential scales
o Also known as the bipolar ratings system, it is used to measure respondents’
attitudes towards a given issue, on a 1–7 interval scale with several opinions
set up at extreme ends (e.g. useful–useless). A composite score is calculated
for each respondent for this scale.
 Simple random sampling
o A sample where each subject in the population has an equal chance of being
selected for the study.
 Snowball sample
o Also known as referrals, the sample is made up of referrals from subjects who
identified other suitable subjects, usually in areas that are difficult to conduct
research in.
 SPSS
o ‘Statistical package for the Social Sciences’: the computer software commonly
used in the quantitative analysis of data.
 Stimulus materials
o Audio-visual materials related to the research topic shown to a focus group
before the discussion begins, to provide a common ground to initiate the
discussions.
 Survey questionnaire
o A method of collecting data or information from people about their
demographic characteristics, opinions, choices, preferences, attitudes, beliefs,
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motivations etc to answer the question ‘What do people think, do or feel about
a specific issue or topic?’. They collect quantitative data from closed-ended
questions and qualitative data using open-ended questions (by picking the
applicable response).
 Theoretical perspectives
o Provides a context to a specific research study.
 Theory
o A theory is used to explain what happens in society and what we do in
practice. It describes, explains and predicts a phenomenon in order to help us
understand it and there by provide insights as to how it may be controlled.
 Unit of analysis
o The unit of observation can be an object, event, individual, group,
organization, or society. It is the ‘who’ or ‘what’ the researcher wants to
explore, describe, explain or understand.
 Universe
o Content analysis’ counterpart to the target population in other research.
 Validity
o The level at which the study actually measures what it was meant to measure.
 Variable
o The observable or measurable counterpart of a construct describing how a
researcher will measure the construct. It has a set of values assigned to it and
can be either quantitative or qualitative.
 Volunteer sample
o A sample made up of those responding to the researcher’s call for participants.
 Working theories
o Theories that are at an exploratory stage and still under examination.
 Aim
o The researcher’s area of interest – what they are looking at (e.g. to investigate
helping behaviour).
 Bar chart
o A graph that shows the data in the form of categories (e.g. behaviours
observed) that the researcher wishes to compare.
 Case study
o In-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, where data are
gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g.
observations & interviews).
 Closed questions
o Questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g. yes/no. They
generate quantitative data
 Co-variables
o The variables investigated in a correlation.
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 Concurrent validity
o Comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they
produce similar results. If they do then the new test has concurrent validity.
 Confidentiality
o Unless agreed beforehand, participants have the right to expect that all data
collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous.
 Confounding variable
o An extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be
sure of the true source of the change to the DV
 Content analysis
o Technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written
data into categories – converting qualitative data into quantitative data.
 Control group
o A group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave
when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment (e.g. allowed to sleep
normally).
 Controlled observation
o An observation study where the researchers control some variables - often
takes place in laboratory setting
 Correlational analysis
o A mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores
for two co variables are related
 Counterbalancing
o A way of trying to control for order effects in a repeated measures design, e.g.
half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B
followed by A
 Covert observation
o Also known as an undisclosed observation as the participants do not know
their behaviour is being observed
 Critical value
o The value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be
accepted.
 Dependent variable
o The variable that is measured to tell you the outcome.
 Descriptive statistics
o Analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful
way
 Directional hypothesis
o A one-tailed hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or
relationship (e.g. boys are more helpful than girls).
 Dispersion measure
o A dispersion measure shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the
range and the standard deviation.
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 Double blind control

o Participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter
is also blind to at least some aspects of the research design.
 Ecological validity
o The extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized
to real-life settings
 Ethical guidelines
o These are provided by the BPS - they are the ‘rules’ by which all
psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research.
 Event sampling
o Target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs
 Experimental group
o The group that received the experimental treatment (e.g. sleep deprivation)
 External validity
o Whether it is possible to generalize the results beyond the experimental
setting.
 Extraneous variable
o Variables that if not controlled may affect the DV and provide a false
impression than an IV has produced changes when it hasn’t.
 Face validity
o Simple way of assessing whether a test measures what it claims to measure
which is concerned with face value – e.g. does an IQ test look like it tests
intelligence.
 Field experiment
o An experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the experimenter
manipulates the IV and measures the DV
 Histogram
o A graph that is used for continuous data (e.g. test scores). There should be no
space between the bars, because the data is continuous.
 Hypothesis
o This is a formal statement or prediction of what the researcher expects to find.
It needs to be testable.
 Independent groups design
o An experimental design where each participants only takes part in one
condition of the IV.
 Independent variable
o The variable that the experimenter manipulates (changes).
 Inferential statistics
o Inferential statistics are ways of analyzing data using statistical tests that allow
the researcher to make conclusions about whether a hypothesis was supported
by the results.
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 Inter-observer reliability
o The extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording
behaviour in the same way
 Internal validity
o In relation to experiments, whether the results were due to the manipulation of
the IV rather than other factors such as extraneous variables or demand
characteristics.
 Interval level data
o Data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale
 Investigator effects
 These result from the effects of a researcher’s behaviour and characteristics on an
investigation.
 Laboratory experiment
o An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the
experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV
 Matched pairs design
o An experimental design where pairs of participants are matched on important
characteristics and one member allocated to each condition of the IV
 Mean
o Measure of central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a set of data
together and dividing by the total number of scores
 Measures of central tendency
o A measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies
e.g. mean, median or mode
 Median
o Measure of central tendency calculated by arranging scores in a set of data
from lowest to highest and finding the middle score
 Meta-analysis
o A technique where rather than conducting new research with participants, the
researchers examine the results of several studies that have already been
conducted
 Mode
o Measure of central tendency which is the most frequently occurring score in a
set of data.
 Natural experiment
o An experiment where the change in the IV already exists rather than being
manipulated by the experimenter
 Negative correlation
o A relationship exists between two co variables where as one increases, the
other decreases
 Nominal level data
o Frequency count data that consists of the number of participants falling into
categories. (e.g. 7 people passed their driving test first time, 6 didn’t).
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 Non-directional hypothesis
o A two-tailed hypothesis that does not predict the direction of the difference or
relationship (e.g. girls and boys are different in terms of helpfulness).
 Normal distribution
o An arrangement of a data that is symmetrical and forms a bell shaped pattern
where the mean, median and mode all fall in the centre at the highest peak
 Observed value
o The value that you have obtained from conducting your statistical test
 Observer bias
o Occurs when the observers know the aims of the study study or the hypotheses
and allow this knowledge to influence their observations
 Open questions
o Questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any
answer they like. They generate qualitative data.
 Operationalising variables
o This means clearly describing the variables (IV and DV) in terms of how they
will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV).
 Opportunity sample
o A sampling technique where participants are chosen because they are easily
available
 Order effects
o Order effects can occur in a repeated measures design and refers to how the
positioning of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practice effect or boredom
effect on second task
 Ordinal level data
o Data that is capable of being out into rank order (e.g. places in a beauty
contest or ratings for attractiveness).
 Peer review
o Before going to publication, a research report is sent other psychologists who
are knowledgeable in the research topic for them to review the study, and
check for any problems
 Pilot study
o A small scale study conducted to ensure the method will work according to
plan. If it doesn’t then amendments can be made.
 Positive correlation
o A relationship exists between two co variables where as one increases, so does
the other
 Primary data
o Information that the researcher has collected him/herself for a specific purpose
e.g. data from an experiment or observation
 Probability
o How likely something is to happen – can be expressed as a number (0.5) or a
percentage (50% change of tossing coin and getting a head)
123
 Qualitative data
o Descriptive information that is expressed in words
 Quantitative data
o Information that can be measured and written down with numbers.
 Quasi experiment
o An experiment often conducted in controlled conditions where the IV simply
exists so there can be no random allocation to the conditions
 Questionnaire
A set of written questions that participants fill in themselves
 Random sampling
o A sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal
chance of being selected
 Randomisation
o Refers to the practice of using chance methods (e.g. flipping a coin' to allocate
participants to the conditions of an investigation
 Range
o The distance between the lowest and the highest value in a set of scores.
 Reliability
o Whether something is consistent. In the case of a study, whether it is
replicable.
 Repeated measures design
o An experimental design where each participants takes part in both/all
conditions of the IV.
 Representative sample
o A sample that that closely matched the target population as a whole in terms of
key variables and characteristics
 Sample
o A group of people that are drawn from the target population to take part in a
research investigation
 Secondary data
o Information that someone else has collected e.g. the work of other
psychologists or government statistics
 Semi-structured interview
o Interview that has some pre-determined questions, but the interviewer can
