Application Manual of Geophysical Methods To Engineering and Environmental Problems PDF

Application Manual of
Geophysical Methods
to Engineering and
Environmental Problems
Edited by the Society of the Exploration Geophysicists of Japan
© 2014 EAGE Publications bv
All rights reserved. This publication or part hereof may not be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any
information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN 9789073834880
EAGE Publications bv
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3990 DB HOUTEN
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This ebook has been licensed from EAGE Publications BV by Knovel (Elsevier) on 14
December 2015.
ID: 2015.1000.220
Contents
Preface
Foreword
Contents
1 Introduction
1. Introduction
2. Survey Principles
3. Workflow of Surveys
4. Selection of a Geophysical Method
5. Planning and Preparation
6. Setting Up Survey Lines and Location Survey
7. Field Operation
8. Data Processing
9. Data Analysis
10. Interpretation
11. Deliverable and Electronic Data
2 The Seismic Refraction Method
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.1 Desk Study and Basic Plan
3.2 Planning Survey Lines
3.3 Planning of Receiver and Shot Points
3.4 Seismic Sources
4. Field Data Acquisition
4.1 Instrumentation
4.2 Access Permits
4.3 Preparation and Handling of Explosives
4.4 Setting and Location Survey of Seismic Lines
4.5 Field Operation and Recording
4.6 Safety
5. Data Processing
5.1 Workflow of Data Processing
5.2 Measurement of First Arrival Traveltimes
5.3 Preparation of Traveltime Graphs
5.4 Examination and Adjustment of Traveltime Data
6. Analysis by Hagiwara’s Method
6.1 Recognition of Velocity Layers on Traveltime Curves
6.2 Preparation of Crosssections
6.3 Limitations of the Seismic Refraction Method
7. Analysis by Tomographic Inversion
7.1 Analysis Method
7.2 Analysis of Borehole Source and Receivers
8. Interpretation of Results
8.1 Interpretation of Results
8.2 Applications in Civil Engineering Investigations
8.3 Difficult Geology and Suggested Actions
9. Deliverables
References
3 Shallow Seismic Reflection Method
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.1 Desk Study
3.2 Data Acquisition Parameters and Instruments
3.3 Setting Survey Lines
3.4 Spread Length and Depth of Probe
3.5 Spread Style
3.6 Geophone Interval and Shot Interval
3.7 Choice of Wave Type
3.8 Instrumentation
4. Field Operation
4.1 Access Permit
4.2 Location Survey
4.3 Preparation on Site
4.4 Data Recording
5. Data Processing
5.1 Data Organization
5.2 Data Processing and Analysis
6. Interpretation
6.1 Interpretation
6.2 Resolution of Analysis
7. Deliverables and Reporting
References
4 The Surface Wave Method
1. General
1.1 Outline of the Method
2. Principle
3. Applicability
4. Planning
4.1 Selection of Method
4.2 General Survey Plan
4.3 Arrangement of Source and Receivers
5. Survey Method
5.1 Instrumentation
5.2 Receivers (Geophones)
5.3 Source
5.4 Field Procedure
5.5 Quality Control of Data
6. Analysis
7. Deliverables
7.1 Deliverables
7.2 Report
References
5 The Microtremor Method
1. General
1.1 General
2. Applicability
3. Plan and Design
3.1 Selection the Technique
3.2 Array Design
3.3 Planning Observation Points
3.4 Planning the Survey Time
4. Array Observation of a Microtremor
4.1 Observation Equipment
4.2 Location Scouting
4.3 Huddle Test
4.4 Array Observation
5. Data Analysis
5.1 Phase Velocity Analysis
5.2 Velocity Structural Analysis
6. Deliverable and Report
References and Further Reading
6 The Geoelectrical Method
1. General
2. Principle
2.1 Resistivity Method
2.2 The Spontaneous Potential Method
3. Application
4. Terminology
References
6.1 The Vertical Sounding Resistivity Method
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.1 Advance Review
3.2 Planning of Data Acquisition
3.2.1 Survey Plan
3.2.2 Planning of Measurement Points Layout and Deployment Direction
3.2.3 Choice of Electrode Configuration and Measurement Method
3.2.4 Deciding the Sounding Depth and Electrode Spacing
4. Instrumentation
5. Field Operations
5.1 Planning and Safety Issues
5.2 Field Procedure
5.3 Setting of Measurement Position and Electrodes
5.4 Connection of Cables
5.5 Measurement
5.5.1 Preparation
5.5.2 Measurement
6. Data Processing
6.1 Location Map of Measurement Points
6.2 Apparent Resistivity Curves
7. Analysis
7.1 Analysis Method
7.2 Standard Curve Method
7.3 Curvematching Method
8. Interpretation
9. Deliverables and Reports
9.1 Deliverables and Reports
9.2 Disposition of Survey Data
6.2 2D 3D Resistivity Surveys
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.1 Choice of Measurement Method
3.2.1 Survey Planning
3.2.2 Planning Survey Line Setup
3.2.3 Setting of Survey Line Length for Sounding Depth
3.2.4 Setting of Electrodes (Measurement Points)
3.2.5 Selection of Electrode Configuration
3.2.6 Planning of Remote Electrodes
4. Instrumentation
5. Field Operations
5.1 Process Adjustment and Safety Issues
5.2 Field Procedure
5.3 Setting the Measurement Positions and Electrodes
5.3.1 Location Survey
5.3.2 Setting the Electrodes
5.3.3 Connection of Cables
5.4 Measurement
5.4.1 Preparation
5.4.2 Measurement Method
5.4.3 Measurement
6. Data Processing
6.1 Measurement Location
6.2 Editing Measurement Results
6.3 Primary Processing of Measured Data
7. Analysis
7.1 Analysis Method
7.2 Analysis Procedure
7.3 Organizing Analysis Data File
7.3.1 Processing Measurement Data
7.3.2 Organizing the Analysis Data File
7.4 Execution of Analysis
7.4.1 Analysis Parameters
7.4.2 Execution of the Analysis
7.4.3 Checking Analysis Results
7.4.4 Displaying the Analysis Results
7.5 Interpretation of Sounding Results
8.2 Storage of Survey Data
References
6.3 The SelfPotential Method
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
4. Field Survey
4.1 Permission to Carry Out the Survey
4.2 Instrumentation
4.3 Field Procedure
5. Data Processing and Analysis
5.1 Data Processing
5.2 Analysis and Interpretation
6. Deliverables
6.1 Deliverables
6.2 Report
References
7 Electromagnetic Method
1. General
2. Principle
3. Application
4. Terminology
References
7.1 MT and AMT Methods
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
4. Field Operation
4.1 Preliminary Site Investigation
4.2 Preparation for Measurement
4.3 Field Measurement
5. Data Processing and Interpretation
5.1 Data Processing
5.2 Analysis
6. Deliverables
6.1 Deliverable
6.2 Report
7.2 CSAMT Method
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.2 Planning Data Acquisition
3.2.1 Planning Survey Stations
3.2.2 Planning of Transmission Source
3.2.3 Planning Frequency for Measurement
3.2.4 Depth of Probe
4. Field Works
4.1 Site Scouting
4.2.1 Equipment for Source
4.2.2 Equipment for Measurement
4.2.3 Installation of Signal Source Transmitter
4.3.1 Transmitting Signals
4.3.2 Measurement
5. Preprocessing and Interpretation
5.1 Preprocessing
5.2 Interpretation
6. Report
6.1 Deliverable
6.2 Reports
7.3 TEM Method
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
4. Field Works
4.1 Site Scouting
4.2 Preparation for Measurements
4.2.1 Measurement Equipment
4.3.1 Site Measurement
5. Data Preprocessing and Interpretation
5.1 Data Preprocessing
5.2 Interpretation
5.3 Interpretation
6. Reporting
6.1 Deliverable
6.2 Reports
References
7.4 Airborne EM Method
1. General
2. Application Area
3. Planning
3.2 Planning Flight Lines
3.3 Application for Permission to the Civil Aviation Authority
3.4 Depth of Probe
4. Measurement
4.1 Equipment for Measurements
4.3 Adjustment/Calibration of the Instrument for Electromagnetic Measurement
4.4 Measurement
4.5 Quality Control of the Measurement Data
4.6 Safety Measures
5. Data Processing
5.1 Data Base for Interpretation
5.2 Drawing of Flight Paths
5.3 Primary Processing
5.4 Secondary Processing
5.6 Display of the Results
6. Analysis Incorporating Other Information
6.1 Geological Interpretation of Analysis Results
7. Report and Deliverables
7.1 Overview
7.2 Report and Deliverables
7.5 LoopLoop Method (Slingram Method)
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
4. Field Operation
4.1 Site Scouting
4.2 Preparation for Survey
4.3 OnSite Measurements
5.1 Processing and Interpretation
6. Deliverables
6.1 Deliverables
6.2 Reports
References
7.6 VLF Methods
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
4.1 Preparation
4.2 Field Data Acquisition
6. Report
6.1 Deliverable
6.2 Reports
References
8 Ground Penetrating Radar
1. General
1.2 Measurement Method
1.3 Terminology used in GPR Surveys
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.1 Review of Existing Material and Master Survey Planning
3.2.1 Arrangement of Survey Lines and Their Spacing
3.2.2 Choice of Frequency and Plans for Survey Depth
3.2.3 Other Plans
4. Field Operations
4.1 Survey Line Arrangement and Location Survey
4.2 Field Operations
5. Data Processing
5.1 Production of Survey Location Map
5.2 Production of GPR Profile Sections
6. Data Analysis
7. Interpretation
8. Deliverables and Report
9 Gravity Survey
1. General
2. Applications
3. Survey Planning and Preparation
3.1 Decision of Methods and Basic Planning
3.2 Survey Planning
3.3 Survey Preparation
4. Filed Measurements
4.1 Survey Equipments
4.2 Establishing Base Stations
4.3 Measurement Procedures
4.4 Leveling
5. Data Processing
6. Analysis
6.1 Filtering Analysis
6.2 Quantitative Interpretation
7. Deliverable
7.1 Main Deliverable
7.2 Electronic Delivery
References
10 The Magnetic Survey (Buried Metal Survey)
1. General
2. Principle
2.1 Principle of Magnetic Survey
2.2 Principle of Metal Detector
3. Survey Methods
4. Instrumentation
5. Terminology
10.1 The Horizontal Magnetic Survey on Land
1. General
2. Survey Objectives
3. Planning
3.1 Instrumentation
3.2 Feasible Depth of Probe of Survey
4. Location Survey
5. Field Operations
6. Analysis
6.1 Methods of Analysis
6.2 Preparation of Location Map of Survey Lines
6.3 Analysis of Record
6.4 Interpretation
6.4.1 Review of Existing Information
6.4.2 Interpretation of Result
10.2 The Horizontal Magnetic Survey in Offshore Areas
1. General
3. Planning
3.1 Instrumentation
4. Location Survey
5. Field Operations
6. Analysis
6.4 Interpretation
10.3 Vertical Magnetic Prospecting
1. General
3. Planning
3.1 Instrumentation
3.2 Valid Distance Range of Prospecting
3.3 Planning Drill Holes
4. Location Survey
5. Field Operations
6. Analysis
6.1 Preparation of Location Map of Survey Holes
6.3 Interpretation
6.3.2 Interpretation of Results
10.4 The Metal Detector Survey
1. General
3. Planning
3.1 Instrumentation
4. Location Survey
5. Field Operations
6. Analysis
6.3 Interpretation
11 GeoTemperature Survey
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.1 Suitability of the Method
3.2 Preassessment
3.3 Selection of the Time of the Year for Field Work
3.4 Survey Lines and Sampling Sites
4. Field Operations
4.1 Instrumentation
4.2 Observation at Reference Station
4.4 Data QC
5. Data Processing
5.1 Mapping of Survey Lines and Sampling Points
5.2 Data Reduction for the Raw Data
5.3 Corrections Applied to Measured Data
6. Analysis
6.1 Data Analysis and Visualization
7. Interpretation and Deliverables
7.1 Discussions of Results and Interpretation
7.3 Disposition of Data
References
12 Radiometric Survey
1. General
2. Applications of the Method
3. Planning
3.2 Preparation
3.3 Selection of Survey Mode
3.4 Survey Lines and Measurement Sites
4. Field Operation
4.1 Data Acquisition System
4.2 Observation at a Reference Station for Correction
4.3 Measurement
4.4 QC of Measured Data
5. Data Processing
5.1 Base Map Showing Survey Lines and Measurement Sites
5.2 Reduction of the Measured Data
5.3 Correction Applied to Measured Data
5.4 Analysis and Visualization of Data
6. Analysis and Interpretation
7. Report and Deliverable
References
13 Offshore Acoustic Reflection Survey
1. General
1.1 Principle
1.2 Survey Method
1.3 Terminology
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.1 Literature Study and Survey Planning
3.2 Survey Line Design
3.3 Instrumentation
3.4 Selection of Energy Source for Required Depth of Probe and Resolution
3.5 Vessel’s Positioning System
3.6 Shot Interval, Channel Interval and Number of Channels (Multichannel Method)
4. Field Operation
4.1 Preparation
4.2 Test Operations
4.3 Field Operation
5. Data Processing
5.1 Data Management
5.2 Time Section (Singlechannel Survey)
5.3 Data Processing System (Digitally Recorded Singlechannel Survey or Multichannel Survey)
5.4 Data Format Conversion (Multichannel System)
5.5 Data Processing and Analyses (Multichannel System)
6.1 Interpretation
6.2 Deliverables
14 Seismic Ahead of a Tunnel Face
1. General
1.1 Principle
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.1 Literature Study
3.2 Survey Planning
3.3 Method of Measurement
3.4 Survey Line Setup
3.5 Selection of Energy Source and Receiver
4. Instrumentation
5. Field Operation
5.1 Preparation
6.1 Data Sorting
6.2 Analysis
6.3 Producing Analysis Section
7.1 Basic Principle
7.2 Interpretation and Evaluation for the Heading Section from a Cutting Face
7.3 Outcome and Report
References
15 Geotomography
1. General
15.1 Seismic Tomography
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.2.1 Planning for Sections to Image
3.2.2 Source and Receiver Arrangement Plan
4. Field Operations
4.1 Preliminary Study of the Site
4.2 Instrumentation
4.3 Field operation
5.1 Data Processing
5.2 Data Inversion
5.3 Data Interpretation
6. Deliverables
6.1 Deliverables
6.2 Report
References
15.2 Resistivity Tomography
1. General
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.1 Preliminary Study
3.1.1 Selection of the Method
3.1.2 Selection of 2D/3D Resistivity Tomography
3.2.2 Survey Line Layout
3.2.3 Target and Survey Design
3.2.4 Electrode Interval
3.2.5 Electrode Arrangement
3.2.6 Arrangement of Remote Electrodes
3.2.7 Measurement in Borehole(s)
3.2.8 Measurement in a Test Adit and Survey Tunnel
4. Measuring Instruments and Materials
5. Field Operation
5.1 Process and Safety Management
5.2 Measurement Procedure
5.3 Survey Line and Electrode Arrangements
5.3.3 Cable Connection
5.4 Measurement
5.4.1 Preparation
5.4.3 Quality Control of Data
5.5 Demobilization
6. Data Processing
6.1 General
6.2 Drawing a Location Map
6.3 Editing the Measured Data
7. Data Analysis
7.1 General
7.2 Data Analysis Method and Procedure
7.2.1 Data Analysis Method
7.2.2 Data Analysis Procedure
7.3 Making a Data File for Analysis
7.3.1 Editing Raw Data
7.3.2 Making a Data File for Analysis
7.4 Executing Data Analysis Software
7.4.2 Execution of Data Analysis
7.4.3 Examination of the Result Analysis
7.4.4 Presentation of the Analysis Result
7.5 Interpretation of the Result
8. Deliverables
8.1 Deliverables and Report
8.2 Archival of Survey Data
16 Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP)
1. Introduction
2. Applicability
3. Planning
3.1 Desk Study and Specification
3.2 Receiver Interval
3.3 Seismic Source and Position
3.4 Selection of Downhole Receiver
3.5 Recording System
4. Recording Procedure
5.1 Data Processing
6. Interpretation, Assessment and Deliverables
6.1 Interpretation and Assessment
6.2 Deliverables
Glossary
17 Velocity Logs
1. Introduction
17.1 Downhole Method (Downhole PS Logging)
1. Introduction
1.1 Principle
2. Applicability
3.1 Planning an Investigation Considering the Specification of the Borehole
3.2 Measurement Interval
3.3 Instrumentation
4. Field Operation
4.1 Preparation
4.2 Measurement
5.1 Processing Waveform Data
5.2 Drawing the Traveltime Curve
5.3 Calculation of Elastic Wave Velocity
5.4 Calculation of Elastic Parameters
17.2 The Suspension Method
1. Introduction
1.1 Principle
1.2 Field Operation
2. Area of Application
3.1 Planning the Investigation Considering the Specification of the Borehole
3.3 Instrumentation
4. Data Acquisition
4.1 Recording
5.1 Processing the Waveform Data
18 Electric Logs
1. Introduction
1.1 Principle
1.2 Logging Method
2. Areas of Application
3. Planning
3.1 Applicability of the Electric Logs
3.2 Logging Plan
3.3 Field Operation Plan
4. Field Operation
4.1 Location and Site Surveys
4.2 Instrumentation
4.3 Preparation for Logging
4.4 Logging Operation
5. Data Processing
5.1 Calculation of Apparent Resistivity
5.2 Organizing a Composite Log
6. Data Analysis and Interpretation
7. Deliverables
19 Temperature Log
1. Introduction
2.1 Survey Planning
2.2 Instrumentation
3. Field Operation
3.1 Measurement
20 Radiometric Logs
1. Introduction
20.1 Natural Radiometric Log
1. Introduction
2. Planning
2.1 Plan for Site Investigation
2.2 Instrumentation
3. Field Operation
3.1 Measurement
5. Deliverables and Repor
20.2 Density Log
1. Introduction
2. Planning
2.1 The Planning with Consideration of the Specification of Borehole
2.2 Instrumentation
2.3 Safety Issue
3. Fieldwork
3.1 Preparation
3.2 Measurement
4.1 Data Reduction
4.2 Density Conversions
Further Reading
1 Introduction
1. Introduction
1) Geophysical survey methods are a group of techniques to investigate the underground
from the earth’s surface utilizing a range of physical phenomena such as elastic
waves, electric currents, electromagnetic waves, gravity and magnetic fields and
radioactivity.
2) Geophysical logging investigates the underground in the boreholes.
Notes
1) There are several different geophysical surveying and logging methods and each method
has several different techniques.
Description
Geophysical surveys are applied to the investigation of bedrocks for civil and construction
engineering, a geological survey for groundwater and resource exploration for oil, gas,
minerals, geothermal energy, ground water, hot springs and rocks.
The geophysical survey is not a single technique, there are a range of methods and
techniques with variations. These are used for different targets and purposes as appropriate.
Figure 1.1 shows three representative geophysical survey methods.
Figure 1.1: Typical geophysical methods.
This book describes and explains geophysical methods by technique rather than their targets. It
covers the following methods but there are other geophysical methods not included in this
book:
1) Seismic refraction method: for a subsurface structure by refracted elastic waves.
2) Seismic reflection method: for a subsurface structure by reflected elastic waves.
3) Surfacewave seismic method: for a subsurface structure by surface elastic waves.
4) Microtremor method: for a subsurface structure by observing feeble vibration of the
ground.
5) Electric methods: for a subsurface structure by electric resistivity of the ground:
Vertical profiling: for an electric resistivity structure beneath the survey point;
2 and 3dimensional resistivity survey: for an electric resistivity structure along
survey lines or over an area; and
Spontaneous potential method: observing differences of the natural electric
potential to estimate the location of groundwater and ore bodies.
6) Electromagnetic survey: for a subsurface structure by observing the secondary
electromagnetic field induced by a primary magnetic field in the ground:
MT and AMT methods: to estimate the subsurface structure from the secondary
electromagnetic field induced by the Earth’s magnetic field;
SAMT method: to estimate the subsurface structure from the secondary
electromagnetic field induced by a magnetic field artificially induced;
TEM method: to estimate the subsurface structure from the temporal variation of
the secondary electromagnetic field artificially induced;
Airborne electromagnetic methods: electromagnetic surveys using airplanes or
helicopters to cover a large area or places with difficult ground access;
Looploop method: to estimate the subsurface structure using two coils; and
VLF method: to estimate the subsurface structure using electromagnetic waves
commonly used for submarine communication.
7) Groundpenetrating radar: for a subsurface structure by reflection of electromagnetic
waves.
8) Gravity method: for a subsurface structure by gravity measurements.
9) Buried metal survey: searches for a buried metallic substance by magnetic or
electromagnetic observation.
10) Temperature survey: observing thermal distribution or its temporal variation, surveys for
geological formation and fractures.
11) Radiometric survey: counting gammaray emission, estimated distribution of geological
formations and fractures.
12) Marine sonar survey: using reflection of elastic (sonic) waves, estimates a structure under
the sea floor
13) “Ahead of tunnel” survey: surveys in front of the cutting edge of a tunnel to investigate the
nature of the ground ahead of tunneling.
14) Geotomography: surveys between boreholes for a detailed geographic structure in a similar
manner to a medical CT scan:
elasticwave tomography: uses elastic waves; and
resistivity tomography: uses electric resistivity.
15) VSP: uses reflected elastic waves between the ground surface and boreholes to estimate the
structure around the borehole.
Geophysical techniques with sensors moving up and down in a borehole to estimate the
distribution of the physical properties of the ground near the borehole are collectively called
“downhole logging” (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Schematic diagrams of geophysical logging.
This book describes the following representative geophysical logging methods:
1) Velocity log: for distribution of the velocity of elastic waves along a borehole.
2) Electric log: for distribution of electric resistivity along a borehole.
3) Temperature log: for distribution of temperature along a borehole.
4) Radioactivity log: sensing radioactivity to estimate the distribution of the formation and
physical properties along a borehole:
Natural radioactivity log: senses a natural gammaray, estimates the variation of the
geological formation along the borehole;
Density log: to estimate the density distribution near the borehole from scattering
and attenuation of a gammaray; and
Neutron log: estimates water saturation from the scattering of a gammaray in
response to neutron emission.
2. Survey Principles
1) The geophysical survey and geophysical logging indirectly estimate the geology or
geological structure from the variation of observed values in response to the geometry
between the signal source and sensor.
2) The geophysical survey and geophysical logging are classified by the physical
phenomena used:
propagation time of waves as in elastic and electromagnetic waves; and
magnitude of physical properties such as electricity, gravity, magnetics,
temperature and radioactivity.
Notes
1) The geology and geological structure are estimated from the difference in the physical
properties measured by the geophysical survey or logging.
2) Some geophysical surveys observe a natural phenomenon and others actively send a signal
to observe the response to it.
Description
The principle of geophysical surveys is explained taking an analogy of propagation of sound
waves. A noise behind a wall may be heard different depending on the thickness of the wall. It
is louder across a thin wall than a thick wall. When the noise heard is loud, we understand that
the wall is thin. This phenomenon is true when the wall is replaced by a geological formation
and noise by a seismic wave, electromagnetic wave, electric current or temperature: geological
properties can be estimated by magnitude and speed of response (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Propagation of sound wave in walls with different thickness.
By listening to the sound next door while sitting at a point, it is hard to judge the thickness of
the wall or ease of sound transmission through the wall. If one listens to the sound moving
around the room, one can quantitatively estimate the thickness and ease of sound transmission,
as the volume and the traveltime of the sound vary depending on the position (Figure 2.2). If
the sound source could be moved to several locations, the nature of the wall could be more
accurately estimated.
Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram of the concept of geophysical survey.
Now, consider replacing the sound source with a signal source and the ear with a sensor.
This is the basic concept of a geophysical survey using multiple sources and sensors to estimate
the nature (or physical properties) of the ground. The geotomography methods, such as elastic
wave tomography (Chapter 15.1) and resistivity tomography (Chapter 15.2), use two boreholes
to place signal sources and sensors and to estimate the nature of the ground inbetween the
holes. These are, however, exceptional cases. In general, it is difficult to place sources and
sensors on both sides of the geological formation to estimate the physical properties between
them.
For sound waves, the ease of transmission through the material can be estimated but the
material itself, say timber or concrete, cannot be identified. The material is guessed by
correlating with past experience or accumulation of data surrounding the phenomenon. It is the
same in a geophysical survey: the output of the geophysical survey is thickness and its physical
properties. These physical properties are analyzed by integrating the known geological
information and the kind of geological formation is estimated. This process is called
“interpretation”.
As discussed above, it is not easy to place signal sources and sensors in both sides of the
geological formation in order to investigate. Geophysical surveys generally use both signal
sources and sensors on the ground, transmit a signal into the ground and observe the condition
of the signal returned to the surface (Figure 2.3). Some common geophysical survey methods
use artificial signal sources and others observe signals naturally occurring in the environment.
Such methods include the gravity, spontaneous potential, temperature survey and radiometric
methods.
Figure 2.3: Arrangement of signal sources and sensors; and transmission of the signal.
3. Workflow of Surveys
1) A geophysical survey is generally carried out in the following order:
selection of method;
plan and preparation;
setting up the survey lines and location survey;
measurement;
data processing;
analysis;
interpretation; and
organizing deliverables.
Supplementary Notes
1) Data processing is carried out by a technical staff with specific knowledge and experience.
2) Interpretation includes judgment by the expert with specific knowledge and experience. It
demands broad experience and highly skilled staff.
3) Generally, the data processing and following procedure take place in the office.
Description
Figure 3.1 shows a typical workflow of geophysical surveys.
The selection of the method to use is decided by the client of the survey. However, the client
may not always have a specialist in their staff. Then the contractor with knowledge in
geophysical methods and the survey area needs to propose the methods and specification of the
survey.
As opposed to field work such as line setting and data acquisition, data processing, analysis
and interpretation are carried out in the office and these are called “office work”.
Data processing follows a standard procedure of data organization and calculation for the
method used and no technical judgment by the expert is introduced at this stage. However, it is
necessary to document the data used as well as the method, program and parameters used for
the data organization and calculation for the sake of repeatability of the procedure. On the other
hand, data analysis is a procedure to visualize the processed data in terms of the physical
properties required by the client. Here, the analysis methods and parameters are selected by the
expert in the geophysical method. The interpretation stage takes the data from physical
properties to geological significance. This heavily relies on the skill and experience of the
experts. For this reason, the interpretation often requires judgments by experts in disciplines
other than geophysics, including geologists and geotechnical engineers. The term
“interpretation”, also meaning language translation, sometimes includes the data analysis.
Figure 3.1: Standard workflow of a geophysical survey.
4. Selection of a Geophysical Method
1) The most appropriate geophysical method is selected considering the following issues:
the purpose of the survey;
the target of the survey;
depth of probe;
resolution required;
survey area (topography, geology and environment);
possible obstacles; and
deliverables.
Notes
1) No survey method is almighty.
2) There is a tradeoff between depth of probe and resolution.
Supplementary Note
1) In selection of the geophysical method to use, advice from specialists of the method and the
area is invaluable.
2) Consider combining several methods with different characteristics.
Description
There are many geophysical survey methods but no single method can meet all the objectives.
The geophysical methods are often selected according to the target: seismic refraction for
structure; electric survey for groundwater and groundpenetrating radar for buried objects.
However the most appropriate method should be selected considering various aspects of the
survey including:
The purpose of the survey. Why is the survey planned: looking for voids, searching for
a buried pipe; investigating a fault, mapping a geological structure, etc.?
The target of the survey. What is the likely nature of the searched target: is the void
likely to be filled with water, is the pipe likely to be made of steel or PVC, how large is
the likely scale of the fault, what is the likely geological structure of the area, etc.?
Depth of probe. What is the possible depth of the probe? The depth of the probe
depends on the geology and physical property. Study the existing data beforehand and
estimate the expected depth of the target.
Resolution required. How fine is the target that needs to be mapped? Even with the
same method, the resolution varies depending on the station interval of the
measurement and wavelength used.
Survey area (topography, geology and environment). What is the physical property of
the area? Vegetation? Accessibility and obstacles in the route?
Possible obstacles. Electric transmission line, railway tracks and roadside guard rail are
obstacles to electric and electromagnetic surveys. Vibration from factories and traffic
may be obstacles to the surveys with elastic waves.
Deliverables. What is the final outcome required: planview maps, crosssections,
perspective views; at what scale?
The nature of the method also has to be considered. Groundpenetrating radar, for example, has
as high a resolution as 10 cm but the depth of the probe does not extend much more than 10
meters. Therefore this method is not suitable for a survey of a mountain tunnel, which requires
probing as deep as 100 meters. If a single method is not expected to fully address the scope of
the survey, consider using several different surveys to lead to an integrated interpretation.
Now, let us discuss resolution. Consider you are watching two people talking on the ground
from some height. If you are looking through a window of the second floor, you can clearly
recognize two people (Figure 4.1(a)). On the other hand, an observer from a highrise building
cannot recognize there are two people, or even that there are people in some cases (Figure
4.1(b)). The ability of recognizing two people, in this example, is resolution. The higher the
observer is, the poorer the resolution becomes. This corresponds to the relationship between the
resolution and depth of the probe: the resolution is poorer at depth. As seen in Figure 4.2, poor
resolution at depth results in low contrast with the surroundings, making recognition of the
target of the survey.
Figure 4.1: An example of fifference of resolution depending on distances to targets.
Figure 4.2: Relationship between the depth of the target and resolution in geophysical survey.
What is the most commonly used geophysical method? Bythe number of projects, ground
penetrating radar is the most frequently used method. It is easily used for shallow buried
objects and cavities. In consideration of the scale and values, the refraction seismic method
dominates in Japan. It is predominantly used for a wide range of geotechnical and geological
surveys. The most used geophysical method in the world is the seismic reflection method for
oil and gas explorattion. It accounts for more than 90% of geophysical surveys in the world.
The electric survey is common in resource exploration other than oil and gas, as it is relatively
easily deployed.
1) To carry out the survey of the selected method, plan an appropriate procedure and
make a specification proposal:
arrangement of the survey lines (location; direction and lengths of the lines);
interval between observation stations;
number of lines and stations;
deliverables; and
budget.
2) From the specification proposal, a survey manual is made including:
method of execution;
procedural plan;
equipment used;
list of staff, helpers and qualifications; and
safety plan and emergency procedure including contact list.
3) Prepare the following items according to the survey manual:
access permit (including use of road);
equipment;
qualified personnel, field assistants; and
notification to appropriate authorities.
Notes
1) The survey plan is made by the client with advice from experts including geophysicists.
2) The survey manual is made by the contractor of the survey, except when the survey is
carried out by the party who plans it.
3) The survey manual is made considering:
purpose of the survey;
depth of the probe;
resolution required;
geology and geological structure;
topography, vegetation and location of roads;
land use and owners; and
obstacles of the survey.
4) At the planning and preparation stage, the client and the contractor should discuss to ensure
understanding.
5) The equipment should be checked at the time of preparation for correct operation.
Supplementary Notes
1) The planning and preparation should include field scouting.
2) To fulfill the required depth of the probe and resolution examine:
lengths of survey lines;
station interval; and
frequency to use.
3) If grass needs slashing, or if noise or vibration is generated during the survey, it should be
notified at the time of application for the access permit.
4) An explanation meeting may be held with the neighbors as appropriate.
Description
The survey plan heavily influences the survey result. It should be carefully approached. The
arrangement of lines and stations of the survey is first planned in the office according to the
purpose, depth and resolution. Figure 5.1 shows some examples of survey arrangement.
Figure 5.1: Typical layout of survey lines and points.
The orientation of the lines is decided mainly for the direction of the structure of the target
like a tunnel, considering the strike of the geological structure. The direction perpendicular to
the geological strike is appropriate for many of the geophysical survey methods. When the
structural orientation of the target is close to the geological strike, plan a main line along the
target and secondary lines perpendicular to it. For the search of cavities and buried pipes, plan
the lines perpendicular to these targets.
The lengths of the survey lines are chiefly dictated by the size of the survey area. However,
seismic refraction and electric surveys require line lengths longer than the extent of the survey.
When the planned line runs through a building or cultivated land, it may need to be
relocated. Relocate survey lines to avoid obstacles for the survey method such as vibration
from a factory, electromagnetic noise from a highvoltage transmission line and sealed road
surface. Some methods can efficiently use the roads. Then consider survey lines along the
roads.
A better resolution is generally achieved by small station intervals. However, as stated
before, there is a limitation of resolution in terms of the depth and using a small station interval
is not always effective. The optimum station interval should be chosen for the method used.
The frequency of the physical phenomena can also influence the resolution (Table 5.1). This
should be considered in deciding the frequency used in the survey.
Frequency
Low ↔ High
Survey depth Deep ↔ Shallow
Resolution Low ↔ High
Table 5.1: Qualitative relationship among frequency, survey depth and resolution.
The contractor should understand the client’s needs through ample discussion before the
survey manual is drawn up. The arrangements and discussion should be promptly documented
in minutes. The minutes should include:
date and venue of the discussion;
attendees (both client and contractor sides);
subject of the meeting;
agenda and record of discussion; and
attached documents/information.
Site scouting should check the following issues:
vegetation (forest grassland);
land use (cultivated; paddock; urban, etc.);
landowners;
traffic condition (road layout; volume of traffic);
signal strength of mobile phones; and
obstacles for the survey.
The contractor makes the survey manual incorporating the result of the scouting. The manual
should be agreed upon by the client and kept until the end of the survey. Government
departments may have their own standard for a survey manual, to which any manual must
comply.
If the survey site belongs to a public authority, permission to use such a land must be
obtained. This could include bushlands, roads and river banks. Permission to enter private
properties should be directly obtained from the owners. In a difficult site with complex
boundaries, unknown or absent owners, such permission may be obtained from the local chief
or mayor. An explanatory session for residents and neighbors may be organized where
necessary. Some geophysical survey methods necessitate passing outside of the survey area,
such as remote seismic sources and remote electrodes. These require permission from the
extended areas. Permission from the aviation authority is necessary for airborne surveys.
Preparation for the survey includes arrangements of necessary equipment and personnel. To
avoid the necessity of a repeated survey, equipment should be checked for normal operation
prior to the survey. Where a certificate of maintenance and/or calibration is required, such
certificate should be attached to the survey manual. If available, backup equipment should be
prepared. Extra cables and batteries may be prepared as spares.
The site operation plan should be carefully examined and all those concerned including field
operators and assistants should understand the procedure so as to avoid delay and repeat of the
field work. Training on the relevant law and regulations should be given to the field staff.
Qualified operators are needed for driving heavy machinery and works over a certain height.
Use of explosives requires licensed personnel and notification to the authority. A safety plan
and arrangement should be drawn up to ensure the safety of field staff and residents in the
neighborhood. Present a safety plan manual as well as the survey manuals if required.
6. Setting Up Survey Lines and Location Survey
1) The survey lines and stations are located according to the survey plan before starting
the measurements.
2) The location survey for horizontal and vertical coordinates is carried out for the lines
and stations.
Notes
1) The location survey method is chosen according to the requirement of the geophysical
methods, scale of maps, length of the survey lines and accuracy of the method. Possible
location survey methods include:
estimation by visual observation and stepping;
tape measure;
compass;
light (laser);
GPS; and
level.
2) Heavy vegetation may be an obstacle to the survey and transportation of the equipment.
This may be mowed or pruned.
Supplementary Notes
1) The topography of the site may influence the data analysis in some geophysical methods.
The level of required accuracy depends on the method used and the elevation survey should
match the requirement.
2) Map the surveyed location to check the coordinate system.
3) If line clearing for the survey cannot take place, plan the survey after the leaves drop and
before new growth.
4) If a subcontractor is used for the location survey, information on the purpose of the survey,
required accuracy and discussion with landowners must be accurately passed along.
Description
Site preparation of the survey lines and stations is carried out concurrently with the location
survey. Survey the coordinates and elevation of the line and station locations appropriate for
the requirement of the scale of the final maps and accuracy required for the geophysical method
used. For example, the geophysical survey for 1 to 2 meters deep targets requires the precision
of elevation within 1 to 5 centimeters, while 1 to 5 meter precision is adequate for the depth
probe of hundreds of meters. Depending on the required precision, a simple tape measure,
pocket compass and portable GPS device are used. The measurement stations are often marked
by survey pegs or survey studs. Paint and chalk are also used on the pavement. In a forest or
grassed land, marking tapes (often red, white, yellow or pink) are used on tree branches and
stakes to flag the survey lines.
When the data need elevation correction or the project requires an accurate topographic
relief, carry out the level survey with appropriate accuracy. A hand level is adequate for the
accuracy of tens of centimeters. The gravity survey method needs a higher accuracy and an
automatic level is appropriate for leveling. If an optical distance measurer or GPS is used, the
result can be used without correction or adjustment.
Triangular points, level points and benchmarks may be tied to the survey and coordinates
and elevation are recorded for the specified coordinate system. For horizontal coordinates, the
“survey coordinate system” is commonly used in Japan. The GPS system displays coordinates
in latitude and longitude or Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates. The
coordinates of the reference point or topographic map may be using the old Tokyo Coordinate
System rather than the more recent universal coordinate system. This needs to be checked
against the map of the area. Geoid correction to the elevation may be necessary for survey data
from some GPS systems.
In a forest or wild land, vegetation may be an obstacle to visibility and access. This
vegetation may be pruned or slashed as necessary for the line preparation. In some cases, an
access route from the nearest road to the survey line may have to be cleared. For this, consent
from the landowner is necessary as a matter of course. Extra care should be taken not to clear
vegetation more than necessary and not to damage wanted plants. If such consent is not
obtained, the survey may be planned in the winter where foliage is not thick. Tools for line
clearing may be a hazard; appropriate personal protection equipment to prevent injury is
important.
If the line setting and location survey are subcontracted to a third party, a sufficient briefing
and discussion should be given to the subcontractor. Some surveyors may delay the project by
attempting unnecessarily excessive precision. Troubles may also occur from
miscommunication of the agreement with the landowners and residents.
7. Field Operation
1) Prepare sensors and cables along the operation plan and the manual for the method.
2) Measurement and recording should satisfy the following criteria:
data have good repeatability;
the S/N ratio is high; and
the measured values are reasonable and plausible.
3) Ensure the safety of operators and neighbors and minimize nuisance to the residents.
4) Remove all the equipment at the survey site.
Notes
1) Check the following items before the survey:
the equipment works normally;
the data acquisition parameters are correctly entered; and
correct wiring.
2) The cables are well out of the way of traffic.
3) The explosives are handled by qualified personnel according to the relevant law.
4) The data acquisition parameters are not to be altered without reason during the survey.
5) Verify the data quality in the field.
6) Do not cause fire by cigarettes, a bonfire, or trash like used vinyl tapes.
Supplementary Notes
1) Prepare power sources with wellcharged batteries and keep a few spare.
2) Signage may be required for “explosives in use”.
3) If the method causes noise or vibration, obtain consent from the neighbors, particularly in
the weekends and early mornings.
4) Prepare traffic control and a watchman as required.
5) It is good to document the parameter setting and measured values.
6) Remove survey pegs and marking tapes upon the request of the landowners.
Description
Set up the sensors and wires for measurement and recording. If the method requires long
cables, such as seismic surveys and electric surveys, the cable layout should not cause nuisance
to the neighbors. If explosives are used, a signage “explosives in use” should be displayed with
the planned time.
The safety of the operators and the third parties is of utmost importance. Work on or along
roads may require appropriate traffic control. Prepare life jackets for work on boats. Watch for
weather and if it does not ensure safe operation and good data quality, postpone the operation.
Noise and vibration may cause nuisance to the neighbors. Make sure the survey is notified and
obtain consent.
At the start of the survey, confirm normal operation of the equipment. The batteries must be
well charged and some spares should be prepared. Some equipment need calibrating on site.
Check the data acquisition parameters and station intervals. Do not alter the data acquisition
parameters without reason during the survey. Occasional parameter tests may be needed during
the survey to optimize the change of environment. Wiring must be regularly checked for any
error.
A group of sensors to record at a time in a multichannel measurement is called “array” or
“spread” (Figure 7.1). When one array does not cover the entire survey line, the survey will
continue with one or more arrays with some overlap. Some methods, the refraction seismic for
example, use few overlapping sensors and others like the 2D electric surveys use a large
number of overlaps.
The raw data are constantly checked during the survey for noise level and other general
quality, a part of the survey may be repeated if a recording error or external noise is detected.
The influence of the external noise is evaluated by and described as “the S/N ratio”; the ratio of
the necessary signal (S) to the undesired noise (N). Good data have a high S/N ratio. A concept
of improving the S/N ratio is explained using a familiar example.
Figure 7.1: Spread in multichannel geophysical surveys.
A voice on the telephone is hard to hear among the noise of a town (Figure 7.2(a)). This is a
situation of a low S/N ratio with the voice being a signal in ambient noise. Then you may ask
your friend to talk louder or use the volume control of the phone to try to hear clearly (Figure
7.2(b)). This is a way to improve the S/N ratio by increasing the signal. Alternatively, you may
move to a quieter place to avoid the surrounding noise (Figure 7.2(c)). This is another way to
improve the S/N ratio; by reducing the noise. Similarly in geophysical surveys, the operator
would try to improve the S/N ratio by increase the signal and by reducing the noise.
Figure 7.2: Schematic diagram of improving the S/N ratio.
When random noise is generated, for example, by wind, the S/N ratio can be checked by
repeated measurements; a similar value is recorded. However, with periodical noise, caused by
a power line for example, repeatability may be good while the data indeed contain noise. A
wiring error may result in a similar result. The noise level may be checked by comparing with
nearby stations or with a likely value range expected from the regional velocity. If one data
point is found far from the regional trend, or has a negative value where it is not possible, then
that data are worth doubting.
Recent measurement instruments are often connected to a computer or equipped with a
computer and the data acquisition parameters are usually recorded on the hard disk. However,
recording on the field note is always useful as a backup, as accidents such as power failure and
human error may cause loss of data.
The data acquired must be checked after the recording. There are several ways to do this:
Displaying the data acquired, draw graphs (traveltime curve, attenuation curve of
electric potential) for monitoring.
Check for the quantity of data (number of records or files) for the number of survey
lines and stations.
Check the capacity of the recording device in terms of the number of survey lines and
stations.
The data should be checked thoroughly before leaving the site, so a repeat survey can be
carried out if necessary.
Pay ample attention to the environment of the survey area. Do not use fire any more than
necessary. This should be instructed to all the personnel on site. After the survey, only the
material of minimum necessity, such as location pegs, should be left on site. Other items
including marking tapes, used insulation tapes and fragments of ignition wires for explosives,
should be collected after the survey. If the landowner asks, the location pegs should be
removed but after ensuring that the locations can be recaptured by coordinates, maps or
sketches.
8. Data Processing
1) The data collected on site are brought to the office for processing through an
appropriate procedure.
2) The data processed are appropriately visualized (as graphs and contour maps for
example) and data unsuitable to analysis are eliminated.
Notes
1) Some geophysical methods may require duplicated or repeated processing in the field and
in the office.
2) Do not blindly accept the result of automatic processing.
Supplementary Notes
1) Some recent equipment contain functions for onsite data processing and visualization.
2) The data are transferred to and processed on a computer in the office dedicated to data
processing.
Description
The data acquired in the field work are brought to the office, checked for quality and quantity
and then processed. Generally, the data are transferred from the recording device to the
processing/analysis computer and some field book information is typed in. The way for data
quality control is different from method to method. Bad data included in processing may cause
an error and a wrong result. They should be removed at the time of data processing.
If a priori data, such as borehole information, are used in processing, the quality of the data
may affect the analysis. Such data are to be checked not only by geophysicists but other
appropriate specialists including geotechnical engineers and geologists as well, to reach an
optimum solution. Automatic processing applied to poorquality data may result in a wrong
analysis (Figure 8.2). Do not blindly accept the result of automatic processing; always check
the values of the processing.
Figure 8.1: An example of data processing – the refraction seismic method.
Figure 8.2: An example of error by automatic processing – the refraction seismic method.
9. Data Analysis
1) The procedure to estimate the distribution of a physical property and its boundaries
from the processed data is called “data analysis” and there are two kinds:
Qualitative analysis: the analyst judges the nature of the data collected and
estimates approximate distribution.