develop others in response to answers given by the participant
 Sign test
o A statistical test used to analyze the direction of differences of scores between
the same or matched pairs of subjects under two experimental conditions
 Significance
o If the result of a statistical test is significant it is highly unlikely to have
occurred by chance
 Single-blind control
o Participants are not told the true purpose of the research
124
 Skewed distribution
o An arrangement of data that is not symmetrical as data is clustered ro one end
of the distribution.
 Standard deviation
o A measure of the average spread of scores around the mean. The greater the
standard deviation the more spread out the scores are.
 Stratified sample
o A sampling technique where groups of participants are selected in proportion
to their frequency in the target population.
 Structured interview
o Interview where the questions are fixed and the interviewer reads them out and
records the responses.
 Structured observation
o An observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the
participants' behaviour.
 Systematic sample
o A sampling technique where every nth person in a list of the target population
is selected.
 Temporal validity
o Refers to how likely it is that the time period when a study was conducted has
influenced the findings and whether they can be generalized to other periods in
time.
 Test-retest reliability
o Involves presenting the same participants with the same test or questionnaire
on two separate occasions and seeing whether there is a positive correlation
between the two.
 Time sampling
o A way of sampling the behaviour, that is being observed by recording what
happens in a series of fixed time intervals.
o Is a false positive. It is where you accept the alternative/experimental
hypothesis when it is false.
o Is a false negative. It is where you accept the null hypothesis when it is false.
 Unstructured interview
o Also know as a clinical interview, there are no fixed questions just general
aims and it is more like a conversation.
 Unstructured observation
o Observation where there is no checklist so every behaviour, seen is written
down in a much detail as possible.
 Validity
o Whether something is true – measures what it sets out to measure.
 Volunteer sample
o A sampling technique where participants put themselves forward to take part
in research, often by answering an advertisement.
125
 Confidentiality –
o The idea that the information respondents give to the researcher in the research
process is kept private. This is usually achieved through anonymity.
 Covert research –
o Where the researcher is undercover and respondents do not know they are part
of a research study. The opposite of covert research is overt research – where
respondents know they are part of a research study.
 Dependent and independent variables –
o A dependent variable is the object under study in an experiment; the
independent variables are what the researcher varies to see how they effect the
dependent variable.
o For example, if you grow tomato plants as a hobby and wanted to find out the
effect which the amount of water, the temperature, and the amount of light has
on the amount of tomatoes each plant produces you could design a series of
experiments in which you varied the amount of light etc. and then measure the
effects on the amount of fruit produced. In this example, the amount of
tomatoes produced is the dependent variable and the water, the temperature
and the amount of light are the independent variables.
 Extraneous variables –
o Undesirable variables which are not of interest to the researcher but might
interfere with the results of the experiment.
 Field diary
o A notebook in which a researcher records observation during the research
process. One of the key tools of Participant Observation.
 Field experiments –
o Experiments which take place in a real-life setting such as a classroom, the
work place or even the high street. See experiments and related terms for a
fuller definition.
 Focus groups
o A type of group interview in which respondents are asked to discuss certain
topics.
 Formal content analysis
o a quantitative approach to analyzing mass media content which involves
developing a system of classification to analyze the key features of media
sources and then simply counting how many times these features occur in a
given text.
 Going native
o Where a researcher becomes biased or sympathetic towards the group he is
studying, such that he or she loses their objectivity.
 Group interviews
o Where an interviewer interviews two or more respondents at a time.
126
 Hypothesis
o A theory or explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting
point for further investigation. A hypothesis will typically take the form of a
testable statement about the effect which one or more independent variables
will have on the dependent variable.
 Laboratory experiments
o Experiments which take place in an artificial, controlled environment, such as
a laboratory. See experiments and related terms for a fuller definition.
 Likert scale
o It is used to measure strength of opinion or feeling about a statement in social
surveys. For example respondents might be asked whether they strongly agree,
agree, disagree, or strongly disagree with a particular statement.
 Multistage sampling
o With multistage sampling, a researcher selects a sample by using
combinations of different sampling methods. For example, in Stage one, a
researcher might use systematic sampling, and in Stage two, he might use
random sampling to select a subset for the final sample. For example, rather
than ask a respondent ‘are you religious’, which is a vague question with many
interpretations, a researcher might operationalise the concept of religion by
using a range of more precise questions such as ‘do you believe in God’, ‘do
you believe in the idea of heaven and hell’, ‘ how often do you pray’, and so
on.
 Pilot study
o A test study carried out before the main research study and on a smaller scale,
to uncover and iron potential problems which may occur in the main
programme of research.
 Pre-coded, or closed questions
o Questions where the respondent has to choose from a limited range of
responses. Two of the most common types of closed question are the simply
yes/no questionnaire and the Likehert Scale (a strength of feeling scale).
 Primary data
o Data collected first hand by the researcher herself. If a sociologist is
conducting her own unique sociological research, she will normally have
specific research questions she wants answered and thus tailor her research
methods to get the data she wants. The main methods sociologists use to
generate primary data include social surveys (normally using questionnaire),
interviews, experiments and observations.
 Qualitative data
o Refers to information that appears in written, visual or audio form, such as
transcripts of interviews, newspapers and web sites. (It is possible to analyze
qualitative data and display features of it numerically).
127
 Quantitative data –
o Refers to information that appears in numerical form, or in the form of
statistics.
 Quota sampling
o In this method researchers will be told to ensure the sample fits with certain
quotas, for example they might be told to find 90 participants, with 30 of them
being unemployed. The researcher might then find these 30 by going to a job
centre. The problem of representativeness is again a problem with the quota
sampling method.
 Random sampling
o In random sampling everyone in the population has the same chance of getting
chosen. A simple example of random sampling would be picking names out of
a hat.
 Rapport
o A close and harmonious relationship between researcher and respondents,
such that both parties understand each other’s feelings and communicate well.
 Reliability
o If research is reliable, it means if someone else repeats the same research with
the same population then they should achieve the same results.
o In order to be reliable, research needs to be easily repeatable. Self-completion
questionnaires have high reliability because it is easy for another researcher to
administer the questionnaire again. More in depth methods such as participant
observation, where the researcher can spend several months or even years with
a small group of respondents are not very reliable as it is impossible to
replicate the exact procedures of the original research. More qualitative
methods also open up the possibility for the researcher to get more involved
with the research process, with further detracts from the reliability.
 Representativeness –
o Research is representative if the research sample reflects the characteristics of
the wider target population that is being studied.
o Representativeness thus depends on who is being studied. If one’s research
aim is to look at the experiences of all white male AS Sociology students
studying sociology, then one’s sample should consist of all white, male
sociology students. If one wishes to study sociology students in general, one
will need to have a proportionate amount of AS/ A2 students as well as a
range of genders and ethnicities in order to reflect the wider student body.
 Research sample
o The actual population selected for the research – also known as the
respondents.
 Sampling
o The process of selection a section of the population to take part in social
research.
128
 Sampling frame
o A list from which a sample will be drawn.
 Secondary data
o Data that has been collected by previous researchers or organizations such as
the government. Quantitative sources of secondary data include official
government statistics and qualitative sources are very numerous including
government reports, newspapers, and personal documents such as diaries as
well as the staggering amount of audio-visual content available online.
 Self-Selecting Sample Bias
o where individuals choose whether they take part in the research and the results
end up being unrepresentative because certain types of people are more
willing or able do participate in the research.
 Semi-structured interviews
o Those in which researchers have a pre-determined list of questions to ask
respondents, but are free to ask further, differentiated questions based on the
responses given.
 Snowball sampling
o With this method, researchers might find a few participants, and then ask them
to find participants themselves and so on.
 Social surveys
o Typically questionnaires designed to collect information from large numbers
of people in standardized form.
o Social surveys are written in advance by the researcher and tend to be pre-
coded and have a limited number of closed-questions and they tend to focus
on relatively simple topics. A good example is the UK National Census. Social
surveys can be administered (carried out) in a number of different ways – they
might be self-completion (completed by the respondents themselves) or they
might take the form of a structured interview on the high street, as is the case
with some market research.
 Stratified sampling
o This method attempts to make the sample as representative as possible,
avoiding the problems that could be caused by using a completely random
sample. To do this the sample frame will be divided into a number of smaller
groups, such as social class, age, gender, ethnicity etc. Individuals are then
drawn at random from these groups. If you are observing doctors and you had
split the sample frame into ethnic groups you would draw 8% of the
participants from the Asian group, as you know that 8% of doctors in Britain
are Asian.
 Structured or formal interviews
o Those in which the interviewer asks the interviewee the same questions in the
same way to different respondents. This will typically involve reading out
questions from a pre-written and pre-coded structured questionnaire.
129
 Subjective knowledge
o Knowledge based purely on the opinions of the individual, reflecting their
values and biases, their point of view. See also ‘objective knowledge’.
 Target population
o All people who could potentially be studied as part of the research.
 Unstructured interviews
o It is also known as informal interviews, is more like a guided conversation,
and typically involves the researcher asking open-questions which generate
qualitative data. The researcher will start with a general research topic in and
ask questions in response to the various and differentiated responses the
respondents give. Unstructured Interviews are thus a flexible, respondent-led
research method.
 Validity
o Research is valid if it provides a true picture of what is really ‘out there’ in the
world.
o Generally speaking, the more in depth the research, the fuller picture we get of
the thoughts and feelings of the individuals acting, so the more valid the data;
and the more the researcher stands back and allows the respondents to ‘speak
for themselves’ the more valid the data. In more quantitative research, such as
social surveys, validity may be lacking because the researcher has decided on
what questions should be answered by respondents, rather than letting the
respondents decide on what they want to say for themselves, as is typically the
case with more qualitative methods.
 Alternative Hypothesis (HA or H1)
o An alternative hypothesis (a) is a well-justified prediction of a study’s
anticipated outcome in the context of the study’s population; (b) is consistent
with the prediction of the research hypothesis, although referring to the study’s
population; and (c) typically contradicts the prediction of the null hypothesis
and, hence, is literally an alternative to the null.
o This manual represents the stylistic format and requirements for scientific
communication in many health science and behavioural science areas. It is
published by the American Psychological Association (APA) and was most
recently updated in 2001 (5th ed.).
 Concurrent Validity
o One of two possible forms of criterion-related validity. Regarding concurrent
validity, the external criterion against which a new instrument of interest is
being validated would be an already well established instrument or activity for
the designated purpose. If indeed the measurements on the newly designed
instrument correlated in a positive manner with measurements on the
established instrument or activity, then concurrent validity could be inferred.
 Confidence Interval (CI)
o Although various types of confidence intervals may be reported in the results
section of a research report, in its most basic form a confidence interval refers
130
to a range of numerical values that has a certain probability of capturing the