Quantitative analysis: the data collected are converted to the physical property
concerned.
Notes
1) Considering the characteristics of the software used, reach the optimum result by checking
the quality of the input data and processing parameters.
2) Use a priori data, such as the geology and its structure, at the time of data analysis.
3) Evaluation of the result of analysis should not be influenced by the display method and
quality.
Supplementary Notes
1) The best result is selected from a number of analyses with different analysis methods,
parameters and input data.
2) The quantitative analysis requires displaying diagrams numerically to justify the result.
3) Typical display methods of the analysis result include:
Boundary diagram (for Ogiwara’s method of refraction seismic, vertical profiling
of the electric method, etc.);
Counter maps, often in color, (for the tomographic analysis of refraction seismic,
2D electric survey, etc.);
Graphic representation (for the logging result, etc.); and
Waveform display (for the reflection seismic method and groundpenetrating
radar).
Description
The data of geophysical surveys seldom directly show the physical property concerned even
after processing, although they represent the distribution of the physical property. Therefore a
procedure to estimate the distribution of the physical property is needed. This is called “data
analysis”. Before the use of computers became commonplace, most of the analysis was
qualitative, whereby the analysts estimated the distribution of the physical property based on
their knowledge and experience. The main stream processing, now, uses computers and
measured data are generally analyzed quantitatively. Even before the computer age, the
quantitative analysis was carried out graphically for layer thickness and physical properties,
e.g. standard curve matching of the electric resistivity method and Hagiwasa’s method of
seismic refraction analysis. Today, numerical analysis like tomographic analysis is more
common using computers. Figure 9.1 shows schematics of qualitative and quantitative analyses
taking the refraction analysis as an example.
Figure 9.1: Qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis.
The numerical analyses include “forward analysis” and “inversion”. The forward analysis
computes theoretical values from an underground physical property model and the analyst
adjusts the model parameters to match the theoretical values with the actual measurement. This
is also called modeling. The inversion is a process to directly calculate the model values from
the measured data and it has become more common in recent years. Many inversion analyses
calculate the theoretical values iteratively by changing the model parameters until they
converge to the optimum model. In both analyses, the quality of the model should be monitored
by the rootmeansquare (RMS) error between the model and the measured data or by
displaying the measured data and the corresponding modeled values (Figure 9.2).
Figure 9.2: An example of graphical display to show the data matching.
The characteristics of analysis software should be taken into consideration and the input data
and processing parameters must be closely examined to reach the best result. The result may
not always be consistent depending on the conditions given to the qualitative analysis and on
the analysis algorithm and parameter setting to the qualitative analysis. It is, therefore,
important to document the conditions and analysis method clearly to ensure objectivity and
repeatability of the result. In any case, the most important issue is to make the result consistent
with the object of the survey and the expected geology and geological structure.
The result of the processing and analysis is displayed by graphs and contour maps
appropriate to the method and purpose. Contour maps are often displayed with color. The color
display has a good appearance but it should be noted that what the colors show is the
magnitude of a physical property and that colors may not necessarily have onetoone
correspondence with geology or rock types.
In recent years, the advancement of computers and IT has made field work and data processing
relatively easy. In some cases, a goodlooking color map as a result of the survey can be made
directly from the field data in a short time. This led to the misconception that the geophysical
survey is easy and inexpensive. But here is a pitfall. The instruments have a selfchecking
function and it cannot collect data unless they are crucially broken down. The software supplies
results for an input. In short, the whole system from data collection and software has become a
black box.
Before the computer age, the data were manually processed. The whole process from the input
to the output was visible. Accordingly, quality control those days could have been more
stringent. The black box including computers and IT may be damaging the quality of the data?
Don’t we overly trust the black box so far as ignoring the necessary check of the acquired data
and the result output from the computer for their plausibility?
This manual describes check points of data acquisition and the plausibility of the resultant
figures in detail. The authors hope this will guide field technicians and data processing
engineers in the right direction. In the “Deliverable” sections, this manual describes what
evidence of data checking should be presented in the report.
10. Interpretation
1) The term “interpretation” refers to the work to infer the object of the survey from the
geophysical data acquired, processed and analyzed by estimating the geology and
geological structure of the area and distribution of particular features such as buried objects
and groundwater.
2) Interpretation involves a judgment on the analyzed geophysical result integrating the
existing information including regional geology and geological structure, expected buried
material and its location and others.
Notes
1) State the basis and reasons of the judgment as clear as possible.
2) Show the result that satisfies the purpose of the survey and add appropriate comments.
Supplementary Notes
1) Some simplification of the result may be needed to explain it to nonspecialists of
geophysics.
2) The interpretation should include discussions with the geology specialists who are familiar
with the local geology.
3) If the result contains new information, propose additional geophysical, geological or boring
surveys to verify it.
Description
The presentation and interpretation to estimate the information required by the purpose of the
survey from the distribution of geophysical properties resemble the weather forecast from a
weather map with contours of atmospheric pressure. Both diagrams express the processed data
of physical properties, rather than directly showing the purpose of the survey. Some comments
to explain the distribution of the physical property to people without special knowledge of the
subject are desired in both cases. The interpretation is often carried out by geologists or an
engineer as well as geophysicists. This discussion is important in achieving the best results of
the scope of the survey.
Figure 10.1: Schematic diagram of interpretation.
In interpretation, as well as the result of geophysical surveys, the following existing data are
integrated:
Geological maps and crosssections;
Drawings for the construction of the existing structures; and
Reports of the geophysical survey, logging and the borehole log in the survey area or its
vicinity.
Overlaying different data with a geographical information system (GIS) often helps
interpretation and judgment.
The interpretation heavily depends on the knowledge and experience of the interpreter and
its reasoning may not be clear to other people. Document the basis of the interpretation clearly.
This will help to revise the interpretation with additional data.
An additional investigation by an additional geophysical survey, geological mapping, boring
or trenching may be recommended when more data are needed for interpretation or when a new
interpretation needs to be verified. If boring is recommended, the logging program should
include the method to supplement the ground geophysical survey: velocity logging with the
seismic survey and electric logging with the resistivity survey.
11. Deliverable and Electronic Data
1) The deliverables should satisfy the specification of the planning documents.
2) The report should be easily readable.
3) Electronic data may be prepared on CDR or DVDR as appropriate.
Notes
1) Regardless whether specified or not, the report should include detailed accounts of:
Location and quantity of the survey;
Instruments and equipment used;
Measurement method and data acquisition parameters used;
Data processing, analysis methods and processing parameters; and
Interpretation and the basis of interpretation.
Supplementary Notes
1) To include a deliverable not specified in the planning document, a discussion with the client
may be beneficial.
2) Raw data and an intermediate display may be presented as an appendix.
Description
The deliverables are compiled as a report. It should document the flow of the survey according
to the specification in the planning document. The parameters for data acquisition and
processing are included in detail to ensure traceability of the procedure from the result to the
raw data. The maps and diagrams in the report should be appropriate for the project and a large
scale map may be attached as necessary. Some specifications by some clients only require the
result of the analysis and interpretation. If this is the case, intermediate data can be added as an
appendix to ensure traceability.
The Land and Transport Department of Japan specifies electronic delivery of the result since
2001. The specifications of the electronic formats are documented in various standards. Other
authorities in other countries may have a different standard. Seek advice from your client.
The digital data are loaded on electronic media such as CDR and DVDR.
Some clients request the data in a generic format (such as SEGY for seismic data). If the
data are in nongeneric format, the file format should be described in the report as an appendix.
2 The Seismic Refraction Method
1. General
1) The seismic refraction survey is a survey method to estimate underground structures
by elastic wave velocity. It artificially generates elastic waves (seismic waves) near
the ground surface and observes their traveltime refracted at underground layer
boundaries.
Notes
1) The seismic refraction survey is applied to geological structures where deeper layers have
higher velocities.
2) The layer boundary by the seismic refraction survey is a boundary with a velocity contrast.
It does not always correspond to the geological boundary.
3) It is generally called an elastic wave survey in civil engineering.
Supplementary Notes
1) The seismic survey has mainly two types of survey methods: seismic reflection and
refraction surveys.
2) The seismic refraction survey generally uses Pwaves.
Description
A seismic wave is a body wave that is a vibration propagating in the ground. It is also called an
elastic wave because it behaves in the ground in a similar way to the macroscopic mechanical
behavior of an elastic body. Seismic velocity (elastic velocity) is closely related to the strength
of the ground (8.1 Interpretation) and as a result, the seismic velocities of layers are useful
information for planning and designing civil and architectural constructions. Unless specifically
noted, the term “velocity” means seismic velocity (elastic velocity) in this chapter.
In the seismic refraction survey, a seismic source, typically by explosion, is located on a
survey line with a number of receivers (geophones) arranged at a constant distance. Vibrations
generated at a shot point located on the extension of a receiver line (Figure 1.1(a)) and a
waveform (Figure 1.1(b)) are recorded by receivers. The compressional or primary wave called
the Pwave reaches the receivers first and then the transverse or shear wave called the Swave
follows. The refracted wave from a deep layer boundary and surface waves propagating near
the surface arrive later. The earliest time observed in the seismic record is called the first arrival
time or first break. The time when the source was generated is recorded as a signal called a shot
mark; this defines the time zero of the observation. The first arrival time is measured from this
shot mark, which is the propagation time (traveltime) of the Pwave from the shot point to the
receiver. The traveltime of the Swave can also be measured in the same way but it is subject to
interference by the subsequent trail of the Pwave. For reading the first arrival time of the S
wave, the Pwave component is suppressed through a processing that will be discussed later.
A traveltime curve is drawn by plotting the distances between the sources (shot points) and
receivers along a horizontal axis and the traveltimes on a vertical axis. It becomes a straight
line with a constant gradient of reciprocal of subsurface velocity V1 where the first arrival is the
direct wave propagating along the surface from the shot point to the geophone at x0 m (Figure
1.1(c)). Further from the source, the seismic wave refracted at the boundary between the soil
and bedrock returns to the surface before the direct wave as it travels at the boundary at a faster
velocity than in the soil. . The curve of the first arrival is a straight line with the gradient of
bedrock velocity V2. Thus, the traveltime curve presents two line segments with a kink at the
point of x = x0. The thickness of the surface layer x0 m is calculated from the layer velocities
V1, V2 and the distance of kink point x0 m. The seismic refraction survey estimates velocities
and thicknesses of layers in this manner, using the traveltimes of direct waves and refraction
waves. This theory is based on the assumption that the secondlayer velocity is faster than the
velocity of the surface layer. The velocity of a geological formation is generally faster at a
greater depth. If a low velocity layer exists between two highvelocity layers, care should be
taken in the analysis (see Section 3.1 Desk Study and Basic Plan).
Figure 1.1: The principles of the seismic refraction method.
This chapter discusses usual seismic refraction surveys using Pwaves on the ground surface.
Other variations of the surveys for different objectives include:
the velocity measurement of walls and bedrock in tunnels during excavations;
the timeterm method setting source and receiver points over a large area to estimate
rough subsurface structures;
largescale seismic refraction to determine a seismic basement;
seismic refraction survey using Swaves for determining the properties of soils.
Methods using Swaves are mainly applied to soil surveys under a flat surface.
Small digital multichannel recording equipment has recently become available. A recent
development in the analysis method for the seismic refraction survey has been using
tomographic inversion to estimate detailed velocity structures of the ground. This chapter
discusses both the conventional Hagiwara’s method (ABC method) and the tomography
method.
2. Applicability
1) The seismic refraction survey is a standard survey method for a geological survey in
civil engineering.
2) The seismic refraction survey is usually applied to the following:
ground classification along tunnel routes;
evaluation of dam foundations;
baseline survey of soil constructions such as the decision of slope of banks;
and
survey for fundamental information for engineering judgment on the stability
of soil mass.
Notes
1) The velocity structure from a seismic refraction survey can estimate the following
geological features:
distribution of geological formations;
condition of the ground such as hardness, degree of fractures, weathering and
alteration; and
geological structures such as a fault fracture zone and its size.
Supplementary Notes
1) For the construction of roads and dams, the seismic refraction survey is widely used in all
stages; from preliminary and reconnaissance surveys to a detailed survey as well as during
construction, operation and maintenance.
Description
Most geological conditions satisfy the prerequisite of the seismic refraction survey: deeper
layers are generally harder and more compacted and weathering decreases from shallower
layers to deeper layers. The estimation of the seismic velocity in each layer is a combination of
many factors including rock type, compaction, degree of weathering/alteration and fractures.
As a result, similar geological formations may have different seismic velocity layers, or
different geological formations may have the same seismic velocities.
The accuracy of the seismic refraction improves when there is a large and distinct contrast in
the seismic velocities between layers. For example, it can estimate the thickness of
unconsolidated sediments on unweathered bedrock more accurately than on extensively
weathered bedrock. On the contrary, it is hard to accurately estimate the depth and the
thickness of layers where the velocity changes gradually; such as weathered granite.
The seismic refraction survey is widely applied in civil engineering and it provides useful
parameters for civil engineering judgment. The surveys are conducted through various stages of
construction projects; from reconnaissance to detailed investigations for the design and
construction and subsequent investigations during the operation and maintenance phase.
Particularly in road and dam construction, the survey is repeated at each phase of progress. But
in general, the seismic refraction survey is typically used for detailed investigations.
3. Planning
3.1 Desk Study and Basic Plan
1) The seismic refraction survey assumes the following conditions:
seismic velocities of layers increase with depth; and
the geological structure only varies in the orientation of the survey line, or
does not vary in the transverse direction.
2) In the planning, the following items should be examined first:
the roughness of the slope of topography;
distribution of geology, degree of weathering and hardness;
existence of thin layers; and
the dip of faults.
Notes
1) In the presurvey study, the following information should be used:
topographic map;
geological map;
landuse map;
report of geological surveys; and
records of construction projects carried out near the site.
2) Where the seismic refraction survey is difficult to apply, the orientation of survey lines and
the ways of the investigation should be reconsidered, particularly in the following
geological conditions:
a highvelocity layer such as lava exists near the surface; and
a geological structure is parallel to the survey line or intersects at a sharp angle.
Supplementary Notes
1) If little information is available, survey results from a site with similar geological
conditions should be referred to.
2) Consider combining other methods of investigation, such as an electrical survey and
velocity logging.
Description
In the planning, existing information should be collected and organized according to the
purpose of the investigation. The topographic, geological and geotechnical characteristics of
the survey area should be understood. Generally, little existing information is available at the
preliminary or initial phase of the investigation. Use of survey results acquired under similar
geological conditions is effective to make a master plan.
In the application of the seismic refraction survey, the theoretical and practical limitations of
the method should also be assessed in the planning stage. Consideration should be given to
other methods of investigation, such as other geophysical explorations (electrical survey and
well logging methods, etc.), geological investigation or drilling, for an optimum plan to
accomplish the objective.
(1) Theoretical requirements for application
Since the seismic refraction method assumes certain conditions, the following issues should be
examined:
a) Seismic velocities should increase with depth
Seismic velocity generally increases with depth, so the seismic refraction survey is applicable
to this condition. However, there are situations in which a surface or an intermediate layer has a
faster seismic velocity than the layer below (Figure 3.1). In these geological situations, no
refracted wave returns from the top of the lowvelocity layer beneath the highvelocity layer
and therefore the low velocity layer will not be detected. Other geophysical methods, such as
the seismic reflection survey (Chapter 3) or velocity logging (Chapter 17), should be
considered as an alternative.
Figure 3.1: Conditions where the refraction survey is difficult to apply.
b) Thin layer with high velocity is not present at depth
The deeper layers of the ground are usually thicker. However, when there is a thin layer under a
thick layer, even if the condition of a) above is satisfied, the thin layer may not be recognized in
the record as the first arrival (Figure 3.2). Such a layer is called a “hidden” or “masked” layer.
The occurrence of this blinded layer is related to the ratio of the thickness and contrast of the
velocities of the layers and tends to occur when the thickness of the layer is very thin. When
such a geological condition is expected at the depth of a planned tunnel, an alternative
geophysical method, such as velocity logging, should be considered.
Figure 3.2: A structure that causes a blinded zone.
c) The dominant strike highvelocity layers should not be parallel to the survey line
Where the survey line is parallel to or crossing at an acute angle with the strike of a high
velocity layer, the first arrival energy may have traveled horizontally along the highvelocity
layer rather than refracted under the survey line, as shown in Figure 3.3. This frequently
happens in the geological condition with a dike or geological boundaries including a large
contrast in solidity. Where there is a dominant strike direction or significant lateral changes in
seismic velocity, the orientation of the survey line should be orthogonal to these structures to
ensure the accuracy of analysis of the subsurface structure under the survey line.
Figure 3.3: Geological condition with the highvelocity layer parallel to the survey line.
3.2 Planning Survey Lines
3) Survey lines should be set at locations suitable for the survey purpose, such as above
the planned tunnel alignment.
4) It is preferable to locate survey lines on a flat area or a slope with a consistent dip
where there are minimal irregularities.
5) It is desirable to orient survey lines to be as close to orthogonal to the expected
geological strike as possible, where the survey is to detect shear zones.
6) The length of the seismic line should be approximately 5–10 times the depth of the
target.
Note
1) A survey line for a long thin structure such as a tunnel should be set along the alignment.
Supplementary Notes
1) Where the orientation of the main survey line is parallel or subparallel to the geological
strike, secondary lines should be set orthogonal to the strike.
2) It is desirable to use a remote shot point at the appropriate extension of the survey line to
compensate for the lack of length of the survey line, when the length of the survey line
cannot be longer than 5 to 10 times of the survey depth.
3) Seismic refraction survey lines for dam foundations are generally located in a lattice
pattern.
Description
Flat areas or sites with uniform slopes with minimum irregularity are preferred for the seismic
lines as shown in Figure 3.4(a). An irregular topography adversely affects recorded traveltime
curves and it can complicate the analysis of the data. Plan survey lines away from cliffs if
possible (Figure 3.4(b)). Where the survey line is located parallel to or at an acute angle to the
strike of geological boundaries of hard and soft rocks, the result of the analysis of the data may
not indicate the correct geological conditions under the survey line. Such geological conditions
include layers of slate and crystalline schist and intrusive rocks in soft rock. It is preferable to
locate survey lines to be as close to orthogonal as possible to the expected strike of geological
boundaries and shear zones.
Figure 3.4: Guide to planning refraction survey lines.
For seismic refraction for tunnels or similar linear structures, the main survey line is
generally laid directly above the proposed centerline of the alignment. When such geological
conditions are anticipated, the survey lines (main line and its subline or auxiliary line) are
planned in the direction of the maximum dip of the topographic slope or perpendicular to the
geological dip (Figure 3.5(a)). When the planned alignment of constructions has curves, a
series of straight lines are combined to cover the alignment (Figure 3.5(a)). In such a case, the
length of the overlap from the crossover point needs to be as long as the depth of probe. When
the main survey lines are set along a curved alignment, the maximum deviation of the survey
lines from the alignment should be less than the depth of probe.
In a survey for a proposed tunnel alignment or cutting, if the maximum direction of the slope
of the topography is different from the strike of geological layers or structures, the primary
survey lines should be planned along the direction of maximum dip of the cutting face and also
secondary lines perpendicular to the anticipated geological strike for the structure to investigate
the boundaries of geological formations (Figure 3.5(b)). For seismic refraction for dam
foundations, survey lines are generally in a grid pattern along the centerline of the proposed
dam body. Expressions like primary and secondary lines are not often used in a dam site survey
(Figure 3.5(c)). Within a planned survey line, the maximum offset (”maximum offset”) should
maintain five to six times of the depth of probe (Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.5: Typical line arrangement for a refraction survey.
Figure 3.6: Relationship of depth of probe, traveltime graphs, survey line length and maximum offset.
The seismic refraction method analyzes the velocity structure in the range in which refracted
waves are observed. Therefore the second layer cannot be analyzed within the areas where
direct waves are recorded as the first break (x1 and x2 in Figure 3.6). Several remote shot points
are normally added on the extension of the survey line to analyze velocities of the second layer
from the start point to the end point of the survey line (Figure 3.7).
Figure 3.7: Designing remote shot points for planned building and depth of probe.
The cover is thin near the ends of a tunnel and thick at the central area and the depth of the
survey varies accordingly. The maximum source and receiver offset can be relatively short near
the portal and it must be long in the center. Where the depths of the survey change along a
survey line, the offset distance and remote shot points must be planned considering these
conditions. The length of the array setup and the maximum offset are decided considering the
following issues:
(1) Calculation of the crossover distance
The crossover distance x0 (m) is calculated from the first and second layer velocities, V1
and V2 (m/s) and the thickness of the first (or surface) layer estimated from existing
information assuming a two horizontal layer by the following equation:
(2) Estimation of the range of analysis below the second layer
The length of the analyzable range below the second layer x is calculated from the length of
survey line l or the maximum offset Rmax by subtracting twice the crossover distance, 2x0.
The length of the analyzable range x is desired to be as long as possible. If it is 0 or has
negative values, the length of the survey line or the maximum source to receiver distance is
insufficient. Table 3.1 gives a rough guide of the determination of the analyzable range
below the second layer.
For example, if the velocities of the first and second layers are 1500 and 300m/s respectively,
(V1/V2 ratio = 0.5), the thickness of the first layer is 25 meters and the maximum offset is 500
meters, then the crossover distance is 85 meters and the length of the analyzable range below
the second layer is 330 m.
However, when the depth of the first layer increases to 100 m, the crossover distance
becomes 325 m and the length of the analyzable range below the second layer becomes a
negative value, shown by the symbol ‘–’. Then, the length of the survey line and the maximum
offset are not sufficient.
Table 3.1: A guide to analyzable range below the second layer.
3.3 Planning of Receiver and Shot Points
The receiver interval is generally 5 meters for shallow targets and 10 meters for
7) deeper.
8) Shot points are generally placed at intervals of 30 to 60 meters.
Notes
1) The receiver interval is set to 5 meters near tunnel portals at both ends, even if all other
intervals are set to 10 meters.
2) A remote shot point should be set at a far distance, when the length of a seismic line is
shorter than the depth of probe needed or when a deeper survey depth is required near
tunnel portals.
Supplementary Notes
1) When high accuracy is required, the source interval and receiver interval are set shorter
than the general rule.
2) If the survey area is hilly, the shot points must be set at the inflection points such as ridges
and valleys.
3) The number of receivers and spread patterns are decided according to the specification of
the data recorder and the condition of survey lines. Then, source locations or explosion
plans are organized for the receiver pattern.
4) The shot points are set at the middle point between the receivers.
Description
Receiver intervals are decided from the depth of probe. A guide of receiver intervals for survey
depths in civil engineering is given in Table 3.2. While a 20 meter receiver interval may be
used for considerably deeper targets, it is not recommended, because the reduction in the
accuracy in determining the seismic velocities in the nearsurface layers results in a
commensurate reduction in the accuracy in computing depths to deeper targets. In addition,
receiver intervals as small as 1 to 3 meters are sometimes appropriate for shallow surveys less
than 20 meters deep.
Depth of probe ∼20 m 10 m∼200 m 100m∼

Geophone interval 1∼3 m 5 m 10 m
Table 3.2: Guide to receiver interval for depth of probe.
Shot point intervals are normally 30 to 60 meters along the survey line and they are set at the
middle points between neighboring receivers.
Shot points are set at both ends of the spreads of survey lines. The term “spread” means a
range of geophones to record signals at a time using a set of data recorders (see Figure 4.7):
Shot points are located at an approximately constant interval about 30 to 60 m in a
seismic spread;
In undulating land, the shot points may be moved to topographic inflection points such
as the top of a ridge or the base of a valley (Figure 3.8); and
Remote shot points are set on the extension of spreads.
A shot point plan map is drawn and used in the field.
Figure 3.8: Arrangement of shot points along topography.
Figure 3.9: Planning shot points using a traveltime chart.
A “seismic spread” is a series of receivers to simultaneously record seismic signals (Figure
3.9). The maximum number of receivers for a seismic spread is limited by the number of
channels of amplifiers and data recorders (Section 4.1). For example, the maximum number of
receiver points for a seismic spread is 24, when a 24channel data recorder is used.
Many shot points are generally desired at a small interval for accuracy of analysis. The
source interval can be set large for a deep survey. However, a large interval may cause
difficulty in determining the velocity structures at a shallow subsurface and this may affect the
analysis of the deeper velocity structure.
A very small source interval, with which the expected travel curves of the refraction signal
do not cross (Figure 3.10 (a)), does not improve the accuracy of the analysis of the second
layer. From experience, an appropriate source interval is considered to be between 30 to 60 m.
Because the short source intervals are used to investigate shallow velocity structures, the
traveltimes from these sources are only plotted for the receivers near the source (Figure 3.9).
The refraction seismic method may also be applied to a crustal study of several kilometers in
depth. A largescale configuration is used such that the receiver interval and source interval are
500 meters to 1 kilometer and 5 to 50 kilometers, respectively.
Figure 3.10: Examining the arrangement of source location.
3.4 Seismic Sources
9) Explosives (normally dynamite or water gel) are generally used as a source for seismic
refraction.
10) Weight drops, hammers and other nonexplosive sources can be used, where
explosives cannot be used.
Notes
1) A seismic source in boreholes (borehole seismic source) should be planned for a deep
survey or in the vicinity of residential or industrial buildings.
2) Weight drops, hammers and other nonexplosive source provide small energy and can be
used where the depth of target is less than approximately 20 meters.
Supplementary Notes
1) Underwater sources in creeks and rivers are economical as a small charge produces large
effective energy. Use of explosives in water requires permission from the appropriate
authorities in the area.
2) A survey for a long tunnel requires a large maximum sourcereceiver distance. Explosive in
boreholes are often used as the seismic source. They are frequently set near both ends of the
tunnel portal.
Description
A variety of seismic sources for refraction surveys are shown in Figure 3.11 and Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.11: Variety of seismic sources for a refraction survey.
Figure 3.12: Modes of use of explosive sources.
Table 3.3 shows the standard relations between the maximum propagation distance and the
type of seismic source. As seen in this table, explosives are the preferred seismic source as they
have larger energy to propagate seismic waves over the distance. Explosives include dynamite
and water gels. The borehole seismic source is advantageous in efficiently transmitting fine
seismic signals with a smaller explosive charge than the surface source and also has less
influence on the surface environment. However, boreholes must be drilled, which adds extra
cost and time to the survey. The selection of the source and locations needs consideration of
costeffectiveness: the use of borehole sources may be limited to the situations where the
requirement of the survey depth is large and where reduction of noise and vibration to
residential or industrial areas is paramount.
The maximum propagation distance of seismic waves caused by explosives depends upon
the size of the charge. The relations between propagation distance and the size of the explosive
charge for seismic sources on ground surface, water and a borehole are shown in Table 3.4 and
Figure 3.13.
Table 3.3: Maximum reach of signal by source.
Table 3.4: Approximate explosive charge for offset distance
Where the target depth is less than 20 meters, a mechanical energy source such as a weight
drop can be used instead of explosives. For survey depths less than 5 meters, a wooden mallet
or sledgehammer may be used to strike on the ground surface. As the energy produced by a
nonexplosive seismic source is generally small, stacking repeated impacts is usually required
to achieve adequate signaltonoise ratios. It is necessary to understand at the time of planning
that the nonexplosive seismic sources require more time and effort than using explosives.
A refraction seismic survey using Swave uses a special seismic source that horizontally
strikes a plunk on the ground surface. The generation of Swaves is described in Chapter 17
(Velocity Logs).
Figure 3.13: Relationship between maximum arrival distance and amount of explosive charge.
4.1 Instrumentation
1) The following equipment is used for a refraction seismic survey (see Figure 1.1(a) for
a diagram):
geophones: 24, 48 or 96 (depending on the data recorder used);
geophone cable (takeout cable): 2, 4 or 8 (generally each cable has 12 take
outs);
extension cable (12 or 24 cores): number depends on the field condition;
data recorder (including 24 or 48 channel amplifier): 1 or more;
blasters: 1–6;
Telephone wire (to transfer shot marks);
iron bar for piercing blasting hole; and
source (explosives or ground striking).
Notes
1) The instruments are tested for correct operation before the survey according to the planned
test procedure. The test procedure should include:
check for consistent output voltage of receivers: no irregular waves are produced;
contact or leakage of cables: cable resistance;
correct operation of blasters; and
correct operation of data acquisition units.
Description
(1) Receiver
A receiver or geophone is used to sense ground vibrations and is sometimes called a pick up.
The most commonly used receiver is a moving coil vertical motion geophone to detect vertical
motion of the ground, because the standard refraction seismic survey uses the first arrival of the
Pwave that has vertical motion. Receivers with a resonant frequency in the range 10–40Hz are
frequently used, because they are easily handled. There are two types of surface geophones:
land and marsh phones (Figure 4.1). The marsh phone is often used on soft ground to achieve
deep penetration. The Swave refraction seismic survey uses horizontal geophones.
Figure 4.1: Common receivers (geophones) for the seismic refraction survey.
(2) Geophone cable and extension cable
A geophone cable is an electric wire with multiple cores to transfer signals from the receivers
to the amplifier. The geophone cable consists in 12twisted pairs of wires to transmit signals
from 12 geophones. The takeouts to accept signals from receivers are installed at a constant
interval on a geophone cable (Figure 4.2). A 24core extension cable is used when the
geophone cable does not directly reach the amplifier.
Figure 4.2: 24core seismic cable and extension cable.
(3) Amplifier and data acquisition unit
In recent years, digital recorders have been commonly used for data acquisition. These have
advantages over the old analog system in their capability of stacking and digital processing of
output data. An example of a data acquisition unit is shown in Figure 4.3. The data recorded are
easily inputted into analysis software. Twentyfour channel seismic recorders are the most
common but some seismic recorders have more than 48 channels. Increasing the number of
recording channels can reduce the number of seismic spreads on a line and the number of
connections and improves the accuracy of analysis. However, a larger number of channels does
not always improve survey efficiency. You may have to wait longer for a quiet moment on all
the channels.
(4) Blaster and telephone wire
A blaster is a switch to detonate the explosives. The blaster sends a pulse of electric current to
the detonator for blasting and sends a shot mark to the seismic recorder at the same time
(Figure 4.4). Telephone wire may be laid to communicate between the blasting operator and the
recording crew. In some systems, this wire is incorporated into the cable to send the shot mark.
Wireless communication is not used to avoid accidental detonation by the electromagnetic
wave of a telephone or twoway radio.
Figure 4.3: A digital recorder.
Figure 4.4: Detonation and communication systems.
4.2 Access Permits
2) Before the survey, obtain the necessary access permits from the stakeholders of the
survey area:
Land owners;
Tenants;
Land managers (Forest manager, River manager, Park ranger, Road authority,
etc.);
Residents; and
Local government.
3) Depending on the legal system, several levels, state and local, of government may be
necessary.
Notes
1) Failure to obtain proper permissions may adversely affect not only the survey but
subsequent construction projects. Ensure a suitable agreement with stakeholders through
thorough discussions.
2) Where clearing obstacles such as trees or plants is necessary for survey lines, obtain
permission to do so.
3) The field schedule should always include generous allocations of time to obtain the
necessary approvals for admission.
4) Use of explosives needs permission from the land owner.
Supplementary Notes
1) Permits to work in protected forests and national parks frequently require many days.
2) Explain about vibration and noise to residents.
Description
The client of a survey is not always the owner of the site. It is necessary to identify landowners,
tenants and other stakeholders, to explain the features of the survey and to obtain their approval
prior to the survey. Required permissions are not limited to site entry but extend to the access
path. Local government and residents should be made aware of the survey as they may be
affected by the noise from the seismic source. When the survey takes place in stateowned land
such as national parks, state forests reserves and easements, obtain permissions to enter and
survey from the relevant authority. The procedures are different from office to office and may
take a long time. The field schedule should always allow a generous allocation of time to obtain
the necessary approvals. Survey works during weekends and holidays may be restricted near
residential areas. Plan the survey accordingly.
4.3 Preparation and Handling of Explosives
4) The explosives control act must be observed throughout operations using explosives.
Notes
1) Laws and acts are revised from time to time. Check for the latest revision of the regulations.
2) Permit for consuming explosives should be obtained from the appropriate authority.
3) Preparation and operation of explosives requires appropriate licenses.
Description
The necessary minimum amount of explosives for the survey is purchased from a licensed
explosive dealer. Purchase, transportation, storing and consumption of explosives need
permission from the appropriate authority. Different regulatory procedures may apply
depending on the quantity of the explosives used. The amount used in a day of a refraction
survey is usually less than 25 kg with 250 detonators and a special storage area may not be
needed. The explosives are only handled by a licensed explosive operator prescribed in the
consumption plan. Making primer explosives, drilling, installation, wiring, detonation and
examining unexploded stock are also done by licensed personnel. A stocktaking note must be
prepared to record daily the reception, consumption and return quantity. Leftover explosives at
the end of a day’s operation may be stored in a prescribed facility or one could ask a local
dealer for temporary storage. At the end of the survey, the return must be properly documented
and reported to the authority.
4.4 Setting and Location Survey of Seismic Lines
5) Seismic lines are set up by a geodetic survey referenced to nearby markers.
6) Receiver points are decided by a horizontal distance survey and by stakes with station
numbers or chainage.
7) The elevation of receiver points is also surveyed.
Note
1) The location survey may need removal of branches and undergrowth. Obtain permits from
the landowner or manager.
Supplementary Notes
1) If no survey markers are available in the vicinity, or the survey line is long in the order of
several kilometers, then a temporary benchmark may be set up by GPS or EDM and a line
may be surveyed referenced to that temporary point.
2) A simple smallscale survey with transit compasses and a hand level is usually employed.
3) When such a simple survey takes place, check the result against intersections of roads and
rivers.
4) Where the slop is gentle and even, the survey line can be surveyed along the surface slope.
Description
The field operation starts from line setting. A crew including a surveyor pegs the receiver
points and shot points along the survey line according to the plan. In principal, the line length
and receiver distance are described in the horizontal distance. These distances are sometimes
set up along the surface topography particularly where the slope is steep.
In a forest and tall grass, visibility may be severely affected necessitating cutting branches
and grass. Before removing these obstacles, ask land owners and managers for permission.
Care should be taken to avoid damaging crops. Highvisible flagging tapes are convenient in
marking locations.
An elevation survey along the line is necessary for data processing and presentation in
sections.
4.5 Field Operation and Recording
8) The field operation is carried out with the following procedure:
lay communication cable along the entire line;
set up the recording station for each spread;
plant geophones at the receiver points of each spread;
connect geophones and the recorder to the data cable;
prepare shot;
upon the signal from the recording station, shoot and record; and
move to next spread.
Notes
1) Geophones are vertically planted firm into the soil.
2) When moving the spread, there should be at least one overlapping geophone between the
adjacent spreads.
3) Explosives are handled by licensed personnel.
4) When moving the spread, the site for the old spread must be returned to as close to the
original condition as possible.
5) The record should be long enough to capture the first break by the geophone at the farthest
offset.
6) The sampling interval should be shorter than 0.5 ms to ensure a reading accuracy of 1 ms.
Supplementary Notes
1) Always check the project plan and follow its schedule.
2) Check for ambient noise by connecting the data cable without source effort and adjust the
filter.
3) If there is severe wind or rain disturbing the ground, postpone the operation.
Description
Figure 4.6 shows the work flow of the field operation of a refraction survey from preparation to
conclusion. The crew works in three groups; for receivers, recording and sourcing.
Figure 4.6: Workflow of field data acquisition.
For each spread, shoot and record according to the order in the plan. When all the shots are
done for a spread, advance the survey to the next spread by moving the geophones, cables and
recording station. As seen in Figure 4.7, the last geophone of a spread is used as the first
geophone of the next spread. This overlap is used to confirm data consistency between the
adjacent spreads.
Figure 4.7: Spread configuration.
The geophones must be installed vertically and firmly on the ground (Figure 4.8). Wet
terminals and connectors may cause faulty signals and damage to the instruments. Cover them
if rain is anticipated.
Figure 4.8: Preparation of geophones.
The spread and shots are prepared concurrently. If a hammer blow or weight dropping is
used as a source, a hard plate is set on the ground and a geophone for the shot mark is installed
nearby. For a ground explosive source, a hole is pierced with an iron bar. A primer explosive
(generally 100g) is installed fist and refilled with sand and soil. The hole is covered with a
sheet and sandbag, to minimize dust. When additional explosives are used for larger offset
distances, more than one hole is pierced and primer explosives are installed in each of them.
They are detonated simultaneously. To avoid misfire, the wires are not connected to the switch
and are short circuited until shooting. If strangers are likely to pass, warning signs and security
staff should be prepared.
Figure 4.9: Preparation of explosive source.
Boreholes for shooting are drilled to about 20 m depth beforehand and protected with a metal
casing pipe. The explosives are installed at the bottom of the hole. If the groundwater level is
low, pour water before shooting.
The recording station should have telephone cable connected to the recorder and correct
operation of the system including the shot mark before actual shooting needs to be confirmed.
Then a recording is tried without the source to check the level of background noise. According
to the noise level, the input gain and filter are adjusted to ensure a good signaltonoise ratio.
On a windy day, the noise level is high near large trees, forests and surface structures. If the
condition is too bad, the survey may have to be postponed to a quiet day.
The blasting crew communicate with the recording station by telephone when they are ready
to blast. The recording station turns the system on when the noise becomes stable. The blasting
crew may initiate a warning signal, then the blasting operation starts.
After recording the data of each shot, the record is checked for quality of the shot mark,
amplitude of the first break and clarity of time marks. If the quality of the data is not adequate,
the recording should be repeated. The field note must document the spread number, source
point location, shot depth, correspondence between geophone locations and recording channels,
record number and file name.
A hammer blow and weight dropping produce less energy than explosives and the signal at
remote geophones may be buried in the ground motion. Stacking may be carried out to enhance
the S/N ratio (Figure 4.10). The S/N ratio improves in proportion to the number of blows. Up to
ten blows are commonly stacked in refraction surveys.
Figure 4.10: Stacking process of data by nonexplosive source.
At the time of moving, the ground condition should be returned to its original state. Special
care should be taken in the vicinity of the shot points. All the debris, cords and tapes should be
recovered.
4.6 Safety
9) Shooting is a dangerous operation, regardless of the use of explosives. All the crew
must be inducted for safety.
Notes
1) All operations involving the use of explosives should be carried out by licensed operators in
conformity with the relevant legislation (see Section 4.3 Preparation and Handling of
Explosives).
2) If there is a danger of lightening, stop the operation immediately.
Supplementary Notes
1) Warning signs, warning sirens and watchmen may be needed to keep outsiders away from
the survey site.
2) Careful attention should be paid to working on steep slopes in order to prevent accidents
with personnel and equipment.
Description
Use of explosives is strictly controlled by law. It includes purchase, transport, storage and
consumption. The operation must abide by the relevant law. To stop outsiders accessing the
survey site, safety measures including warning signs and a preblast warning signal by a siren
should be exercised.
Operation of a seismic refraction survey often takes place on a steep slope of hills and
mountains. The operators should be fully inducted and safety precautions to prevent slipping
accidents should be adhered to. If a thunder storm is forecasted, stop the operation
immediately. Noise in the radio and speakers of the detonators is an indicator of an
approaching thunder storm.
5. Data Processing
5.1 Workflow of Data Processing
1) A traveltime chart is made from the reading of the first break off the seismic records.
Note
1) There are two methods in refraction analysis: Hagiwara’s method and tomographic
inversion. Both methods require the first break data as input.
Description
Figure 5.1 shows the work flow of analysis from the preparation of traveltime curves.
The traditional analysis method of data analysis is called Hagiwara’s method, named after its
developer (see Section 6). Tomographic inversion is a recent development in refraction
analysis. Both methods take the first break time as input. The work flow shown in Figure 5.1 is
for Hagiwara’s method.
Figure 5.1: Flow chart of standard data processing of seismic refraction data.
5.2 Measurement of First Arrival Traveltimes
2) Measure the first break time from the seismic data records collected in the field.
Note
1) Software for automatic picking of first breaks is available. If used, its accuracy must be
checked.
Supplementary Note
1) To make the subsequent analysis easier, organize the digital files with location data of the
source and receivers.
Description
The first break time is read off the seismic records. It is the difference between the shot mark
time and the first move of the geophone by the arrival of Pwaves.
The data collected by a digital recorder may be displayed on a computer screen and the first
breaks are picked using data processing/analysis software for seismic refraction (Figure 5.2).
The arrival of refracted Pwaves may appear as a “kick” up or down depending on the polarity
of the system. The example in Figure 5.2 picks the kick down points that are indicated by red
lines. Some software includes an automatic pick function. The first breaks picked by an
automatic function are often affected by ambient noise. Therefore, the picks have to be
inspected to confirm they are correct. The standard precision of the first break pick for
refraction analysis is 1ms. The precision of the digital data is equal to the sampling interval.
The first break data read off the seismic records are stored in a digital file together with shot
receiver geometry.
The first break time can be read off on a paper record collected by an analogue recorder. It
should be read to the nearest 1ms and the data should be digitally stored.
Figure 5.2: An example of first break picking on a digitally recorded data.
5.3 Preparation of Traveltime Graphs
3) The traveltime curve is generated by plotting the first break time along the vertical
axis against the horizontal axis of offset distance.
Note
1) Connect the traveltimes from the same shot point by several straight line segments.
Supplementary Notes
1) The traveltime graph is plotted with distance along the horizontal axis and traveltime along
the vertical axis. When traveltimes are plotted with each station 1 cm apart on metric graph
paper, which represents 10 m at a scale of 1:1,000 or 5 m at a scale of 1:500 and with 1 cm
representing 5 ms or 10 ms on the time axis, then there is good visual discrimination
between the different segments, which represent different apparent velocities on the
traveltime graph.
2) When placing the topographic profile under the traveltime curves, correlation will be easily
observed.
Description
The traveltime curve is drawn plotting the first break time read on the seismic record along the
vertical axis against distance on the horizontal axis. This is often done on a computer screen
displaying the seismic records with shot and receiver location information.
For graphic analysis by Hagiwara’s method, the common horizontal scale is 1:500 and the
vertical (time) scale 5 ms/cm. With this combination, a 45degree slope represents a velocity of
1 km/s and 26.5degree 2 km/s. If the topographic section is plotted along the traveltime, the
correlation is easy to see.
5.4 Examination and Adjustment of Traveltime Data
4) Since the traveltimes are the input for data processing and analysis, they should be
carefully examined for internal consistency and any errors need to be corrected. In
particular, traveltimes are examined to ensure:
agreement between forward and reverse traveltimes;
agreement of forward and reverse intercept times at each shot point; and
general parallelism of traveltime graphs for the same layer.
5) Check and adjust the traveltime curves that do not satisfy the above criteria to make
them suitable for subsequent analysis.
Notes
1) Do not adjust the travel curve alone but check the original reading of the first break to
confirm the adjustment is appropriate.
2) The separation of two travel curves in the same direction does not increase with offset
distance.
Supplementary Notes
1) The reading error in terms of inconsistence of twoway traveltime should be within 2–3 ms.
2) In exceptional circumstances, the intercept time may not agree.
3) The traveltime curves may not be parallel when a mirage structure is present.
Description
There are two analysis methods in a refraction seismic survey: Hagiwara’s method and its
extension; and the tomographic inversion method. Both methods start the analysis from
traveltime curves. The traveltimes must satisfy the below geometrical conditions. A traveltime
data set that does not satisfy these conditions will confuse the analysis and causes a large error
in interpretation. These inconsistencies must be resolved prior to analysis. The source of
inconsistency is often due to errors in reading the first breaks. Suspicious data should be
checked in the original picks on the record before adjusting the traveltimes. In fact, a perfect
match of the total traveltimes and intercept times is rare due to noise in the records, recording
error and reading error. A permissible error is usually set to 2–3 ms.
(1) Agreement in total traveltime
Between two shot points A and B, the reciprocal times, designated TAB and TBA respectively,
should be equivalent. This fact is a result of the principle of reciprocity. In Figure 5.3, in which
there are four shot points, A to D, there are six pairs of reciprocal times, all of which may be
equal, viz. TAB= TBA, TAC = TCA, TAD = TDA, TBC = TCB, TBD = TDB and TCD = TDC.