true population parameter under investigation in a study.
 Confidentiality
o This provision in a research study means that although the researcher
potentially or actually can associate a research subject’s identity with
information received from that individual, assurances are given that such
associations of one’s identity and information will be kept strictly secret,
private, and undisclosed.
 Confounding Variable
o Any factor in a research study related to the study’s participants or the
characteristics of the study’s setting/circumstance that (a) is initially present as
a potentially problematic extraneous variable; (b) is not adequately planned for
or accommodated by the researcher; and, hence, (c) has the effect of confusing
or obfuscating quite literally, confounding the eventual outcome and
interpretation of the study.
o An instrument is said to possess construct validity if it can be demonstrated
that it indeed measures the particular abstract concept, or construct, it purports
to measure. For instance, an instrument that claims to measure the construct of
pain would need to demonstrate a positive correlation with other indicators of
the experience of pain.
 Content Validity
o A typical occasion for interest in content validity is that of an achievement test
of subject matter mastery by students. This type of validity refers to the degree
of correspondence that exists between (a) an instrument’s test items and (b)
the learning/performance objectives and associated content coverage taught to
the students and for which they are held accountable via the test.
 Control Group (CG)
o Used as a basis of comparison to one or more treatment (or experimental)
groups, a control group is a comparable group of participants that is not
exposed to the experimental treatment or intervention.
 Control Variable
o A control variable is any factor in a research study related to the study’s
participants or the characteristics of the study’s setting/circumstance that (a) is
initially present as a potentially problematic extraneous variable; (b) is
planned for or accommodated by the researcher to ensure that its influence
does not confound or confuse the eventual outcome and interpretation of the
study; and, hence, (c) typically allows the assumption of group equivalence at
the outset of a study when the research focus is on comparing two or more
groups regarding a dependent variable.
 Criterion-Related Validity
o As the expression implies, criterion-related validity is a generic type of
validity that has as its reference point an external criterion by which the
131
validity of the instrument in question is assessed. In this context, then,