Prior to analysis, agreements of the total traveltime should be checked. If an inconsistency is
found, the reason for the inconsistency should be examined and resolved.
One of the possible causes of inconsistency may be an error in reading the first breaks.
Figure 5.4 shows an example of finding an error in reading the traveltime from shot point B to
geophone at A from the disagreement TAB and TBA.
Figure 5.5 shows an example of discrepancy in the total travel time caused by the difference
in travel time at the array boundary. Having overlapping geophone(s) allows to check for this
error.
Figure 5.3: Agreement of total travel time.
Figure 5.4: Disagreement in total travel time due to error in reading the travel time.
Total travel time sometimes do not agree when an underwater source is used. In Figure 5.6,
a geophone could not be installed in the water close to the source because of an outcrop of fast
velocity rock at the edge of a creek and it was placed on the soil nearby. There are two ways to
deal to adjust the travel time curves: parallel shift of the curve TBA to match TAB by estimating
the travel time to the correct location of the geophone; and vice versa. Judging from the field
condition, the former approach is more appropriate. This kind of adjustment of travel curves
should be carefully carried out considering consistency with other travel time curves.
Figure 5.5: Disagreement of total traveltimes due to the boundary of spreads.
Figure 5.6: Adjustment of inconsistent total traveltime for underwater blasting.
(2) Agreement of intercept times
The intercept time is the time where the extension of the traveltime gradient crosses the time
axis (see Figure 5.7(a)). The travel curves of the refracted waves through the same refractor
should coincide at the intercept time. If these do not agree, the recognition of the total
traveltime may not be correct and needs adjustment. However, these traveltimes may not agree
when the velocity contrast across the layer boundary near the shot point is large (Figure 5.7(b)).
Check for consistency with other records and analysis may include consideration of such a
structure.
Figure 5.7: Consistency of intercept times.
Figure 5.8: Parallelism of traveltime curves.
Figure 5.9: Similarity in updown trend.
(3) Parallelism of traveltime curves
Figure 5.8 presents traveltime graphs recorded in the same direction for two shot points, which
are laterally separated from each other, as well as the difference between the two traveltime
graphs. Where the traveltimes are from the same refractor, then the graphs are parallel and in
turn, the differences are constant. The parallelism of traveltime graphs occurs both with
irregular topography and irregular refractors (Figure 5.9). It can be a very useful property to
assist in the identification of refractors.
This parallelism is an important check point, especially in the analysis by Hagiwara’s
method, in which a layered structure is implicitly assumed. Where a mirage structure, which
has a gradual increase of velocity without a clear boundary (Section 8.3), is present, the travel
curves gradually move closer and there may not be a parallel section. In any case, two travel
curves extended to one direction may monotonously become closer and the gap never changes
when farther apart. If a mirage structure is suspected, use tomographic inversion to verify.
6. Analysis by Hagiwara’s Method
6.1 Recognition of Velocity Layers on Traveltime Curves
1) Hagiwara’s method analyzes the first breaks for layers of different seismic velocity.
2) The method analyzes a pair of traveltime curves recorded in two directions.
3) First, plot traveltime curves of each pair of seismic records and determine the knee
points. Each straight segment represents velocity of each layer.
Note
1) The number of knee points on traveltime curves should be constant throughout the data set.
Description
The Hagiwara method for analysis of refraction seismic data is a graphic manipulation to
estimate the Swave velocities assuming a layered earth. This had been the standard method
before tomographic inversion was introduced. This method determines the layer velocities one
by one from the top, hence it is sometimes called the “layer stripping method”.
This method analyzes a pair of travel time curves in the same range recorded with two shots
in opposite directions (Figure 6.3). Travel time curves are generally a set of several short
straight lines, gradients of which decreases with the distance from the shot point. The velocity
of a layer is indicated by straight segments with the same gradient in opposite direction. So the
first step of the analysis is to find segments with the same gradients. In practice, knee points of
segments are decided first and the gradient of the segment between the knee points are
generally regarded as the velocity of the layer. Errors in recognising the velocity layer results in
incorrect velocity structure. Actual travel time data may not show clear straight segments.
Analysis may incorporate the known natures of the model such as prallelism of travel time
curves.
Figure 6.1: Layer and knee point identification by using parallelism of traveltime curves.
The number of knee points is the same in two directions within an analysis range (Figure
6.2(b)). Check the number of knee points of all the travel curves in all the areas.
Figure 6.2: Checking the knee points.
6.2 Preparation of Crosssections
4) In Hagiwara’s method, a velocity layer section is made by:
Estimating the velocity of each layer from the calculation of the gradient of
the traveltime curve;
Calculating the depth of the velocity layer boundary under each geophone
from the traveltime through the layers; and
Plotting on a section the arcs with the radii equal to the layer thicknesses and
estimating the velocity boundary from the envelope of the arcs.
Note
1) Hagiwara’s method is primarily designed for a twolayer model but it can be extended to a
threelayer case.
Supplementary Notes
1) A slope correction may be performed on large slopes estimated by Hagiwara’s method.
2) Perform a path calculation to confirm the analysis result. Adjust the velocity structure if
necessary.
3) The result of the path calculation should be posted on the section and check for the
difference between the traveltime read on the record and the traveltime from the analysis.
Description
The following is the procedure of analysis by Hagiwara’s method (Figure 6.8):
Select a pair of travel curves running in the opposite direction;
Pick the knee points and determine the range where the velocity and traveltime curves
can be estimated;
Using the gradient of the first segment, determine the velocity of the first layer V1;
Calculate a depth traveltime (or delay time) dR for an arbitrary point R, using the
traveltimes TAR; TBR and total traveltime TAB;
Subtract TAB from TAR and TBR making T’AR and T’BR and plot in the section (• in
Figure 6.3);
Apply 4 and 5 above to all the geophone locations within the range where analysis is
possible. The velocity traveltimes are a pair of crossing lines. These lines are called “T’
curves” and the gradient represents the velocity of the second layer V2;
Calculate the critical angle from V1 and V2;
At an arbitrary geophone point R, calculate the thickness zR from dR and V1 and critical
angle θ and draw arcs with the radius zR from R;
Draw arcs for all the points within the range and determine the velocity boundary as an
envelope of the arcs.
Figure 6.3: Analysis by Hagiwara’s method.
A model with more than three layers can be drawn by extending this method.
Figure 6.4 shows an example of traveltime curves (top) and a velocity layer section (bottom).
The broken line in Figure 6.4 is the traveltime curve of the lowest layer (4.4 km/s).
Hagiwara’s method assumes that the dip of the layers is nearhorizontal. Therefore the
calculation error increases when the dip is great. The velocity of the analysis result should be
adjusted according to the dip of the velocity boundary obtained. When this adjustment is
applied to the velocity, the layer thickness changes and the velocity layer section must be
redrawn.
The inverse of this analysis procedure is called “path calculation” or “ray tracing”. It
calculates traveltimes from the shot point to geophones for a given layer velocity model using
Snell’s law. In Figure 6.4, a broken line shows the raypath from a shot point at 92.5 m for the
velocity layer structure given.
The theoretical traveltime from raypath calculation should agree with the original observed
record. Examine the agreement between the observed and theoretical traveltime curves by
plotting on the same plane. Edit and correct the velocity layers or repack the first breaks if the
error exceeds the threshold. Software is available for such a correction. With this software, all
the path calculations can be carried out with relative ease. Correction of a velocity structure can
also be calculated from the difference between the observed and theoretical curves.
Figure 6.4: An example of travel curve plot and analysed velocity layer section.
Figure 6.5: An example of raypath display.
Figure 6.6: An example of raypath calculation.
6.3 Limitations of the Seismic Refraction Method
The seismic velocity versus depth crosssection should be examined and an
5)
assessment should be made as to whether there is the likely occurrence of:
a velocity reversal;
an undetected layer, the blind zone;
a narrow shear zone; and
a shear zone at a small angle to the ground surface; or any other significant
geological feature that cannot be detected with seismic refraction methods.
Supplementary Note
1) A lowvelocity layer is examined by velocity logging.
Description
As described in the planning Section (3.1), the refraction seismic method has limitations both
theoretically and in data recording. A critical review is necessary to check whether the result
shows beyond the method can analyze. If the result contains information beyond theoretical or
operational limit, it must be carefully reviewed.
(1) A velocity reversal
If there is a lowvelocity layer between highvelocity surroundings, the refracted wave from the
lower layer can be detected but the lowvelocity layer inbetween cannot be recognized. As a
result, the depth of the bottom layer appears deeper than it actually is. This is beyond the
limitation of the method and groundtruthing by velocity logging is recommended to confirm
the result.
(2) The blind layer
Even if the deeper layer has faster velocity, there are cases where the refracted waves cannot
appear as the first arrival. When the intermediate layer is thin, it may not cause the first break.
This is called a blinded layer. The conditions that a blinded layer occurs depend on the velocity
contrast, thickness of the intermediate layer, receiver interval and others.
Figure 6.7: Traveltime graphs and inversion model for a velocity reversal.
(3) A narrow shear zone
Where there are narrow lowvelocity zones, which can be caused by shear zones, it is not
uncommon for the anomalies in the travel time graphs to be offset. In such cases, the refractor
velocity analysis function of the reciprocal or Hagiwara method gives incorrect velocities.
Usually two zones with velocities intermediate between those of fresh bedrock and the shear
zone are obtained on either side of the true position of the shear zone. In addition, where there
are rapid changes in depth, the standard reciprocal or Hagiwara method can also produce
fictitious lowvelocity zones, where in fact there are none, that is, they are artifacts of the
refractor velocity analysis algorithm. Where a detailed definition of refractor velocities is
required, then it is essential to employ the principle known as refraction migration. The
determination of genuine lowvelocity zones from artifacts of the velocity analysis algorithm
has been studied.
Figure 6.8: Traveltime curves with a lowvelocity zone.
(4) A shear zone at a small angle to the ground surface
When a lowvelocity zone is parallel to or inclined at a small angle to the ground, the width of
the low velocity zone usually cannot be recognized with accuracy. If such narrow zones with
low seismic velocities are anticipated in the survey area, then it is necessary to include
additional techniques such as drilling, velocity logging and other geophysical methods, in order
to locate and define such features.
7. Analysis by Tomographic Inversion
7.1 Analysis Method
1) Tomographic inversion does not assume a layered earth. Dividing a section into small
cells, it estimates the seismic velocity of each cell.
2) The analysis algorithm is similar to seismic tomography.
3) It can estimate severe lateral variations of seismic velocity and a complex mirage
structure, which are not analyzed by Hagiwara’s method.
Notes
1) The residual error is indicative of the quality of the result of tomographic inversion. This
should be included in the report.
2) The traveltime data input to tomographic inversion must be well examined and adjusted as
necessary.
3) Tomographic inversion will output some solution to any input. In an extreme case, a
velocity section is produced from a random data set. Therefore the two issues above are
very important.
4) The same data sets do not necessarily produce identical solutions. It depends on the initial
model as well as other parameters.
5) Identifying the presence of lowvelocity zones and estimating the velocity of bedrock from
Tcurves are important, even when tomographic inversion is used.
Supplementary Notes
1) The accuracy of tracing may be estimated by a model calculation.
2) A preliminary analysis by Hagiwara’s method is recommended prior to tomographic
inversion, so that a rough estimate of the velocity structure can be conceived.
3) The velocity of the lowest layer of the initial model for inversion is generally obtained from
Tcurves.
Description
Tomographic inversion is a method to estimate a velocity model by minimizing the difference
between observed and theoretical traveltimes. It divides the underground into small cells like
seismic tomography (Chapter 15.1). Assigning velocities to each cell, it calculates the
theoretical traveltime curve and then refines the model by comparing it with the observed data
picked from field records. The result is presented in sections with colored cells or contour lines.
Figure 7.1: Velocity model by the tomographic inversion.
Tomographic inversion is performed by a computer from input of shot point and geophone
locations, topography, observed traveltimes, initial velocity model and other parameters. The
computation time increases as data points increase. This section explains the general procedure
of tomographic inversion:
First, raypaths are calculated for the initial model for all the shotreceiver combinations
by ray tracing.
Theoretical traveltimes are calculated for all the sourcereceiver combinations and
compared with the picked traveltimes to obtain the residual error.
If the residual error exceeds the permissible error, refine the velocity structure model.
Iterate the above with a refined model until the residual error reaches a permissible
level.
Ray tracing is equivalent to the path calculation of Hagiwara’s method and it is often based on
Huygens’s principle. SIRT and CG methods are typical methods of calculation of inversion.
The result of inversion may vary for the same input data, depending on the initial model and
inversion parameters. The initial model and parameters should be optimum. It is important even
in tomographic inversion to estimate bed rock velocity and presence of velocity reversal from
Tcurves. The velocity for the deepest layer used for the initial model of inversion is generally
estimated from Tcurves.
Errors may be found during analysis by Hagiwara’s method and there is a chance to correct
inappropriate data. However, tomographic inversion takes data of any quality and outputs the
result. Therefore the input data must be wellexamined and correct. The residual error at the
time of output is indicative of the quality of the result. It should be included in the final report.
An idea in using tomographic inversion is to analyze the data in Hagiwara’s method first, to
check for data quality and necessity of adjustment. The result may also be treated as
preliminary output and used for the initial model of the tomographic inversion.
Tomographic inversion does not assume a layered structure and is good at estimating the
lateral variation of velocity and a complex mirage structure. Figure 7.2 shows results of
analysis by Hagiwara’s method and tomographic inversion of the same input traveltime data.
These figures show that tomographic inversion is more appropriate to estimate complex
structures.
7.2 Analysis of Borehole Source and Receivers
4) Tomographic inversion does not impose geometrical restrictions. The analysis

accuracy may be enhanced by using the source and receivers in boreholes.
Notes
1) The boreholes have to be on or close to the survey line.
2) Downhole geophones are used as receivers in the boreholes.
Description
Aground survey has its limitation in structures that can be analyzed for. If the velocity does not
increase with depth, a correct inversion result is hard to be reached. It is impossible to
accurately estimate the angle of a nearvertical structure such as a fault and shear zone. The
blind zone, the refracted wave from which the first break is not caused, cannot be found by a
surface survey alone.
Tomographic inversion can take data from boreholes as well as the ground surface, while
Hagiwara’s method can only use data from the surface, Therefore, tomographic inversion can
estimate velocity reversal, nearvertical features and blind zones near the borehole.
Figure 7.2: Comparison between tomographic inversion and Hagiwara’s method.
8. Interpretation of Results
1) All available information, in addition to the seismic velocity versus depth cross
section, should be included in the final comprehensive interpretation.
2) If the results are ambiguous or there is the likelihood of nonunique interpretations,
then all possibilities should be included in the final report.
Notes
1) Interpretation of areas with the following geological features needs special attention:
layered Mesozoic and Paleozoic formations and crystalline gneiss;
serpentine;
where hardness varies with a formation; and
thermal alteration zone.
Supplementary Notes
1) Carry out an integrated interpretation efficiently by discussing with geologists and
geotechnical engineers.
2) Where alternative interpretations are possible on lithology, position and size of low
velocity layers and dip, both should be examined and explained.
Description
The velocity sections from a refraction survey by Hagiwara’s method and tomographic
inversion are a representation of the property of the ground expressed by seismic velocity.
Therefore geological interpretation is necessary to explain the velocity structures in terms of
geology and geomorphology. This interpretation does not stop at the velocity distribution but
integrates geological inference and the following information:
geological maps and crosssections in the vicinity; and
existing data in the vicinity or even additional data collection including drilling, other
geophysical surveys and laboratory testing.
If there is not sufficient data available, an additional survey may be considered. Discussion
with geologists and geotechnical engineers referring to the scope of the survey ensures efficient
and comprehensive work.
There may be an effect of topography and a limitation embedded in the method, which may
lead to several alternative interpretations. In such a case, these possibilities should be
documented and explained.
(1) Interpretation of a Velocity Structure
a) Effect of Topography on a Crosssection of Seismic Velocity versus Depth
Hagiwara’s method assumes that the ground surface and velocity boundaries are horizontal and
smooth. If these assumptions are violated by an uneven topography of boundaries, an
unexpected error may occur. Valley topography (Figure 8.1) may present a step in the
traveltime curve as if a lowvelocity layer were present there. Before concluding the presence
of a lowvelocity layer, try a model calculation or tomographic inversion to find that such a
step is accounted for by the topography.
Figure 8.1: Step in T'curve at the bottom of the valley.
b) Effect of Geological Factors on Seismic Velocity
Seismic velocity is related to the composition and petrophysical properties of soils and rocks in
the subsurface, such as mineral composition, diagenesis, porosity, degree of weathering or
alteration, rock fabric and tectonic stress. General relations between common lithologies and
seismic velocities in Japan are shown in Figure 8.2. In general, mafic rocks tend to have higher
seismic velocities where they occur as dykes and volcanic rocks. Furthermore, felsic rocks tend
to have higher seismic velocities than mafic rocks where they occur as major intrusions,
because mafic rocks tend to develop more fractures than felsic rocks. It is not uncommon for
metamorphic rocks to have pronounced anisotropy or fabric because of intrinsic layering or
schistosity, oriented cracks, weathering and alteration. It is necessary to know the composition
and petrophysical characteristics of rocks in a survey area in order to carry out a useful
interpretation of the seismic velocity versus depth crosssections.
Figure 8.2: Insitu elastic wave velocity of major strata and rocks.
Elastic wave velocity is useful in estimating engineering parameters for structural design
such as effective porosity, unconfined compression strength and density.
Figure 8.3 shows the relation between effective porosity and the Pwave velocity of rocks.
The seismic velocity increases with decreasing porosity and eventually approaches that of the
constituent minerals.
Figure 8.3: Relationship between Pwave velocity and effective porosity.
Figure 8.4 presents the relation between Pwave velocity and unconfined compression
strength. The rock with the higher Pwave velocity has the larger axial compression strength. S
wave velocity also increases with unconfined compression strength.
Velocity elastic waves, both P and S, also increase with increase of density (Figure 8.5).
The rate of increasing velocity with density changes at 2.7g/cc. Mafic minerals become a major
mineral consistent where the density value exceeds 2.7g/cc. Increase in the dominance of mafic
minerals causes an increase in Pwave velocity.
Figures 8.6 shows the correlation between seismic wave velocities and the N value; mainly
for sediments of relatively recent geologic age, such as Quaternary alluvium and Tertiary
formations. The relationship between soil types and elastic wave velocity is shown in Figure
8.7. These figures show a better correlation of the soil classification and the degree of
cementation or compaction with the Swave velocity rather than Pwave velocity. Therefore, it
is recommended that soil classifications should be based on the results of an Swave seismic
refraction survey, Swave shallow reflection seismic survey (Chapter 3) or PS logging (Chapter
17).
Figure 8.4: Correlation between elastic wave velocity and unconfined compressive strength.
Figure 8.5: Correlation between elastic wave velocity and density.
Figure 8.6: Correlation between elastic wave velocity and Nvalue.
c) Geological Conditions to which attention should be paid
The seismic velocities of deeper layers are usually higher than those in shallower layers,
because the rock condition tends to decrease from completely weathered at the surface to
quite fresh at depth, as shown in Figure 8.8. Nevertheless, there can be situations where
there are departures from this normal pattern.
Seismic Anisotropy Due to Cyclic Layering and Intrinsic Anisotropy
Seismic anisotropy is the variation of seismic velocity, either with azimuth or with the angle
from the vertical. Seismic anisotropy can be caused by intrinsic anisotropy, such as with
schists, cyclic layering of two or more intrinsically isotropic components such as sandstone,
shale and chert, or by the preferred orientation of joints and fractures (Figure 8.9).
Layered formations tend to have large velocity values due to compression by lithostatic
pressure. When stress is released by tunneling, these rocks may develop fractures and
fragment. Depending on the degree of weathering, plastic deformation may occur. For
example, tunneling in gneiss in a direction close to its strike may present difficulty even if its
Pwave velocity is as high as 5 km/s. Releasing stress by tunneling prompts fractures and
failure of the gneiss along its structural strike. These characters affect the evaluation of the
sites for tunneling.
Figure 8.7: Elastic wave velocity by types of soil.
Figure 8.8: General weathering condition and velocity layer of granite.
Serpentinite
Serpentinite is formed by regional metamorphism or hydrothermal alteration of mafic rocks,
such as peridotite, pyroxene etc. It often consists in both massive and foliated components.
The foliated component has weak mechanical strength and it tends to exfoliate when the
stress is relieved during tunneling. However, it is not always a straightforward task to
recognize the foliated component but setting the seismic line at right angles to the strike can
maximize the chances of detecting those zones where the weaker component may occur.
Often surface mapping of rock outcrops and sonic logging of boreholes can also improve the
chances of detecting zones of foliated serpentinite.
Formation with variations in hardness
Reversals in seismic velocities can occur where there are interbedded sequences of
pyroclastic rock and lava, volcanic mud flows, the alternation of clay, sand and
unconsolidated gravels, Neogene mudstone and sandstone, etc. The highseismic velocity in
a thick lava layer is not usually representative of the entire sequence and as a result, depth
computations and estimates of rock strength can be considerably in error. Velocity reversals
are usually indicated by traveltime graphs that are concave upwards and by very rapid
attenuation of head wave amplitudes. Under favorable conditions, GRM can provide some
resolution to the problem. However, under most circumstances, other geophysical methods,
including sonic logging of boreholes, are required.
Skipping traveltime is a phenomenon in which a part of the traveltime jumps without smooth
transition. This may occur where the fundamental assumption of the refraction seismic
method, that the seismic velocity increases with depth, is violated.
Figure 8.9: Anisotropy of elastic waves in layered formations.
Hydrothermal alteration zones
Hydrothermal alteration zones often occur as narrow zones with lowseismic velocities
similar to faults or fractured shear zones. However, the degree of alteration can vary
substantially along the zone and as a result, the seismic velocities can show commensurate
variations. In areas where hydrothermal alteration zones can occur, their location should be
based on geological mapping of outcrops, in addition to the detection of any narrow zones
with lowseismic velocities.
8.2 Applications in Civil Engineering Investigations
3) The results of seismic refraction surveys are used to classify rocks and to determine
rock properties:
classification of rocks for excavation;
indication of slope stability of cuts; and
classification of the base of planned buildings.
Note
1) Use the latest standard of rock classification published by the appropriate authority for the
purpose of the survey.
Description
The interpretation of the refraction seismic survey data includes correlation between velocity
layers and topographic and geologic features and it is widely used by civil engineers for
designing and building of foundations and structures.
(1) Standard Classification of Rocks for Excavation
The Pwave velocity is often used as an index of rock hardness for classification as shown in
Table 8.1. It is also used as an index for evaluating the difficulty of excavating the rocks as
shown in Table 8.2.
(2) Estimating the Stability of Slopes
Figure 8.10 shows a correlation between the seismic velocity of the slope material and the
gradient of the slope.
Comparing the laboratory measurement of the ultrasonic wave velocity of field specimen
(vp) and the Pwave velocity from a seismic refraction survey (Vp), a fracture index Cr can be
calculated as:
This is an indicative value of the degree of development of fractures in the rock mass.
Generally the smaller Cr indicates better rock.
General Detailed Petrological General conditions of rock Elastic

Classification Classification Classification wave
velocity
(reference)
Soft rock Soft rock A Graphite schist, Weathered rock with slight less than
sandstone, tuff, discoloration and developed approx. 2.0
surpentinite, cracks at intervals of less than km/s
granite, 10 cm, which can be split
agglomerate, along the cracks by a hammer
gneiss, chlorite blow.
shist, slate,
diorite, andesite,
peridotite
Soft rock B Mud stone approx.
1.0∼3.0
km/s
Soft rock C Tuff, granite, Heavily weatherd rock with less than
crystalline schist, welldeveloped cracks at approx. 1.0
gneiss, weathered intervals of 1 to 5 cm that can km/s
gravel rock and be easily split by hammering.
others Although it can be effectively
excavated by hydraulic ripper,
it becomes almost gravelly
soil after the excavation.
Soft rock D Sediment Sediment containing boulder
containing a large with contamination rate of
number of boulder more than 20% as a general
Hard rock Hard rock A Agglomerate, Consolidated rock having tuff approx.
gneiss, limestone, nature, which is not 2.0∼3.5
greywacke, decomposed, has large cracks km/s
hornstone, with a length of 10 to 50 cm,
sandstone, and can be narrowly slite by a
congomalate, large hammer blow.
andesite,
porphyrite, slate,
basalt, peridotite,
tuff
Hard rock B Granite, phyllite, Fresh and hardest rock with a approx.
diorite, few close cracks, which can 3.5∼6.0
porphyrite, be narrowly slite by several km/s
andesite, basalt, hammer blows or can not be
sandstone, slite.
hornstone,
greywacke
Hard rock C Lava
Table 8.1: Classification of rocks.
Table 8.2: Classification of rocks and soil according to difficulty of excavation.
Figure 8.10: Relationship between Swave velocity and slope stability.
(3) Rock mass classification for evaluating foundations of structures
Seismic wave velocity is a quantitative measure of rock strength and it can be used as an index
for rock mass classification for evaluating the foundation of tunnels, dams and other largescale
structures. The latest version used by various Japanese agencies is shown in Tables 8.3 and 8.4.
The elastic wave velocity is expressed quantitatively, which contributes to easy classification
of the property of the ground compared with other geotechnical indices. The higher velocity
represents stable competent rock and provides useful information to the design. The
classification standard varies depending on organization specifies and is sometimes revised.
Therefore the latest information from the appropriate organization must be obtained.
The elastic wave velocity is a quantitative index of the classification and has characters such
that the geological condition becomes good, so that the velocity becomes quick. With such
characters of elastic wave velocity, it is well suited to designing structures. It is recommended
that the latest version of the standard classification published by each agency be utilized.
Table 8.3: Application of elastic wave velocity to rock mass classification.
Table 8.4: Comparison of rock mass classifications according to elastic wave velocity.
8.3 Difficult Geology and Suggested Actions
4) The following geological structures are hard to interpret by the refraction seismic
survey:
weathered zone with a mirage structure, particularly by Hagiwara’s method;
geological layers with identical velocity; and
scale of faults.
5) Propose additional surveys when such difficulties are encountered:
borehole surveys and logging;
other geophysical methods; and
laboratory tests including ultrasonic velocity measurements.
Supplementary Notes
1) For a difficult geological environment: use known data.
2) If analysis is by Hagiwara’s method, try tomographic inversion for consistency.
Description
The velocity structure from seismic analysis may not necessarily coincide with the geological
formation. The velocity structure reflects lithology, hardness of the formation, geological
structure, weathering, alteration, groundwater and its saturation and it is difficult to determine
all of these from velocity alone. To improve the accuracy of interpretation, additional
geological information is vital. Normally little information is available before refraction
surveys. If information on the thickness of the formation and presence of faults is available, the
following issues may be considered:
(1) Thickness of formations and weathered layer
Hagiwara’s method is effective to estimate weathering profiles in granites and other massive
hard rocks. However these rocks may occur with no significant jointing and can vary
continuously from completely weathered at the surface to unweathered at depth with no distinct
boundaries. Then the traveltime plot shows a smooth curve without straight segments (Figure
8.11). This is called a “mirage structure”. Hagiwara’s method analyzes such a structure by
dividing several velocity layers. The tomographic inversion analysis does not assume a layer
structure and is recommended for analysis of data with a mirage structure. Velocity logging at
boreholes helps to improve the accuracy of geological interpretation. In a granite area, the
degree of weathering and fracturing may vary quickly within a short distance and extra care
should be taken in these areas.
Variable velocity media causing a mirage can also occur in areas where there are
considerable thicknesses of unconsolidated or semiconsolidated sediments, or where there are
Neogene sediments.
Figure 8.11: Geology of mirage structure and travel time curve.
(2) Different geological formations classified into the same velocity layer
It is not unusual for different rock types to have the same seismic velocities. For example,
weathered rock and soft Neogene sediments, or partially welding pyroclastic flows and
fractured poorly compacted lava can have the same seismic velocities. Therefore, these rocks
cannot be differentiated on the basis of their seismic velocities. However, different rock types
can have quite different engineering properties. For example, weathered igneous rock can be
classified quite differently than fresh sedimentary rocks for tunnel excavation or slope stability
assessments. In such cases the geological classification cannot be implemented according to
seismic velocity. Other examples are shown in Figure 8.12. Therefore, drilling, sonic logging
or other supplementary tests should be carried out concurrently to help resolve any ambiguities
in determining the engineering properties of different rock types with the same seismic
velocities.
Figure 8.12: Examples of geological conditions hard to classify by seismic velocity.
(3) Fault and its magnitude
Faults and weak geological features appear as relative lowvelocity zones (Figure 8.13). The
lowvelocity zone is found as a step in the Tcurve. However, the cause of a step in the Tcurve
may be caused by an undulating surface of the velocity layer as well as existence of a low
velocity zone. Its judgment is generally difficult. External geological data should be used to
judge such a feature. With such a traveltime curve, the initial model vastly affects the velocity
structure as a final result. In absence of a priori geological information, the issues resulting
from lowvelocity should be examined in terms of the scope of the survey. If it is an important
issue to the project, boring and velocity logs should be collected to ensure a consistent
interpretation.
Where a priori geological data are unavailable and the scope of the survey emphasizes the
importance of probing for a lowvelocity zone, an effective arrangement of survey lines should
be planned with the addition of velocity surveys at boreholes at key points to lead to a plausible
interpretation. This is important because the initial model given to inversion affects the result
particularly intensely in the analysis of a mirage structure.
(4) Detection and definition of faults
Faults or other geologically weak zones can occur as narrow zones with low seismic velocities.
However, as shown in Figure 7.14, it is very difficult to unambiguously determine whether a
lowvelocity zone or a change in lithology exists, because there is no objective criterion for
fitting lines to the refractor velocity analysis function. Therefore, to minimize the ambiguity, it
is essential to include existing geological and topographic information, in order to help resolve
whether the lowvelocity zone is caused by a fractured fault zone or by a change in lithology. If
there is no existing information available and if the lowvelocity zone is significant, then it is
important to locate survey lines precisely and include other methods of investigation, such as
drilling and sonic logging so that a precise assessment can be made.
Figure 8.13: Two equivalent interpretations of the same data.
9. Deliverables
1) Deliverables should include the following drawings and diagrams:
location map showing the survey area;
traveltime graphs; and
crosssections showing layer thicknesses and seismic velocities.
2) Survey reports should include the following subjects:
outline of the survey (name of project, site location, objectives of the survey,
date, personnel including party leader and location map of survey line);
survey method (survey method applied, measurement specifications, list of
survey instruments used);
survey results (field data, processed data, analyzed data, residual error in
tomography); and
interpretation of analyzed data and comments on survey results.
3) The following data should be included in digital format:
coordinates and elevation of the shot points and receiver locations;
the traveltimes read off the seismic record at each geophone point; and
original seismic records.
Notes
1) Reports should be prepared in accordance with the client’s standard specifications and any
special requirements if appropriate.
2) The graphs of observed and theoretical traveltimes should be plotted together with residual
error and should be attached to the result of tomographic inversion. This allows judgment
of the quality of the process objectively.
3) The data format and the program used should be described in the report.
Supplementary Notes
1) The following figures and tables may be added as appendices or attachments:
traveltime plots; and
analyzed sections (velocity layers or velocity sections).
Description
In the report of a refraction survey project, the traveltimes and the velocity structure reached
should be explained in an easytounderstand manner. It should start with the scope and
purpose of the survey. The level of achievement along the scope should be summarized. A
proposal for future surveys is another necessary inclusion. A comprehensive interpretation may
be difficult from the refraction survey alone. Other surveys and local information should be
integrated into the final geological interpretation. The deliverable should follow the format, if
any, specified by the client. The following issues should be taken into consideration in
preparing the reports:
1) The name of the project, the location, objectives, date of the survey, coverage of the survey,
the name of the person in charge and other basic information should be clearly indicated in
the “Operations Report” of the report.
2) The survey line arrangement planned for attaining the survey objectives should be
described in the “Survey Method” of the report. The method of data processing and analysis
should also be described according to the data processing procedure.
3) In addition to the description of the traveltime graphs and results of the data processing,
measures taken to counter any problems that might have occurred during recording or
processing of the data, the efficacy of the countermeasures and other basic information for
the interpretation should also be described in the “Survey Results” of the report. Include
graphs of observed and theoretical traveltime curves and the residual error in the report of
the tomographic inversion. For the result of the analysis by Hagiwara’s method, include the
path calculation for the main shot points and geophone locations plotted on the traveltime
graph. Color velocity sections enhance clarity.
4) The grounds of the interpretation should be clearly described and the interpretation must be
clearly explained using figures and reference material. If there are any problems or any
recommendations for surveys to be conducted in the next stage, those should be described
in the report.
References
Hayashi, K. (1999) Application of High Resolution Seismic Refraction Method to Civil
Engineering. 61st EAGE Conference & Exhibition, Extended Abstract.
Imai, T., Fumoto, H. and Yokota, K. (1975) The relationship between elastic wave velocity and
mechanical properties in the soft foundation in Japan. Proceedings of Japan Earthquake
Engineering Symposium, 4, 89–96. (in Japanese)
Inoue, K. and Taniguchi, K. (1976) Density exploration method of soil using the elastic wave
velocity. Journal of the Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
Soils and foundations 12(2). (in Japanese)
Musgrave, A.W. ed. (1967) Seismic Refraction Prospecting. Society of Exploration
Geophysicists, p. 621.
3 Shallow Seismic Reflection Method
1. General
1) The seismic reflection survey is a method to estimate underground structures from the
image of reflectors of seismic waves. It uses elastic waves artificially generated by a
seismic source near the ground surface and records the waves reflected back from the
boundaries of seismic velocity corresponding to geological boundaries by a large
number of geophones placed on the surface.
Notes
1) It is difficult to image a geological boundary across which the contrast in the seismic
velocity is small.
2) A geological layer thinner than a quarter of a wavelength is hard to detect.
Description
The seismic reflection method is a technique to image underground structures by recording the
waves, which are artificially generated by a seismic source near the ground surface, reflected
back from the boundaries of seismic velocity and corresponding to geological boundary
geophones placed on the surface through intensive data processing.
The seismic reflection method, a largescale survey technique for geological structures, has
been developed by petroleum explorers to prospect several thousand meters underground. The
shallow reflection method was an adaptation of this method for estimating 10–100 meters in
depth to apply to engineering and environmental surveys and disaster mitigation, especially for
active faults.
Seismic waves (P or S waves) generated on the ground surface make refraction, transmission
or reflection when they reach the boundary of acoustic impedance of the formation and then
some energy returns back to the ground surface as a reflection again. The seismic reflection
method makes use of the reflected waves to image the subsurface (Figure 1.1)
Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of the shallow seismic reflection method.
The seismic reflection method records and processes the seismic waves reflected from
geological boundaries and outputs seismic reflection sections along time and depth axes.
Knowledge of seismic velocity through the ground is necessary to convert a depth section to a
time section. The velocity is estimated during the data processing but its accuracy is generally
poor. The velocity information is usually obtained from other data such as PS logging,
laboratory tests of soil and rocks and refraction surveys.
To correlate a seismic section with geological formations, additional data such as geological
columns, logging data from boreholes and soil and geology maps are necessary. If no such data
are available, drilling new boreholes to run velocity logging or VSP is desired.
The seismic reflection survey has the following merits:
The underground structure is visualized on seismic sections, which inform the
geological structure and physical properties of the ground.
It can detect velocity reversal, where an underlying layer has a lower seismic velocity
than the layer above, which cannot be detected by the seismic refraction survey.
If there is a lowvelocity layer under a highvelocity layer, the refracted wave cannot be
observed on the surface (Figure 1.2). Even under this condition, reflected waves can be
detected and provide information under the ground (Figure 1.3).
The shallow seismic reflection method uses techniques unique to the reflection method, such as
filtering and CMP stacking (see Section 5.2 Data Processing and Analysis), to improve the
signaltonoise ratio and generate a seismic section for interpretation. The fundamental
assumption for the data processing includes horizontal layers. Where this assumption is
severely violated by a rough geological condition, detection of the reflected signal is difficult.
Figure 1.2: Case 1 for velocity inversion (V1>V2).
Figure 1.3: Case 2 for velocity inversion (V2<V1<V3).
The recent trend of the seismic reflection survey for petroleum exploration is its 3
dimensional application. Recent data analysis and processing has adopted the wavefield theory
allowing imaging of complex structures previously impossible. Threedimensional analysis and
processing has also been tried on shallow reflection surveys. However, this proved difficult due
to the need of an excessively large amount of equipment and the extreme variance and non
uniformity of the physical properties of the ground. Therefore, the use of the 3dimensional
survey is only limited at present. A 3dimensional seismic method using Swaves is not yet
practical because there is no suitable signal source available.
2. Applicability
1) Shallow seismic reflection data are usually collected in areas where the subsurface
comprises fairly flat layers and where the terrain is not too rough:
geological structures and physical properties of bedrock under Quaternary
sediments;
shallow bedrock structures around faults;
evaluation of ground improvement and effect of grouting (comparison
between before and after the execution);
search for relatively large cavities or abandoned mine tunnels;
the expected depth of probe is;
by using Pwaves: tens to hundreds of meters; and
by using Swaves: a few to tens of meters.
Notes
1) Folding and flexure, which are difficult to image by a refraction survey, can be imaged by a
reflection survey.
2) Difficult to apply to areas with severe topography.
Supplementary Note
1) An Swave survey may be possible where a Pwave survey is difficult to apply.
Description
The reflection seismic survey is difficult to apply to areas with severe topography. Plan a
survey at a flat area.
A geological boundary with little contrast in Swave velocity is hard to detect, such as soil
layers under a water table. In this situation, a contrast in Swave velocity may still exist making
the Swave survey viable.
Application areas include geological investigations of most urban infrastructures: sealed
tunnels for sewers, multiservice tunnels, bridge foundations, refuge processing plants and
landfill sites, particularly on Quaternary sediments.
Application of the shallow reflection seismic method for the investigation of active faults has
increased since the 1995 HanshinAwaji Earthquake. The result was well accepted and the use
of shallow reflection for fault investigation is now commonplace. It is often used for estimating
the location and form of faults hidden under a flat sedimentary plain.
Other applications include evaluation of the effectiveness of soil improvement and grouting
of river bank management. Combining shallow reflection with velocity logging and borehole
sampling and testing, the relationship between elastic wave velocity and geotechnical
parameters can be estimated. The effect and extent of soil improvement is monitored by
surveying before and after the operation.
The shallow reflection survey is also used to search for relatively large cavities or abandoned
old mine tunnels. The expected depth of probe is typically tens to hundreds of meters by using
Pwaves and a few to tens of meters by using Swaves.
3. Planning
3.1 Desk Study
1) Before the main survey, site scouting should be carried out. Plan a survey referring to
existing information including topographic maps, hydrographic classification maps,
geology maps and previous drilling data.
Supplementary Notes
1) Planning is not a mechanical process. It should include investigation of the existing soil and
geological knowledge of the area.
2) Plan to incorporate drilling, velocity logging, VSP and refraction seismic survey into the
total survey plan as necessary.
Description
Figure 3.1 shows the overall flow of a shallow seismic reflection survey.
Decide the kind of seismic wave and corresponding seismic source to use according to the
composition of the ground material, layer thickness and state of consolidation of the area. Also
decide the geophone interval, spread length and source interval to match the object of the
survey and depth of probe. Even in the conventional reflection seismic method, one setting
cannot obtain a detailed result throughout the depth range from the surface to large depths. A
shallow survey needs a small geophone interval and offset length (Section 3.4 Spread Length
and Depth of Probe), while a deep survey requires large values of these parameters. The
appropriate settings for the parameters are important.
Figure 3.1: Workflow of the reflection seismic survey.
3.2 Data Acquisition Parameters and Instruments
2) Before the start of a survey, the following data acquisition parameters and instruments
should be decided:
survey lines;
array lengths and depth of probe;
receiver interval and source interval;
spread style;
kind of seismic wave to use; and
instrumentation.
Notes
In deciding the data acquisition parameters and instruments, the following issues must be
1) considered:
purpose of the survey;
characteristics of the soil and rocks of the area;
depth of probe; and
budget.
Description
First, determine the purpose of the survey and then examine the depth to probe, topography and
geological condition. According to these parameters, select the type of receiver, seismic source
and recorder. The final acquisition parameters are determined by a field test but the
approximate parameters are to be estimated beforehand from existing information from
literature and site scouting. In general, shorter receiver intervals and source intervals enhance
precision of the data by an increased number of folds, while these also increase field effort and
hence cost. A balance between technical gain and cost must be considered. The selection of the
seismic source is also important.
3.3 Setting Survey Lines
3) Select a flat uniform surface or a gentle slope for the seismic line.
4) Where the interest is a fault or lateral change of geology, the survey lines are set up
perpendicular to the strike direction of the boundary.
5) Plan long survey lines.
Note
1) The final length of the interpreted sections is shorter than the line length surveyed on the
ground. The ordered line length often specifies the final length for interpretation and the
survey line must be planned longer than this specification.
Description
Survey lines should be set up on a flat ground. A compacted road surface is ideal. An irregular
ground profile may cause a poor image of reflection sections even after a static correction is
applied. Where the ground is soft, the source energy is severely attenuated and more noise
including surface waves is generated, which hinders recognition of reflected waves.
When locations of geological boundaries, faults and flexures are the main interest of the
survey, the seismic lines should be planned perpendicular to the strike of these features,
estimating from the existing data. This is particularly important for a survey of active faults,
where width and other properties are of interest. If the main survey line, along a tunnel
alignment for example, cannot be perpendicular to these geological features, set up secondary
lines perpendicular to them.
Figure 3.2: The relationship between the geophone spread and the survey line length specification.
The length of the survey line should be longer than the area of interest to achieve a
satisfactory number of CMP folds at the ends of the area of interest. A low number of folds
results in a low S/N ratio. Where an adequate length of the survey line cannot be laid due to
topography or other restrictions, extend source locations beyond the geophone spread to
increase the folds and extend the length of a viable part of the seismic section. A short line
makes it hard to observe change and continuity of geological structures. For example, a survey
for buried terraces and paleochannels needs a seismic line at least 100 m long.
The seismic section as a result of processing starts at the midpoint between the first source
point and the nearest geophone and ends at the midpoint between the last source point and the
geophone nearest to it. This does not coincide with the extent of the geophone spreads (Figure
3.3). The client’s specification often states the extent of the final section, therefore the physical
survey lines must be planned longer than the specification to fulfill the final requirement.
3.4 Spread Length and Depth of Probe
6) The spread is designed to make the maximum offset coincide with the depth of probe.
Notes
1) When the offset is large, the shallow reflection is severely distorted.
2) When the maximum offset is too short, the amplitude of the reflected wave appears low and
velocity determination will be difficult.
Description
The term “offset” stands for the distance between the source and geophone locations. The
group of geophones arranged in line to receive signals from one source location is called the
“spread” and its range is the “spread length”. The spread length is defined as the geophone
interval multiplied by the number of channels. The “maximum offset” and “minimum offset”
are the distances between the source and the furthest and nearest geophone in the spread,
respectively.
The data acquisition parameters of the seismic reflection survey, geophone interval, source
interval, spread length and offset are determined according to the target depth. Therefore it is
important to investigate the approximate depth of probe beforehand.
Surveys for shallow ground use a short source interval and a short offset. A large offset
causes a large NMO correction (Section 5.2 Data Processing and Analysis), resulting in
distortion of the waveform. The effectiveness of CMP stacking is severely damaged when
reducing the S/N ratio. Another reason for using a short offset for a shallow survey is the large
lateral variation of the Swave velocity, which commonly occurs near the ground surface. On
the other hand, data with a short offset tend to have surface waves overlapping the reflection
signals making it hard to separate.
Surveys for deep targets require a long geophone interval and a long offset with a large
source interval.