criterion-related validity is manifested by two subcategories of validity: (a)
predictive validity and (b) concurrent validity. Also see Predictive Validity
and Concurrent Validity.
 Criterion Variable (CV)
o That variable in the predictive research method that is predicted quantitatively
by means of another variable of interest (called the predictor variable) using
the statistical technique of linear regression.
 Cronbach’s Alpha
o An index of the split-half reliability of an instrument arrived at by estimating
the average correlation that would result from all possible ways of splitting an
instrument in half.
 Dependent Variable
o It is also known as a DV, the dependent variable is that factor of interest in a
research study that (a) is an outcome measure of concern to the researcher
either on its own stand-alone merit or in relation to an independent variable or
some other dependent variable and (b) has as possible synonyms such
expressions as response variable, output variable, outcome variable,
consequent variable, or perhaps effect variable.
 Descriptive Statistics
o The family of quantitative analysis techniques that allows one to characterize,
portray, or literally describe a data set in succinct and economical ways.
 Developmental or Time Sequence Designs
o One of several research designs included under the non experimental
comparative group’s research method. In these designs, the researcher
investigates human development changes or the sequencing of
behaviours/conditions over time. The non manipulated independent variable
here is either age or time interval specific.
 Double-Blind Procedure
o A research procedure whereby neither the investigator nor the participant is
aware of the participant’s group membership (or affiliated level of the
independent variable).
 Ex Post Facto (After the Fact) Designs
o This set of research designs is one of several included under the
nonexperimental comparative groups research method. In these designs, the
participants selected have (a) already been exposed to a particular
treatment/condition or (b) already exhibit a particular trait, characteristic, or
outcome.
 External Validity
o The extent to which the conclusions reached in a study can be generalized
with confidence from the sample back to the accessible population from which
the sample was derived.
132
 Extraneous Variable
o An extraneous variable is any factor in a research study related to the study’s
participants or the characteristics of the study’s setting/circumstance that (a) is
not the principal or primary focus of the investigation; (b) is considered—
quite literally—extraneous to the study’s major emphasis; (c) has the potential
to confound or confuse the eventual outcome and interpretation of the study;
and, hence, (d) should be accommodated or planned for in the design and
implementation of the study.
 Face Validity
o A subjective assessment that appeals to the apparent validity of an instrument
for its stated purpose. It relates to the extent to which the instrument looks or
appears to be pertinent to the measurement task at hand.
 Hypothesis
o A statement that (a) is founded or justified by way of some conceptual,
theoretical, experiential, and/or research basis and (b) predicts a research
outcome regarding a study’s sample and/or population.
 Independent Variable
o It is also know as an IV, the independent variable is that factor of interest in a
research study that (a) is investigated for a possible relationship to a dependent
variable; (b) may be manipulated or governed by the researcher; (c) may be
nonmanipulable in nature and, hence, a reflection of study participants’
characteristics, conditions, or features; and (d) has as possible synonyms such
expressions as stimulus variable, input variable, treatment variable, or perhaps
causal variable.
 Inferential Statistics
o The family of quantitative analysis techniques that allows one not only to test
hypotheses in a study, but also to calculate effect sizes and confidence interval
estimations as supplements to hypothesis testing.
 Internal Validity
o The extent to which the dependent variable measures in a study can be traced
back exclusively to the influence of the independent variable.
 Inter-Rater Reliability:
o The degree of consistency, or agreement, between/among two or more
observers/raters when assessing a subject’s responses at a given point in time.
 Interval Scale
o One of four measurement scales, the interval scale uses numbers to name, rank
order, and permit the assumption of equal intervals between any two pairs of
consecutive points on the scale. This scale, however, does not involve a true or
absolute zero point. Examples here include measures of intelligence (IQ), the
Celsius temperature scale, or numerical achievement test performance scored
from 0 to 100.
133
 Intervening Variable
o Any factor in a research study that is theorized, speculated about, or proposed
as a possible explanation of why the researcher obtained the results that were
uncovered in the investigation. In a sense, this variable is that factor that
explains “why we got what we got” in a study and, accordingly, is also known
as an explanatory variable. In the context of a difference-oriented research
strategy, this variable is that factor presumed (a) to have intervened between
the onset of the independent variable and the eventual measurement of the
dependent variable and, hence, (b) to explain the uncovered relationship
between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
 Measurement
o A research procedure whereby numerical and/or verbal data are collected so as
to portray, in as valid and reliable a manner as possible, a factor or variable of
interest to an investigator. For instance, testing is a measurement procedure.
 Nominal Scale
o One of four measurement scales, the nominal scale uses numbers simply to
name or identify variations on a variable. For example, using the numbers “1”
and “2” to distinguish between males and females in a study represents the
nominal scale of measurement.
 Nonparametric Statistics
o One of two subdivisions of inferential statistics, nonparametric techniques do
not make any assumptions of normality or equal variance regarding the
distribution of a study’s variables in the population from which the sample
was derived. Also, nonparametric techniques are appropriate when data are
collected on a nominal or ordinal measurement scale.
 Normal Distribution Curve
o A graphical display of a distribution of events that appears as a symmetrical
bell-shaped curve wherein the values for the mean, median and mode are
identical. It is sometimes referred to as the “Gaussian distribution.”
 Null Hypothesis (H0)
o It is also known as the statistical hypothesis, the null hypothesis is that
prediction of a study’s outcome that (a) asserts the absence of a statistically
significant relationship between/among the study’s variables, (b) speaks to one
or more characteristics or properties of the study’s population, (c) is the focal
point in a study’s statistical analysis, and (d) provides the basis for inferring a
decision back to the study’s research hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.
 Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST)
o The statistical testing of a study’s null hypothesis by way of inferential
techniques, done in the context of an alpha level being cited and a power
analysis being performed, has been the traditional reliance in the quantitative
research realm. Recent calls have been made, though, for NHST to be
augmented by effect size calculations as well as confidence interval
estimations.
134
 Ordinal Scale
o One of four measurement scales, the ordinal scale serves not only to name or
identify, but also to rank order. As an illustration, severity of tension headache
may be recorded by a client as moderate (a 1), severe (a 2), or
debilitating/critical (a 3). This scale does not necessarily imply that the
quantity or quality of the variable measured between a 1 and a 2 is equivalent
to that measured between a 2 and a 3.
 P Value (p)
o It is also known as the level of significance, the p value signifies the
probability or likelihood of obtaining by chance the results of our statistical
analysis if indeed the null hypothesis is actually valid.
 Ratio Scale
o One of four measurement scales, the ratio scale uses numbers to name, rank
order, assume equal intervals, and acknowledge a true or absolute zero point.
Examples here would include the Kelvin temperature scale, weight, height,
blood pressure, and heartbeats.
 Reliability (of Measurement)
o The reliability of a measuring instrument refers to the consistency of
measurement that the instrument is demonstrating.
 Reliability of Internal Consistency (or Homogeneity)
o In the instance of internal consistency reliability, one examines the stability or
consistency of measurement within the instrument itself. This is accomplished
by “splitting” the instrument in half for data analysis purposes and then
proceeding to examine the consistency (via correlation measures) between the
two resulting sets of scores. This procedure generates what is sometimes
known as a “split-half” reliability.
 Research
o At its most basic level, research is a process that explores one or more areas of
interest (called factors or variables) by analyzing numerical and/or verbal data
so as to advance our understanding. More specifically, research is an activity
that allows one to accomplish one or more of the following tasks: (a) to
characterize a variable of interest by an appeal to numerical and/or verbal data,
(b) to investigate a possible relationship between two or more variables, and
(c) to integrate or synthesize data from already published sources concerning
one or more variables of interest.
 Research Category
o The most global or general level at which the research process is considered.
Three research categories exist: (a) the quantitative research category, (b) the
qualitative research category, and (c) the integrative research category.
 Research Competency
o The mastery of desired research-specific learning outcomes at acceptable
levels of performance and the self-confidence usually associated with such
mastery. Compare with Competency.
135
 Research Design
o Regarding most, though not all, research methods, this is the first level of
specificity or detail beyond the research method to which it belongs and
attempts to operationalize. For example, the randomized, control-group,
pretest-posttest research design (a) belongs to or is included under the true
experimental or randomized controlled trial research method and (b) attempts
to operationalize in a specific way that particular research method. Any given
research design is driven by the investigator’s inclusion/exclusion of certain
study components such as random assignment, pretesting, posttesting, and the
number and nature of comparison groups, to name but a few.
 Research Hypothesis (HR)
o A well-justified prediction of a study’s anticipated outcome in the context of
the study’s sample that is typically stated at the outset of a study when the
research question is being formulated against the backdrop of what the
relevant professional literature has to say about the research problem area.
 Research Method
o The first level of specificity or detail beyond the research strategy to which it
belongs and attempts to operationalize. For example, the true experimental or
randomized controlled trial research method (a) belongs to or is included
under the difference-oriented research strategy and (b) attempts to
operationalize in a specific way the difference-oriented research strategy. Any
given research method is driven by the degree of control the investigator can
exercise over the study’s variables.
 Sample
o In a research context, sample refers to that subgroup, subset, or microcosm of
study participants identified/selected according to specific criteria for
inclusion in an investigation.
 Validity (of Measurement)
o Refers to the degree or extent to which the instrument is actually measuring
what it claims or purports to be measuring.
 Variable
o That aspect or factor of interest in a research study that has the potential to
vary, change, or be altered.
 APA (2001) Publication Manual
o Recoding of (randomly selected) 10% of the units of analysis coded by one
coder, by another in a content analysis, to examine the agreement between the
two for reliability and consistency.
136