If the spread is short relative to the depth of probe, the S/N ratio and accuracy of velocity
analysis become low due to lowreflection coefficients. A rough indication of the shallowest
feasible depth for interpretation is two to five times the geophone interval. For example, if the
geophone interval is 1 meter, the reflectors deeper than 2 to 5 meters are imaged with a
minimum offset of 1 m. The deepest depth of imaging is about one to two times the maximum
offset. With a 50 m maximum offset, it is about 50 to 100 meters.
The spread length and offset are hard to determine by a table and a site experiment is always
necessary.
Figure 3.3: Example of seismic records with different offset distances.
These seismic records were acquired by the same seismic array with two different source offset locations.
a) Short offset – dominated by surface waves (enclosed by the oval) obscuring the reflected signals.
b) Long offset – surface waves took a long time to travel and the shallow reflection events are easily seen.
3.5 Spread Style
7) Examine and determine the spread style to improve the S/N ratio.
Note
1) Before the survey, determine the best data acquisition parameters by experiments varying
the relative locations of the source and receivers.
Description
The “spread” in a reflection seismic survey means the geometry between the source and the
geophones. Typical spreads are shown in Figure 3.4. Inline spreads and inline offset spreads
are often used. Through a site experiment, the most suitable spread for the area should be
selected. It is difficult to determine the optimum spread from a desk study and an experiment
on site is essential.
Figure 3.4: Typical spread styles.
3.6 Geophone Interval and Shot Interval
8) Vary the source interval and geophone interval to suit the depth of probe. In general
the source interval is set to the same as the geophone interval:
0.5~2 m for depth of probe under 50 m;
2~5 m for depth of probe over 50 m.
9) Number of CMP stacks is determined by the number of channels, the geophone
interval and the source interval. In general, a high number of CMP stacks enhances the
signal from reflectors, while increasing site operation cost.
Supplementary Note
1) The source interval and geophone interval are usually set the same. These are determined
considering the strength of the reflected signal, depth of probe, spread length and the power
of the source.
Description
Consider the spread length, offset distance and number of channels (number of geophones per
spread) in determining the geophone interval and source interval. With a 24 channel system, if
the depth of probe is less than 50 m, the source interval and receiver interval required are 1 to 2
meters. For deeper targets, the intervals are 2 to 5 meters.
CMP stacking (Figure 5.3 in Section 5.2) is a fundamental step in the processing of shallow
seismic data. The higher the number of stacks used, the better S/N ratio attained and clearer
reflectors are displayed. To increase the number of stacks, a higher number of channels or a
short source interval are required. The number of CMP stacks is usually 12 or 24. It is
calculated as:
(No. of CMP stacks) = (Number of channels) × (Geophone interval) / (Source interval) /2
The source interval is often set the same as the geophone interval (Figure 3.5(a)). As seen in the
equation above, setting the source interval to be half of the geophone interval doubles the
number of stacks. On the other hand, setting the source interval double of the geophone interval
halves the number of CMP stacks reducing the S/N ratio while considerably reducing the time
of the field operation.
Table 3.1 shows a guide of geophone intervals and source intervals for a 24 and 48channel
system. Where a large number of channels is available, the geophone interval and source
interval can be reduced.
Table 3.1: A Guide of Geophone Intervals and Shot Intervals.
In Figure 3.5, the geometries (b) and (c) are equivalent in terms of the number of CMP folds
and the same result is expected. In general the spread (c) is more efficient in field effort.
Figure 3.5: Source and receiver intervals and the number of folds.
(a) When the source interval and geophone interval are equal.
(b) The source interval is half the geophone interval: the fold doubles.
(c) The source interval is twice the geophone interval.
3.7 Choice of Wave Type
10) Depending on the depth of probe, select P or Swaves:
to probe shallower than 50 m: Swave; and
to probe deeper than 50 m: Pwave.
Supplementary Notes
1) At the same frequency, the Swave has a higher resolution than the Pwave.
2) The Pwave is capable of probing deeper than the Swave.
3) Site conditions should be taken into consideration when choosing between P and Swaves.
Description
An elastic wave with a shorter wavelength has better resolution. The resolution is a parameter
to describe the ability of detecting the minimum thickness of layers. The wavelength is
calculated by dividing velocity by frequency. Therefore the wavelength is shorter for a higher
frequency and faster velocity. The frequencies of P and Swaves generated by an impact
source are similar, while Pwave velocity is three to ten times greater than Swave velocity.
Accordingly, the wavelength of an Swave is shorter and its resolution is higher than the P
wave. Watersaturated consolidated soil has particularly slow Swave velocity and fast Pwave
velocity and an Swave survey can provide higher resolution. As Swave velocity is insensitive
to the presence of water, it is useful for interpretation of physical properties of the ground. On
the other hand, the Pwave source can generate a greater energy, which allows a deeper probe.
Highfrequency sources are available for a Pwave survey. An Swave survey is commonly
used for investigation of ground shallower than 50 m while a Pwave survey is more common
for a deeper probe. Where pebbles are dominant in the ground, the Swave energy tends to
attenuate quickly and the Pwave is generally used under such a condition. Study the geological
setting during preparation and determine the wave to use accordingly.
3.8 Instrumentation
11) Survey equipment consists in:
geophones;
seismic cables;
switch to select recording geophones (rotary switch);
seismic source; and
data recorder.
Supplementary Note
1) Consider using geophone groups: several geophones may be used for each geophone
station.
Description
Standard (moving coil type) geophones generate electric potential proportionally to the velocity
of the ground movement. These geophones detect movement above the natural frequency. The
shallow seismic reflection survey typically uses geophones with a natural frequency 20 to
60Hz. The Pwave survey uses vertical component geophones, while the Swave survey uses
horizontal component geophones.
To reduce the noise of surface waves and to enhance reflection signals, several geophones
may be used at a geophone point and the sum of the signals received are recorded. This is
called “grouping” (Figure 3.6). To reduce the effect of the surface waves, the geophone interval
within the group should be large, while a small geophone interval may attenuate shallow
reflection. The geophone interval within a group is typically tens of centimeters.
Figure 3.6: An example of geophone grouping with four geophones.
The signals from the geophones are transmitted to the recorder through a cable or cables.
When a rotary switch is used to select live geophones, a specially designed CDP cable is
generally used. The CDP cable is designed to receive data from selected channels out of many
preconnected geophones. It allows an efficient survey by working with a rotary switch.
Typical seismic sources are described in Table 3.2.
Pwave sources include impact type (manual sledgehammer and weight dropping), sweep
type, minisosie, PRBS and explosives. For shallow surveys less than 50 m deep, simple
sledgehammer blows are generally used. Explosives and machineries can provide large power.
They must be used with care, in order not to disturb neighbors, underground utilities (water and
gas pipes, sewerage and electric cables) and paved road surfaces.
Types of Swave sources include the horizontal strike type (hitting a side of a thick plunk by
a sledgehammer), inclined strike type and sweeping type. The horizontal and inclined strike
type sources test for waveforms with large amplitude and opposite phases by hitting in two
directions. If the test detects waves with opposite phase, striking only one side is sufficient for
the actual production survey. For shallow surveys, manual striking is often used due to its
simplicity in operation. If the energy level is insufficient, several records with strikes at the
same location can be summed up. This is called “vertical stacking”. Generation of high
frequency seismic waves is expected from the pulse signal by striking type sources. For a
continuous acceleration source such as sweeping and repeated impacts, the ability of generating
a stable spectrum of highfrequency components is required. “Pattern shooting” is possible in
the same manner as geophone grouping. Pattern shooting vibrates several points near a shot
location and the energy is stacked together. This is more common for deep seismic surveys
than shallow ones.
Wave Source Source Generation of waves Remarks
type type
P Weigh Manual blow, Drop Use of potential and Most commonly
wave drop Hitter, EWG, dynamic energy of used.
Hydraulic Impactor weight drop or
acceleration.
Vibrator Mini Vibrator, Vertical swept Frequency
Portable Vivrator frequency type source controllable source.
driven hydraulically or
electromagnetically.
Minisosie Rammer for impact Random vertical Needs a specialized
compression vibration recorder.
Effective in a
shallow high
resolution survey.
PRBS Electromagnetic selected frequency; Suitable for a high
vibrator pseudorandom phase resolution survey by
reversal; vertical using a high
movement, frequency.
Explosives Dynamite, Shot pipe, Explosion of dynamite Permission of use of
Betty Gun or gun powder explosive is needed
S Sideon Manual hammering, Horizontally Most commonly
wave hammering Mechanical hammering to create used
hammering(by EM shear movement of a
Hammer, Rotating weighted plank
weight)
Slant Swave Impactor Generation shear Swaves is
hitting energy due to synthesized by
type horizontal component subtracting right
of operating forces andlefthand hitting
records
Vibrator Mini Vibrator Horizontal swept Frequency

frequency type source controllable source.
driven hydraulically or
electromagnetically.
Table 3.2: Some seismic sources for a shallow seismic reflection survey.
The reflection seismic data requires to accurately record from small to large amplitudes.
Therefore the geophones and recorder used need to have a wide dynamic range. Some systems
have variable gain control according to the amplitude of the data. Where the sensitivity of the
amplifier is fixed, a highresolution AD converter or δΣ type AD conversion may be
combined. For AD conversion, the sampling rate is typically 0.1 ms for Pwaves and 0.5 ms
for an Swave survey.
A recent development in receiver systems is a “landstreamer”, which combines a multitude
of geophones (24 to 96) on a belt or rope to tow along the survey line to improve productivity
of the seismic survey on roads and crests of river banks. Its geophone interval is fixed from
tens of centimeters to two meters.
Figure 3.7: Landstreamers.
4. Field Operation
4.1 Access Permit
1) It is almost always necessary to obtain permission from land owner(s), or from land
managers, prior to making any field measurements. Similarly, approval/permission
has to be obtained from local government or municipalities for operations on public
roads.
Description
Obtain access permits from land owners and managers. Where the survey line follows a road,
approval from the authority that manages the road and police may be necessary. Use of
explosives may require permission from the local authority.
Description
If the measurement line(s) is located in any private land, approval of admission to the site from
land owner(s) is necessary. In case the survey lines are arranged across or along public roads, it
is necessary to obtain permission to use and occupy the road from the road management office
and also from the local police station. In addition, in case explosives are used, it is also
necessary to obtain approval to use them by the governor of the local government.
4.2 Location Survey
2) Survey for the coordinates of geophone and source points.
Supplementary Note
1) Vegetation may have to be removed for access.
Description
According to the survey plan, set up the geophone and source points with reference to existing
survey markers in the vicinity. Survey the points for horizontal and vertical coordinates and
document. The geophone and source locations are marked with pegs or paint. Marking the
station number and chainage on the survey pegs or ground will facilitate the field work.
The accuracy of the survey is required to be better than ±5 cm. These survey data are used in
the data processing.
4.3 Preparation on Site
3) Before the start of the field operation, check the following:
output waveform of the geophones;
condition of the cable (breakage and leak);
specification of the data recorder; and
waveform generated by the seismic source.
4) According to the survey plan, prepare the following:
install the geophones;
set up the seismic source;
prepare the data recorder; and
lay and connect the data cables.
5) Select data acquisition parameters:
spread style;
offset distance; and
recorder parameters (sampling interval, record length, gain control, filter
properties, vertical stack, etc.).
Notes
1) Always take the project plan to the site.
2) Carry out a site test and determine the data acquisition parameters.
3) Ensure the trigger signal is stable. An unstable trigger adversely affects the S/N ratio at
vertical stacking.
Supplementary Notes
1) If surface waves are observed in the test data records, repeat the test with a different offset
and array to reach the optimum parameters.
2) When a sweeptype source, such as minivibe, is used, an optimum sweep pattern and
sweep length are selected.
Description
Check for normal operation of geophones, source, recorder and cable by visual inspection and
electric measurements. Geological conditions and noise levels vary from site to site. A site
experiment is always necessary for data acquisition parameters:
1) Array type – Excessive surface waves observed in test records may be reduced by changing
the array type.
2) Offset distance – Surface waves may be separated from reflection signals by increasing the
minimum offset. On the other hand, this reduces shallow information.
3) Record length – Record should be long enough to record the reflection from the target
depth.
4) Sampling interval – Sampling interval for a Pwave survey is usually 0.1 to 1 ms and 0.5–2
ms for an Swave survey. If the apparent seismic velocity in the ground is fast or a high
frequency signal is in the record, reduce the sampling interval.
5) Gain control – Set the gain control of the preamplifier at an appropriate level.
6) Filter – Select filter parameters by examining the test records for the dominant frequency of
the reflected signal, surface waves and background noise. A notch filter to remove noise
from electric power lines may be used where necessary. The filter parameters should be
kept constant throughout a survey.
7) Number of vertical stacks – Improvement of S/N ratio is proportional to the square root of
the number of vertical stacks. The number of vertical stacks is decided by monitoring the
records, as a high number of stacks require an intensive field effort.
4.4 Data Recording
6) Actual recording is carried out according to the survey plan and parameters are
determined at the test. The geophones and source may need rearranging. The acquired
data are recorded in an electronic medium and files are documented in the field note.
7) After recording the data for one spread, move to the next spread moving the
geophones and source.
Notes
1) Carry out a survey when there is little noise.
2) Evaluate the quality of the data on monitor records for noise level and recognizable
reflection signals. Repeat recording if the quality is inadequate.
3) Document the data acquisition parameters and location of the record.
Supplementary Notes
1) At the time of repeat recording, consider changing the data acquisition parameters.
However, changes complicate the data processing later.
2) If the daytime noise level is too high, the survey may need to be performed at night with the
consent of the neighbors.
Description
When preparation is complete, evaluate the noise level on the monitor. The condition of the
recording system including the trigger, geophones and recorder should also be checked for
normal operation.
When the field setup is completed, it should be checked if the whole measuring system
including the trigger signal, the receivers (geophones) and the data recorder are functioning.
For a survey in a residential area, the neighbors should be notified. When the geophones are
laid along a road, watch for traffic flow and record when there is little traffic noise. If traffic is
heavy during the day, consider a night shift.
Judge the quality of the data by inspecting the entire waveform with particular attention to
noise level, time of the reflected arrival and its velocity and the velocity and amplitude of the
surface waves. A lowamplitude reflection signal may be enhanced by a larger source energy
and vertical stacks. After satisfactory data with one spread have been acquired, move to the
next spread. Repeat this procedure to the end of the survey.
The field note should accurately document the following items:
record length;
recording method;
sampling interval;
filter properties;
file name, source location, geophone location, number of vertical stacks; and
other observations such as topography and nearby buildings.
These parameters are used for data processing.
Figure 4.1 shows examples of a seismic record of a P and S (SH) wave survey.
Figure 4.1: Examples of a seismic record of a P and S (SH) wave survey.
5. Data Processing
5.1 Data Organization
1) Check the correspondence between the observer’s log or field note and the data records.
Data file number:
location of the source and station number; and
range of the spread.
2) Convert the recorded data to the appropriate format of the data processing software.
Supplementary Note
1) Many data recorders in the marketplace record data in SEG2 format.
Description
Enter the relationship between the coordinates of the source and geophone locations and
seismic records. This information is used in data processing and analysis. The input method
varies from system to system.
The digital data should be compatible with the processing software. Most software for
processing of seismic reflection data is designed to input and output in SEG formats. The
commercial recorders for reflection data can record and preserve the data in SEG formats. If the
data processing software cannot read the data, a format conversion is necessary. There are
several varieties in SEG formats: e.g., SEG2, SEGY, SEGB and SEGD. The SEG2 format
is generally used by commercial recorders. This format is very flexible. However, there are
some variations within the format and some processing software may have problems in reading
the format. If this happens, the SEGY format is used for data input/output. The SEGY is an
old format and the parameter descriptions are rather restrictive. Its merit is its simplicity and its
compatibility among most data acquisition and processing software.
8) CMP stacking is the fundamental process to make a reflection time section.
9) A depth section is made by multiplying the time section by velocity.
Supplementary Notes
1) CMP stands for “Common Midpoint”. It is synonymous with CDP (Common Depth Point).
2) Some commercial software are operable on particular hardware.
3) Reflection seismic data processing cannot be performed by a single routine procedure. It
requires careful attention to the data. The most appropriate steps and order are selected by
intensive testing of processes of varying parameters.
Description
Figure 5.1 shows a basic work flow of seismic data processing. It consists in steps of
preparation, preprocessing, NMO correction, CMP stacking and poststack processing. Each
step has several routines with various parameters. These are selected as appropriate to the
purpose of the survey and the nature of the data by testing. Tests are carried out with particular
attention to reflection and refraction signals, frequency of noise, apparent velocity and
continuity of the reflectors. The results are judged with consideration to the existing
information.
Data processing is carried out using a computer: workstation or personal computer. Better
efficiency is attained with a powerful computer, as the number of calculations is large.
The following section describes the routines of data processing and analyses. A more
detailed explanation is given in textbooks in seismic data processing, e.g. Yilmaz (2008).
1) Format conversion
Converts acquired data to the format used by the data processing software.
2) Trace Editing
Removes noisy traces considered unsuitable for processing.
3) Coordinate Definition
Relates the seismic data records to the coordinates of source and receiver locations.
4) Gain Correction
The seismic wave generated by the seismic source loses its energy by spherical divergence,
absorption by the ground and transmission loss at the reflectors. The gain correction
process recovers the amplitude of the seismic record to make it consistent throughout the
record.
5) Filtering (Deconvolution, BandPass Filter, etc.)
The waveform in a seismic record has a largefrequency range including noise. The filtering
process extracts the signal waveform used for analysis. A bandpass filter reduces noise and
emphasizes the reflected signal to improve the signaltonoise ratio. The signal generated
by the source is close to a single pulse. Its transmission is subject to the filtering effect of
the ground and the waveform is distorted before it is recorded. The properties of the
geophones and recorder further distort the signal. The deconvolution filter tries to recover
the original waveform from the distorted records.
6) Static Correction, Residual Static Correction
The static correction adjusts the effect of the variation of the velocity near the ground
surface, which disturbs CMP stacking by lagging the traveltime. It typically utilizes
refraction data.
7) CMP Sort
The data acquired in the field are a series of seismic records; one for each shot. The CMP
sort process extracts seismic traces with common midpoints between the source and
geophone from the shot records and makes a new set of data records; one for each CMP.
8) Velocity Analysis
The velocity analysis extracts the optimum stacking velocity for NMO correction from the
CMP records (CMP ensembles). The traveltime of the reflected signal is seen as a
hyperbola on the CMP ensemble. The optimum stacking velocity is estimated from the
curvature of this hyperbola.
9) NMO Correction
NMO (or normal moveout) correction adjusts the time delay of the seismic signal to the
zerooffset time using the stacking velocity. This is also called the dynamic correction and
must take place before CMP stacking.
10) CMP Stacking
CMP stacking sums up the waveforms of NMOcorrected data, enhancing the reflected
signal and canceling the noise. CMP stacking is the fundamental process of seismic
reflection data processing. Its concept is shown in Figure 5.3.
11) Migration
Migration is a process to shift a slanted reflector on a time section to its correct position.
12) Depth Conversion
A seismic section is primarily displayed in time as a vertical axis. By applying the
appropriate velocity this can be converted to depth.
Figure 5.1: A standard data processing flow of shallow seismic reflection data.
Figure 5.2: CMP sorting.
Figure 5.3: NMO correction and CMP stacking.
6. Interpretation
6.1 Interpretation
1) Compare the reflectors on the sections with the geological boundaries.
Notes
1) Integrate the data from geological maps, borehole geology columns and VSP into the
interpretation.
2) Consider the effect of errors in migration velocity on the final section.
Description
Interpretation of reflector horizons is carried out on time or depth sections. The depth sections
are created from the time section multiplying by velocity. The inaccuracy or uncertainty of
distribution of velocity will cause inaccuracy errors in the depth section. The velocity
information is estimated from velocity analysis during the data processing. A more accurate
velocity can be obtained from velocity logging or VSP at a borehole. An appropriate use of
these data enhances accuracy of the final output.
Estimate the geological structure from the form, continuity and amplitude of the reflection
on the sections. It is important to integrate the knowledge of topography, geology and other
geophysical survey data. In environmental geology, faulting, depositional environment and
hydrogeological settings are also important.
The amplitude of reflected waves is expressed by the reflection coefficient k as:
where ρi and Vi are the density and velocity of the ith layer, respectively. The product of
elastic velocity and density is called acoustic impedance. An acoustic impedance boundary
with a strong contrast produces a strong reflection. Therefore, continuity of soil and geology,
degree of consolidation and variation of rock properties are estimated from the strength of the
reflection. For example, the top of a basement rock formation under sedimentary layers is
observed as a strong reflection with high amplitude. Figure 6.1 schematically shows the
relationship between reflection coefficients and seismic traces.
Figure 6.1: Relationship between reflection coefficients and seismic traces.
Figure 6.2 shows an example of an Swave seismic section over an active fault zone. The
crosssection on the right depicts the edge of the fault plain east of the main fault showing the
distortion and displacement of alluvial sedimentary layers under 5 meters deep.
Figure 6.3 is an example of a time section superimposed by VSP results. By this comparison,
the reflectors in the section are verified. Drillhole and other data give chronological or
stratigraphic information as well.
Figure 6.2: An Swave section across the Kuwana Fault by a landstreamer survey.
Two lines (PW_KE_W and PW_KW_M) totaling 340meters across the Kuwana Fault were surveyed by
the Swave reflection method. Number of channels: 48, geophone interval: 0.5 m, source interval: 1 m.
The main fault runs near the joining of the two lines. The downthrown side at –40 m presents a flexure in
the reflector. The flexure can be traced to –20 m in the downthrown side and to –5 m in the upthrown
side. In the downthrown side of the fault, a concentration of flexures (secondary faults) can be
interpreted. The PW_KW_M line shows poor quality reflection near the surface perhaps due to an
uneven fill.
Figure 6.3: An example of the correlation of a seismic section with VSP survey data.
Figure 6.4 is an interpreted section incorporating borehole columns, logging data and
geological maps to correlate reflectors and geological structures. In the depth section of the top
of Figure 6.4, a continuous reflector at about 25 m deep gently dipping to the north is
recognized. Some subhorizontal reflectors are also seen above and below this reflector and
there is no discontinuity like a fault in the section. The reflectors near the surface (around 2 m
deep) are considered to be internal reflections in the paving. Under this layer is a levee and
alluvium deposits underlain by the Nanyo Formation to 20 to 25 m deep. The borehole data
show that the Upper Nanyo Formation contains loose sand layers that have Nvalues up to 5. A
group of sloped reflectors is seen in the Upper Nanyo Formation. At about chainage 170
meters, these sloped reflectors cut into the Lower Nanyo Formation like a small channel. The
depths 10 to 25 meters are the Lower Nanyo Formation contaminated by marine clay. Its
reflectors are almost horizontal and its amplitudes are low. This is considered as massive clay.
Figure 6.4: Swave reflection section (top) and interpreted geological section (bottom) near the mouth
of Tenpaku River.
Line length: 260 m, No. of channels: 48, Geophones per channel: 4, geophone group interval: 0.5 m.
No clear fault structure is evident in the alluvial Nanyo Formation or the first pebble layer. From this, the
faults in this area were found to be older than the first pebble layer.
The reflectors seen in the seismic section do not necessarily agree with the soil type boundary
or lithological boundary, because:
variation of the correlation between the velocity boundary and soil type or lithological
boundary;
variation in velocity in the vertical and horizontal directions;
uneven or slanted geological structure violating the assumption of CMP sort and CMP
stacking; and
threedimensional variation of the ground structure.
Where primary and secondary crosslines are surveyed, check for consistency at the
intersections and clarify the geological or engineering reasons for consistency and
inconsistency.
The correlation between elastic velocity, geology and physical properties is described in
Chapter 2.
6.2 Resolution of Analysis
10) The vertical resolution is approximately a quarter of the dominant wavelength of the
seismic wave traveling through the ground.
11) The horizontal resolution is approximately equal to the radius of the Fresnel zone.
Description
The seismic reflection method has its own limitation in terms of resolution, since the
wavelength of the seismic wave is restricted depending on the frequency of the seismic wave,
characteristics of the geology (seismic velocity of the formation) in the area of investigation
and the survey depth (the depth of the reflector).
According to Rayleigh, the limit to resolve two reflectors of the same polarity is half the
period of the seismic wave used. As the seismic sections are expressed along twoway
traveltime, the vertical resolution is half of half, i.e., a quarter of the period of the wave. This
means that a layer thinner than a thickness and velocity to cause a time difference of a quarter
of the period of the seismic wave cannot be resolved. This is a fundamental theorem in vertical
resolution called Rayleigh’s quarter wavelength rule.
The horizontal resolution is explained by the Fresnel zone. Reflected waves with a
wavelength λ constructively interfere within a raypath shorter than λ/2. If there is a horizontal
reflector at depth Z0 waves diffracted at points P and A constructively interfere with each other
resulting in appearing as a reflected wave from point O (Figure 6.4). As the reflected wave is
measured by the twoway travelpath, only the region where the raypath is longer by a quarter of
the wavelength is taken into consideration. This distance AP is called the Fresnel zone radius
and it corresponds to the horizontal resolution.
Figure 6.5 is a plan view of the Fresnel zone. This radius is defined for a CMP stacked section
by the depth of the reflector and the wavelength of the reflected wave. This radius is larger for
a greater depth and a longer wavelength, reducing the resolution.
The lateral resolution due to the Fresnel zone is generally inferior to the vertical resolution.
A migrated section, which is usually used for interpretation, is considered to have a better
resolution then the Fresnel zone.
Figure 6.4: Concept of the Fresnel zone in the vertical plane.
Figure 6.5: Fresnel zone in plan view. The Fresnel zone for the CMP stacked section is represented as an
ellipse.
1) Outputs of a seismic reflection survey should include at least the following:
a seismic reflection time section (with or without migration);
a seismic reflection depth section; and
an interpreted section.
2) The survey report should include at least the following:
an outline of the survey (source and receiver locations);
a description of the mode of operation (including the equipment used);
the steps in the data processing;
the results of the survey;
an interpretation of the results;
the materials used and their references; and
the results from the other data collected.
3) Submit the following digital data:
coordinates and elevation of survey lines, shot and receiver points;
raw data; and
reflection seismic sections both in time and depth.
Notes
1) Follow the format specified by the client.
2) Use common data format for raw data such as SEGY and SEG2.
Description
The time reflection section is a vertical crosssection after CMP stacking and time migration
may be applied as necessary. The vertical axis of these sections is the twoway traveltime. The
scale of the horizontal axis (distance) is determined according to the purpose of the survey. The
standard scale for the vertical axis for a Pwave section is 20 or 40 cm/s and 40 cm/s for an S
wave section. The horizontal scale of the depth section should be set to the same as the time
section. The vertical section of the depth section may be expressed by elevation. A depth
section with a scale that makes the ratio with the horizontal scale a whole number would make
later interpretation easy.
An interpreted section should contain information about the relationship between the
physical properties and the reflectors. Geological columns at the drillhole and a Figure of the
geology structure including soil, geological boundaries and faults are good to include. The
scale for these diagrams should be consistent with the seismic sections.
The report should include the processing flow in a flow chart. The processing parameters and
the stacking velocity structure should also be included.
The interpretation and discussion section should include:
relationship between seismic interpretation and soil/geology and its reasoning;
velocity used for depth conversion and its derivation; and
reliability limit of the result.
The digital data should be organized in a commonly used format such as SEGY and SEG2 or
in a format that can be easily converted into these. A format particular to the software used
should be avoided.
References
Baker, G.S. (1999) Processing NearSurface Seismic Reflection Data. Society of Exploration
Geophysicists, Tulsa OK.
Inazaki, T. (2004) High resolution reflection surveying at paved areas using Swave type land
streamer. Exploration Geophysics 35, 1–6.
Yilmaz, O. (1987) Seismic Data Analysis. Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Tulsa OK.
4 The Surface Wave Method
1. General
1) The surface wave survey method records the surface waves (the Rayleigh waves) that
travel near the ground surface and estimates the S wave velocity distribution to a
depth of about 20 m.
2) There are two types of the surface wave survey method:
One uses a source that produces a continuous wave and two or three receivers;
and
The other uses an impact source such as a hammer blow and ten or more
receivers.
Notes
1) The two dimensional survey of the surface wave method should be regarded as a series of
one dimensional analyses or a pseudo two dimensional survey.
2) Where topographic variation or lateral geological variation is large, application of this
method is difficult.
3) The layer boundaries by the surface wave method are velocity boundaries and do not
necessarily agree with geological boundaries.
Supplementary Note
1) Where the depth of probe is greater than around 20 m, the microtremor survey method
(Chapter 5) may be combined.
Description
Among the elastic waves (seismic waves) that travel in the ground, beside the two types of
body waves (Pwave and Swave) that travel in the earth, there areas of two types of surface
waves that travel on the ground surface: Rayleigh waves and Love waves (Figure 1.1).
A dispersion phenomenon in which the propagation velocity changes with frequency and
wavelength can be recognized with stratified ground. Its propagation velocity is approximately
90% of the Swave velocity. The surface wave method analyses this divergent nature of the
surface waves to estimate the vertical variation of the Swave velocity. There are two types in
the surface wave methods. While the principle and analysis are common to these two types, the
difference between them is in data acquisition. (Figure 1.2). The method using an impulse
source and multiple geophones provides better precision and is becoming main stream. This
book mainly describes this method.
Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of typical elastic waves in the ground.
Figure 1.2: Data acquisition of the surface wave method.
Merits of the surface wave method are summarized below:
It is possible from the earth’s surface to calculate the twodimensional Swave velocity
structure of the ground without destruction.
A large area can be surveyed quickly and cheaply because the survey duration is
minimal.
It can investigation under asphalt surface. Explosives are not needed.
Measurement analysis is simple.
Combined with the standard penetration test and/or sounding, the 2dimensional N
value structure of the ground can be estimated.
Because analysis of the surface wave method (especially in inversions) assumes parallel
horizontal layers, its application may be difficult in an environment with intense topographic
and geological variations. A 2dimensional survey of the surface wave method is essentially a
continuous series of 1dimensional analyses or a pseudotwo dimensional survey.
The Swave velocity is sensitive to the variation of the geological quality of the soil. For
example, sand and gravels have high velocity, while clay has low velocity. In using the Swave
velocity to evaluate the competence of ground, it is necessary to distinguish it from the
influence of geological variation. But, the layer boundaries by the surface wave method
velocity are boundaries of Swave velocity and may not necessarily represent geological or
lithological boundaries.
2. Principle
1) The surface wave method uses an artificial seismic source generated on the ground
surface wave in the level making use of an artificial swing source.
2) The surface waves (Rayleigh wave) are recorded with several geophones installed in
line.
3) Using phase velocity analysis and Swave velocity analysis, it estimates the Swave
velocity structure of the ground.
Note
1) The apparent Swave velocity is estimated from the propagation velocity of each
wavelength spectrum of the Rayleigh wave (dispersion curve).
Supplementary Note
1) The precision of the dispersion curve is enhanced by increasing the number of geophones
used.
Description
When the ground level is excited with a hammer, elastic waves are generated and they travel
through the earth and along the ground surface. The surface waves respond to the velocity
structure near the surface: the longer wavelength (lowfrequency) components represent the
deeper part of the ground. The surface waves with long wavelength represent the Swave
velocity of the deep part of the earth. For example, in a structure where the Swave velocity
increases with depth, surface waves with short wavelengths (high frequencies) have low
velocities and, those with longer wavelengths (low frequencies) have higher velocities. The
depth of the probe is empirically estimated around onethird of 1/3 of the wavelength.
Wavelength (frequency) with the Swave velocity structure of the ground is estimated by the
inversion of a dispersion curve, which represents the propagation velocity for each frequency.
Figure 2.2 is a conceptual diagram of the dispersion.
Figure 2.1: Principle surface wave method.
Analysis in the surface wave method involves the estimation of the dispersion curve of
Rayleigh waves: the propagation velocity for each wavelength (frequency) component. In
recent years, confident precise estimation became possible by using multiple geophones.
Figure 2.2: Dispersion of surface waves and phase velocity.
Phase velocity (c(f)): where f is frequency) of the surface wave (Rayleigh wave) represents
the Swave velocity structure to a depth of approximately 1/3 of the wavelength. The following
equations lead to apparent depth (D (f)) and corresponding surface wave velocity VR (f) as an
apparent Swave velocity. By plotting these, an approximate Swave velocity of the ground can
be estimated (Figure 2.3).
The Swave velocity structure estimated in this manner is only an apparent velocity structure
and it is usually recalculated by an inversion process to fit the observed dispersion curve. The
inversion process generally used is the iterative linearized nonlinear least square method.
Figure 2.3: Apparent Swave velocity structure by the empirical “1/3 wavelength ruleofthumb”.
3. Applicability
1) It applies to the geological investigation of the quality of the soil to a depth of 20
meters for the following targets:
rivers banks;
housing site ground;
landfill area;
verification of bearing capacity and rock head line; and
construction design for earthquakeproofing by zoning of the ground
properties.
Notes
1) Careful attention should be exercised in applying to areas with complex topography or
where the Swave velocity structure is complicated along the survey line.
2) Search for buried services and cavities is difficult.
Supplementary Note
1) It can be applied to soft ground due to a shallow groundwater level, where Pwave
refraction cannot work.
2) It can be applied to areas with a high velocity surface layer (bitumen surface, for example),
where Swave refraction cannot work.
3) In some countries such as the United States, the surface wave method is used to estimate
the average Swave velocity of the top 30 meters.
4) It is possible to indirectly investigate for buried utilities from environmental geological
features such as a filled trench.
Description
As the surface wave method analyses the propagation quality of the wave with a long
wavelength, inevitably there is a limitation in spatial resolution. Therefore, it is difficult to find
a target whose size is considerably small compared with its depth, such as buried utility and
cavity. Resolution is generally around half the depth of the probe. For example, an anomaly
with a 2 meter diameter can be detected if its depth is about 5 meters but difficult to find at 10
meters (Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Concepts of resolution of the surface wave method.
From the consideration of resolution, finding buried utilities and cavities deeper than two
meters by the surface wave method is difficult. However, it is possible indirectly to contribute
to the investigation of cavities and burying utilities, by capturing the features of the ground of a
larger scale than the limit of resolution, such as loosened soil around utilities and cavities. The
surface wave method is suited for flat topography, because the case history of application to the
mountain region is still scarce, planning should require careful consideration.
The surface wave method can be applied to the ground where the seismic refraction method
(the elastic wave method) cannot be applied. Firstly, the surface wave method can be applied to
soft ground with a shallow groundwater level where the Pwave refraction cannot be used,
because it estimates the Swave velocity of the ground. Secondly, it can be applied to the
ground with velocity reversal where the Swave refraction method does not work, as long as
the reversal layer is not great, a sealed road surface for example. However, the method is
primarily for structures with monotonously increasing velocity, a careful consideration is
required in planning.
In the United States, the surface wave method is used to estimate the average Swave
velocity to a depth of 30 metres (AVS30), classification of ground competence by the
International Building Standard (IBS).
4. Planning
1) To adopt the surface wave method, the investigation area must satisfy the following
conditions:
The site must be able to accommodate a line length at least twice the depth of
the probe.
There are no large structures such as a building or retaining wall within the
distance of half of the depth of the probe.
Topography is generally horizontal.
Supplementary Notes
1) Even if the ground is not horizontal, a survey is possible if the slope is even.
2) Spatial detectability is approximately half of the depth of the probe.
Description
To record the surface waves, it is necessary to keep the source location some distance away
from the receiver array, because many types of elastic waves occur in the vicinity of the source.
For information on the deep ground, it is necessary to observe the surface wave of low
frequency, for this it is necessary to increase the initial offset. For these reasons, the maximum
offset is usually set two or more times of the depth of the probe. For example, when the depth
of the probe is 10 m, a survey line length 20 m or more is necessary and its detectability of
anomaly is approximately 5 m.
2) Design of a survey line needs to take the following points into account:
Survey line length should be twice the depth of the probe or longer.
Secure plenty of survey line length for the area of the investigation range.
Note
1) A survey line needs extra length outside of the required survey area by about the same
length as the depth of the probe.
Supplementary Notes
1) Plan combining with other geophysical methods, boring and/or sounding according to the
purpose of the survey.
2) Where the depth of the probe exceeds 20 meters, consider to combine the array
microtremor survey.
3) For a river bank survey, survey lines should be arranged on the top of the bank for
investigation of the bank body and at the base and intermediate steps for investigation of
the footing.
4) For residential site investigation, lines may be arranged to maximize their lengths, diagonal
for example.
Description
Survey lines should be extended by about the same distance as the depth of the probe, because
the precision becomes poor towards ends of the survey line (Figure 4.1), In other words, the
minimum length of the survey line required is twice as long as the depth to the probe.
Figure 4.1: Concept of determining survey line length.
For the investigation of a river bank, if the interest is the quality of the bank itself, a survey
line should be located on the top of the bank, while if the base is the main interest the survey
lines are planned at the base and intermediate level of the bank (Figure 4.2). Depending on
requirement, consider combining other methods such as electric resistivity survey.
Figure 4.2: Examples of a survey line arrangement for river banks.
For a survey in a residential block, the survey lines should be designed to maximize their
lengths, diagonal lines for example. It may be designed to enable combined analysis with other
methods like Swedish sounding tests (Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3: Example of a survey line arrangement in a residential block.
If the area is too small to ensure the line length for the depth of the probe, consider
combining the microtremor survey method. When adopting the microtremor survey the arrays
are set up on the surface wave survey line with an appropriate interval.
4.3 Arrangement of Source and Receivers
3) The source and receivers are arranged in line at 0.5∼2 m interval.
4) The number of receivers to record at a time is between 12 and 48.
5) When a survey line length is longer than the array length, “offend” shooting is used.
6) When a survey line length is the same as the array length, only the source location
moves with the geophone array fixed.
Notes
1) Array length is required to be twice as long as the depth of the probe.
2) The geophone interval is calculated by dividing the array length by the number of recording
channels.
3) Source interval should be the same or twice as long as the receiver interval.
Supplementary Notes
1) Source can be located in either end of the array.
2) The greater number of receivers improves the signaltonoise ratio but considering
operational efficiency, 24 geophones per array is sufficient.
Description
In planning the configuration of the source and receiver array, the issues to consider are the
required depth of the probe and array length. The array length is the range in which the signal is
simultaneously recorded. The “fixed array” survey uses the same geophone range with source
points in different locations. Figure 4.4 illustrates a survey plan combining offend shooting
and fixed array survey. This is designed to acquire as many wave forms as possible at each
receiver location.
Figure 4.4: An example of a configuration of source points and receivers.
In general, in the microtremor survey where the source distance can be regarded as infinity,
the depth of the probe is approximately the same as the array size; 10 m array for 10 m probe.
On the other hand, the surface wave survey has a finite source distance and its effect must be
considered. The elastic waves generated by an impact turn to Rayleigh waves after traveling a
distance of about half a wavelength. For example, the wavelength needed to probe 10 m in
depth is approximately 20 m, the source offset needed to turn to Rayleigh waves is 10 m. From
the account of the above two issues, the maximum sourcereceiver distance for the depth of
probe 10 m is 20 m (10 m + 10 m). There are two ways in spreading arrays: one with array size
and initial source offset greater than the depth of probe (Figure 4.5(a)); the other with total
source offset and the array distance being greater than the depth of probe (Figure 4.5(b)). A
clearer dispersion curve can usually be obtained by a larger array even with shorter offset.
Therefore in this manual it describes the depth of the probe as half of the array size.
Figure 4.5: Survey plan for a 12channel surface survey.
The early surface wave method that used one source vessel and a few geophones estimated
the phase velocity from a crosscorrelation of two traces. The recent multichannel surface
wave method generally directly calculates phase velocity from many traces. Because this
method is superior to the method by crosscorrelation in its capability of separating higher
modes, the multichannel method is usually used. The larger the number of channels is better
but 12∼24 channels are sufficient to separate higher and other modes. Therefore a common 24
channel seismograph is usually used. For example, when the depth of the probe is 10 m and the
number of channels is 24, the required array size is greater than 20 m, twice the depth of the
probe. Dividing this by the number of channels gives the receiver interval about 1m.
Accordingly the corresponding source interval is 1 or 2 m. Table 4.1 summarizes data
acquisition parameters as a guide.
Receiver interval Array size Depth of Probe Source Interval

0.5 m 11.5 m 5 m approx. 1 m
1 m 23 m 10 m approx. 2 m
2 m 46 m 20 m approx. 4 m
Table 4.1: Guide of acquisition parameters for a 24channel survey.
5. Survey Method
5.1 Instrumentation
1) The seismograph for the surface wave method must satisfy the below specifications:
the number of channels must be twelve or higher;
A/D dynamic range must be 18 bit or higher;
frequency response must be at least 4.5∼100Hz;
the recorder must be capable of sampling at every 1ms or a higher rate;
the recorder can record 1,024 samples or more; and
the recorder can record longer than 2 seconds.
Note
1) Some seismographs for the seismic reflection and the refraction methods may not have a
frequency response range as low as 4.5Hz.
Supplementary Notes
1) It is not necessary to apply the trigger by a shot mark.
2) Unlike the seismic refraction survey, no shot marks are needed to be recorded.
3) It is good to verify the dispersion curve at each recording.
Supplementary Notes
When depth of the probe is around 20 m, the most important frequency range is a few to tens of
Hz. As described later, the instrument needs to have a lower frequency limit under 4.5Hz,
because the natural frequency response of geophones usually used for the surface wave method
is 4.5Hz. Some seismographs for the seismic reflection and the refraction methods may not
have a frequency response range as low as 4.5Hz.
While the seismic reflection refraction methods require shot time, the surface wave method
does not require a shot mark as it does not analyze the first break but phase difference of the
wave form. Therefore, as long as there is a pretrigger or self trigger function, a separate
channel to record a shot mark or wiring for the trigger can be eliminated.
5.2 Receivers (Geophones)
2) The surface wave method uses 4.5Hz velocity geophones.
3) The geophones are connected to a multiconductor cable with 12 or more channels
(takeout cable) that leads to the seismograph.
Notes
1) The 4.5Hz geophones are fragile. Transport needs extra care by clamping.
2) Sensitivity and phase lag should be periodically checked by the huddle test.
3) The geophone is installed vertically, regardless of the slope.
Supplementary Notes
1) A simple coupling of the geophones to the ground is sufficient.
2) A towed instrument such as a land streamer may be used.
Description
The natural frequency of the geophones used is determined depending on the depth of the probe
and average Swave velocity to the depth of the probe. In the surface wave method, the
empirical “1/3 wavelength rule” states that the depth of probe is about 1/3 of the longest
wavelength observed. From this the required minimum frequency to be recorded, fmin is
calculated by the formula below:
where Vs is the average Swave velocity (m/s) and d is the depth of the probe (m). For example,
when the depth of the probe is 10 m and the average Swave velocity is 150 m/s, the necessary
lower limit frequency fmin becomes 5Hz from the following calculation:
From this equation, geophones with a lower natural frequency can achieve a greater depth of
probe. The geophones with a natural frequency lower than 4.5Hz are expensive and hard to
handle in the field. As the wavelength generated by a hammer blow is usually up to ten meters,
4.5Hz geophones are effective and appropriate.
The 4.5Hz geophones are fragile compared with the usual 28Hz ones. Transport needs extra
care with clamping. The geophones should be placed vertically. Especially on a slope, they
should be carefully placed vertically not perpendicular to the slope surface. Because the
frequency used by the surface wave method is low, the ground coupling of the geophones is not
as critical as in the seismic refraction and reflection methods for seismic exploration. However
the lowfrequency geophones must be installed vertically and this takes extra care.
Usually spiked geophones are set on the ground. Where the surface is paved, a land streamer
may also be used. A land streamer is a tool with a series of geophones on plates connected by a
wire or belt, with which the entire geophone array can be towed at a time.
5.3 Source
4) The following two methods are usually used to generate a seismic signal:
sledgehammer blow; and
weight dropping.
Supplementary Notes
1) A sledgehammer with a large mass is desirable. Generally one with a 10 kg weight is used.
2) On a paved surface or on soft ground where a sledgehammer dents the surface, an acrylic or
rubber plate may be used as a hit plate.
Description
The surface wave method requires a precise record in the lowfrequency (long wavelength)
seismic waves. To generate lowfrequency waves, a heavier source dropped from a greater
height is more effective. Because it is not necessary to generate a wave of high frequency, a hit
board for the seismic refraction method is not necessary.
As a source, a sledgehammer and weight dropping are common. The sledge hammer
generally used is one with a 10 kg weight.
Figure 5.1: Seismic source for the surface wave survey.
5.4 Field Procedure
5) The field operation follows the procedure below:
installation of geophones & cable;
preparation of source location; and
shooting and recording.
6) Standard field parameters are as below:
number of channels: 24;
recording length: about 1 second; and
sampling interval: 1ms.
Supplementary Notes
1) When the depth of the probe is deeper than 10 m, or when noise including traffic noise is
severe, weight dropping is used.
2) When there is a ground vibration noise, record again at a quieter time, rather than stacking.
3) Where the surface is grassed, graveled or soiled and the survey line is longer than one array,
a rollalong switch may be used.
4) On the road and other paved surfaces, a land streamer is efficient.
5) The following parameters may used on soft soil:
data length: 2 seconds; and
sampling interval: 2 ms.
Description
A general concept of data acquisition for the surface wave method is illustrated in Figure 5.2.
On a ground surface covered with grass, gravel or soil, spiked geophones are used. If the
survey line is longer than one array length, a rollalong switch (the CDP switch; Figure 5.3)
may be used.
On the road and other paved surfaces, towing a land streamer is efficient in moving the
receivers. Figure 5.4 shows the concept of a land streamer.
In the surface wave method, the signalnoise ratio becomes an issue, when heavy vehicles
along the road and large construction machines are operating near the site. These heavy
machines generally generate a lowfrequency vibration that harms the surface wave data. The
energy of these kinds of vibrations is far greater than the energy of the sledgehammer and stack
processing (adding several records in the time domain) is not effective. Considering the
operation time of the sources of vibration, we need to adjust the survey schedule to minimize
the effect of the noise.
Figure 5.2: A general concept of data acquisition for the surface wave method.
Figure 5.3: Survey with a rollalong switch.
Figure 5.4: Survey with a land streamer.
5.5 Quality Control of Data
1) Derive dispersion curves from records to verify that a clear dispersion curve is
obtained.
Notes
1) Take a personal computer or one integrated in the recorder to the survey field.
2) Confirm several times during data acquisition so that clear dispersion curves can be
recognized.
3) Where the ground condition changes, confirm that the dispersion curve is recognized.
4) Check for the lowest frequency of the dispersion curve.
5) Estimate the lowest frequency of the dispersion curve that covers the required depth of the
probe.
Supplementary Notes
1) When a dispersion curve cannot be recognized and when the data are not sufficient for the
depth of the probe required, consider some remedy:
increase the geophone interval;
increase the number of stacks; and
combine the tremor array method.
Description
The key issue for the data for the surface wave method is whether a dispersion curve can be
extracted from acquired data to satisfy the investigation purpose. Therefore, a personal
computer should be on site to examine the dispersion curve during the survey and verify that a
clear dispersion curve can be obtained. On the dispersion curve, read the lowest frequency fmin
and phase velocity c(f) and estimate the maximum depth Dmax using the empirical “1/3
wavelength rule” formula below. This verifies that the data contain the information of the depth
of the probe
After the above verification process, if the data are found unsatisfactory, either unclearness of
the dispersion curve or inadequate depth, then some remedy must be considered.
6. Analysis
1) The analysis should follow the procedure below:
preparation for phase velocity calculation;
transform to the frequencyphase velocity domain;
extracting the dispersion curve;
constructing the initial apparent Swave velocity profile;
estimation of a onedimensional Swave velocity profile by inversion; and
construct a twodimensional Swave velocity section by arranging the one
dimensional Swave velocity profiles.
Notes
1) There are 2 ways to estimate phase velocity:
directly calculating from a common source point record (raw record); and
with preprocessing such as the CMP crosscorrelation method.
Supplementary Notes
1) Where velocity reversal and sandwiched layers exist, inversion with higher modes is
recommended.
2) In a reconnaissance survey with long lines, an approximation of the Swave velocity
structural model by the “1/3 wavelength rule” is acceptable as deliverable.
Description
Analysis of the surface wave method is essentially a onedimensional analysis: a one
dimensional Swave velocity structure is estimated from a one dispersion curve extracted from
one or more source records. A twodimensional survey is a series of onedimensional solutions
arranged and presented as a twodimensional Swave velocity section. Figure 6.1 shows the
concept of a twodimensional survey. Below, the main flow of analysis is collected.
(1) Preparation of Phase Velocity Estimation
Where the lateral variation of the structure along the survey direction is small, a dispersion
curve can be directly estimated from the waveform. If the variation is great, generating CMP
crosscorrelation records is recommended.
The procedure of creating a CMP crosscorrelation record is summarized below:
calculate the crosscorrelation of all the combinations of two traces in a seismic record;
from all the records, gather all the crosscorrelations of common midpoints;
sum all the crosscorrelations with the same source point; and
arrange the stacked crosscorrelations with the common midpoints in order of offset.
(2) Transformation to the FrequencyPhase Velocity Image
The seismic record from the common source gather or CDP crosscorrelation is a waveform
record in the timedistance domain. This record is transformed by the method of the multi
channel analysis of surface waves (MASW).
The procedure of the multichannel analysis of surface waves is as follows:
Each common source record or CMP crosscorrelation record f(x,t) is transformed into
the frequency domain F(x,ω) by Fourier transform:
Giving an arbitrary velocity c, the waveform in the frequency domain is stacked over
the number of traces making time shift according to the source distance or the lag in the
crosscorrelation. This transforms it into the frequencyphase velocity domain F(c,ω).
This is repeated for different velocity c.
Figure 6.1: General procedure of 2dimensional analysis.
(3) Extracting the Dispersion Curve in the FrequencyPhase Velocity Domain
The absolute value is calculated by the following formula:
The dispersion curve is estimated as a series of phase velocities that give the maximum values
of p(c,ω) at each frequency and corresponding velocity.
(4) Apparent SWave Velocity Structure – Construction of an Initial Model
As seen in Figure 2.4, the apparent depth is estimated as onethird of the wavelength of the
surface wave, which is calculated from the frequency and phase velocity pair on the dispersion
curve. With the corresponding velocity, the depths calculated for all the points on the
dispersion curve form an apparent Swave velocity structure. This becomes the initial model.
The number of layers used for the model is usually 10 to 15. Where a rough estimate of the S
wave is the only requirement and where inversion is difficult due to dominant highermode
components, this apparent Swave velocity structure may be considered as a final result.
(5) Inversion
Where the fundamental mode surface wave is dominant and the dispersion curve is confidently
determined and a more precise Swave velocity structure is desired, an Swave velocity that
satisfies the dispersion curve is estimated by inversion analysis. The inversion generally uses
the iterative linearized nonlinear leastsquare method. In this method, a dispersion curve for
the initial model is first calculated and compared with the dispersion curve extracted from the
seismic record to estimate the difference (residual error). For the calculation of the theoretical
dispersion curve, the Haskel method (Saito Kabasawa, 1993) is often used. Then the model is
revised by the leastsquare method to minimize the residual error. This process is repeated until
the residual error is sufficiently small.
The usual method based on the fundamentalmode surface waves may not be feasible where
a velocity reversal is present, as a velocity reversal is dominant. In such a case, one should
consider methods that take highermode surface waves into account.
(6) Making a TwoDimensional SWave Velocity Section
Arranging the onedimensional Swave velocity profiles along the survey line, the result is
presented as an Swave velocity section.
7. Deliverables
7.1 Deliverables
1) The deliverables from the survey are as follows:
survey map(s);
seismic records and frequencyphase velocity images;
all the dispersion curves;
comparison between extracted and theoretical dispersion curves; and
analysis result (twodimensional Swave velocity section).
2) The following data should be presented in digital format:
seismic records;
geometry of the survey (source and receiver array arrangements); and
analysis result (twodimensional Swave velocity section).
Notes
1) Analysis result (twodimensional Swave velocity section is not only presented as prints but
digital data in common format should be presented).
2) The scale of maps and diagrams should be decided by discussion with the client.
3) The standard format of the seismic record is SEG2.
Supplementary Notes
1) Only representative data of seismic records, phase velocity image in the frequencyphase
velocity domain and theoretical dispersion curve should be presented in the report.
2) All the seismic records are presented in digital format.
3) If the seismic records are presented in a format other than SEG2, the format description
and conversion program should be included, as necessary.
4) Other data such as borehole, sounding and logging data may be included, as necessary.
Description
The deliverables should include diagrams that clearly outline the survey results. An example of
a seismic record and phase velocity image in the frequencyphase velocity domain is shown in
Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: An example of a seismic record in the timedistance domain and phase velocity image in the
frequencyphase velocity domain.
Figure 7.2 is an example of all the dispersion curves in a survey. In this figure, red and
yellow designate the starts of the dispersion curve while green and blue are their ends.
Figure 7.3 shows a comparison between extracted and theoretical dispersion curves to justify
the analysis.
Figure 7.4 shows an example of a twodimensional Swave velocity section. In this figure,
Nvalues from a standard penetration test and Swedish sounding are superimposed. The color
scheme for the twodimensional Swave velocity section is arbitrary but the scheme in Figure
7.4 is recommended. If possible, an initial model and a representative onedimensional Swave
profile may be included in the report, which may contribute to an evaluation of the result.
Figure 7.2: All the extracted dispersion curves in a survey.
Figure 7.3: An example of extracted and theoretical dispersion curves.
A special effort should be exercised to include as much digital data as possible so that the
result can be reevaluated and the data could be reprocessed. In presenting digital data, a
common data format used in easilyavailable commercial software should be used.
Figure 7.4: An example of results of an analysis (twodimensional Swave velocity section).
7.2 Report
3) The report should include the following items:
outline of the survey;
method of the survey;
equipment used;
analysis method; and
analysis result and interpretation.
Note
1) The resolution and reliability of the surface wave method generally diminishes as the depth
of the probe increases. This should be included in the report with an easy explanation.
Description
The contents of the report vary depending on the purpose of the survey and client. Therefore,
an appropriate report should be written for each survey. The resolution and reliability of the
surface wave method generally diminish as the depth of the probe increases. It is difficult to
indicate the resolution and reliability in the Swave velocity section of the result of the analysis.
Therefore, such characteristics of the surface wave method should be taken into account in
interpretation. It must also be explained clearly in the report in an understandable manner.
References
Hayashi, K. and Suzuki, H. (2004) CMP crosscorrelation analysis of multichannel surface
wave data. ButsuriTansa 57, 7–13.
Hayashi, K. and Saito, M. (2004) The dispersion curve of PSV wave propagation with a high
velocity top layer and its analysis. Proceedings of the 111th SEGJ Conference, 39–42. (in
Japanese)
Inazaki, T. (1998) Highresolution Swave reflection survey in an urban area using a “Land
Streamer”. Proceedings of the 98th SEGJ Conference, 114–117. (in Japanese with English
abstract)
Park, C.B., Miller, R.D. and Xia, J. (1999) Multimodal analysis of high frequency surface
waves. Proceedings of the Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and
Environmental Problems, 115–121.
5 The Microtremor Method
1. General
1.1 General
1) The microtremor method is a technique to estimate an Swave velocity structure by
simultaneously observing minute vibrations of the ground caused by natural source
and human activity such as ocean waves and traffic, respectively.
2) The application depths span from several tens of meters to several thousand meters.
Notes
1) The underground structure estimated from the method is a onedimensional multilayer S
wave velocity structure within a certain range under the seismometer array.
2) The precision of the estimated Swave velocity structure is better at a shallower depth and
for thicker layers.
3) The resolution of the estimated Swave velocity structure is better at a shallower depth and
with a greater velocity contrast.
Supplementary Notes
1) The term “array” in “tremor array” means a group of seismometers arranged in a pattern.
The microtremor survey uses an array with horizontal coverage such as a triangle as it
needs to estimate the direction of the wave propagation. This contrasts with reflection and
refraction methods, which usually use a linear array.
2) It is a passive method that assumes an underground structure, utilizing a surface wave
component, a microtremor and a longperiod microtremor.
3) It is capable of estimating an Swave velocity structure up to 1,000 meters deep using low
frequency seismic waves that are not generated by an artificial source.
4) The microtremor array survey has the following kind of features:
it does not disturb the environment;
it can be used in urban areas where population and human activities are
concentrated; and
results can be obtained simply and quickly.
5) The phase velocity of the necessary frequency cannot be always obtained as the strength of
the lowfrequency component signal, which reflects a deep underground structure, is
influenced by meteorological conditions.
Description
The Earth’s surface vibrates with so small amplitude, even when there is no earthquake, that
human beings cannot feel it. These minute vibrations are called microtremors. These vibrations
are classified by their frequency range and location into the microtremors, the long cyclic
microtremor, the volcanic microtremor and the geothermal microtremor. The level and form of
the power spectrum of the microtremor signals vary depending upon time and place. A
common feature is that the spectrum has one peak each in the frequency bands above and
below 1Hz, which suggests the origination of the microtremors. The peak below 1Hz is mainly
due to natural phenomena such as ocean waves, while the peak above 1Hz originates in the
vibration by human activity such as traffic and factories. The microtremors are a combination
of various vibrations with various sources and have random wave form. The source of the
microtremors is considered near the earth’s surface and the microtremor is dominated by
surface waves.
To date, geological engineering surveys have used the dominant frequency (the frequency
that is easy to vibrate) and estimated amplification characteristics of the ground surface from
spectrum analysis of microtremor observation for application to earthquake engineering;
contribution to earthquakeproof design of a building. Since the late 1990s, analysis of the
dominant frequency of surface waves for an Swave velocity structure (Array Microtremor
Survey) has become practical for use in estimating the underground structure of sedimentary
basins for disaster mitigation investigation for earthquakes.
Figure 1.1 shows the survey procedure in three stages:
the several seismometers in a group on the ground surface simultaneously record
microtremors;
fispersive characteristics (phase velocity) of the surface waves, which reflect the
underground structure, are estimated from the record; and
a onedimensional Swave velocity structure is estimated from the phase velocity of the
surface wave.
The microtremor survey is a kind of surface wave method; it utilizes the natural source (see
Chapter 4). In surface wave methods, the lower the frequency the survey uses, the deeper the
depth can be probed. The artificial source used for the array surface wave methods has a limit
in the frequency band of the vibration it can generate: it is not easy to generate the frequency
low enough to probe deeper than 20 m. The microtremor array survey is suitable for a survey
for a probe of more than tens of meters.
It can survey simply and quickly without affecting the environment, even in urban areas
where human activities take place. However, the phase velocity of the necessary frequency may
not be obtained under certain weather conditions, particularly for the structure of a great depth,
as the lowfrequency signal originates in ocean waves.
Figure 1.1: Workflow of the microtremor survey.
As discussed in Chapter 4, the surface waves include the Rayleigh and Love waves. The
Rayleigh wave was discovered by Rayleigh in 1885 and its particle movement is elliptical in
the plane include the direction of propagation: it has both horizontal and vertical components.
The Love wave was discovered by Love in 1911 and its particle movement is horizontal in the
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. The microtremor method generally records
only the vertical component of the Rayleigh wave with seismometers. Recently, researches
have tried to incorporate both of the Rayleigh and Love waves into analysis using 3component
seismometers.
2. Applicability
1) The microtremor method applies to the investigation of Swave velocity structures
from tens to thousands of meters deep.
2) The result is used as basic data for earthquakeproof design and prevention of
earthquake disasters by predicting the nature of strong ground movement.
Notes
1) Avoid the application to a detailed vertical investigation; use velocity logging instead.
2) It is difficult to investigate for a layer thinner than 10% of the survey depth.
3) It is difficult to survey for a threedimensional underground structure in an area smaller
than the survey depth.
Description
Velocity structural analysis by a microtremor array survey assumes that the underground
structure within a certain range under the array is a horizontal multilayer. Because the
resolution decreases with depth, it generally analyzes for a simple model of a few layers and
the model may only agree with the main geological boundaries. For this reason, the
microtremor array survey is chiefly applied to the investigation of the depth of bedrock for
engineering; the thin layer (thickness in general less than 10% of the survey depth) is difficult
to investigate with this method. For a detailed investigation along the depth direction, velocity
logging is recommended.
The physical property the microtremor survey outputs is an Swave velocity and the
frequency band used for the survey is similar to that of natural earthquakes. Therefore the result
is used as basic information for the earthquakeproof design of buildings and disaster
mitigation.
3. Plan and Design
3.1 Selection the Technique
1) Microtremor array surveys are best applied where:
the lateral variation of the geological structure is small and can be
approximated by a parallel multilayer model;
the surface topography within the array is largely flat;
there is no source of strong vibration such as a power plant inside the array.
This could be avoided by selecting an appropriate time for the survey; and
a continuous recording of one hour or more is possible.
Notes
1) Avoid an array set up of crossing a fault with a large throw.
2) The central point of the array should not be above an underground construction.
3) Avoid an application to a mountain area (at the present state of the development of the
method).
4) An investigation of a very shallow (less than 20 m below the surface) part is difficult.
Supplementary Notes
1) The microtremor survey is mainly used in urban and suburban areas on sedimentary plains.
2) It is sometimes used on coastal reclaimed land and industrial areas.
Description
The data analysis of the microtremor array survey is carried out in two stages: the phase
velocity analysis that separately extracts the dispersive quality of the surface wave largely from
the seismic record (dispersion analysis) and estimation of the underground velocity structural
from analysis of the phase velocity (inversion analysis).
The strong source of vibration within or adjacent to the array produces noise to the analysis,
as the present technology of velocity analysis assumes the microtremors are temporally and
spatially stationary. Especially, the observation equipment should be set up to avoid heavy
traffic and noisy plants. In addition, long continuous observation data are necessary as the
analysis uses a statistical technique.
The present technology analyzes for a (onedimensional) horizontal multilayer underground
structure within a certain range under the array. An array should not be planned crossing a fault
with a large throw or an extreme lateral change in geological features. A good precision is not
expected under these circumstances as these changes cannot be approximated by a horizontal
layer model. A large topographic relief and a large underground construction alter the path and
nature of the wave propagation; their effect must be considered.
The application areas of the present microtremor array survey method were concentrated in
sedimentary plains, case studies of application to mountainous areas are scarce. To use this
method in mountainous areas, it is necessary to study the generation mechanism of the
microtremor signal and the geological condition, which may necessitate a preliminary survey.
The microtremor array survey is a method to estimate an Swave velocity structure to the
required depth by observing the passive vibration of the ground. The size of the array has to be
large enough to record the surface waves that contain information to the required depth. If the
size of the array is not appropriate, the dispersion curves necessary to estimate the structure
may not be acquired, or the quality of the dispersion curve surfers. As a result, the output
velocity structure is unreliable. In the worst case, data may need to be collected again. To avoid
this, an appropriate array design is essential.
The Swave velocity structure obtained from the microtremor array survey is an inversion
result and may not be a unique solution. It is important to incorporate existing information into
the final interpretation to reach a reasonable result. In order to organize an initial estimate of
the structure model for array design and to examine the final analytical result, collection of the
following information is recommended at the planning stage:
geological structure of the survey area;
drilling data including velocity logs;
data of the seismic reflection and refraction survey; and
gravity map.
3.2 Array Design
2) An appropriate array size to efficiently fulfill the purpose of the survey is designed as
below:
An approximate underground structural model of the investigation area is
assumed based on existing information and the frequency range of the phase
velocity necessary for the purpose of the survey is calculated.
Using a theoretical calculation for the model, the necessary phase velocity and
frequency range are converted to the wavelength range and the radius of the
circular array is obtained from the relationship between the radius of the array
and wavelength observed.
Based on the number of seismometers used, the size of the array and the
number of arrays are adjusted to uniformly cover phase velocity curves.
3) The arrays below are commonly used unless there is a special reason otherwise. These
arrays can be easily converted to a circular array in analysis:
equilateral triangle;
double concentric equilateral triangles; and
double rotary concentric equilateral triangle.
Supplementary Notes
1) When existing information is too little to draw up an underground structural model,
examine three cases: shallow, medium and deep.
2) When a triangle array is not used, avoid using an even number of seismometers on the
circumference at a regular interval.
3) If a deviation from a circular array is inevitable, try to distribute the seismometers evenly
and as circular as possible.
4) When the noise level at the site is high, a smaller ratio Kmax is used.
5) When several arrays are used, the sizes of the arrays are adjusted to ensure overlapped
coverage of the phase velocity range.
Description
The array design is a procedure to decide the size and shape of an array and the number of
arrays appropriate to the purpose of the survey. It is carried out for efficiency of the survey
based on existing geological information and the surface condition.
A technique to decide the array size based on the sensitivity analysis is described. First, an
underground structural model is assumed from existing information in the survey area. Then, a
theoretical phase velocity for the model is calculated and the phase velocity and frequency
ranges necessary for the survey or structure depth from a sensitivity distribution of the phase
velocity for each layer of the model are decided. Finally, the array size is decided using the
relationship between the array size and the wavelength range for which the array can obtain the
phase velocity. The array size is expressed by its radius R (m) and is determined from the ratio
K with wavelength λ of the corresponding phase velocity. The spatial autocorrelation method
uses the statistical relationship shown in Figure 3.1, while the frequencywavenumber (FK)
method uses the following formula:
where λmax is the maximum wavelength that is estimated and Rmax is the maximum array
radius.
Figure 3.1: Relationship between the array radius and wavelength range for which the phase velocity can
be estimated.
The shape of the array is decided on the basis of access condition, number of seismometers
available and the analysis method. Unless there is a special reason, a triangle array or a
multiplex concentric equilateral triangle array is used. These arrays have seismometers at the
center and a perimeter of concentric circles with a regular interval (Figure 3.2). The spatial
autocorrelation and the frequencywavenumber methods can be used for analysis of the data
collected with these arrays. The spatial autocorrelation method cannot be used with other types
of arrays. More than three seismometers can be placed on a circle but using three seismometers
is most efficient. An even number of seismometers especially reduces the efficiency
significantly as two sets of seismometers line up in the same direction.
The double concentric equilateral triangle array shown in Figure 3.2(b) is most commonly
used. When the length and direction of the base line of the outside triangle are decided, the
positions of the other observation points are automatically fixed and no degree of freedom is
allowed. The double rotary concentric equilateral triangle array, Figure 3.2(c), allows a flexible
arrangement of other points around the center to suit the field condition, as the inner triangle is
independent from the outer one.
Figure 3.2: Typical array arrangements.
When the minimum and maximum radii of the array are decided, the radii of other arrays are
adjusted to cover all the frequency ranges required. Such array radii are set up so as to cover
the inflection points of the dispersion curve of the phase velocity and the target frequency (such
as basement depth) with many array radii.
The relationship between the array size and the detectable maximum wavelength shown in
Figure 3.1 was compiled from nationwide experience centered in the eastern Kanto area
(including Tokyo, Chiba prefecture and Kanagawa prefecture). The detectable wavelength
range depends also on the amount of noise as well as the array size. The ratio Kmax should be
set small in noisy areas.
When only little information is available, a precise underground structural model cannot be
drawn. Then it is safer to design the arrays to cover several cases of target depths: shallow,
medium and deep. An example of an array design is shown in Figure 3.3.
3.3 Planning Observation Points
4) When the array design is decided, draw it on the map and identify the observation
points by onsite scouting.
5) Inspect the location of the observation points for any obstacles to the installation
seismometer.
6) The tolerance of the location of the observation point is 5% of the smallest array
radius.
Notes
1) Pay particular attention to the following issues:
avoid the vicinity of a road with heavy traffic;
choose a road with a footpath, if arrangement on the road is absolutely unavoidable;
avoid areas where noise is expected such as near a railway, subway, parking lots
and factories;
in an urban center, avoid areas with underground structures such as pedestrian
underpasses and underground car parks;
choose quiet places within the tolerance; and
the installation of the seismometer should avoid manholes, gutters, trenches,
telegraph poles and the vicinity of buildings that may be an obstacle to GPS
reception.
Supplementary Notes
1) Observation points are arranged considering important matters for the survey technique,
safety requirements and operational efficiency:
when using several subarrays, the operator should stay near the central point of all
the subarrays;
place the observation points where the public cannot access freely such as a garden
of a private house or public facilities;
vicinity of car parks is unsuitable;
some roads may be busy at a certain time even if the site inspection may find them
quiet at the time.
Description
A good planning of the arrangement of observation points is critical to the operational
efficiency of field work and to data quality. The observation points form overlapping
equilateral triangles of different sizes with a common central point, which geometrically
constrains the position of the location. It is difficult to locate all the observation points on a
map. The effort to locate optimum observation sites is worthwhile because suitability of the
observation data influences the precision of the final results and the time taken.
Figure 3.3: Examples of array design.
Usually, a survey is planned as follows:
obtain a digital city planning map that can be displayed at 1/1,000, 1/5,000 and
1/10,000;
locating points for small arrays is more restrictive. So plan the smaller array first;
draw an equilateral triangle on tracing paper at the scale of the map. Overlay it on the
map and find places suitable for observation;
for dual or multiple triangle arrays, rotating inner and outer triangles around the same
center point allows more degree of freedom;
repeat this for triangles of other sizes keeping the center point constant;
after deciding observation point arrangement on the map, inspect the actual site;
if the scouting finds difficulty in installation, the location should be reconsidered on the
map.
3.4 Planning the Survey Time
7) Plan the survey at a quiet time in the quiet season.
8) According to the array radius, the duration of the observation is determined as
follows:
small array with an array radius less than 100 m: 1∼2 hours; and
medium to large array with a radius over 100 m: 3 hours or more.
Supplementary Notes
1) In rural and residential areas, plan data acquisition in the nighttime, when the traffic
decreases.
2) The construction schedule around the sites should be checked in advance.
3) Ask for operation hours of the factory nearby in advance and plan the survey outside the
operation time.
Description
Rural and residential areas may appear quiet with little noise. But the traffic on the road may be
heavier than expected during the day. Plan data acquisition in the nighttime, when the traffic
decreases.
Construction and road work may be planned at night. The schedule around the sites
should be checked in advance.
If there are factories nearby, check their operating hours, and plan the survey outside
the operation time and holidays.
4. Array Observation of a Microtremor
4.1 Observation Equipment
1) The seismometer used should satisfy the specifications below:
vertical component seismometers (velocity sensor or acceleration sensor) with
a natural period of 5∼10 seconds; and
seismometers with a consistent property.
2) The recorder used should have the following functions:
A/D converter with a resolution 16 bits or more;
GPS time correction function; and
standard clock precision ±1 ppm.
Supplementary Notes
1) Threecomponent seismometers are better, if available.
2) Seismometers and seismographs must be of the sparkproof type if they are used in an area
where fire is not allowed like an oil refinery.
Description
The observation system for the microtremor array survey consists in a seismometer and
recorder. A survey for seismic bedrock deeper than several 100 m requires highsensitivity
seismometers (velocity or acceleration) with a natural period of 5∼7 seconds. It usually just
measures the vertical component.
The data are usually collected at each observation point independently and simultaneously. A
high accuracy GPS with a time correction function (precision ±1 ppm) is necessary with the
recorder.
4.2 Location Scouting
3) Obtain permission from the land owner or manager of the site to install the
observation equipment.
4) Explain the work procedure in advance to the residents near the observation points.
Notes
1) Obtain permission for road use from a police station or the facility manager beforehand if
the observation points are arranged along roads or public facilities.
Supplementary Notes
1) The permit should be carried during the observation period.
2) If an observation station is in a private property, a negotiation through a mediator would be
effective.
3) The job schedule should be notified to the closest police station.
Description
Installation of the seismometers for microtremor surveys always requires permission from the
land owner or manager. It is important to explain and obtain permission from the stake holders
in order to complete the survey without incidents.
If roads (including foot paths and sidewalks) are used, the permission for road use should be
submitted to the local police station and the permit should be carried during the observation
period. When a school, park and other public facilities are used, obtain a permit from the
facility manager.
There have been some cases that residents reported the seismometers as a suspicious
installation causing trouble and delay to the survey. When a seismometer is installed in a
private property, it is best to ask the land owner for permission through a mediator by
explaining the purpose and procedure of the survey.
If there is a police station nearby, explaining the work schedule beforehand will avoid
problems later.
4.3 Huddle Test
5) A huddle test confirms the similarity of the seismometers by placing them at the same
place and records microtremor data simultaneously.
6) Conditions to be satisfied are:
coherence: 0.999; and
phase difference: within ±3 degrees.
Notes
1) The huddle test should take place before starting array observation.
2) The frequency of the huddle test depends on the property of the equipment. It should be
carried out once a day or after a long transport before the measurement.
3) A huddle test should be carried out at a quiet place avoiding a source of strong vibration
like a road side.
4) If the ground is not flat or firm, compact it to firm down for observation.
Supplementary Notes
1) The seismometers should be placed as close as possible but not in contact with a linear or
circle array.
2) The huddle test is meant to be for the consistency of the seismometers not for their absolute
properties.
3) The coherence only testifies the linearity between the instruments and does not address the
sensitivity and amplification factor of the sensors.
4) Coherence varies with the smoothing parameter of the spectrum. Its value is 1 when it is not
smooth.
5) Coherence value 1 does not mean that the sensors are of a consistent property.
Description
The huddle test is a test of the consistency of the sensors at the same location and at the same
time under the same condition. Figure 4.1 shows a photo of a huddle test.
Figure 4.1: An example of a huddle test.
In general, the consistency is checked in terms of phase difference and coherency. A
standard for judging the result of a huddle test has not yet been established. Empirically, a
phase difference under ±3 degrees and a coherency around 0.999 are generally accepted. The
ground surface should be firm. If it is soft, the surface should be treated by compaction.
In general, a coherence close to 1 is considered good. In practice, some smoothing is applied
to the data. If it is not applied, the coherency becomes 1. Therefore, when the coherence is 1, it
does not mean the result is satisfactory. It should be reconfirmed by checking the smoothing
method used. The value varies depending upon the smoothing method and parameters. A
Parzen window with a spectrum width of 0.1Hz is generally used to smooth the coherency.
Figure 4.2 shows the result of an example of a huddle test in a landfill site on a rainy day.
Figure 4.2 shows huddle test result examples.
Figure 4.2: An example of a huddle test result.
4.4 Array Observation
1) Huddle test
2) Installation of the seismometer
3) Observation
4) Retrieval of the seismometers
Notes
1) Note the following remarks about installation:
install seismometers on a flat firm ground;
when the installation site is not even, compact to firm or use a hard plate to
stabilize;
when the surface is grassed, remove the root, tighten and use a hard plate to install
the seismometer;
when the site is soft, like a rice paddy field, strike posts to make a stable platform
for the seismometer; and
adjust the leg of the seismometer precisely to ensure horizontal installation.
2) Water and wind proof the seismometer.
3) Verify the seismometer number on retrieval.
Supplementary Notes
1) Horizontalcomponent geophones are to be installed in a consistent orientation.
2) Fireproofing is necessary near an oil refinery.
3) Guarding personnel may be necessary under some circumstances.
Description
Installation of the seismometer directly influences the data quality. Special attention is to be
made to careful installation. The seismometer should be installed horizontally, at an appropriate
site and a suitable surface should be selected. An example of installation is shown in Figure
4.3.
Figure 4.3: Example of seismometer installation.
A verticalcomponent seismometer does not need orientation adjustment. Horizontal

component seismometers should be installed in a consistent orientation.
A fluctuation of weather and temperature is expected during a long observation. Guarding
against dew may have to be considered in certain seasons as well as rain and windproofing
the seismometers. Guarding personnel may be needed as appropriate. If the observation point is
near an oil refinery, fireproofing is also necessary. An example of an installation with
protective witches’ hats and a blinker is shown in Figure 4.4.
Recording the seismometer number on retrieval is important for data collation.
Figure 4.4: An example of an installation with protective witches’ hats and a blinker.
5. Data Analysis
1) Data analysis consists in phase velocity analysis and velocity structural analysis.
Description
Data analysis consists in phase velocity analysis and velocity structural analysis as shown in
Figure 5.1. The velocity structural analysis is an iterative process similar to elastic wave
tomography where a theoretical model is sought to match observation.
Figure 5.1: Data processing flow of surface wave methods.
5.1 Phase Velocity Analysis
1) Phase velocity analysis is a process to calculate the phase velocity of the dispersive
characteristics of the surface wave from the array observation data.
2) There are two types in the analytical technique:
frequencywavenumber method (F–K method); and
spatial autocorrelation method (SPAC method).
Notes
1) The SPAC method can only be applied to the data observed with a circular array.
2) The final phase velocity is determined after closely examining the data and the analysis
technique used.
3) The SPAC method only obtains the phase velocity of the dominant mode.
4) The data for analysis should be tens of times longer than the maximum period used for
analysis.
Supplementary Note
1) The humming noise in the phase velocity obtained by the SPAC method should be checked
by the F–K method.
Description
There are two sorts of velocity in wave propagation: phase velocity and group velocity. The
wave from a seismic source contains various frequencies. The “wave front surface” is the
surface of the group of points of the same phase in propagation of the wave with a frequency F
and the “phase velocity” is defined as the velocity of the movement of this surface. Suppose a
phase velocity at frequency F to be V and a phase velocity at another frequency F+ΔF to be
V+ΔV An interference occurs between these two frequencies and generates humming. The
velocity of the propagation of this humming is called the “group velocity” (commonly denoted
U) and it is a function of phase velocity C and its rate of variation in respect to the frequency is:
where K is the wavenumber defined as:
When the phase velocity and group speed change with frequency, the wave is described as
“dispersive”. Conversely when the phase velocity is constant regardless of frequency, the group
velocity is also constant; and the wave is described as “nondispersive”.
The phase velocity analysis is also called “dispersion analysis”. It consists in two parts: the
spectrum estimation and phase velocity estimation. The spectrum estimation is the most
important part in phase velocity analysis. It uses a statistical process based on the stochastic
process. First, several segments of the observation data are taken for analysis. Then the cross
spectrum between the power spectrum and the data is calculated for each segment and it is
normalized using the power spectrum. Lastly, the normalized crossspectrum of each segment
is averaged to estimate the value of the spectrum. This process is generally performed using
fast Fourier transform (FFT). To ensure frequency resolution, it is necessary to have the length
of the segments tens of times longer than the maximum period required for analysis. When the
segment is excessively long, the number of data segments to average may become too small.
The frequencywave number (F–K) method has been used as the method of estimating the
phase velocity from the spectrum. However, the spatial autocorrelation (SPAC) method has
been accepted as a main analysis technique.
The frequencywavenumber method is sometimes called the wavenumber scanning method.
It assumes the direction of propagation and the wavenumber of the wave to cancel the
difference of the phase in the data due to the difference in the distance between the observation
stations. If the assumed wavenumber and the propagation direction are perfectly correct, the
phase difference of the data due to distance is completely cancelled. Therefore by scanning the
data at appropriate angular and wavenumber intervals, phase velocity C is obtained from the
wavenumber and the corresponding angle represents the propagation direction of the wave.
Because its physical concept is clear, this method can be applied to any array of arbitrary form
and can estimate the arrival direction of the wave as well as phase velocity. It is capable of
dealing with several modes of surface waves at the same frequency. However, it has a tendency
to estimate the phase velocity too high at a lowfrequency range and the maximum wavelength
that can be estimated is short for the same array size compared with the spatial autocorrelation
method. The maximum wavelength is generally about the diameter of the outer circle of the
array.
The spatial autocorrelation method is a method applicable to circular arrays. Assuming a
plane wave with a frequency f propagates across a circular array at a phase velocity C(f), this
method integrates the real part of the normalized crossspectrum of the measurement data along
the circumference (Figure 5.2).
Figure 5.2: A hypothetical model of the spatial autocorrelation method.
The calculated quantity is called a “spatial autocorrelation (SPAC) coefficient”. The phase
velocity can be calculated from the spatial autocorrelation coefficient. The actual measurement
is in general taken at three observation points forming an equilateral triangle.
As explained above, the SPAC method is derived mathematically and its physical
significance is rather weak and it only obtains the phase velocity of the dominant mode. When
several modes appear at the same level, the correct phase velocity may not be estimated by the
SPAC method. However, compared with the F–K method, it is superior in estimating the
velocity at the lowfrequency band and it is generally capable of estimating the phase velocity
of the waves several times longer than the radius of the observation array.
A triangle array can be resolved to circular arrays, assuming the spatial stationary nature of
the microtremor signal (Figure 5.3). In Figure 5.3, array A is an array of a simple equilateral
triangle with three observation points, one at the center. In the analysis of the normalized cross
spectrum between the data from the central and the circumference arrays, arrays A and C are
equivalent. If the microtremor signal is spatially stationary, the crossspectrum does not change
by parallel shifting, maintaining a relative distance between the two observation points.
Therefore the three observation points on the circle can be regarded as array B. Thus array A
can be resolved to arrays B and C. In this case, the length of the side of the triangle is the radius
of the largest equivalent array, which is larger than the radius of the original circle.
When four observation points are installed in a regular interval on a circle, the data density
appears higher than the three point case. However, when shifted parallel, they are equivalenced
to two points and the data density is in fact lower than the three point case.
Figure 5.3: Resolution of the array and the radii of equivalent arrays.
5.2 Velocity Structural Analysis
3) The velocity structure analysis is a process to construct an Swave velocity structure
model to give a theoretical phase velocity close to the observed phase velocity.
4) Below are the types of analysis techniques:
the least square method;
a method using an algorithm of inheritance;
the neural network method; and
the annealing method.
Notes
1) Examine the phase velocity on:
phase velocity values in the low and highfrequency ranges; and
change of curvature of the phase velocity curve.
2) Examining the known information and understanding the analysis method, set up the
number of layers for the structure model.
3) The final model tends to approximate the change of curvature and singular points of the
phase velocity curve rather than the absolute value of the approximation error. But
consistency between the observed and theoretical velocity values is more important.
Supplementary Notes
1) In the least square analysis, first estimate the thickness and Swave velocity of the layers to
make a good initial model.
2) For the genetic algorithm, an appropriate search area is set up to suit the known
information.
3) Analyze the data several times with varying parameters and select the best fitting model.
4) If information on P and Swave velocities of the investigation site is available, use it.
5) Swave velocity and layer thickness may not be uniquely determined by a model.
Description
Several methods to analyze an underground Swave velocity structure have been developed
including the least square method, genetic algorithm method, neural network method and
annealing method. The velocity structure analysis generally uses the number of layers as a
priori information and estimates the thickness and Swave velocity of each layer; this is called
inverse analysis or “inversion”. The least square method has long been used for inversion
analysis. This method depends heavily on the initial model and better methods are desirable.
The recently developed genetic algorithm has become the main stream of the methods. This
method does not require an initial model; it uses a predefined search area instead. The search
area is the upper and lower limits of the layer thickness and Swave velocity and it could be set
large in absence of detailed information. The resolution of the array microtremor methods
decreases at depth and using of a large number of layers does not necessarily lead to a
meaningful result. Three to eight layers, depending on available geological information, are
generally used.
The high and lowfrequency components of the observed phase velocities represent the S
wave velocity at the shallow and deep parts of the ground, respectively; and its change of
curvature is related to the main Swave velocity boundary. By examining the data, the analysis
condition (initial model or search area) should be set up appropriately. Depending on the nature
of the underground structure, the highermode surface wave may become dominant. When the
observed phase velocity curve shows a sudden increase of velocity at the lowfrequency band,
the highermode is suspected and a careful examination is required.
The theoretical phase velocity curve of a model is determined by the Swave velocity, P
wave velocity, density and layer thickness. The Pwave velocity is not sensitive to the density
and it is generally estimated from the Swave velocity by an empirical equation. If the
relationship between the P and Swave velocities for the site is known, using such a
relationship will improve the accuracy.
The quality of the inverted model is judged by comparing the theoretical and observed phase
velocity curves. The errors can creep into the observed data from analysis and into the
theoretical calculation from assumptions. The final model should be determined considering
the overall resemblance of the theoretical calculation and observed curve; not only relying on
the magnitude of difference.
A unique solution may not be obtained due to the property of the ground and the bandwidth
of the observed data. In such a case, existing geological information should be incorporated
into the interpretation to propose a final model.
1) Deliverables include:
map of observation points;
phase velocity curves;
Swave velocity structures;
observation data;
table of observation points; and
table of observation time.
2) Report should include:
array design;
observation method used;
result of phase velocity analysis; and
interpreted velocity structure.
Notes
1) The following data should be attached as an appendix:
The model used for array design;
The frequency range covered by the final array used;
Coordinates of the observation stations;
Photos to show the installation of the seismometers;
Table of the observation procedure;
Result of the huddle test including power spectra at the test; coherency and phase
difference;
List of recorded data; and
Phase velocity for each array radius (SPAC only);
Misfit of SPAC coefficients (extended SPAC only);
F–K power spectra at a regular frequency interval or minor peaks (F–K method
only);
Initial models (least square method only); or
Search area for the model (genetic algorithm only).
2) References
Description
Currently there is no standard format for microtremor data like SEG2 or SEGD. The data
format depends on the recording instrument and the data of each observation point are
generally stored separately. To allow reanalysis and reuse of the data, a table of the file name,
observation point, precise description of the location (coordinates or other description),
observation date, time, data acquisition parameters, weather condition and notes about noise
should be attached to the data.
The report should describe:
1) Outline of the survey
Concept of the microtremor, characteristics of the surface wave and the principle of the
survey should be described. The capability of the deep probe by surface waves should be
explained as the concept of the surface wave method is especially hard to comprehend,
unlike body waves. An effective use of diagrams is desirable.
2) Design of array
The procedure of the array design from known geological information should be described.
3) Method of observation
Describe array observation points, center coordinates, specification of the instruments,
parameters for data acquisition, date and result of the huddle test.
4) Phase velocity analysis
Describe the work flow of the method and procedure used for data quality with power
spectra, analysis parameters, phase velocities obtained for each array and final phase
velocity. The microtremor data are different from other seismic data in that it is hard to see
the data quality on the record. Attaching the power spectra of the data record is, therefore,
essential.
5) Velocity structure analysis
Describe the analysis method used with a flow chart, analysis parameters and several
solutions as well as the final result of the velocity structure.
6) Result and conclusion
Compare the result of the inversion with existing geological information and describe the
result. Items for future consideration and worthy of other special mention should be
described. The underground models are the ultimate outcome of the microtremor surveys.
Therefore, the most important deliverable should include tabulated numerical data as well
as graphical illustration. Analysis accuracy should be considered when presenting the
numerical data. The number of significant digits is recommended to be 2 or 3.
References
Aki, K. (1957) Space and time spectra of stationary stochastic waves with special reference to
microtremors. Bulletin of the Earthquake Research Institute 35, 415–456.
Okada, H. (2003) The Microtremor Survey Method. Society of Exploration Geophysicists,
Tulsa OK.
Horike, M. (1985) Inversion of phase velocity of longperiod microtremors to the Swave
velocity structure down to the basement in urbanized areas. Journal of Physics of the Earth
33, 59–96.
Further Reading
Arai, H. and Tokimatsu, K. (2005). Swave velocity profiling by joint inversion of microtremor
dispersion curve and horizontaltovertical (H/V) spectrum. Bulletin of the Seismological
Society of America 95, 1766–1778,
Takeshi Matsushima, Hiroshi Okada (1990) Determination of Deep Geological Structures
under Urban Areas Using LongPeriod Microtremors ButsuriTansa (Geophysical
exploration), 43, 21–33.
Yamanaka, H. (2005) Comparison of performance of heuristic search methods for phase
velocity inversion in shallow surface wave methods. Journal of Geophysics and Engineering
10, 163–173.
Zaineh, H.E., Yamanaka, H., Dakkak, R., Khalil, A. and Daoud, M. (2012) Estimation of
Shallow SWave Velocity Structure in Damascus City Syria, Using Microtremor
Exploration, Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering 39, 88–99.
6 The Geoelectrical Method
1. General
1) The geoelectrical method measures naturally occurring or artificially generated

electrical fields and studies the resistivity and other electrochemical properties of the
subsurface layers, in order to investigate the structure of the ground and explore for
subsurface resources.
Notes
1) Geoelectrical methods in the broad sense include the electromagnetic methods (Chapter 7).