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Research design – Definition – types of research design –

Types of data – Primary Vs Secondary data – Methods of

2. Applied Versus Fundamental:

1. Identifying, Evaluating and Formulating the Research Problems-:

6. Preparing the Research Design:-

UNIT II RESEARCH DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT

SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION:

(g) Depth interviews:

Meaning Survey refers to a technique of Experiment implies a scientific

Used in Descriptive Research Experimental Research

Samples Large Relatively small

Example of Field research Laboratory research

Data collection Observation, interview, questionnaire, Through several readings of

UNIT IV DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS

Qualitative Vs Quantitative Data:

Application of Factor Analysis:

UNIT V REPORT DESIGN, WRITING AND ETHICS IN BUSINESS RESEARCH

(C) End Matter

Sampling and Methods employed

2. Key Point Style

6. What is qualitative Research? (November / December 2010)

12. Diagnostic research (May/June-2008)

19. What is Conceptual research?

27. What is an exploratory research?

Reliabilty(Nov/Dec 2012) Validity

7. Mention the various methods of reliability? (Nov/Dec 2006)

18. Mention the various notations used in experimental design.

24. What is the retrospective- prospective study design?

13. Intension to buy scale (May/June-2008)

9. When to use parametric test? (Nov/Dec2009)

16. What is meant by Simple Tabulation or One-way Tabulation?

21. What is meant by Linear and non linear Correlation?

22. What is meant by Positive and negative Correlation?

23. What is meant Multidimensional scaling?

25. Define Factor analysis.

8. How do findings differ from conclusions in research report? (June 2011)

13. What is meant by Cluster analysis?

26. How do you overcome subjectivity in research?

PREVIOUS UNIVERSITY PAPERS

GLOSSARY OF RESEARCH TERMINOLOGY

range of correlation is from -1.00 to zero to +1.00. Also, a non-cause and

"academic major," (see Dependent Variable) gender is the independent

generator. The sample is said to be random because there is no regular or

data collection in the same research project to obtain several perspectives of

 Double blind control

to a range of numerical values that has a certain probability of capturing the

validity of the instrument in question is assessed. In this context, then,

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