In this textbook we use the term geoelectrical method in the narrow sense.
2) Geoelectrical methods in the narrow sense include the following methods:
Resistivity method (Chapters 6.2, 6.3);
Spontaneous potential method (SP method; Chapter 6.3); and
Induced polarization method (IP method).
3) The geoelectrical method, which uses boreholes or tunnels, is classified as electrical
logging (Chapter 18) or the resistivity tomography method (Chapter 15.2).
Description
The geoelectrical method, being one of the oldest geophysical methods, was introduced to
Japan in the 1920s. After World War II it was applied to broader fields, including groundwater
surveys and civil engineering studies.
Geoelectrical methods include the resistivity method, the spontaneous potential method, the
induced polarization method (IP method), and others. The resistivity method is most widely
used. The IP method is not often used in civil engineering surveys.
The resistivity method estimates the subsurface resistivity structure by measuring the electric
potential generated by an electrical current sent into the ground. The analyzed resistivity
structure is then interpreted into the geological structure and the ground conditions. The
resistivity method is then classified into vertical sounding (Chapter 6.1), horizontal profiling
and 2D and 3D surveys (Chapter 6.2). The 2D survey is gaining more popularity.
The spontaneous potential method (Chapter 6.3) is used for the survey of groundwater flow
and mineral deposits by measuring the electric potential distribution naturally or artificially
induced in the ground. Among the several reasons for the occurrence of spontaneous potential,
the displacement of electrical charge due to the groundwater flow and the oxidationreduction
reaction at the mineral deposits are prevalent. In this method, there is no need to apply artificial
electrical currents into the ground.
The induced polarization method (IP method) is used for surveying subsurface ground
conditions and metal mineral deposits by measuring the electrical potential generated after the
shutoff of constant electrical current applied into the ground. The shutoff of the current will
cause the discharge of an electrical charge accumulated at the interfaces between metallic
minerals, clay minerals and the surrounding pore water. In the civil engineering application, the
IP method is not often used except for surveys for geological faults and tunnels in metal ore
mines and serpentine regions.
In this chapter, the spontaneous potential method and resistivity method will be detailed.
2. Principle
2.1 Resistivity Method
2) The resistivity method measures the electrical potential field generated by the
electrical current artificially transmitted into the ground:
The electrical potential field is dependent on the resistivity structure of the
ground.
The resistivity of the ground can be obtained from the measurement of the
electrical potential field.
3) The resistivity methods include:
vertical sounding (Chapter 6.1);
horizontal profiling;
2D or 3D resistivity surveys; and
resistivity tomography.
Note
1) The resistivity method basically uses four electrodes: two for transmitting current and two
for measuring electrical potential.
Supplementary Note
1) The spontaneous potential is the noise in the resistivity method. The effect of the noise can
be reduced in the following ways:
by applying more current to make the measured potential larger;
by measuring the spontaneous potential and compensating the measured potential.
Description
(1) The principle of the resistivity method
The resistivity method is the most frequently used geoelectrical method for the survey of
ground and soil. The resistivity method determines the underground resistivity structure, as the
resistivity changes depending on the kind of earthforming minerals, porosity, quantity and
nature of the porosity fluid, ground temperature. The subsurface geological structure and the
ground properties are interpreted by comparing the resistivity values and resistivity structure
together with the known information on the ground.
Resistivity (in Ω • m) is an electrical property, which is also the basic property dealt with by
electrical logging, the electromagnetic method and resistivity tomography. It is the opposite of
conductivity (S/m), which is used as an index for groundwater properties. The concept of
resistivity is shown in Figure 2.1. The resistance R (Ω) of a uniform and homogenous material
of crosssection S (m2) and length L (m) is given by:
where ρ is the resistivity in Ω • m, which means that the resistivity is the resistance of the
material per unit crosssection and unit length.
Figure 2.1: Resistance and resistivity.
Figure 2.2: Principle of the resistivity method.
Some people believe that resistivity is the resistance per unit volume and even some textbooks
state this. If resistivity was the resistance per unit volume, its unit should be Ω/m3 and this
would imply an isotropic property, like density. Actually, resistivity shows anisotropy. If the
ground is horizontally layered or has horizontal faults or cracks, then the resistivity in the
vertical direction is higher than the resistivity in the horizontal direction.
The resistivity method uses a pair of current electrodes (C1 C2) and a pair of potential
electrodes (P1, P2). Various layouts of these electrodes have been devised and practically used.
Figure 2.2 explains the principle of the resistivity method. If the ground is a homogenous half
space with resistivity ρ, current I flows between the current electrodes C1 and C2 and the
potential difference between electrode P1 and P2 is V, the resistivity is then given by:
(1)
where r11 is the distance C1P1, r21 is the distance between C2P1, r12 is the distance between
C1P2, and r22 is the distance between C2P2. If the ground is inhomogeneous, the resistivity
given by equation (1) is considered to be the average resistivity of the ground underlying the
electrode array and is called apparent resistivity ρa. The apparent resistivities are measured at
various r and the resistivity structure of the ground is estimated.
(2) Classification of the resistivity method
The resistivity methods are classified into vertical sounding, horizontal profiling and 2D or 3D
survey and resistivity tomography.
a) Vertical sounding
The vertical resistivity structure of the ground is estimated as the wider the electrode separation
represents the deeper resistivity structure the apparent resistivity reflects. The analysis assumes
the ground is horizontally layered.
b) Horizontal profiling
Horizontal change of the resistivity at a certain depth is investigated in terms of the change of
apparent resistivity. It is used as a simple method for detecting nearsurface geological
discontinuity, buried materials and occurrence of groundwater.
c) 2D or 3D survey
Also called the highdensity geoelectrical method or the resistivity imaging method. It may be
considered as a combination of vertical sounding and horizontal profiling. This is enabled by
the development of computer and simulation technology. It is applied where there is a
topographical change or the subsurface resistivity structure changes two or three
dimensionally It is the mainstream method in the civil engineering field.
d) Resistivity tomography
A 2D or 3D survey in a borehole or tunnel is called the resistivity tomography method. There is
not much difference between the resistivity tomography method and the 2D or 3D survey in the
analysis technique.
(3) The relationship between ground characteristics and resistivity
Figure 2.3 shows the distribution of resistivity values of the main soil and rock types. Ground
resistivity depends on the soil and rock properties, porosity, saturation, resistivity of pore fluid,
amount of clay and metal minerals and temperature (Table 2.1). Generally, the more the pore
fluid or the more the clay minerals are present in the ground, the lower the resistivity.
Resistivity methods utilize these characteristics to investigate the geology and ground
characteristics. Unlike the physical quantities such as strength and deformation characteristics,
resistivity has no clear onetoone relationship to the groundforming material. Thus, the use of
resistivity survey results in the civil engineering field remains at the qualitative level.
Conditions Changes of rock&soil resistivity
Low → High
Resistivity of groundwater and Low → High Salinity, salt water
pore water wedge
Degree of water saturation High → Low
Porosity (saturated) Large → Small
Clay fraction Many → Few
Degree of weathering and Strong → Slight
alteration
Temperature High → Low Geothermal
Table 2.1: The relationship between geological material condition and resistivity.
Figure 2.3: Resistivity of typical geological materials.
2.2 The Spontaneous Potential Method
4) The spontaneous potential method measures the naturally generated potential field in
the ground.
5) By measuring the distribution of electrical potential in the ground, the presence of
groundwater or mineral deposits is investigated.
Notes
1) The spontaneous potential method does not transmit artificial current into the ground.
2) The spontaneous potential method does not determine the resistivity distribution.
3) The spontaneous potential method basically uses two potential electrodes.
4) The spontaneous potential method measures the relative potential difference.
5) The spontaneous potential method interprets the qualitative characteristics of the ground
using the measured distribution of potential gradients and equipotential lines.
Supplementary Note
1) Some equipment for the resistivity method can measure the spontaneous potential as well.
Description
The spontaneous potential method measures the spontaneous potential naturally occurring in
the ground. The measurement is very simple, using a potentiometer and a pair of electrodes
separated at a certain distance, but the setting of the electrodes in the ground needs special
attention. The spontaneous potential method analyzes the characteristics of the ground by
relating the measured spontaneous potentials to its generation mechanism. The mechanisms to
generate spontaneous potential include:
the natural or artificial flow of water (streaming potential);
the corrosion of buried metal (corrosion cell);
the formation of oxidation and reduction regions related to metallic ore (ore cell); and
the difference in concentrations of salinity in the groundwater (concentration cell).
By considering the generation mechanism of the measured potential or potential gradient, the
conditions of the ground and the presence of metallic ores can be investigated.
3. Application
1) The resistivity method can be applied widely to natural resources exploration and civil
engineering surveys: such as groundwater resources, mineral resources, landslide
potentials, tunnels, dams, cavities and general geological surveys.
2) The resistivity method can be applied at many stages of the survey, from the
preliminaryreconnaissance survey to the final detailed survey.
3) The spontaneous potential method can be applied to the survey of groundwater
(streaming water), landslides, faults, cavities, and water leakage in civil engineering
fields.
Notes
1) The resistivity and spontaneous potential methods cannot be applied in urban areas, where
many artificial sources of electrical noise are present.
2) The horizontal profiling of the resistivity method is especially suited to survey in plains
regions, as the method presupposes a horizontally layered Earth.
Supplementary Note
1) Recently, the 2D resistivity survey has been increasingly used.
2) The 2D resistivity survey is applied for monitoring purposes.
3) The spontaneous potential method must be applied where the relevant mechanism of
spontaneous potential generation can be assumed.
4) The spontaneous potential method is a method for relatively shallow surveys, compared
with the resistivity method.
Description
Table 3.1 shows typical applications of the geoelectrical method.
In the civil engineering field, the resistivity method is the most widely applied tool. When
applying the spontaneous potential method, the mechanism for generating spontaneous
potential should be vigorously considered for the survey target.
method style outputs application comments

Resistivity Vertical Horizontal layer Groundwater, earth slides, Applicable
method sounding structure of resistivity geology, river banks, ruins to slightly
undulating
surface
2D·3D 2D·3D resistivity Groundwater, earth slides, Sounding
survey structure geology, mountain tunnels, depth
river banks, dams, cavities, down to
ruins, wastes, underground 300 m
Resistivity facilities applied
tomography using
boreholes
or tunnels
Spontaneous Potential curves, Groundwater, earth slides, Relatively
potential equipotential curves, faults, leakage, buried shallow
method potential gradient objects survey
curves, potential
gradient vector maps,
etc.
Table 3.1: Typical applications of the geoelectrical method.
4. Terminology
Resistivity: electrical resistance per unit length and per unit reciprocal crosssectional area of
material. Unit is Ω•m.
Apparent resistivity: resistivity value which is calculated from the measured data using the
pertinent formula. If the ground is a homogeneous halfspace, the apparent resistivity is equal
to the true resistivity.
Electrode configuration or electrode array: the configuration of the potential electrodes and
current electrodes in the measurement of the resistivity and IP methods, respectively. Many
kinds of configuration have been devised.
Electrode spacing: the distance between the selected electrodes of the array. The choice of
the electrodes depends on the array.
Electrode configuration factor: the coefficient in the calculation of the apparent resistivity in
the resistivity method. In case of equation (1) the coefficient becomes:
Grounding resistance: the resistance between the electrode and the ground. For the current
electrodes, it is preferable for the resistance to be smaller.
Nonpolarizable electrode: an electrode that is used for precise measurement because of its
stableness in a weak potential. It is frequently used in the spontaneouspotential method but
seldom in the resistivity method because of its difficult handling.
Apparentresistivity curve: the curve of apparent resistivity plotted with respect to the
electrode spacing. In the vertical sounding resistivity method, the double logarithmic chart is
used, where the longitudinal axis is the apparent resistivity and the abscissa axis is the electrode
spacing.
Equivalent resistivity layer: for threelayer model, the upper two layers are replaced by a
equivalent single layer, which shows an approximately equal overall apparent resistivity curve.
Digital linear filter method: this method is used to simplify the calculations in case of a
horizontally stratified Earth.
References
Shima, H., Kajima, K. and Kamiya, H. (1995) Resistivity imaging technique – New electrical
survey for geotechnical, disaster prevention and environment, Kokon Shoin. (in Japanese)
6.1 The Vertical Sounding Resistivity Method
1. General
1) The vertical sounding resistivity method is one of the geoelectrical methods and
estimates the resistivity of the subsurface layers under the measurement point by
changing the electrode spacing of two potential electrodes and two current electrodes.
2) The vertical sounding resistivity method is much easier to apply than the 2D resistivity
method.
Notes
1) The vertical sounding resistivity method assumes application in places:
(1) where undulations are small and the slope is gentle;
(2) where the subsurface layers are horizontally deposited.
Supplementary Notes
1) Resistivity is the electrical resistance per unit length and per unit reciprocal crosssectional
area of material. Unit is Ω•m.
2) Nowadays, the use of the vertical sounding resistivity method is rather limited and the use
of the 2D resistivity method is more common.
Description
The vertical sounding survey is the most frequently used resistivity method from old times, and
was synonymous with the resistivity method before the 1990s, when the 2D resistivity method
became widely used. Recently, the 2D resistivity method is mainly used in the civil engineering
field. In groundwater surveys and the deep sounding, however, vertical sounding is still widely
used. Compared with the 2D resistivity survey, the vertical sounding method is simple in
instrumentation and easy in interpretation. This is the mainstream survey method worldwide.
The vertical sounding method is sometimes called VES, which stands for Vertical Electrical
Sounding.
The vertical sounding resistivity method uses four electrodes: a pair of current electrodes (C1,
C2) and a pair of potential electrodes (P1, P2). By gradually increasing their spacing, keeping
its center at the measurement point shown in Figure 1.1, to investigate the subsurface resistivity
structure. Several kinds of 4electrode configurations have been devised. The vertical sounding
resistivity method usually uses the Wenner or Schlumberger array, where the current electrodes
are deployed outside of the potential electrode pair.
The resistivity ρ(Ω•m) is given by the following equation in the case where the potential
difference V(V) between the electrode P1 and the electrode P2 is measured when the current at
electrode C1 is +I (A) and the current at electrode C2 is –I (A),
where MP stands for the measurement point, and
r11 : distance between C1P1 (m)
π : circumference ratio.
The resistivity given by this equation is called the apparent resistivity if the ground is
inhomogeneous, because it gives the average of the subsurface resistivity. The apparent
resistivity changes as the electrode spacing r is changed. Based on the relationship between the
apparent resistivity and the spacing, and assuming that the resistivity structure of the ground is
horizontally layered, the vertical sounding resistivity method estimates the resistivity and
thickness of the layers.
2. Applicability
1) The vertical sounding resistivity method is applicable to many surveys in the civil
engineering field: disaster prevention, maintenance and the environment.
2) The vertical sounding resistivity method is frequently applied to the following
groundwater related surveys:
investigation of drilling site and drilling depth;
investigation of landslides; and
internal structure of river banks.
3) The vertical sounding resistivity method is applied to the investigation of:
the resistivity of the layered structure under the measurement point; and
the resistivity structure under the line of the measurement points.
Notes
The practical sounding depth is generally less than 200 m for surveys in the civil
1) engineering field.
2) The vertical sounding resistivity method cannot discriminate the geology if the resistivity is
the same despite the geology.
3) The mechanical properties of the ground cannot directly be determined from the
information on the resistivity structure.
Figure 2.1: Resistance and resistivity.
Supplementary Notes
1) The vertical sounding resistivity method can be applied to deep exploration for subsurface
structure.
2) The effects of seawater should be kept in mind if the survey is near the seashore.
Description
The vertical sounding resistivity method has been applied in many surveys in civil engineering
fields, such as groundwater, landslides, foundations for construction, dam sites, cavities,
riverbanks and other geological surveys. It can be applied at stages ranging from preliminary,
reconnaissance, regular surveys and maintenance surveys. However, in recent years, the 2D
resistivity survey is becoming mainstream and can be applied to the survey of complex
topography and geology. The vertical sounding resistivity method requires smallscale
deployment compared with the 2D resistivity survey, therefore, it is an economical survey
method for smallscale surveys in small areas. It was frequently applied to surveys of
groundwater or hot springs in lowlying land with mildly undulating relief. It is seldom applied
to tunnel surveys in mountainous regions. It is particularly well suited to surveys to define the
drilling depth for groundwater in plains and alluvial fan areas. Horizontally stratified layers are
assumed for the resistivity analysis.
Figure 2.2: Principle of the resistivity method.
The vertical sounding resistivity method is a method to investigate the vertical change of the
resistivity below the measurement point. By executing the vertical sounding at many points
along a survey line, a 2D distribution of resistivity of the subsurface crosssection can be
drawn. However, 2D resistivity sounding is advantageous in that case.
The vertical sounding resistivity method relies on the difference in resistivity of the earth
forming materials. If resistivity is uniform, it cannot discriminate the geology. The resistivity is
not related to a physical quantity related to the strength and deformation properties which is
important in the engineering scene. The resistivity information is used qualitatively for
engineering purposes.
The practical sounding depth of the vertical sounding resistivity method using general
equipment is about 200 m, depending on the geological conditions and the capability of the
equipment used. If the desired sounding depth is over 200 m, say 300 m, special equipment for
deeper sounding should be used. Sometimes, it is better to consider other sounding methods,
such as electromagnetic methods.
The geoelectrical method responds to lower resistivity better than higher resistivity.
Therefore, it is especially sensitive to seawater, which has a very low resistivity. To reduce the
effect of seawater in surveys near seashore, it is recommended to plan the electrode deployment
direction perpendicular to the seashore line.
3. Planning
3.1 Advance Review
1) The following conditions must be satisfied for the vertical sounding resistivity
method:
the survey area is not an urban area, where electrical noise is abundant and
buildings are present;
sufficient electrodes can be deployed for the sounding depth;
the topographic relief is relatively gentle;
no cliffs or buildings are present to hinder the deployment of electrodes at a
certain spacing; and
the subsurface resistivity structure can be assumed to be horizontal.
2) The following items should be considered before using the vertical sounding
resistivity method:
the purpose of the survey and the desired accuracy;
the extent of the survey area;
the topography and geology of the survey area; and
operational efficiency and economic viability.
Notes
1) If more than 10 measurement points are to be set up, it is recommended to consider the
adoption of a 2D resistivity survey.
2) The adoption of 2D resistivity survey should be considered where the geological and
resistivity structures are expected to be complex.
Supplementary Notes
1) It can be adopted even if some of the electrodes cannot be set up.
2) The effect of seawater may be an obstacle in interpreting the survey results near the
seashore.
Description
The vertical sounding resistivity method investigates the subsurface resistivity structure by
changing the location of the four electrodes used. It is a necessary condition that the electrodes
must be set on the ground surface. It is not suitable where an electrode array with large spacing
cannot be laid for the desired sounding depth. When many measurement points are planned
along a survey line, the adoption of the 2D resistivity method becomes advantageous for
workload efficiency.
In an urban area, the electrical noise and buildings near the survey line can be obstacles to
the survey. Near the seashore, the effect of seawater can also be an obstacle to the interpretation
of the survey data. When planning the survey, it is very important to consider the survey
objective, site conditions, and features of the survey method.
The vertical sounding resistivity method assumes a horizontally layered structure. It is hard
to apply the method to the survey area where complex geology is expected or the resistivity
structure cannot be approximated by the horizontally layered structure. In these cases, the 2D
resistivity method is recommended.
3.2.1 Survey Plan
3) A survey plan should include:
location of measurement points;
survey method (electrode configuration);
sounding depth and the maximum electrode spacing;
electrode deployment direction;
measuring equipment;
measurement method and measurement sequence;
data reduction method and data analysis method;
work schedule; and
safety measures.
Note
1) The maximum electrode spacing necessary for the desired sounding depth should be
defined considering the availability and accessibility of the survey area.
Supplementary Notes
1) The survey plan should be based on the following documents:
document for survey objectives and survey stages;
topography map (various scales);
geology map;
existing survey reports (boring survey, electrical logging, electrical survey,
electromagnetic survey); and
preliminary geological survey report.
Description
Existing documents from geological surveys must be consulted in planning a survey. The
survey plan must include the location of measurement points, sounding depth, electrode
spacing, survey method (electrode configuration), measuring equipment and work schedule.
They are made based upon the survey objectives, survey stage, required survey accuracy and
survey period. In survey planning, make sure that sufficient measurements are assigned and
also beware not to assign more measurements than necessary.
A smallscale topographical map of the whole survey area is necessary for the survey
planning and a largescale topographical map with detailed constructions, cliffs and hills and
mounds is also necessary in order to plan the electrode deployment direction. Topographical
maps of other scales should also be prepared. A preliminary reconnaissance survey is desirable
if possible, to help planning the main survey.
3.2.2 Planning of Measurement Points Layout and Deployment
Direction
4) Measurement points layout and deployment direction are planned considering:
measurement points should be laid out over places to cover the survey
objectives;
measurement points should be deployed where the topography is gentle;
measurement points must be placed where there are no obstacles, such as
existing constructions nearby;
measurement points must be located in a direction which allows the electrode
deployment to extend to the maximum electrode spacing;
electrode deployment direction must be chosen to avoid obstacles as much as
possible; and
electrode deployment orientation must be chosen so that there is as little
topographical relief as possible.
Notes
1) The measurement points must be placed away from electrical power lines or railways by a
distance that is more than the maximum sounding depth.
2) The electrode deployment orientation should be selected avoiding electrical power lines and
railway lines as much as possible. If it is impossible to avoid them, they should be crossed
at rightangles.
3) The electrode deployment direction should be selected so that measuring conditions can be
symmetrical with respect to the measurement point.
Supplementary Note
1) There is no predetermined azimuth required for electrode deployment orientation.
Description
The vertical sounding of the resistivity method generally places the electrodes linearly, with the
measurement point at its center. The electrode deployment orientation must be as flat (or
linearly sloped) as possible because vertical sounding assumes a horizontally layered Earth. In
a sloped site, select the electrode deployment orientation so that the geology and topography
are symmetrical against the deployment line. If the vertical sounding of the resistivity method
is applied to a hillside, the deployment direction is selected to coincide with the slope direction
(Figure 3.1).
If obstacles such as constructions (especially conductive ones, such as steel sheet piles, steel
supports or steel stakes), steel towers of electrical power lines, roads and fences are present
near the measurement points, then severe measurement errors may occur. The electrode
deployment orientation should be planned to avoid these obstacles as much as possible. Avoid
deploying the electrodes parallel to electrical power lines and railway tracks. Deploy the
electrodes perpendicular to electrical power lines. If there is a river or stream in the area of the
electrode setting location, change the orientation of electrode deployment so that electrodes
will not be set in rivers and streams (Figure 3.1).
There is no prerequisite in the orientation of electrode deployment. With a small electrode
spacing one can avoid obstacles by changing the deployment orientation (as shown by
electrodes P1 in Figure 3.2). When the electrode spacing is large, one may avoid the obstacle
by moving the electrode by a minimal distance perpendicular to the deployment line (as shown
by electrodes P3 in Figure 3.2). This transverse offset has little effect on measurements when
the electrode spacing is large.
Figure 3.1: Examples of the selection of the orientation of electrode deployment.
Figure 3.2: Example of the planning orientation of electrode deployment.
3.2.3 Choice of Electrode Configuration and Measurement Method
5) The Wenner and Schlumberger arrays are the most common configurations.
6) All the electrodes can be deployed from the start or they can be moved after each
measurement.
Notes
1) The measurement point is at the center of the current electrodes C1 and C2, for both
Wenner and Schlumberger arrays.
2) The mixed use of Schlumberger and Wenner arrays should be avoided in the same survey.
Supplementary Notes
1) The Schlumberger array is used for relatively deep surveys.
2) The Wenner array is more frequently applied to the civil engineering field.
3) Relative merits of the Schlumberger and Wenner arrays are not definite. Choice should
depend on conditions.
4) Initial deployment of all the electrodes makes measurement more efficient, if many
measurement points are aligned in a row.
Description
The vertical sounding of the resistivity method investigates the resistivity and layer thickness,
assuming a horizontally layered Earth. The Wenner and Schlumbergers arrays have been used
for many years and vertical sounding seldom uses any other configurations. Figure 3.3 shows
the Wenner and Schlumberger methods.
Figure 3.3: Electrode configuration for vertical sounding.
The Wenner array shown in Figure 3.3(a) is also called an equispacing CPPC array.
Apparent resistivity ρa by the Wenner array is given by setting r11= a, r12= 2a, r21 = 2a, r22=
a in the general equation such as:
In vertical sounding with the Wenner array, the measurement point O is the center point of the
electrode pair P1P2 or C1C2, and making the point O the fixed point, the apparent resistivity is
estimated by gradually expanding the electrode spacing a. Subsurface resistivity structure is
estimated from the relationship between the apparent resistivity ρa and the electrode spacing a.
Figure 3.4: Measurement method for vertical sounding (electrode deployment).
In the vertical sounding with the Schlumberger array shown in Figure 3.3(b), the current
electrode spacing C1C2 is more than five times the potential electrode spacing P1P2. The
apparent resistivity for the Schlumberger array is given by setting r11=L/2–l/2, r12=L/2+l/2,
r21=L/2+l/2, r22=L/2–l/2 at the general equation previously mentioned as:
Because L≥5l, the gradient of potential is almost constant at the measurement site of potential
difference.
In vertical sounding with the Schlumberger array, the measurement point O is the central
point of electrode pair P1P2 or C1C2, and making the potential electrode spacing l = P1P2 fixed
and the apparent resistivity is estimated by gradually expanding the current electrode spacing L
= C1C2. Subsurface resistivity structure is estimated from the relationship between the
apparent resistivity ρa and the electrode spacing L (usually, the half electrode spacing L/2). In
the Schlumberger array, current electrodes C1 and C2 are denoted as A and B, the potential
electrodes P1 and P2 are denoted as M and N. The distance between the measurement point O
and the current electrode A or B is then AB/2, and the distance between the measurement point
O and the potential electrode M or N is MN/2.
In the measurement process with the Wenner array, four electrodes must be moved at each
measurement, while only two electrodes are moved at each measurement with the
Schlumberger array. However, the potential difference measured by the Schlumberger array is
very small because the potential electrode spacing l is very small compared with the current
electrode spacing L. Thus, the potential electrode spacing l is also expanded when the current
electrode spacing L becomes expanded to some degree. A detailed explanation will be given in
the next Section (3.2.4). The Wenner array has an advantage in measurement because the
measured potential difference is relatively large.
The estimate of the sounding depth by both Wenner and Schlumberger arrays is 1/3∼1/6 of
the current electrode spacing C1C2. It is said that for deep sounding, the Schlumberger array is
somewhat more advantageous because it is less affected by nearsurface inhomogeneities. This
is why the Schlumberger array is more frequently used for relatively deep sounding. This also
means that the sounding results of the Wenner array and the Schlumberger array do not
completely coincide with each other, in spite of their general consistency. This shows the
possibility of misleading results if both arrays are mixed in the same survey. Mixing the two
types of the arrays is not recommended in the same survey.
In a recent style of survey, all the electrodes are set along a survey line from the beginning
and electrode switching equipment is introduced to select combinations of the electrodes. In
this case, the workloads for the surveys with two types of arrays are almost the same. Stacking
(additive average) processing of the resistivity measurement equipment increases the accuracy
in measurement of the infinitesimally weak signals. All these things considered, the relative
merits between Schlumberger and Wenner arrays cannot easily be judged. Select the array
considering the desired sounding depth, capability of the measuring equipment, analysis
capability and workability.
If there are many measurement points along a survey line, setting all the electrodes from the
beginning will give better workability. In this case, the measurement method becomes the same
as the 2D resistivity method. If there are not so many measurements or the measurement points
are scattered, it may be more effective to move the electrodes after each measurement. The
measurement method should be chosen depending on the amount of measurement and other
site conditions.
3.2.4 Deciding the Sounding Depth and Electrode Spacing
7) The maximum spacing of the current electrode (C1C2spacing) should be 5∼7 times
the sounding depth.
8) Electrode spacing should be decided to ensure continuity of the survey results from
the surface to the desired sounding depth of the probe.
9) The center point of the current electrode pair (C1C2) is the point measurement.
Notes
1) Plan the maximum current electrode spacing that satisfies the desired sounding depth
within the limitations of availability and access to the site.
2) For the Wenner array, plan equidistant electrode spacing a, which is 1/3 of the current
electrode spacing.
3) For the Schlumberger array, plan the electrode spacing with respect to L/2 and l/2.
4) For the Schlumberger array, when l/2 is changed, overlapping measurements (explained
later) are necessary to ensure continuity of measurement.
Supplementary Notes
1) Larger current electrode spacing leads to smaller potential difference.
2) Electrode spacings should be planned so that they form equal intervals in a logarithmic plot.
3) Estimate of sounding depth is about 1/3∼1/6 of the current electrode spacing C1C2.
4) If there is a low resistivity layer near the surface, the sounding depth will become
shallower.
Description
The sounding depth depends on the geology but it is roughly 1/3∼1/6 of the current electrode
spacing both for Wenner and Schlumberger arrays. The electrode spacing should be determined
considering the sounding depth, survey objectives and survey site. The increment of electrode
spacing will be larger for larger electrode spacing, which is appropriate as the apparent
resistivity curve will be plotted in a double logarithmic chart. For landslide surveys where
detailed information for the surface area is required, the increment of electrode spacing must be
made small. Table 3.1 and Table 3.2 show examples of electrode spacing plans for Wenner and
Schlumberger arrays, respectively.
Table 3.1: Example of electrode spacing for a Wenner array (sounding depth 50 m).
For the Schlumberger array, measured potential difference may become too small when the
current electrode spacing is increased. The potential electrode spacing then needs to be
increased. In this case, duplicate measurements for two or three AB/2s with the two MN/2s are
necessary. In Table 3.2 cells with shading show the duplicate measurements.
Table 3.2: Example of electrode spacing for a Schlumberger array (sounding depth 50 m).
4. Instrumentation
1) Basic instrumentation consists of:
resistivity measurement equipment (receiver, transmitter);
electrodes (stick);
electrical cables (single core cable);
a power supply (battery, generator); and
a tape measure.
Notes
1) Use properly calibrated equipment.
2) Use highquality wire:
high insulation;
nonrusting wire; and
unbreakable (hard to cut).
3) Other necessities:
tools (hammer for hitting sticks, nippers);
land survey tools;
circuit tester (for cable checking);
transceiver, cellphone (for communication during the fieldwork);
consumables (insulating tape, etc.); and
calculator.
Supplementary Notes
1) There is an allinone type and a separate type of transmitter and receiver for resistivity
measurement.
2) High current output is necessary for deep soundings and surveys in low resistivity areas.
3) For electrodes, use stakes (diameter 10∼25 mm, length 300∼700 mm) of stainless steel or
other rustresistant metal.
4) It is ideal to use nonpolarizable electrodes for the potential electrodes. But take care not to
use nonpolarizable electrodes using a copper sulfate solution, which is an environmental
pollutant.
5) Sometimes electrode switching equipment is used.
6) Power unit must be large enough to transmit power (transmitting current × voltage) for the
resistivity measurement equipment.
7) The equipment and tools for 2D resistivity method can also be used here.
8) Makemarks on the single core cable at electrode connecting positions.
9) Prepare single core cable cables with two or four colors.
Description
Figure 4.1 shows a photo of the allinone resistivity measurement equipment.
Figure 4.1: Allinone resistivity measurement equipment
(1) Resistivity measurement equipment
The resistivity measurement equipment consists of a transmitter and a receiver. There are all
inone types and separate types. The separate type can use a transmitter capable of a large
current output. For civil engineering applications where the sounding depth is less than 100 m,
an allinone type is preferred because of its portability.
The transmitter supplies “alternating direct current” into the ground either by constant
current control or by constant voltage control. The “alternating direct current” is DC whose
polarity changes at a certain interval and is used to prevent the increase of grounding resistance
caused by the polarization effect at the surface of the electrode. Constant voltage control is
desirable for transmitters with a large output. Civil engineering applications mainly use
transmitters with a capacity of 0.5A for maximum output current and 200∼400V for maximum
output voltage.
The receiver measures the voltage difference between the potential electrode pair. If the
period of the alternating DC is too short, measurement errors occur due to the distortion of
measured voltage caused by the induced noise and polarization effect at the polarity change of
the current. If the period of the alternating DC is too long, the transmitted current may be
reduced due to polarization. Therefore, it is desirable for the receiver to be able to display the
measured potential waveforms and transmitted current waveforms. A notch filter to reduce
noise from power lines and a stacking function (additive averaging) to reduce random noise are
also desired for the receiver. The minimum measurable voltage of average receivers is 10μV
and input impedance is 1∼10 MΩ. It is practically difficult to measure voltage as low as 10μV,
due to the fluctuation of the spontaneous potential, electrical noise generated by measuring
equipment and ambient noise. The measured potential is very low in low resistivity regions of
deep soundings, for which a sufficiently powerful transmitter must be used.
Among the commercially available allinone equipment, the megger type equipment cannot
measure the voltage when the ratio of measured voltage over transmitted current, V/I, is over
300 (Ω).
Modern resistivity equipment uses digital technology and the measured data are stored in an
internal memory or transferred to an externallyconnected personal computer.
(2) Electrode switching equipment
Electrode switching equipment is used when all the electrodes in a survey are set at once. It
selects current and potential electrodes for each measurement. In many cases, resistivity
measurement equipment or the externallyconnected personal computers control it to
automatically select electrodes according to the initially determined measurement sequence.
For manual electrode selection, electrodeswitching equipment can be as simple as a terminal
assembly board connected to each electrode.
(3) Electrodes
Electrodes are metal stakes (diameter 10∼25 mm, length 300∼700 mm) made of stainless steel
or other rustresistant metal, tapered at one end. Before use, remove rust if rusted and clean the
surface if oil stains are present. When the grounding resistance is high, metal stakes are added
to reduce the resistance. Therefore, many spare electrodes should be prepared. For the potential
electrodes, unglazed pots filled with copper sulfate solution are used as nonpolarizing
electrodes. But they are seldom used nowadays because of its inconvenience in manipulation
and environmental considerations concerning the leakage of copper sulfate solution into the
ground.
(4) Cable
Singlecore or multicore vinylcoated cables are used to connect the electrodes to the resistivity
measurement equipment or electrode switching equipment. Use cable hard that can be cut
without damage to the coating. Never use the connected cable in mud. The conductive wire
must be thick enough so that the drop in potential against the transmitted current does not
adversely affect the measurements. A vinylcoated singlecore cable with an effective cross
section of 0.75 or 1.25 mm2 (VSF0.75 or VSF1.25 Japan Standard) is easily available because
it is used widely for home use. It is better to prepare cables with several different colors in
order to prevent connection errors. If the conductive wire at the end of the cable is rusted,
remove the rust or cut them to use fresh conductive wire. Plenty of spare cables must also be
prepared, considering the topography and availability of the site and occasional addition of
measurements.
In recent years, the application of 2D resistivity surveys is increasing in Japan. Globally,
however, especially in developing countries, the vertical sounding resistivity survey is
mainstream and is more frequently applied than the seismic refraction survey. The reason is
because it can be applied with relatively simple equipment: a commercially available vinyl
coated cable is sufficient and reinforcing steel bars are fine for electrodes. As for resistivity
measurement equipment, small and cheap ones are commercially available.
5. Field Operations
5.1 Planning and Safety Issues
1) The operational plan should be adjusted to suit the permission to enter the survey area,
available work hours, relationship to other survey operations.
2) Pay sufficient attention to the safety of personnel and protection of equipment against
lightning strikes.
3) Prevent electric shocks because the high voltage is applied to the electrodes during
measurement.
Notes
1) If another geoelectrical surveys is also planned in the vicinity of the survey area, a time
schedule should be arranged to avoid concurrent electrical surveys.
2) For safety reasons, parallel operation with seismic exploration that involves explosives
should not be allowed.
Supplementary Notes
1) The whole the survey schedule, including drilling, should be arranged beforehand.
2) If an electrical survey is planned at nighttime to avoid the daytime electrical noise, special
care must be taken in the operations schedule, safety measures, advance notification to
organizations concerned and prior explanation to the neighbors.
Description
Contact landowners or land managers for entry permission to the survey site. If entry permits
are necessary, be sure to obtain them in advance.
The resistivity method applies electrical current into the ground. This does not cause any
harm to the environment. However, as high voltage is applied to the electrodes during
measurement, be careful to prevent electric shocks. When the electrode spacing is large, an
electrode is far away from the measurement position. Safety measures must be taken
considering this.
If a seismic survey with explosives is carried out nearby, prior arrangement should be made
in scheduling. When lightning begins, it not only introduces noise into the measurements, it
may strike the electrodes or cables and be a danger to equipment and personnel. Operations
should be stopped at once, secure the safety of personnel and then the safety of the equipment.
Sometimes, temporary buildings and resources for boring surveys may become obstacles to
measurement. If there are measurement points near them, arrange the schedule to avoid
conflicts.
If an electrical survey is planned at nighttime to avoid the daytime electrical noise, special
care must be taken in the operations schedule, safety measures, advance notification to
organizations concerned, and prior explanation to the neighbors and conduct the survey without
making troublesome noise for the neighbors.
5.2 Field Procedure
4) Field procedure is as follows:
(1) determine the measurement points and the direction of electrode deployment;
(2) install the electrodes at the first electrode array position and connect the cables;
(3) take the measurement; and
(4) move the electrodes to the next electrode array position and connect the cables and
repeat (3)∼(4).
Note
1) Never forget to take to the survey site the survey plan document or field notes with a clear
description of the electrode positions.
Supplementary Note
1) If several survey operations, such as setting measurement points and electrodes and land
survey are scheduled simultaneously, the contents and schedules of the surveys must be
checked beforehand, to avoid interfering with measurements.
Description
An example is given below to simply explain the procedure of a vertical sounding operation.
Firstly, for the survey planning, prepare field notes, for the electrode spacing determined at
3.2.4, as shown in Table 5.1.
At the site, following the field notes, measurements are taken in the order below. This is an
example of field procedure for allinone type resistivity measurement equipment with four
singlecore cables:
move to the planned measurement site and determine the measurement position;
determine the location of the instrument in the center from which maximum electrode
spacing can be attained in both directions;
two tape measures are extended in both directions from the center point (the origin: 0
m);
record the location of the measurement point and electrode stations;
set up the resistivity measurement instrument near the center point;
insert the electrodes at the first electrode positions (potential electrode: 0.25 m, current
electrode: 0.75 m);
extend cables from the resistivity measurement instrument to each electrode and
connect wires to the electrodes;
take measurement;
move the electrodes to the next electrode positions (potential electrode: 0.5 m, current
electrode: 1.25 m) and set the electrodes;
move the cable to the next electrode position and connect the cables and electrodes;
take the next measurement;
repeat (move the cable to the next electrode position and connect the cables and
electrodes)∼(take the next measurement) to the last electrode position (potential
electrode: 50 m, current electrode: 440 m).
If all the electrodes are initially set in the ground, an electrode configuration map and cable
connection diagrams will make measurement work highly efficient. Combining a multicore
cable and an electrode switching system will also make measurement more efficient.
Table 5.1: Example of field notes for the Wenner array.
5.3 Setting of Measurement Position and Electrodes
5) According to the survey plan, determine the measurement position.
6) Determine the electrode deployment directions.
7) Mark the locations of the electrodes in both directions.
8) Set the electrodes in the ground ensuring good contact.
Notes
1) Avoid setting electrodes in rivers and streams, which adversely affect measurement.
2) Adjust the electrode deployment direction to avoid obstacles at electrode positions.
3) If the electrode spacing is less than 1 m, never knock the electrode too deeply into the
ground.
4) Ground resistance of the electrodes should be less than several kΩ.
Supplementary Notes
1) If necessary, put up a post at the measurement site and mark the locations of the electrodes
with a tape measure.
2) The accuracy of the ground elevation must be within ±10 cm.
3) Simple measurement by tape measure is sufficient for marking the electrode positions.
4) If necessary, the vegetation along the deployment direction or survey line may be cut or
mowed.
5) If the electrode spacing is greater than 10 m and there is an obstacle at the electrode
position, you may move the electrode perpendicularly to the survey line.
6) If the grounding resistance is high, try the following to reduce it:
add more electrodes (effect is small if you put them too near each other);
sprinkle water; or
use a resistance reducing agent, such as bentonite or mud water.
7) If leaf mold is too thick at the surface, remove it before setting the electrode.
8) Contact with electrodes is poor in gravel layers. Fill in with wet sand, clay, bentonite mud
water or resistance reducing agent, to set the electrodes in.
Description
First determine the measurement point. Determine the electrode deployment direction to avoid
structures, roads, farmland, ponds, rivers, and bushes, as much as possible. If bushes cannot be
avoided, vegetation along the survey line may be cut or mowed as necessary. When the
measurement points are aligned along a survey line, the electrode deployment direction is
usually set to the same as the survey line direction.
The importance of accuracy at the location depends upon the objectives of the vertical
sounding. When the survey lines are set up, the positions of measurement points can be
determined exactly by geodetic measurement. Simple measurements using a pocket compass
and a tape measure are sufficient for geodetic measurement. For groundwater and hotsprings
surveys, the position of the measurement point need not be so accurate and very simple
measurement by tape or pacing may be sufficient. Posts may be driven in at the measurement
points with the permission of the landowner or manager, if you do geodetic measurement
before or after the resistivity survey.
In many cases, electrode positions are measured and marked using a tape measure, as shown
in Figure 5.1. Instead of using a tape measure, you may record the electrode position using the
current or potential cables on which measures are marked beforehand. If there are obstacles
such as rocks, pavements, structures, streams and rivers at an electrode point, you may move
the point 1∼3 m perpendicular to the deployment direction if the electrode spacing is more than
10 m.
Figure 5.1: Marking the electrode position by tape measure.
The quality of the measurement data of the vertical sounding resistivity method is heavily
dependent on the condition of the ground contact of the electrodes. Setting of the electrodes
must be very carefully conducted. For current electrodes, electrode and ground must have good
contact for low grounding resistance. For potential electrodes, the grounding resistance must be
small enough in comparison with the input impedance of the receiver. It should be lower than
several kΩ. In order to decrease the grounding resistance, drive the electrodes deeper (it is more
effective to make them deeper rather than using thicker electrodes), use several electrodes
separately hammered into the ground and connected as one electrode, spray water or salt water
or use bentonite mud water or other resistance reducing agents to obtain better contact between
the electrode and the ground. If you spray water, the resistance may change during
measurement. Take note that measurements may be affected if this happens.
In the calculation and analysis of the apparent resistivity, electrodes are assumed to be a
point electrode with no volume. Therefore, if the electrode spacing is less than 1 m, it may
cause errors if you hammer the electrode in deeply. You may need to set the electrode more
shallowly If there is a stream or river near the electrode position, avoid setting the electrode
there. If there are structures or other obstacles, avoid them as well.
5.4 Connection of Cables
9) The following items must be observed in connecting electrodes to resistivity
measurement instruments or electrode switching equipment by cables:
connect the electrodes and cables firmly, so that they will never fail during
measurement;
the cable connection must never be in contact with the ground; and
never contact cables to each other to avoid a shortcircuit.
Notes
1) If the electrodes or the connector of the cable is rusted, remove the rust with sandpaper
before connecting.
2) Use cables of sufficient length; do not tie them in the middle.
Supplementary Notes
1) Keep the connection of the cable off the ground.
2) Protect the connector with insulation tape or a vinyl bag, so that rainwater cannot invade.
3) If a thin, singlecore cable is used, take special care it does not tangle when laying it down.
4) When all the electrodes are set in their initial positions, the cable connection may be
complex and troublesome. Take special care to ensure correct connection.
Description
When connecting the cables, take care that the connection cannot easily be broken and the
cable connection does not touch the ground, to prevent current from leaking.
Thin, singlecore cables can easily become tangled. Inexperienced workers tend to tangle
them and jeopardize operating efficiency. It is important to lay out the cables carefully,
preventing tangling; it is also important to roll up the cables carefully after the survey.
5.5 Measurement
5.5.1 Preparation
10) Ensure measurement equipment is working properly.
11) Ensure the correct connection of cables and resistivity measurement instruments.
12) Make preliminary measurements to determine the appropriate values for transmitting
current, measurement range of voltage and number of stacking.
Notes
1) Using a circuit tester or a resistivity meter, measure the grounding resistance to ensure an
adequate contact between electrodes and cables.
2) Measurement in the rain should be avoided as much as possible because it may cause
trouble with measurements.
3) Do not split measurements at one point over two days.
Supplementary Notes
1) Use resistivity measurement equipment that is correctly calibrated.
2) When electrode spacing is greater than 50 m, use wireless communication to confirm a
correct connection between electrodes and cables.
Description
Resistivity measurement equipment is the most important equipment. If it has a rechargeable
internal battery, check that it is charged. If it uses dry cell batteries, do not forget to carry
spares.
Measurement in the rain should be avoided as much as possible because the reliability of
measured data degrades by current flow at unexpected places, electrodes and cables may
become rusted or measuring instrument tends to suffer. Fine weather after the rain offers
favorable conditions for the survey because the grounding resistance may be reduced. The
ground conditions may change after rain, so it is better to start again from the beginning.
The electrodes are moved as measurement progresses. Confirmation on the change of cable
connections can be communicated by voice or by gesture when the electrode spacing is small.
But when the electrode spacing is great, say longer than 75 m, obstacles may hide gestures and
one’s voice may not reach. In that case, use twoway radio for communication.
Before measurement, confirm the cable connections, determine the appropriate values for
transmitting current, measurement range of voltage and number of stacking. Some digital
resistivity measurement instrument can measure the grounding resistance and check the
connections.
5.5.2 Measurement
13) Apply DC to current electrodes in both directions and measure the potential difference
between the potential electrodes.
14) During measurement, always monitor the measured values.
15) During and after measurement, examine the measured data on site for its quality.
Notes
1) Difference in measured voltage becomes smaller as the electrode spacing becomes larger.
2) Anomalous measurement data cannot be corrected later at analysis time. Resolve them in
the field.
Supplementary Notes
1) When the measured voltage is small, apply the stacking and filtering processes to increase
accuracy.
2) If the measured values are scattered due to electrical noise or other reasons, repeat the
measurement several times and choose a stable result.
3) In urban area, electrical noise is great but may become less at night. Consider nighttime
measurement as an alternative.
4) Plot the apparent resistivity curves while measuring and decide the quality of measurements
and the sounding depth.
5) Beside electrical noise, anomalous data may be caused by the following:
faulty setting of electrodes;
cable disconnection;
wrong cable connection;
current leak from the cable connection;
error in the combination of electrodes at measurement time;
error in the setting of measuring range of resistivity measurement equipment (over
range, underrange);
fault or degradation of contact or relay of electrode switching equipment; and
effect of structures, geodetic and geological conditions.
Description
When the electrodes and cables are ready, check the grounding resistance and start
measurement using the resistivity measurement instrument. For digital equipment, the electrode
spacing and electrode position must be correctly input before measurement, in order to
calculate the apparent resistivity.
During measurement, always monitor the measured values. Measured voltage decreases as
the electrode spacing becomes larger. If the measured voltage does not change against electrode
spacing or if the voltage is too small or too large, then cable disconnection, faulty setting of
electrode, current leakage from the cable, or shortcircuit are suspected. If there is a railway
track near the survey lines, the measured values may be scattered, due to electrical or other
noise. In this case, repeat the measurement several times and choose a stable result. If you
monitor the waveforms of measured voltage or transmitted current, you can effectively judge
the quality of the measured data over noise. So, if the resistivity measurement equipment has
monitoring functions, it is better to use them.
In order to detect errors in measured data at an earlier stage, it is effective to visualize the
measured data by drawing the apparent resistivity curve with the common logarithm of the
electrode spacing as abscissa axis and with the common logarithm of apparent resistivity as
ordinate axis. You can judge anomalies in measured data, insufficiency of sounding depth and
a rough image of the resistivity structure. If an error in measured data is suspected, you should
try to resolve it at the measurement site. Consider the following checkpoints:
problems in the measurement process;
problems in the setting of measurement points;
problems in the topography or geology;
problems in the measurement equipment; and
problems in the conditions of the measurement site.
Even with digitaltype resistivity measurement instrument, which automatically stores the
measured data, it is better to write down the data and calculate the apparent resistivity using
field notes, as shown in Table 5.1. Some digitaltype resistivity measurement instruments can
graphically display the apparent resistivity curve on a builtin display unit.
6. Data Processing
6.1 Location Map of Measurement Points
1) Make the measurement point location map on an appropriate scale, in order to
understand the positional relationship of measurement points and lines.
Note
1) The location map should include information on scale, measurement point numbers, line
numbers, as well as directions (be sure to record magnetic north or true north).
Supplementary Note
1) If necessary, make a sketchmap of the measurement point locations and electrode locations
on an appropriate scale.
Description
The measurement point location map describes the location of measurement points on survey
lines. An electrode setting position and electrode deployment direction map may not always be
necessary. However, in consultations with the client, describe them as the electrode setting
location map and the sketchmap of measurement point locations.
6.2 Apparent Resistivity Curves
2) Before analysis of the measured data, make a table of the following data for each
measurement point:
measurement point number;
electrode spacing;
measurement current;
measured potential;
apparent resistivity; and
corrections.
3) Make the apparent resistivity curve with the common logarithm of the electrode
spacing the abscissa axis and the common logarithm of apparent resistivity the
ordinate axis.
Notes
1) Reexamine all the measurement data, detect the anomalous data and evaluate the effect of
structures and other obstacles.
2) Calculate the apparent resistivity for the sounding method.
3) For a Wenner array, plot the apparent resistivity curve with respect to the common
logarithm of electrode spacing a as abscissa axis.
4) For a Schlumberger array, plot the apparent resistivity curve with respect to the common
logarithm of half of the electrode spacing L/2 as abscissa axis.
Supplementary Notes
1) If clarification of the quality of the measured data is requested, prepare tables to evaluate
quality at this stage.
2) Apply compensation, interpolation or averaging processing to the measured data, as
necessary.
3) Remove any anomalous data harmful to analysis.
4) The apparent resistivity curve is also called the ρa curve or VES (vertical electric
sounding) curve.
Description
Reexamine all the measurement data, detect the anomalous data and evaluate the effects of
sources of anomalies such as manmade structures and other obstacles. If necessary, apply
interpolation or averaging processing to the measured data or remove any anomalous data
harmful to analysis. However, never apply these processing more than is necessary. Make clear
why these processes are necessary and minimize their use. Arrange the measurement data
(measurement point number, measurement method (electrode configuration), measurement
current, measured voltage, apparent resistivities, correction values, etc.) in tables as in Table
5.1 in a reusable format. At this stage, the quality of the measured data is assessed.
The vertical sounding resistivity method plots the apparent resistivity curve calculated from
the measured data. As shown in Figure 6.1, from the apparent resistivity curve, the subsurface
resistivity structure can be roughly estimated.
Figure 6.1: Threelayer models and apparent resistivity curves.
7. Analysis
7.1 Analysis Method
1) Resistivity and layer thickness are determined from the apparent resistivity curve
under the assumption of a horizontally layered Earth model.
2) The following methods are used for the analysis of the vertical sounding resistivity
method:
standard curve method; and
curve matching method (linear filter method).
3) The following items must be considered in the analysis:
objective of the survey and the required accuracy (resolution);
sounding depth;
number of measurement data;
quality of measurement data; and
specification and features of analysis software program.
Note
1) It is important not to divide it into more layers than are necessary.
Supplementary Notes
1) Recently, computer analysis using the linear filter method is more commonly used.
2) If measurements are done along a survey line, a 2D resistivity analysis is recommended.
Description
Among the analysis methods for vertical sounding resistivity, there are the standard curve
method, curve matching method (linear filter method), and empirical analysis method. All of
these methods assume a horizontal multilayered Earth. Recently, the curvematching method
(linear filter method) has become mainstream and standard curves are seldom used in Japan.
If several surveys of the vertical sounding resistivity method are carried out along a survey
line, it is possible to apply the 2D resistivity analysis method. However, it is not so easy and is
seldom used (the 2D resistivity method uses electrodes set equidistant, which makes the
creation of the analysis model much easier).
7.2 Standard Curve Method
4) The standard curve method takes the following process:
(1) A standard curve and an auxiliary curve suitable to the survey type (electrode
configuration) are chosen.
(2) Resistivity and layer thickness are determined sequentially from the upper layer.
(3) A 2layer structure model with the resistivity of the first layer and the depth and
resistivity of the second layer can be determined by matching the apparent
resistivity curve and the standard curve.
(4) To construct a 3layer structure model, replace the first and second layers with an
equivalent layer by using the results of (3) and an auxiliary curve, then obtain the
layer thickness of the second and the resistivity of the third layer using the
auxiliary curves.
(5) For a model with 4 or more layers, repeat the process of (4), and obtain the
thickness and resistivity of the subsequent layers.
Notes
1) Standard curves and auxiliary curves are unique to the survey method (electrode
configuration) used.
2) Up to 4 or 5 layers can be analyzed by using standard curves.
Description
The analysis methods using standard curves are basically the same for the Wenner array and
the Schlumberger array. The standard curves by Sundberg and the auxiliary curves by Hummel
used for the Wenner array are shown in Figure 7.1. Figure 7.2 shows the standard curves and
the auxiliary curves for the Schlumberger array by Ono.
Figure 7.1: Standard curves and auxiliary curves for the Wenner array.
Figure 7.2: Standard curves and auxiliary curves for the Schlumberger array.
The data are analyzed on the basis of a horizontal twolayer model. In the horizontal two

layer structure, the apparent resistivity ρa approaches the first layer resistivity ρ1 at small
electrode spacing. With a larger electrode spacing, the apparent resistivity ρa approaches the
second layer resistivity ρ2. The approach pattern is related to the thickness of the first layer d1
and the ratio of the first and second layer resistivity ρ2/ρ1 (Figure 7.3). Standard curves are a
set of curves for a predetermined combination of ρ1, ρ2 and d1.
Figure 7.3: Apparent resistivity vs. electrode spacing for horizontally 2layered structure.
In the actual survey, the apparent resistivity curves do not always suggest a twolayer
structure. In this case, the standard curves are not sufficient for the analysis of the resistivity
structure. A threelayer analysis assumes a single layer equivalent to the first and second layers
combined. Figure 7.4 explains the concept of this analysis. Let ρe and de be the resistivity and
thickness of a layer equivalent to the first and second layers combined.
Figure 7.4: Transformation to equivalent single layer (Wenner array).
For the Wenner array, the following equations give the apparent resistivity and thickness of a
combined layer calculated from the parameters of the first and the second layers
These are the same formulae as the ones to calculate the total resistance of a parallel circuit.
The auxiliary curves by Hummel are plotted on the double logarithmic space of ρe/ρ1 against
de/d1 with ρ2/ρ1 as a parameter. The auxiliary curves for the Schlumberger array are derived
from the same concept, with a minor difference in the calculation of combined resistivity ρe
and layer thickness de.
The analysis procedure of the Wenner array using the standard curves in Figure 7.5 and
auxiliary curves, is explained as follows:
(1) Estimation of the resistivity and thickness of the first and second layers
Overlay the apparent resistivity curve from measurement on the standard curves and choose the
one with the best match; “standard curve I”. Plot the origin of the standard curve (point (1.0,
1.0) in Figure 7.1(a), marked by a ○ ) onto the apparent resistivity curve as point O1 The
coordinates of point O1, (d1 ρ1), gives the resistivity ρ1 and thickness d1 of the first layer. The
resistivity of the second layer ρ2 is calculated from the resistivity of the first layer ρ1 and the
parameter ρ2/ρ1 of the standard curve I obtained above.
(2) Tracing of auxiliary curve
Overlay the origin O1 on the origin of auxiliary curves (point (1.0, 1.0) of Figure 7.1(b),
marked by a ). and trace the auxiliary curve II, which has the same parameter ρ2/ρ1 as the
standard curve I.
Figure 7.5: Conceptual diagram of analysis by standard curves of Wenner array.
(3) Estimation of the resistivity of the third layer
The resistivity ρe and the thickness de of the combined layer equivalent to the first and second
layers are on the auxiliary curve II traced in step (2). Overlay the apparent resistivity curve on
the standard curves again, move the apparent resistivity curve keeping the origin of the
standard curves on the auxiliary curve II and find the standard curve III, which fits the apparent
resistivity curve best. Plot the origin O2 of the standard curve III on the apparent resistivity
curve.
(4) The resistivity of the third layer and the thickness of the second layer
The origin O2 plotted on the apparent resistivity curve in step (3) gives the resistivity ρe and
thickness de of the equivalent layer. The parameter ρ2/ρ1 of the standard curve III is regarded
as the ratio ρ3/ρe, and the resistivity ρ3 of the third layer can be calculated. The thickness of the
second layer can be obtained by de–d1.
(5) Structure of more than 3 layers
By repeating steps (2)∼(4), structures of more than 3 layers can be obtained.
For the Schlumberger array, the basic procedure is the same as for the Wenner array, but there
is a difference in the method of obtaining the thickness of the intermediate layer. The difference
is explained as follows.
The data measured by the Schlumberger array present a discontinuity when the potential
electrode spacing is expanded. As the preprocessing, we proceed to make the apparent
resistivity curves continuous. Plot the apparent resistivity curve separately for each group of the
same potential electrode spacing. Choose a long, reliable curve and move the other curves up or
down vertically to fit this curve. A continuous apparent resistivity curve for analysis is thus
obtained. Figure 7.6 explains the analysis procedure for the Schlumberger array data. In the
Figure, the processes of obtaining the auxiliary curves II, and standard curves III are the same
as for the Wenner array. The thickness d2 is obtained in the following way. Plot the vertical
auxiliary curve (auxiliary curve IV, d2/d1 curve), which passes through point O2, by overlaying
the apparent resistivity curve on auxiliary curve II. The intersection between auxiliary curve IV
and the horizontal axis, which passes through O1, gives the thickness de of the equivalent layer
and the thickness of the second layer is given by de–d1. Repeating the same procedure, the
resistivity and thickness of other layers can be obtained.
Figure 7.6: Conceptual diagram of analysis by standard curves of the Schlumberger array.
The standard curve method is applicable to the structure of more than 4 layers. However,
five layers may be the practical maximum. Errors tend to be greater for the types A and K in
Figure 6.1, which means that the second layer is more resistive than the first layer. This is
expected from the fact that the apparent resistivity approaches the second layer resistivity more
slowly when the second layer resistivity is higher than the first layer resistivity.
7.3 Curvematching Method
5) Two kinds of analysis by the curvematching method using a computer are:
automatic inverse analysis method to provide an initial model; and
trialanderror approach by forward modeling.
Notes
1) The number of layers should be less than half of the measured data and should not be more
than necessary.
2) The result should be confirmed by comparing the apparent resistivity curve calculated from
the interpreted model with the observed apparent resistivity curve.
Supplementary Notes
1) The linear filter method is commonly used in the analysis of electric potential.
2) Lately, the inversion method has become mainstream.
3) The initial model created by the standard curve method tends to lead to a reasonable
solution of the inversion method.
Description
The curve matching method estimates the resistivity structure by iteratively refining the
assumed resistivity structure model by comparing the apparent resistivity curve calculated from
the model and the measured apparent resistivity curve. The analysis software program consists
of two parts: the forward modeling that theoretically calculates the apparent resistivity and the
onedimensional inversion analysis. It is sometimes called the linear filter method because the
forward analysis calculates the apparent resistivity using the linear filter. Figure 7.7 shows an
example of analysis by the curve matching method.
Using the curve matching method, the resistivity structure that fits the measured data best
can be obtained automatically or semiautomatically. However, an interpreter must be aware of
the problem of nonuniqueness of the solution: a number of models with various combinations
of the apparent resistivity and thicknesses are equivalent. In order to avoid this problem, it is
important not to increase the number of layers of the analysis more than necessary. If other
information, such as borehole data, is available, use it to construct the initial model or fix the
number and the thickness of the layers during analysis.
Figure 7.7: Example of analysis by the curve matching method.
8. Interpretation
6) Qualitatively interpret the ground conditions and geological structure based upon the
resistivity structure analysis.
7) Integrate the results of other surveys and tests into the quantitative interpretation.
8) Examine the survey the results and interpretation in terms of the specifications and the
requests of the client.
Notes
1) If several analysis methods are used, clearly describe the analysis methods and results by
making onetoone correspondence between them.
2) If you made the analysis using the standard curves, arrange and retain the intermediate data
during processing.
3) Before interpretation, review existing survey results.
4) It is difficult to uniquely interpret the ground conditions and geological structure using
information from ground resistivity alone.
5) In interpreting the survey results, clarify the place and range of the original data used for
interpretation and state the basis of interpretation.
Supplementary Notes
1) Draw a crosssection of the resistivity structure if there are several measurement points
along the survey line.
2) If borehole survey results are available, display the analyzed resistivity structure
superimposed in the geological column.
3) Prepare the following documents before interpreting sounding results:
geological survey information;
borehole survey results, insitu test results, geophysical logging results;
seismic survey results;
other geophysical survey results; and
laboratory test results.
Description
If other information, such as the borehole survey results, is available, then draw a chart that
summarizes the relationship between the geological structure and the resistivity structure.
If the standard curves method is used, the intermediate data during processing is important
for verifying the validity of the results and should be arranged and retained as a part of the
analysis results. In analysis by the curve matching method, a diagram of two apparent
resistivity curves should be plotted: one measured apparent resistivity curve and the other
calculated from a modeled resistivity structure. Figure 8.1 shows an example of the analysis
result by the Schlumberger method, using the curve matching method. Figure 8.2 shows an
example of the crosssection diagram of resistivity and interpretation, where several surveys are
conducted along a survey line.
Before the interpretation of sounding results, ensure that you prepare the relevant documents.
The documents to review include geological survey results, borehole survey results,
geophysical logging results and other geophysical survey results. Especially electric logging
results are important information in evaluating the survey analysis results. Published case
studies, research and experimental results are also used as background information.
Figure 8.1: Example of apparent resistivity curve and analyzed resistivity.
Arrange the documents that are important to the survey objectives, then proceed with the
interpretation of the survey results. With the interpretation of survey results, consider the
accuracy and resolution of the measurement and analysis results, and interpret the data within a
meaningful range.
Interpretation and evaluation of the survey results are generally qualitative and empirical.
Resistivity may appear differently, depending on the topography and geology. Therefore, in
interpreting the survey results, clarify the place and range of the original data used for
interpretation and clarify the basis of the interpretation. It is desirable to show the reliability of
the interpretation by distinguishing what was made clear by the survey from what was not
made clear by the survey.
It is important to try a quantitative evaluation of the ground conditions by combining the
borehole survey results and geophysical survey results. It is necessary to clearly state the range,
limitations, conditions and basis for the application.
Figure 8.2: Example of the interpretation of an analyzed resistivity crosssection.
1) The whole process should be clearly documented, from the survey planning to
interpretation of the survey results.
2) The following items should be included in the survey results:
location map of measurement points;
apparent resistivity curves;
analysis results (resistivity structure); and
table of survey data.
3) The following items should be included in the report:
outline of survey;
list of survey equipment;
measurement results;
analysis method;
analysis results; and
interpretation and consideration of survey results.
Notes
1) Reports should be written clearly, so that nonspecialists in the survey method can
understand it in detail.
2) The table of survey data should include the following items:
measurement point number;
electrode spacing;
measurement data;
measurement dates; and
weather and other conditions.
3) the following items should be described for data analysis by computer:
name of software used;
specifications of the program;
analysis method used; and
parameters used in the analysis.
Supplementary Note
1) If data is analyzed using the standard curves method, arrange and retain the intermediate
data during processing.
Description
Reports should be written clearly, so that nonspecialists in the method can understand it in
detail. Survey procedure and data processing should be explained in a flow chart. If a special
survey method or special analysis method is used, the description should include not only the
outline of the method but also the reason why they are used and the reference literature
concerning the principle of the method. If published tables and figures are used in the analysis
of survey data, the the sources should be clearly quoted.
The outline of the survey should include the objectives of the survey, survey date, operator,
personsincharge, engineersincharge, area description, survey method, location of survey
lines and scale of the survey. The survey method section should describe the survey type,
survey procedure, electrode configuration and electrode spacing used in the actual survey. They
should be written clearly so that nonspecialists in the method can understand the processing
procedure.
A list of survey equipment should include the name, quantity, quality, resolution and maker
of the equipment used. If necessary, a copy of the certificate of inspection and calibration may
be attached. The software used in the analysis should be described with the program name,
maker, analysis principle and main specifications of the program.
9.2 Disposition of Survey Data
4) Survey data are stored so that later use and reanalysis are possible.
5) The following items should be included with the stored data:
survey place, measurement point name, location map, measurement point
coordinates;
survey style (electrode configuration), electrode spacing, survey results
(measured resistance, or measured current and potential);
name of software, analysis principle and specifications;
analysis parameters; and
diagrams of survey results.
6) If electronic media are used for storage, the following should be clearly described:
data structure;
reading procedure; and
format of data files.
7) If electronic media are used for storage, the following items should be included in
addition to the items in 5):
name and format of the analysis data file; and
name and format of the analysis results file.
Notes
1) Name, maker and version of the commercial software that is necessary for reading the
stored data should be included in the text file format.
2) File structure, file name and contents of the electronic media should be clearly described.
Supplementary Notes
1) If data are stored in the text format, trouble in reading the media will be minimal.
2) CD and DVD are generally used as electronic media.
3) If special software is necessary to use the data, the program should be included in the
electronic media and the document should include information on the operating system and
other environments necessary for the program.
Description
Survey data are stored so that later use and reanalysis are possible. If electronic media are used
for storage, the storage form and format should be clearly defined because there is no universal
form or format. If the data are stored in text format, trouble in reading the media will be
minimal.
6.2 2D·3D Resistivity Surveys
1. General
1) 2D resistivity and 3D resistivity surveys are kinds of the resistivity survey mode. It
artificially applies current into the ground, and measures the generated potential at
many measurement points in order to investigate the subsurface distribution of
resistivity, an electrical property of the ground.
Notes
1) The measurement principle and method are similar to the vertical sounding resistivity
method (Chapter 6.1).
2) The analysis method is similar in many aspects to resistivity tomography (Chapter 15.2).
3) The differences between 2D resistivity and 3D resistivity surveys are the electrode
configuration and the pairing of electrodes during measurement. The measurement methods
are common to both, as the analysis uses a computer program.
4) Resistivity is the electrical resistance per unit length per unit crosssectional area of
material. The unit is Ω • m.
5) 2D and 3D resistivity surveys are sometimes called the highdensity geoelectrical method,
or the resistivity imaging method.
6) 2D and 3D resistivity surveys, like the electromagnetic method, estimate the resistivity
structure of the ground.
7) Some surveys use current electrodes set far away from the measurement locations. This
configuration is called remote electrodes
Description
The resistivity method has been in use for many years and is the most common method in civil
engineering applications. Resistivity methods include horizontal profiling, vertical sounding
and the 2D resistivity survey. Recently, the 3D resistivity survey was initiated. Today, 2D
resistivity surveys are the mainstream among the resistivity methods. This chapter describes the
common 2D and 3D resistivity methods. The principle and method of measurement are
common to both 2D and 3D resistivity methods. Figure 1.1 shows the measurement system of
2D and 3D resistivity surveys.
The 2D resistivity survey method is sometimes called the highdensity geoelectrical survey or
the resistivity imaging method. In Japan, a method called the pa–pu method was used before
2000. Because the analysis method is common to the resistivity tomography, it is globally
called the electrical resistivity tomography method or ERT. One must be careful in reading the
literature on resistivity tomography, as it might mean the 2D resistivity method.
Figure 1.1: Measurement schematics of 2D and 3D resistivity method (2pole configuration).
2. Applicability
1) 2D resistivity can be applied to the following:
groundwater survey;
landslide survey;
tunnel survey;
cavity survey;
dam survey;
river bank survey;
geological structure surveys, such as faults and weathering and weathering
alteration zones;
monitoring of ground conditions; and
dumped waste survey.
2) 3D resistivity is applied where information on areal distribution is required in the
above surveys.
Notes
1) The practical sounding depth of surveys in civil engineering is generally less than 300 m.
2) The mechanical properties of the ground cannot directly be determined from information on
the estimated resistivity structure.
Supplementary Notes
1) The 2D or 3D resistivity survey is excellent in detecting low resistivity regions in the
ground.
2) They can be applied in many stages from the preliminary survey, reconnaissance survey,
regular survey and maintenance surveys.
3) They are used as a substitute for seismic surveys in the areas where the use of explosives is
restricted.
4) The electrical resistivity alone cannot uniquely determine the geology.
5) The effects of seawater should be borne in mind if the survey is near the sea shore.
Description
The 2D resistivity method has been applied to many surveys in the civil engineering field:
groundwater, landslides, foundations for construction, dam sites, cavities, river banks, and
other geological surveys. Recently, it has been used in the disasterprevention and
environmental fields as well. In tunnel surveys it is used to supplement the seismic survey.
The 2D resistivity survey is relatively sensitive to low resistivity areas and therefore, it is
advantageous in mapping geological features such as faults, weathering and alteration. It is a
generalpurpose sounding method applicable both to plains and mountainous areas and its
sounding depth is relatively large. The 2D resistivity survey has the following features:
the coverage of the application is large;
it can be operated from the surface;
it does not make use of explosives or other dangerous items; and
the measurements and analysis can be combined with the resistivity tomography
method.
The 3D resistivity survey is now used practically but its application is limited compared to the
2D resistivity method because of the heavier workload required in measurement and analysis. It
is applied to detailed surveys with shallow ground conditions or geological structures. It is not
recommended for surveying linear structures, such as tunnels.
The 2D and 3D resistivity methods measure resistivity, so they cannot discriminate
geological features with little or no contrast in resistivity. Furthermore, resistivity is not related
to the physical quality that shows the strength and deformation properties, which is important
in engineering. Resistivity information is used qualitatively for engineering purposes.
The practical sounding depth of the 2D resistivity method using general equipment is about
300 m, depending on the geology and the capability of the equipment used. If the desired depth
of the probe is 300 or 400 m, consider other sounding methods, such as electromagnetic
methods.
3. Planning
3.1 Choice of Measurement Method
1) The 2D and 3D resistivity methods are applied to surveys that satisfy the following
conditions:
the survey site is not in an urban area where electrical noise is abundant and
the buildings are overcrowded;
sufficient electrodes can be deployed for the sounding depth required;
electrodes can be set (hammered into the ground) along the survey line; and
there are no steep cliffs or buildings that prohibit deployment of the electrodes
at a certain spacing.
2) The following items should be considered before adopting the 2D and 3D resistivity
methods:
the purpose of the survey and the desired accuracy;
the size of the survey area;
the topography and geology of the survey area; and
workability and economic efficiency.
3) The 3D resistivity method is suitable for surveying relatively shallow anomalous
structures, which are local and 3D in shape.
4) The 3D resistivity method requires more time for field measurement and analysis
compared with the 2D resistivity method.
Notes
1) If the number of electrodes is less than 20, use the vertical sounding resistivity method
(Chapter 6.1) rather than the 2D or 3D surveying methods.
2) Even if the number of electrodes is the same as the 2D resistivity method, the 3D resistivity
method requires more measurement and analysis time.
Supplementary Notes
1) It can be adopted even where some of the electrodes cannot be set up.
2) The effects of seawater may be an obstacle to interpretation of the survey results near the
seashore.
Description
The 2D resistivity method requires equispaced electrodes along a survey line and investigates
the resistivity structure in the crosssection under the survey line by measuring sequentially,
using various combinations of electrodes. The 3D resistivity method investigates the 3D
structure of the resistivity underlying the area by setting up electrodes in a regularly spaced grid
pattern and by measuring sequentially while changing the combination of electrodes.
Therefore, 2D and 3D resistivity methods need an area where electrodes can be set up on the
ground surface. 2D or 3D resistivity methods are unsuitable if insufficient length of survey line
or area of electrode grid is available. It also cannot be used if the number of available
electrodes is insufficient.
In urban areas, electrical noise and buildings near the survey line are obstacles. Near the
seashore, the effects of seawater can also be an obstacle to interpretation of the data. When
planning the survey, it is very important to consider the survey objective, conditions of the
survey site and features of the survey methods.
The 2D resistivity method requires electrodes placed equidistantly along a linear survey line.
The 3D resistivity method needs a setup of electrodes in a grid pattern covering the survey area,
as shown in Figure 3.1.
The 2D resistivity method assumes that the subsurface resistivity structure does not change
in the transverse direction of the measurement crosssection. In reality, the subsurface
resistivity structure does change in three dimensions. Thus, the 2D resistivity method may
obtain results that are different from the real structure or may make mistakes in detecting
subsurface anomalies. The 3D resistivity method can deal with these problems.
The electrode setup of the 2D resistivity method is a linear array along a survey line, while
the 3D resistivity method uses a grid pattern on the ground’s surface. Thus, if you plan a survey
with the same number of electrodes, the length of the survey line becomes shorter and the
sounding depth becomes shallower for 3D, compared with 2D resistivity methods. The 3D
resistivity method needs measurement with an extraordinarily large number of electrode
combinations, which results in an increased workload. At the analysis stage, the 3D resistivity
method needs a lot of time for making data files and also requires a long time and huge
computer capacity. If there are limitations in time and computer capacity, you may not be able
to analyze a 3D dataset with sufficient resolution and accuracy. Under the present
circumstances, the application of the 3D resistivity method is limited by operational and
economic efficiencies.
Figure 3.1: An example of electrode settings of a 3D resistivity survey.
5) Plan the survey with an understanding of the topography and the expected geology of
the survey area.
6) Review the previous resistivity survey results from electrical surveys or electrical
logging, if they exist.
7) Surveys should be planned on the following items:
survey objectives and stages;
setting the survey line;
sounding depth and electrode spacing;
electrode configuration;
measurement equipment;
measurement method and measurement sequence;
data reduction and analysis methods;
combined use of other surveys and test methods; and
work schedule, economic efficiency and safety measures.
8) Make a survey plan document and work schedule paper, so as to effectively execute
the field measurements and indoor operations.
Notes
1) Make a survey plan considering the available time window and entrance permission to the
survey site, assuming the possibility of extending the survey line in order to attain the
required sounding depth.
2) For the case of an electrode configuration where additional electrodes must be placed away
from the survey line, make the survey plan considering the availability and entrance
permission to the additional electrode sites and the path of the cables to be laid.
Supplementary Notes
1) Survey plans are common to both the 2D and 3D resistivity methods in many respects.
2) Plan a survey considering the limitations imposed by the process of reduction and analysis
of the measured data.
Description
For planning a survey, check the existing documents from geological surveys. Based on the
objectives, stage, required accuracy and period of the survey, the following items must be
planned: location of measurement points, sounding depth, electrode spacing, survey method
(electrode configuration), measuring equipment and work schedule.
In survey planning, ensure that time and resources for adequate measurement are allocated
and also do not assign more measurements than necessary.
3.2.2 Planning Survey Line Setup
9) Survey lines should be planned considering the following items:
survey objectives and survey stage;
topographical and geological conditions;
depth of the probe and resolution required;
obstacles to measurement;
operational efficiency, economic efficiency, safety assurance;
necessity of subsurvey line; and
distinction between 2D and 3D resistivity methods.
10) Set up the survey lines where the surface is relatively smooth.
11) Set up the survey lines avoiding obstacles such as existing structures along or near the
line.
12) Set up the survey lines considering the depth of the probe and survey line length.
13) Avoid splitting the survey line as much as possible.
14) If the major survey line is not sufficient to grasp the geological structure, plan
additional subsurvey lines as perpendicularly as possible to the subsurface structure.
Notes
1) A survey line should not be parallel to electrical power lines or railways. It should be away
from them by a distance more than that of the sounding depth.
2) Where splitting a survey line is unavoidable, the divided survey lines should be set
considering the sounding depth and line lengths.
3) Even if the target of a survey is a curved tunnel, the survey line should be straight. Split the
line as necessary.
Supplementary Notes
1) The common survey line may be used for electrical and seismic surveys.
2) If a fault or lineament is expected parallel to the major survey line, a subsurvey line should
be set up perpendicular to it for supplementary data.
Description
Severely rocky surfaces should be avoided for a survey line.
Severe measurement errors may occur near obstacles such as structures (especially with
conductive material, sheet piles, supports and rods made of steel), steel poles for electrical
power lines, roads or fences. If the survey line unavoidably crosses an existing structure, try to
make the passing length minimal or consider splitting the survey line. If there are existing
structures near the survey line, the line should be set up away from them by a distance that is
more than the sounding depth (Figure 3.2).
If the target of the survey is curved, such as in a tunnel survey, try to set up a single straight
survey line above it. The survey line may be split if a straight line is hard to set up. When a line
is split, each of the segments must be extended beyond the split point to achieve the depth of
sounding (see Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.2: A guideline for setting survey lines and measurement points near obstacles.
Figure 3.3: Example of a survey line.
3.2.3 Setting of Survey Line Length for Sounding Depth
15) The depth of sounding and the length of the survey line are closely related. They must
be planned to adequately cover the survey area.
16) Set the survey line length taking account of the following issues:
survey objectives and stage of the investigation;
availability of land around the survey line; and
electrode configuration.
17) Set the maximum sounding depth to 1.5∼2 times the depth of the survey target.
18) At the both ends of the survey line, the sounding depth becomes shallow.
Note
1) When the survey lines need to be extended to achieve the sounding depth, consider the
availability and access permission to the area concerned if you revise the plan of the survey
lines.
Supplementary Notes
1) If the depth of the survey target is greater than 100 m, the maximum sounding depth should
be set to 50 m greater than the depth of the survey target.
2) This also applies to the last measuring points of split survey lines.
3) If the sounding depth is kept constant at the end of the survey line, the survey line must be
extended to cover it.
Description
Regardless of whether it is the 2D or 3D resistivity method, the maximum sounding depth is
generally set to 1.5∼2 times the depth of the survey target. This becomes too large and
impractical when the depth of the survey target is more than 100 m. In this case, the maximum
sounding depth is set to 50 m greater than the depth of the survey target. At both ends of the
survey line, the sounding depth becomes shallower. This can be compensated by extending the
survey line by half to one times the sounding depth (Figure 3.4). When the survey line is split,
the same treatment is applied. The method of setting the sounding depth is described in Section
3.2.4 Setting of Electrodes.
The reason why the survey range is wider than the survey target range is explained as
follows: the 2D and 3D resistivity methods investigate the subsurface ground conditions from
the resistivity values and their distribution. If there are layers of low resistivity at the near
surface, the sounding depth is shallower than initially planned. This is why the survey range
should be planned to be wider than the target range.
Figure 3.4: Setting of sounding area and survey line length.
3.2.4 Setting of Electrodes (Measurement Points)
19) Determine the minimum electrode spacing so that the survey objectives are effectively
attained.
20) Set the minimum electrode spacing considering the following items:
survey objectives and required resolutions;
sounding depth and survey line length;
electrode configuration;
specifications of analysis program and computer capacity;
topographical and geological conditions; and
operational efficiency, economic efficiency.
21) The maximum electrode spacing is set to be the maximum sounding depth as a rough
guide.
Notes
1) The sounding accuracy (resolution) is degraded as the electrode spacing (minimum
electrode spacing) is larger and the sounding depth becomes greater.
2) The sounding depth is deeper for a larger electrode spacing.
3) The relationship between electrode spacing and sounding depth depends on the electrode
configurations (see 3.2.5 Selection of Electrode Configuration).
Supplementary Notes
1) The 2D resistivity method requires an electrode setup at an equidistant spacing along the
survey line, separated by the minimum electrode spacing.
2) The 3D resistivity method sets up electrodes in a grid survey pattern at equidistant
separation of minimum electrode spacing.
3) The maximum electrode spacing is determined along the survey line; in the same way for
both 2D and 3D resistivity methods.
4) The minimum electrode spacing for each survey line length is generally as follows:
survey line length about 100 m : minimum electrode spacing 2 m;
survey line length 200∼500 m : minimum electrode spacing 5 m;
survey line length 500∼1000 m : minimum electrode spacing 10 m;
survey line length over 1000 m : minimum electrode spacing 10∼25 m.
5) The practical minimum electrode spacing is generally about 1/10∼1/20 of the maximum
sounding depth.
6) Setting the minimum and maximum electrode spacing may depend on the specifications of
the analysis software program to be used.
Description
The 2D and 3D resistivity methods require a constant electrode interval to measure and analyze
the 2D and 3D distribution of resistivity from the ground surface down to the maximum
sounding depth. The minimum electrode spacing (which is a basic constant in the survey) is
determined considering the survey objectives, sounding accuracy (resolution) required, survey
line length, operational and economic efficiency. For a tunnel survey, minimum electrode
spacing is set equal to the receiver spacing of the seismic survey.
A smaller minimum electrode spacing achieves a higher resolution but the time necessary for
measurement and analysis is greater. Roughly speaking, it is difficult to detect an anomaly
which is smaller than the electrode spacing. The resolution is lower at greater sounding depth.
If the minimum electrode spacing is less than 1 m, care should be taken about the driving depth
of the electrodes, as the effect of hammering electrodes deeper is not negligible at small
electrode spacing.
The sounding depth is dependent on the electrode spacing and electrode configuration. A
rough estimate of sounding depth is similar to the depth of the point at which the apparent
resistivity is calculated for the electrode spacing. Section 3.2.5 Selection of Electrode
Configuration explains this (Figure 3.5).
For 2pole and Wenner array configurations, the depth of the point at which the apparent
resistivity is calculated is equal to the electrode spacing, thus the maximum electrode spacing
can be considered as the sounding depth. However, the maximum electrode spacing should be
planned at 1∼2 times the sounding depth to cover the case where the resistivity of the ground is
low and the resistivity structure cannot be obtained down to the depth at which the apparent
resistivity is calculated. For the dipoledipole array configuration, the sounding depth is
assumed to be 2∼3 times the depth at which the apparent resistivity is calculated and the
maximum electrode spacing is determined from the maximum electrode separation coefficient,
which is explained in the next section.
3.2.5 Selection of Electrode Configuration
22) The arrangement of current electrodes and potential electrodes is called the electrode
configuration.
23) Plan the electrode configuration considering the following issues:
survey objectives and accuracy (resolution);
sounding depth;
conditions around the survey line;
specifications of the analysis software program;
capacity of the survey equipment; and
operational and economic efficiency.
24) The electrode configurations for the 2D resistivity method are:
2pole configuration;
3pole configuration;
Wenner array configuration;
Eltran array configuration; and
Dipoledipole array configuration.
25) The 3D resistivity method uses an electrode configuration with a planar combination
of electrodes in addition to the configurations listed in 24).
Note
1) For the 2pole and 3pole configurations, remote electrodes (see Section 3.2.6 Planning
Remote Electrodes) are set up far away from the survey line.
Supplementary Notes
1) Different electrode configurations have a different sounding depth, different detectability of
geological structure and different efficiency of measurement.
2) The 2pole configuration is the most commonly used.
3) The 3D resistivity method uses an electrode configuration with electrodes on several survey
lines; not just one survey line (general electrode configuration).
4) Make the measurement plan considering the sounding depth for the chosen electrode
configuration as the point at which apparent resistivity is calculated.
5) When planning electrode configuration, pay attention to the specifications of the analysis
software program.
Description
The resistivity method uses four electrodes for a measurement, two of which are the current
electrodes to force electric current into ground and the other two are the potential electrodes, to
measure the potential difference generated by the current. The arrangement of these four
electrodes is called the electrode configuration. Many kinds of electrode configuration have
been devised.
The configurations for the 2D resistivity method: 2pole configuration, 3pole configuration,
Wenner array configuration, Eltran array configuration and dipoledipole array configuration.
These configurations are used by themselves or combined. In order to investigate the 3D
distribution of resistivity, the 3D resistivity method is used with the electrode configuration
defined by an areal arrangement of electrodes chosen from several survey lines, in addition to
the electrode configurations used by the 2D resistivity method. In the 2pole and 3pole
configurations, a pair of remote electrodes is set up away from the survey line in addition to the
electrodes along the survey lines and the current cables are laid out from the remote electrodes
to the resistivity measurement equipment. This will be explained in 3.2.6 Planning Remote
Electrodes.
In these electrode configurations, the apparent resistivity ρa is calculated from the measured
current I and potential V and electrode configuration coefficient (Geometric factor) G by the
following formula:
The geometry factor G is the coefficient unique to the electrode configuration, electrode
spacing a and electrode separation coefficient n. Figure 3.5 shows the geometry factor G for the
electrode configurations.
A pair of two electrodes is called a dipole. The electrode separation coefficient n for the case
of poledipole and dipoledipole configurations is the ratio of the distance between the current
dipole and potential dipole and the electrode spacing a. Usually, n is an integer.
The point at which the apparent resistivity is calculated is shown as the solid circle in Figure
3.5. Make a measurement plan for electrode configuration by considering the sounding depth as
the depth of the point where the apparent resistivity is calculated.
Figure 3.5: Geometrical factors and apparent resistivity representing points (solid circle) for some
electrode configurations.
The sounding depth is adjusted by the electrode spacing a or the electrode separation
coefficient n. Design the apparent resistivity points to be evenly distributed in the sounding
area. Take note that when the electrode spacing a or the electrode separation coefficient n is
large, the measured potential becomes small. Especially, for the dipoledipole configuration,
the measured potential is much smaller than other electrode configurations for a large value of
n. Determine the electrode configuration, the electrode spacing a or electrode separation
coefficient n, considering the specifications of the measurement equipment and the electrical
noise conditions near the survey area.
When the sounding depth is large, impractically many measurements have to be taken; if the
apparent resistivity points are distributed evenly from the surface to deep into the ground. In
this case, the measurement plan may be modified so that the apparent resistivity points in the
deep part are sparse. Figure 3.6 shows an example of a measurement plan.
In the dipoledipole and poledipole configurations, the measured voltage tends to be lower
than the measurement limit at large n values. Set the maximum electrode separation coefficient
n to be within the range of 6<15, depending upon the specifications of the measurement
equipment, resistivity expected from the geology and electrical noise around the survey area. If
the sounding depth does not reach the desired maximum depth of the apparent resistivity point,
electrode spacing a should be increased, as shown in Figure 3.6(d).
Figure 3.6: Example of a measurement plan for electrode configuration and apparent resistivity
representing points.
3.2.6 Planning of Remote Electrodes
26) For the 2pole and 3pole configurations, the remote electrode must be set up at about
ten times the maximum electrode spacing (sounding depth) away from the survey line.
27) Set the remote electrodes considering the following issues:
topographic conditions; and
availability of land access for path of cable layout.
Notes
1) Obtain entry permission to remote electrode sites before measurement.
2) Make a plan so that there are no noise generation sources next to the cable layout path and
electrode positions.
Supplementary Notes
1) For the 2pole configuration, two remote electrodes are set up away from each other.
2) For the 3pole configuration, only one remote electrode is necessary.
3) For the arrangement of remote electrodes, please refer to the specifications of the analysis
software.
Description
For the 3pole configuration, one of the current electrodes is set up at about ten times the
maximum electrode spacing (sounding depth) away from one end of the survey line (Figure
3.7). For the 2pole configuration, one of the current electrodes and one of the potential
electrodes must be set up at about ten times the maximum electrode spacing and must be
sufficiently far away from each other. Before the start of the field survey, plan the setting
position of remote electrodes and the path of cable settings and obtain permission to enter the
site. Make a plan so that there are no noise generation sources next to the cable layout path and
electrode positions.
If you cannot set up the remote electrode far enough from the survey line due to limited
space and/ or topography, the remote electrode correction can be applied at the time of data
reduction. Even in this case, you must set up the remote electrode at least 5 times the maximum
electrode spacing.
Figure 3.7: Setting of remote electrodes.
4. Instrumentation
1) Basic instrumentation includes:
resistivity measurement equipment (receiver, transmitter);
electrode switching equipment (scanner);
electrodes (rods);
electrical cables (singlecore cable, multicore cable);
power supply (battery, generator); and
others.
2) Resistivity measurement equipment and electrode switching equipment must be
selected considering the following issues:
survey objectives and required accuracy (resolution);
sounding depth;
known or expected geology;
number of measurement electrodes and electrode configuration; and
measurement time, operational efficiency and economic efficiency.
Notes
1) Use calibrated resistivity measurement equipment.
2) Use highquality cable with high insulation, nonrusting and hard to cut.
3) The “others” includes the following for practicality:
tools (hammer for driving in rods, nippers);
land survey tools;
circuit tester (for cable check);
twoway radio, cellphone (for communications during work); and
consumable supplies (insulating tape, etc.).
4) The power unit must be capable of transmitting sufficient power (transmitting current ×
voltage) for the resistivity measurement equipment.
Supplementary Notes
1) There are allinone types and separate types of transmitter and receiver in resistivity
measurement equipment.
2) Some resistivity measurement equipment has builtin electrode switching tools.
3) High current output type equipment is necessary for deep sounding and surveys in low
resistivity areas.
4) For electrodes, use stainless steel rods (diameter 10∼25 mm, length 300∼700 mm) or other
rustresistant metal.
5) Take great care not to use nonpolarizable electrodes with copper sulfate solution, as it is an
environmental pollutant.
6) A multicore cable improves efficiency in connecting the measurement equipment and
electrodes and helps to avoiding errors in connection.
7) The 2d resistivity and 3D resistivity methods use common instrumentation.
8) The 3D resistivity method needs a large number of measurements. It is better to use
resistivity measurement equipment capable of short measurement times.
Description
(1) Resistivity measurement equipment
The resistivity measurement equipment used in 2D and 3D resistivity surveys consists of the
transmitter and the receiver. There are allinone types and separate types. The separate type
can use a transmitter capable of a larger current output than the allinone type. In surveys with
a sounding depth of less than 100 m, the allinone type is preferred because of its portability.
The transmitter supplies alternating direct current into the ground either by constant current
control or constant voltage control. Alternating direct current is DC whose polarity changes
within a certain period and it is used to prevent an increase of grounding resistance, which is
caused by the polarization effect at the surface of the electrode. For surveys with a sounding
depth of less than 100 m, a transmitter with a maximum output capacity of 0.5A for current and
200∼400V for voltage is commonly used.
The receiver measures the voltage difference between the potential electrode pair,
synchronized with transmitting current. If the period of the alternating DC is too short,
measurement errors may occur due to distortion of the measured voltage, caused by the induced
noise and polarization effect at the polarity change of current. If the period of the alternating
DC is too long, the transmitted current may be reduced due to polarization. Therefore, it is
desirable for the receiver to be able to display the measured potential waveforms and
transmitted current waveforms. A notch filter is also desirable for the receiver, to reduce noise
from power lines. The function of stacking (additive averaging) processing is effective to
reduce random noise. For average receivers, the minimum measurable voltage is 10 μV, and
input impedance is 1∼10 MΩ. Practically, it is difficult to measure voltage as low as 10 ∼V,
due to the fluctuation of spontaneous potential, electrical noise generated by measuring
equipment and exogenous noises. For deep soundings, the measured potential is very low in
low resistivity regions and the transmitter used must be sufficiently powerful.
Modern resistivity equipments use digital technology and the measured data are stored in the
internal memory or transferred to externally connected personal computers.
(2) Electrode switching equipment
Electrode switching equipment selects current and potential electrodes for each measurement.
In many cases, the resistivity measurement equipment or and externally connected personal
computer controls it automatically to select electrodes according to a predetermined
measurement sequence. For manual selection of electrodes, the electrode switching equipment
can be as simple as a terminal assembly board that is connected to each electrode.
(3) Electrodes
For electrodes, stainless steel rods (diameter 10∼25 mm, length 300∼700 mm) or other rust
resistant metal, tapered at one end, are used. Before use, remove rust and any oil. When
grounding resistance is high, additional metal rods are used to reduce the resistance. Therefore,
spare electrodes should be prepared. In the past, unglazed pots filled with copper sulfate
solution were used for potential electrodes, as a nonpolarizable electrode. But it is seldom used
nowadays because it is inconvenient to manipulate, the necessity of preparation of large
amounts of copper sulfate solution and the environmental considerations in case of its leakage
into the ground.
(4) Cables
Singlecore or multicore vinylcoated cables are used to connect resistivity measurement
equipment or electrode switching equipment and electrodes. Use cable that is hard to break and
with no damage to the coating. Conducting wire must be thick enough to avoid the potential
harmful effects of dropping against the transmitted current to be used. If the conducting wire at
the end of the cable is rusted, remove the rust or cut it off to use fresh conducting wire. Multi
core cables can improve the efficiency of connecting the measurement equipment and
electrodes and missconnections can be avoided. Cables must also be prepared with
redundancy, considering the topography and availability of the site and the occasional addition
of measurements.
Figure 4.1: Example of instrumentations.
5. Field Operations
5.1 Process Adjustment and Safety Issues
1) The operational process should be adjusted depending on entry permission to the
survey area, available working hours and relationship with other survey processes.
2) Take sufficient care for the safety of personnel and protection of equipment against
lightning strikes.
3) Take precautions to prevent electric shocks because high voltage is applied to the
electrodes during measurement.
Notes
1) If geoelectrical surveys are also planned in the nearby area, a time schedule should be
arranged to avoid performing the electrical surveys at the same time.
2) For safety, parallel operation with seismic exploration, which involves the use of
explosives, should not be allowed.
3) For the 3D resistivity method, allow plenty of time compared with the 2D resistivity
method.
Supplementary Notes
1) All the survey schedules, including the drilling survey, should be arranged together.
2) If an electrical survey is planned at night to avoid the daytime electrical noise, safety
measures, such as a safe operations schedule, prior notice to the parties concerned and prior
explanations to the neighbors, must be taken.
Description
Before entering the survey site, contact the landowners or property managers to obtain entry
permission.
The resistivity method applies electrical current into the ground. While this does not cause
any harm to the environment, take care to prevent electric shocks to the operators, as high
voltage is applied to the electrodes during measurement. When remote electrodes are used, they
are far away from the end of the survey line and it is hard to see to ensure safety. The following
measures must then be taken: put up a sign to attract attention; select a site that is out of sight
of passersby or bury the electrode completely in the ground.
If a seismic survey that involves explosives is conducted in the same place, sufficient prior
arrangements should be made in scheduling. Lightning not only introduces noise into the
measurements but also a lightning strike to an electrode or cable will be hazardous to
equipment and personnel. Operations should be halted at once, secure the safety of the
personnel and then secure the safety of the equipment.
When an electrical survey must be scheduled at night, report in advance to the organizations
concerned, take sufficient safety measures.
If there are measurement points adjacent to other construction or survey works, adjust the
work schedule with them so that there are no adverse effects to measurement.
5.2 Field Procedure
4) The field procedure proceeds in the following order:
land survey, survey line setting;
setting up the electrodes;
cable connection;
measurement; and
survey line clean up.
Notes
1) Take the survey plan document or field notes, in which electrode positions are clearly
described, to the site.
2) Check operation contents and operations schedule, in order not to obstruct operations at
measurement time.
Supplementary Notes
1) Many measurement operations are common to both 2D and 3D resistivity methods.
2) For a largescale survey, cable connection diagrams and an electrodecable operation chart
will make the measurement work highly effective.
Description
The field procedure is basically conducted in the following order: • land survey, survey line
setting; • setting up the electrodes; • cable connection; • measurement; and • survey line clean
up. However, if the survey line is too long to set electrodes and connect cables at a certain time,
then the measurement operations and the cable relocation operations are carried out
simultaneously. In that case, confirm the operational procedure carefully to avoid confusion.
Similar operational procedures are used if there are several lines in the survey. In addition to
the survey plan document, cable connection plan diagrams (Figure 5.1) and an electrodecable
operations chart will make the survey highly effective.
5.3 Setting the Measurement Positions and Electrodes
5) Carry out a location survey before setting up the survey line.
6) In the 2D resistivity method, the survey line is straight. At the specified interval, set
posts at the electrode points and survey for ground elevation.
7) In the 3D resistivity method, the survey lines are set in a grid pattern. Set the posts for
the electrodes at intersecting points and survey for ground elevation.
Notes
1) If posts (for electrodes) cannot be set at the assigned locations due to obstacles, keep notes
of the measurements of the alternative location.
2) In measuring the bearing of the survey line, be sure to discriminate between magnetic north
and true north.
Figure 5.1: Example of a cable connection plan diagram.
Supplementary Notes
1) Ground elevation should be obtained with an accuracy within ±10 cm.
2) A simple measurement by tape measure is sufficient if the site is flat, with high visibility.
3) If posts (for electrodes) cannot be set at the assigned sites because of obstacles, you may
move them by 1∼10 m in a direction perpendicular to the survey line.
4) If the posts cannot be moved in a direction perpendicular to the survey line, then move
them in a parallel direction or you may skip the position.
Description
Carry out a location/elevation survey before setting up a resistivity survey line. If necessary,
vegetation along the survey line should be cut and mown. Take care that the survey line does
not curve and the survey line direction does not change, particularly for long survey lines. Put
measurement numbers on the posts at the measurement points. Sometimes, ground elevation
measurement is scheduled at the same time as the resistivity survey. This should be avoided
because it tends to cause measurement problems.
For the 3D resistivity method, assign measurement numbers to the posts that easily suggest
the survey line direction.
5.3.2 Setting the Electrodes
8) Set up electrodes at the positions of the posts along the survey line.
9) Set up the electrodes ensuring good ground contact.
Note
1) Avoid electrodes being set in rivers and streams, which are obstacles to measurement.
Supplementary Notes
1) After setting the electrodes, pad the ground to reduce the gap between the electrode and the
ground.
2) Set the electrodes so that the grounding resistance is less than several kΩ.
3) If the electrode spacing is less than 1 m, never hammer the electrode too deep into the
ground.
4) If the grounding resistance is high, try the following to reduce it:
add more electrodes (the effect is small if you put them too close);
sprinkle water; and
use a resistance reducing agent such as bentonite or muddy water.
5) If thick leaf mold is present on the surface, remove it before setting the electrodes.
6) The contact between a gravel layer and electrodes is poor. Fill them in with wet sand, clay,
bentonite mud water or resistance reducing agent before setting the electrodes.
7) The grounding resistance of the remote electrode should be lower than the resistance at the
electrodes on the survey line.
8) The remote electrodes should be set out of sight or bury the electrode completely in the
ground, in addition to putting up signs to attract attention.
9) In case of a monitoring survey for a certain period of time, it is desirable to keep the
electrodes at their positions for the duration of the survey.
Description
The quality of the data for the 2D and 3D resistivity methods heavily depends on the condition
of electrode grounding. Setting the electrodes must be very carefully conducted. The current
electrodes must have good contact with the ground for low grounding resistance. The
grounding resistance of the potential electrodes must be small enough compared with the input
impedance of the receiver. Ideally, it should be lower than several kΩ. In order to decrease the
grounding resistance, hammer the electrodes deeper in (it is more effective to make them
deeper rather than use thicker electrodes); use several electrodes separately hammered into the
ground and connect them as one electrode, spray water or salt water or use bentonite mud or
another resistance reducing agent to make better contact between electrode and ground. When
you spray water, the resistance may change during measurement. Be aware that the
measurements may be affected if this happens.
In the calculation and analysis for apparent resistivity, an electrode is assumed to be a point
electrode, which has no volume. Therefore, if the electrode spacing is less than 1 m, it may
cause errors if you hammer in the electrode too deeply. You may need to install the electrode
less deeply.
If there is a stream or river near an electrode position, avoid setting the electrode. If there are
structures or other obstacles, avoid them.
In case of a monitoring survey for a certain period of time, it is desirable to keep the
electrodes at their positions for the duration of the survey because a slight difference in the
electrode positions and a change of setting conditions can have large effects on the
measurements.
5.3.3 Connection of Cables
10) The following items must be considered when connecting electrodes and resistivity
measurement equipment/electrode switching equipment by cable:
connect electrodes and cables firmly, so that they will never become
disconnected during measurement;
never allow the cable connection to contact the ground; and
never allow cables to contact each other, to avoid a shortcircuiting.
Note
1) If the electrodes or the connection part of a cable are rusted, remove the rust with sandpaper
before connecting.
Supplementary Notes
1) Keep the cable connections off the ground.
2) Protect the connector with selfadhesive tape or a vinyl bag, so that rainwater cannot
penetrate the connection.
3) For the 3D resistivity method, cable connections become very complicated. Take care not
to make wrong connections.
4) Using multicore cable improves the efficiency of connecting equipment and electrodes and
missconnections can be avoided at the same time.
5) If measurement has to continue on the following day, check that the cables have not been
cut by animals during the night.
Description
When connecting cables, take care that the connection cannot easily be broken and the cable
connection does not touch the ground, in order to prevent current leakage.
Cables left overnight may easily be cut by small animals during the night. Before
measurement on the following day, measure the grounding resistance to check for cable
damage. Check the remote electrodes as well. Singlecore cables are easily bitten through by
small animals. Thicker multicore cables (more than several mm in diameter) are less easily
bitten through by small animals. Injuries may be decreased if the cables are laid 10 cm
suspended above the ground by hanging them on branches or vegetation. It is also advisable to
connect a mild electric current to the cables by connecting them to batteries through the night.
5.4 Measurement
5.4.1 Preparation
11) Confirm that the measurement equipment works properly.
12) Confirm that there are no missconnections between the cables and the resistivity
measurement equipment.
13) Make preliminary measurements and determine the appropriate values for transmitting
current, measurement range of voltage and number of stackings.
Notes
1) Using a circuit tester, measure the grounding resistance to confirm that the electrodes and
cables are connected properly.
2) Measurements in the rain should be avoided as much as possible this may cause significant
measurement problems.
Supplementary Notes
1) Use calibrated resistivity measurement equipment.
2) If measurement continues from the day before, make sure to perform the initial checks.
Description
Before measurement, ensure good cable connection; determine the appropriate values for
transmitting current, measurement range of voltage and number of stackings. Cable
connections can easily be checked by the grounding resistance measurements but this cannot
detect missconnections. Missconnections can be checked by selecting electrodes manually by
disconnecting and connecting the cable, while observing with a circuit tester.
A vertical sounding resistivity survey using all the electrodes at the center of the survey line
is useful for checking the cable connections and setting the measurement range. Vertical
sounding can be carried out rapidly and provides preliminary information on the resistivity of
the area.
14) There are two operational modes in measurement:
manual switching of electrodes; and
automatic switching by computer control.
15) There are two ways of electrode manipulation:
the combination of electrodes is changed, keeping the sounding depth
constant; and
the potential electrode pairs are changed, while the pair of current electrodes is
fixed.
Note
1) Determine the measurement sequence plan of the 2D and 3D resistivity methods and avoid
skipping any necessary measurements or doing any unnecessary measurements.
Description
There is no prescribed order in the measurement sequence. It depends on the specifications of
the measurement equipment, electrode configuration and operational efficiency. For example,
the current electrodes of a 2pole configuration are fixed and the potential electrodes are moved
until they reach the predefined maximum separation and then the current electrodes are moved
to continue the measurement. In this measurement sequence, the current electrodes are not used
again after one measurement is completed. This gives an operational advantage because the
finished current electrode can be picked up before all the measurements are finished. In a
constant sounding depth survey, measurements with a large electrode separation are scheduled
in the time window with low noise, as measured voltage over a large distance is low and easily
affected by noise, while measurements with a small electrode separation (measured voltage is
high) can be scheduled in a time window with more noise.
5.4.3 Measurement
16) Apply alternating DC to current electrodes and measure the potential difference
between the potential electrodes.
17) During measurement, always monitor the values.
18) During and after measurement, examine the data on site and check their quality.
Notes
1) Measured voltage difference is smaller for larger electrode spacing.
2) Erroneous measurement data cannot be corrected later at the time of analysis.
3) For the 3D resistivity method, the measured potential difference can take negative values
with some electrode combinations.
4) Resistivity measurement equipment that displays absolute values may show negative
values. Such data must be treated with caution.
Supplementary Notes
1) When the measured voltage is small, apply stacking and filtering processes to increase
accuracy.
2) If the measured values are scattered due to electrical noise or other reasons, repeat the
measurements several times and choose a stable result.
3) In urban areas, electrical noise levels are high but may be lower at night. Consider
nighttime measurement as an alternative.
4) For 2 and 3pole configurations, plot the voltage (or resistance) decay curve during
measurement on site, which is useful for detecting erroneous data.
5) For other configurations, plot the equidepth voltage (resistance) curve; this is also useful
for detecting erroneous data.
6) The following issues may be considered for causes of erroneous or abnormal
measurements:
faulty setting of electrode;
poor cable contact;
wrong cable connection;
current leak from the cable connection;
error in the combination of electrodes at measurement time;
error in setting the measuring range of the resistivity measurement equipment
(overrange, underrange);
fault or degradation of contact or relay switch in the electrode switching equipment;
and
effect of structures, topographical and geological conditions.
7) Take measurements swapping the current electrode pair and potential electrode pair and
confirm that the measured voltages are the same (reciprocity).
8) When measurement continues the following day, take several duplicate measurements and
confirm the consistency of the measurements.
9) If insufficient cables or channels for the electrode switching equipment are available, the
survey must be split. In that case, take duplicate measurements with the same electrode
pairs and confirm the continuity of the measurements.
10) If the remote electrodes are not sufficiently far from the survey line, the measured voltage
can take negative values.
Description
During measurement, always monitor the measured values. Measured voltage decreases as the
electrode spacing increases. If the measured voltage does not change against electrode spacing
or the voltage is too small or too large, then the possible causes include poor cable contacts,
faulty setting of electrodes, leakage of current from the cable and shortcircuiting. If there is a
railway track near the survey lines, it may cause electrical noise in the measurements, resulting
in scattered values. In this situation, repeat the measurements several times and choose a stable
result. Monitoring the waveforms of measured voltage or transmitted current effectively allows
you to judge the quality of measured data and noise. Use a monitoring function if it is included
with the resistivity measurement equipment.
In order to detect errors in measured data at an earlier stage, it is effective to visualize the
measured data by drawing the voltage decay curve and the equidepth voltage curve. Figure 5.2
shows an example of a voltage decay curve and an equidepth voltage curve.
The apparent resistivity can easily be calculated. It is important to calculate the apparent
resistivity at representative points to verify the data. Figure 5.3 shows an example of quality
control by the apparent resistivity crosssection.
If an error in measurement is suspected, try to resolve it on site, considering the following
issues:
problems in the measurement process;
errors in setting the measurement points;
the effects of the topography or geology;
faults in the measurement equipment; and
difficulties in the conditions of the measurement site.
Figure 5.2: Voltage decay curve and equidepth voltage curve.
Figure 5.3: Quality control of measured data using apparent resistivity (pseudo) section.
A mystery fault in the resistivity equipment
One day we were surveying resistivity. Suddenly, the equipment showed very highfrequency
noise and we could not continue automatic measurement. However, it had no effect on the DC
resistivity measurement results. Usually, there is no noise in the measured current waveform.
At that time, however, the noise was clearly visible.
As this survey was delayed, we had to work in the middle of night. While we were taking
measurements at night, the noise suddenly disappeared and the usual, steady current waveform
came back! This occurred at about 5 km from a mediumwavelength radio station.
Broadcasting had ended at that time. The cables between the electrodes and the recorder acted
as antennas and the highvoltage noise prevented automatic measurement.
6. Data Processing
6.1 Measurement Location
1) Make a measurement point location map of the data points and survey line at an
appropriate scale.
Notes
1) The map should include the location of the remote electrodes and the layout of current
cables to the remote electrodes.
2) The location map should include information on scale, measurement point numbers and
survey line numbers, as well as the cardinal orientation (be sure to distinguish between
magnetic north and true north).
Supplementary Note
1) A location map of the survey lines and a map of the remote electrodes can be made on
separate sheets at appropriate scales.
Description
The measurement location map should include the scale, the cardinal orientations, the locations
of the survey lines (locations of electrodes), and survey line names, without any omissions.
When remote electrodes are used, their location and the cable layout path should also be
included on the location map.
6.2 Editing Measurement Results
2) Before the primary processing and analysis of the data, rearrange the data in a way
corresponding to the electrode configuration.
3) Apply compensation and interpolation processing to the data, if necessary.
4) Arrange the data (electrode number, measurement current, measurement voltage,
apparent resistivities, correction values, etc.) in tables.
Note
1) Reexamine all the measurement data, detect any erroneous data and evaluate the effects of
buildings and other obstacles.
Supplementary Notes
1) By plotting the data in graphs, data errors and the effects of structures can be evaluated
effectively.
2) Prepare tables to evaluate the quality of the measured data.
3) An apparent resistivity (pseudo) crosssection can be used to evaluate the quality of the
measured data.
4) Apply compensation, interpolation or averaging processing to the measured data if
necessary.
5) Remove any erroneous data that is harmful to analysis.
6) For 2 and 3pole configurations, a correction for the remote electrodes is sometimes
applied.
7) Where the relief of the survey area is rather large, topographical correction is applied.
Description
Reexamine all the measurement data, detect any anomalous data and evaluate the effects of
structures and other obstacles. By showing the measured data in graphs, anomalous and
erroneous data and the effects of structures can be evaluated effectively. The apparent
resistivity (pseudo) crosssection can be used for detecting any erroneous data caused by
specific electrodes.
If necessary, apply interpolation or averaging processing to the measured data or remove
data errors that are harmful to analysis. However, never apply such processing more than is
necessary. Make clear why these processes are necessary and make them minimal. Arrange the
measured data (electrode number, measurement current, measurement voltage, apparent
resistivities, correction values, etc.) in tables in a reusable style. At this stage, judge the quality
of the measured data.
6.3 Primary Processing of Measured Data
5) Make an apparent resistivity crosssection appropriate to the electrode configuration
and use it as the basis for data analysis, evaluation and interpretation.
Note
1) Make an apparent resistivity (pseudo) crosssection, regardless of whether it is required or
not.
Supplementary Notes
1) For a 3D resistivity survey, make an apparent resistivity crosssection for each of the survey
lines.
2) Make a panel diagram and a block diagram.
3) The resistivity distribution pattern in the apparent resistivity crosssection suggests a rough
image of the geological structure.
4) Depending on the survey stage and survey objectives, an apparent resistivity crosssection
is sometimes regarded as the final product of a survey.
Description
The 2D resistivity method derives an apparent resistivity crosssection by plotting the measured
data appropriate to the electrode configuration. The 3D resistivity method can make an
apparent resistivity crosssection for each survey line (or a selected typical survey line). In
drawing the apparent resistivity crosssection, remote electrode correction and topographical
correction are sometimes applied. Details of the corrections applied must be clearly
documented.
It is possible to estimate the outline of the subsurface resistivity structure from the apparent
resistivity crosssection. Therefore, the apparent resistivity crosssection is sometimes regarded
as the final result. However, the apparent resistivity crosssection may contain some anomalous
patterns caused by the electrode configuration. Thus, in order to obtain the correct results,
further analysis is normally performed.
7. Analysis
7.1 Analysis Method
1) Use a sufficiently reliable computer program whose analytical principle is clear.
2) Select an analytical method considering the following items:
survey objective and required precision (resolution);
sounding depth;
number of measurement data;
quality of measured data;
specifications and features of the analysis program; and
analysis time, operational efficiency and economic efficiency.
Notes
1) For the 3D resistivity method, determine the number of measured data and the number of
model parameters, depending on the capacity of the computer.
2) Fully understand the specifications, limitations and features of the analysis software to be
used.
Supplementary Notes
1) Inverse analysis (nonlinear inversion) uses a computer.
2) There are two parts to the analysis program: theoretical calculation of the potential and
inverse analysis of the resistivity distribution.
3) Typical theoretical calculation methods are:
Finite Difference Method (FDM);
Finite Element Method (FEM); and
AlphaCenter Method.
4) Analysis results greatly depend on the quality of the measured data, regardless of the
program used.
5) If the survey line is long and has too many measurement points, it may be efficient to
analyze it by dividing the survey lines and combining the results afterwards.
Description
Analysis of 2D and 3D resistivity methods is based on iteration of 2D and 3D resistivity
distribution model, so that the theoretically calculated values converge to the observed values.
The output is colored images of the crosssection and the plan view maps of resistivity
distribution. The methods of theoretical calculation include the finite difference method, finite
element method and alphacenter method. The mainstream method to modify the resistivity
distribution model is iteration by nonlinear leastsquares.
Analysis results depend on the quality and quantity of the measured data. Too much data
requires excessive analysis time, which is not economical. Too little data and too poor data
cannot produce good results. It is important to analyze effectively by using an appropriate
quantity of good quality data. Especially the 3D resistivity method requires far greater volumes
of measured data to reach good analysis results compared to the 2D resistivity method.
7.2 Analysis Procedure
3) Analysis is usually done in the following order:
processing of measurement data;
creating initial resistivity model;
organizing of analysis data file;
setting up analysis parameters;
analysis and calculation;
checking the analysis results; and
graphical display of the results.
Note
1) The format of the data file and parameters may vary, depending on the analysis software
program used.
Description
Analysis is generally done in the following sequence: • processing of measurement data; •
creating initial resistivity model; • organizing of analysis data file; and • setting up analysis
parameters.
Depending on the program used, the procedures and methods are different. These must be
fully understood before starting the analysis. Some software can analyze both 2D and 3D
resistivity data; many others can do only one of them.
Figure 7.1 shows the analysis procedure and the check items.
Figure 7.1: Analysis procedure and check items.
7.3 Organizing Analysis Data File
7.3.1 Processing Measurement Data
4) Process the measurement data according to the specifications of the analysis software.
5) Adjust the quantity of data for efficient analysis. If necessary, apply interpolation or
averaging processes to the measured data or remove erroneous data that harms
analysis.
Supplementary Notes
1) At this stage, reexamine the measurement data again, as in Section 6.2 Editing
Measurement Results, and Section 6.3 Primary Processing of Measured Data.
2) For the 3D resistivity method, adjust the quantity of the measured data and the size of
model to suit the capacity of the computer used.
Description
Reexamine the measurement data; the operations at this stage will determine the quality of the
analysis results. Adjust the quantity of the measured data, the size of model and number of
model divisions for the capacity of the computer used.
7.3.2 Organizing the Analysis Data File
6) Organize the analysis data files according to the specifications of the analysis software
program.
7) A typical dataset used in the analysis consists in:
measurement data;
land survey data of survey line (topography and electrode location);
analysis region and model division; and
initial resistivity model.
Notes
1) Organize the data file carefully, because it is very difficult to find erroneous data
afterwards.
2) The contents and format of the data file may vary, depending on the software program used.
Supplementary Notes
1) As with the initial resistivity model, an apparent resistivity crosssection is adopted in many
cases.
2) The contents of the data files for 3D resistivity method analysis are considerably larger than
those for 2D resistivity method analysis.
Description
In many cases, analysis software needs an initial data file to be made from the measurement
results. Typical data to be included in the data file are:
measurement data (potential or resistance, electrode);
land survey results of the survey line (topography and electrode location);
analysis region and model division; and
Description of the measurement data includes combination of electrodes and measurement.
Land survey data include the location of electrodes and the topography along the survey line.
Analysis region and model division describe the sounding depth, required resolution, quantity
of measured data and computation time. Some of the software programs automatically
determine these values. Analysis programs that use the finite element method for the
calculation of potential may require a description of the elements that satisfy the boundary
conditions and other analysis conditions to be included in the data file. Figures 7.2 and 7.3
show examples of an analysis mesh. The meshes shown in the figures are only a part of a
survey range and the analysis range is much larger than the figures because there are more
meshes surrounding them to establish a boundary.
Figure 7.2: Example of an analysis mesh diagram and model division diagram (survey range only) for
2D resistivity surveys.
As the initial resistivity model for inversion analysis, an apparent resistivity distribution
model or a uniform resistivity model is used. Some software may automatically make these
initial models.
The contents of the data file for the 3D resistivity method analysis are considerably larger
than those for 2D resistivity method analysis. Location should be described by three
dimensional coordinates and this makes input mistakes more likely. Spreadsheet software or
mesh making software is used in many cases.
Figure 7.3: Example of an analysis mesh (survey range only) for 3D resistivity surveys.
7.4 Execution of Analysis
8) Analysis parameters are set up according to the specifications of the software
program.
9) Appropriate parameters should be used to ensure correct analysis results, considering
the following items:
limitation of analysis method;
possible analysis error; and
analysis time.
Note
1) Confirm the physical significance and numerical ranges of the analysis parameters, using
the manual of the analysis software used.
Supplementary Notes
1) The typical parameters for analysis are as follows:
number of iterations of analysis and termination criteria;
inverse analysis parameters; and
limits of maximum and minimum resistivity values.
2) Many of the analysis parameters are common to both 2D and 3D resistivity methods.
Description
Before analysis, the analysis parameters must be set. The method of setting parameters depends
on the software used. Consult the operation manual of the software. Names of parameters and
range of settings may differ from software to software. The typical parameters include the
number of iterations, termination criteria of analysis residuals and maximum (or minimum)
possible resistivity value. The number of iterations and termination criteria determine the
conditions to judge the convergence in iterative calculations. If the number of iterations is too
small, the residual between the theoretical and the measured values may still be large and the
appropriate resistivity distribution may not yet be reached. After making several iterations, the
improvement at each iteration becomes small. This means that having too many iterations is not
effective. The number of iterations should be determined based on the features of the program,
recommended values of the program and experience. There are several kinds of inversion
parameters that control the modification of the resistivity model. In many cases, the values of
the inversion parameters lead to different analysis results. Determine them based on the
features of the program used, recommended values of the program, quality and quantity of data
and experience. The maximum (or minimum) possible value of apparent resistivity is designed
so that extremely large or small resistivities are not generated during the iterations. This limits
the range of assumable resistivity. Many of the parameters are common to both 2D and 3D
resistivity methods.
7.4.2 Execution of the Analysis
10) Check the correctness of the analysis data file and analysis parameters before starting
the analysis.
11) During the analysis, display the state of convergence or the intermediate results and
monitor the occurrence of abnormalities and the adequacy of the parameters.
Note
1) Calculate the theoretical potential distribution and check for errors in the data file before
starting the analysis.
Supplementary Notes
1) The (forward) model calculation of theoretical potential (theoretical measurement values)
requires less computational time than inverse analysis.
2) The 3D resistivity method requires longer analysis time.
Description
While executing the analysis, it is important to detect errors in the data file and parameter
settings as early as possible. The calculation of theoretical potential (theoretical measurement
values) does not require long computation time, so it is recommended to do the calculation as a
tool for early detection of errors in the data file and parameters. If the analysis does not proceed
normally or if an erroneous analysis results, check and modify the description of the data files
and the setup values of the analysis parameters.
During the analysis, it is desirable to display the state of convergence or the intermediate
results, which allows you to monitor the occurrence of abnormalities and detect inadequate
parameters.
7.4.3 Checking Analysis Results
12) In order to check for abnormalities in the analysis, check the analysis results with
respect to the following items:
analysis errors;
limitations of the analysis method;
quality and quantity of measurement data;
boundary conditions; and
analysis parameters.
Notes
1) Check the meaningful analysis depth range so as not to make the wrong interpretation.
2) Execute the analysis with different initial resistivity models for sensitivity testing.
Supplementary Notes
1) Check the analysis results by making the following graphs to evaluate the quality of the
analysis results:
correlation chart of the measured values and theoretical values (calculated values
obtained from the analysis results);
a histogram of the errors between measured data and theoretical data;
a convergence curve of the residual errors between measured values and theoretical
values;
a histogram of the initial resistivity model and the resistivity values of the analysis
results; and
an apparent resistivity (pseudo) crosssection calculated from the analysis results.
2) If the following problems are detected in the analysis results, consider their cause and re
analyze:
the problem of an equivalent layer, where the resistivity and thickness of layer
cannot be determined uniquely; and
the problem of the occurrence of a ghost image that does not exist in reality.
3) For the 3D resistivity method, perform 2D analysis for some of the typical survey lines and
use the results to compare with the 3D analysis results.
Description
Analysis results must be checked with respect to the following viewpoints:
Are there no errors in the data file?
Are the settings of the analysis parameters appropriate?
Are the analysis procedures appropriate?
Are the analysis results relevant?
If problems are detected in the checks, reanalyze as necessary. The appropriateness of the
analysis procedure may be determined from (1) the convergence curve of the errors between
measured and theoretical values, (2) a correlation chart of the measured and theoretical values
calculated from the analysis results, (3) a resistivity distribution diagram, (4) the apparent
resistivity crosssection calculated from the analysis results. Figure 7.4 shows examples of the
graphs used for checking analysis results. On the resistivity distribution diagram, check for the
problem of equivalence, the occurrence of ghostimages, expected geology and relation to the
results of other geophysical explorations. Ghostimages may be generated not only as an
analysis problem but also as the effect of nearby structures or buried objects. The latter can be
utilized for interpretation. Thus, do not apply the process of suppressing ghostimages more
than is necessary.
As depth increases, resolution becomes poorer and meaningful results cannot be obtained
deeper than a certain depth. Therefore, check the results from the viewpoint of the meaningful
depth. The meaningful depth depends on the resistivity distribution and the analysis model
division.
The initial resistivity model should be checked so that the best analysis results can be
obtained. It is desirable to determine the most appropriate result by trying several analyses
using different initial resistivity models.
Figure 7.4: Example of graphs to check analysis results.
7.4.4 Displaying the Analysis Results
13) The results of 2D analysis are displayed in the following formats:
colored resistivity distribution map;
contour map of equal resistivity; and
colored analysis model chart.
14) Results of a 3D resistivity survey should be displayed in the following way, which
helps to understand the 3D structure:
block diagram; and
panel diagram.
Notes
1) The analysis results diagram should include not only scales and survey line names, but also
division and color of resistivity contour color scale.
2) Use a common color scale for the color resistivity contours of the same region.
Supplementary Notes
1) Division and color of the color scale should be selected so that the appropriate
interpretation of the ground conditions can be made clear from the color map.
2) Divisions of the color scale can be set at logarithmic intervals.
Description
Analysis results are displayed by means of a color resistivity distribution map or equi
resistivity contour map. Color analysis model charts are also used. It is made by filling each
cell of the analysis model with a color corresponding to the division in the color scale. The
color scheme should be selected so that the appropriate interpretation of the ground conditions
can be made from the map. Resistivity division can be set at approximately equal intervals in
logarithmic space, for example: 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, 30, 50, 70, 100, 200, 300, 500, 700,
1000,ï(Ω m). It is also effective for the geological structures of focus to be displayed in red or
other warm color. Figure 7.5 shows an example of a color resistivity distribution map and equi
resistivity contour map.
An analysis results diagram should include not only scales and survey line names but also
division and color of resistivity contour color scale. The numerical values of the analysis results
are plotted in the same figure; display can be easily checked. The data can be effectively
interpreted by changing the division in color scale for each target. Consider making several
maps of the analysis results in different color schemes. Use a common color scale to color the
resistivity contours of the same region.
Figure 7.5: Display example of 2D resistivity survey results.
For a 3D resistivity survey, a panel diagram, a slice section map and a block diagram viewed
from several directions are drawn, so that the 3D structure can be interpreted effectively.
Figure 7.6: Display example of 3D resistivity survey results.
7.5 Interpretation of Sounding Results
15) Qualitatively interpret the ground conditions and geological structure based upon the
interpreted resistivity structure.
16) Quantitatively interpret combining other survey and test results.
17) Make a deliberate study of whether the results and interpretation satisfy the
specifications of the survey and the request of the client.
Notes
1) In interpreting the survey results, clarify the place and range of the original data used for
interpretation and clarify the basis for interpretation.
2) It is difficult to uniquely interpret the ground conditions and geological structure using only
the information from the resistivity of the ground.
3) Discriminate between facts and assumptions.
Supplementary Notes
1) In interpreting the survey results, prepare the following documents:
geological reconnaissance survey results of the area;
drilling survey results, insitu test results, well logging results;
seismic survey results;
other geophysical survey results; and
laboratory test results.
2) For the 3D resistivity survey, elaborate the illustration of the results so that the interpreted
structure and 3D structure are easily understood.
Description
When interpreting the survey results, keep the relevant documents prepared. Available
documents may include: • geological reconnaissance survey results of the area, • boring survey
results, well logging results and other geophysical exploration results. Especially the borehole
logging results contain important information with which to compare the survey analysis
results. Published case studies, research and experimental results are also good as background
information.
Study the items and range that is important for the survey stage and objectives and proceed
to interpretation of the survey results. For the interpretation of survey results, consider the
accuracy and resolution of the measurement and analysis results and interpret them within a
meaningful range. Also consider the consistency with the survey results of the subsurvey lines,
if subsurvey lines are set, taking the topographical and geological conditions into
consideration. Support the interpretation of the survey results using existing simulation results;
or run a new simulation analysis if necessary.
The results of interpretation and evaluation of geophysical surveys are generally qualitative
and empirical. The resistivity distribution may be interpreted differently depending on the
topography and geology. Therefore, in interpreting the survey results, clarify the place and
range of the original data used for interpretation and clarify the grounds for interpretation. It is
desirable to show the reliability of the interpretation by trying to explain what was made clear
by the survey and what was not.
It is important to try quantitative evaluation of the ground conditions by combining drilling
survey results and other geophysical survey results. In this case, it is necessary to clearly state
the range, limits, conditions and the basis of the application.
Figure 7.7 shows an example of the interpretation of 2D resistivity survey results.
Figure 7.7: Example of the interpretation of 2D resistivity survey results.
1) All the processes should be clearly documented from survey planning to interpretation
of survey results.
2) The following items should be included in the survey results:
location map of the measurement points;
analysis results (resistivity structure); and
table of survey data.
3) The following items should be included in the report:
survey method;
list of survey equipment;
measurement results;
principle and method of analysis;
interpretation and consideration of survey results.
Notes
1) Reports should be written clearly so that people not participating in the survey can
understand them in detail.
2) The survey results should be described clearly, distinguishing measurement results,
preliminary analysis results and final analysis results.
Supplementary Note
1) Survey data should be filed and included in the report in the following styles:
table of survey data at the end of the volume;
table of survey data in a separate volume; and
electronic media.
Description
Reports should be written clearly so that people not concerned in the survey can understand
them in detail. The survey process and data processing should be explained in a flow chart. If a
special survey method or a special analysis method is used, state the reason why it was used as
well as its outlines and include reference literature on the principle of the method. If existing
tables and figures are used in the interpretation of survey results, it must be made clear that
they have been quoted and the data source should be described.
The outline of the survey should include the implementing agency, personsincharge,
engineersincharge, objectives, date, location, method and size of survey; and location of
survey lines. Description of the survey method should include survey type, procedure, electrode
configuration and electrode spacing. They should be written clearly so that people not
participating in the actual survey can understand the process.
A list of survey equipment should describe the name, quantity, quality, resolution and maker
of the equipment actually used. If necessary, certificates of inspection and calibration may be
attached. The description of the software used in the analysis should include the program name,
maker, analysis principle and main specifications of the program.
8.2 Storage of Survey Data
4) Survey data are stored so that they are available for later use and reanalysis.
5) The following items should be included in the stored data:
location, line name, location map, measurement points (electrodes)
coordinates of the survey;
electrode configuration, survey line number, electrode number, survey results
(measured resistance or measured current and potential);
name of software, analysis principle and specifications;
diagrams of survey results.
6) If electronic media are used for storage, the following should be clearly described:
data structure;
read procedure; and
format of the data files.
7) If electronic media are used for storage, the following items should be included in
addition to the items in 5):
name and format of the data files; and
name and format of the analysis results file.
Notes
1) Name, maker and version of the commercial software that is necessary for reading the
stored data should be described in the text file format.
2) File structure, file name and contents of the electronic media should be clearly described.
Supplementary Notes
1) If data are stored in text format, problems in reading the media will be minimal.
2) CD and DVD are generally used for electronic media.
3) If special software is necessary, the program should be included in the electronic medium
and the report should include information on the operating system and other environments
necessary for the program.
Description
Survey data are stored for later use and reanalysis. If electronic media are used for storage, the
storage form and format should be clearly defined because there is no universal form and
format. If the data are stored in text format, problems in reading the media will be minimal.
References
Japanese Society of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. (presently Japanese
Geotechnical Society) (1981) Geophysical prospecting techniques for Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering. (in Japanese).
Shima, H. (1992) A Practical 2D Automatic Resistivity Analysis for PolePole Array Data –
Analysis Algorithm and Applications of Resistivity Image Profiling, Buturi Tanko. (in
Japanese)
Sasaki, Y. (1994) 3D resistivity inversion using the finiteelement method. Geophysics 59,
1839–1848.
6.3 The SelfPotential Method
1. General
1) The selfpotential method measures natural, timeinvariant electric fields at the earth’s
surface and provides information about groundwater flow, metal deposits, etc.
2) The field operation of the method is relatively simple and fast.
Note
1) It is difficult to obtain depth information.
Supplementary Note
1) The selfpotential method is abbreviated to the “SP method”.
Description
When two electrodes make contact with the soil, an electric potential difference, which is
usually less than a few hundred millivolts, occurs between the two electrodes (Figure 1.1(a)).
This is caused by the natural, timeinvariant electric field near the earth’s surface; this is called
selfpotential or spontaneous potential. When a vertical electric sounding (Chapter 6.1) or a
two or threedimensional resistivity survey (Chapter 6.2) is carried out, the selfpotential
between the two electrodes is eliminated by using equipment with an SP compensation
capability. The related selfpotential logging in boreholes is discussed separately in Chapter 18.
It is usually carried out at the same time as resistivity logging with the SP compensation
capability.
Figure 1.1: Measurement of the selfpotential.
Conductive mineral deposits are known to generate negative SP anomalies over its top. The
conductive mineral deposit serves as a path for electrons to travel upward through the deposit,
from the reducing environment at depth to the oxidizing environment at the top of the deposit.
The corresponding transport of pore water ions in the earth surrounding the deposit generates
the anomaly.
The SP method was initially developed for mineral prospecting but in recent years it has
been more frequently used for geothermal and groundwater applications. Surface SP anomalies
of these interests may be generated by subsurface flows of fluid or dissolved ions driven by
gradients of pressure or chemical concentration, respectively. The voltages generated by such
flows are called electrokinetic (streaming) and diffusion potentials. Streaming potentials
generated by subsurface water flow are the source of the great majority of SP anomalies of
geothermal and groundwater interest. Diffusion potentials, which are generated at the interface
between two adjacent regions of differing concentrations of dissolved ions, are responsible in
particularly for short wavelength SP anomalies.
2. Applicability
1) The geological investigation for land slide uses the SP method and focuses on the
anomaly induced by shallow groundwater by the streaming potential mechanism for
detection and monitoring of largescale fluid flows in geothermal and volcanic areas.
2) The SP method focusing on the redox potential mechanism is applied to the
exploration of conductive mineral deposits.
Note
1) Quantitative analysis of the survey results is difficult.
Supplementary Note
1) This method should not be applied to slopes protected by cement spray, since the presence
of wire netting usually generates a large amount of noise.
Description
The field operation of the method is relatively simple and fast. In many cases, it is suitable for
preliminary surveys.
In engineering applications, the method is used to detect the position of shallow water flow
channels responsible for triggering land slide, which causes local positive SP anomalies on a
slope.
In geothermal and volcanic areas, the method is used to detect and monitor largescale fluid
flows expressed by positive SP anomalies due to streaming potential. The socalled “fluid flow
tomography method” estimates temporal SP changes from the records of potential offset
between any pair of electrodes used for resistivity measurements, and is tried to monitor
enhanced oil recovery, geosequestration of radioactive waste and CO2.
The SP method was the main exploration tool for mineral deposits till the 1960s. A term
“negative potential center” used to be popular, since an obvious local negative SP anomaly
occurs directly above the top of a sulfide mineral deposit. But the method in this application is
replaced with the induced polarization method or electromagnetic surveys at present.
There are various views concerning the history of electrical surveys. Discovery of the SP
anomaly at the Cornwall mine by Fox in 1830 is thought to be the first opportunity for the
following the development of the SP method. In contrast to the SP method, which measures
naturally generated timeinvariant electric fields, the induced polarization (IP) method records
the slow decay of voltage following the cessation of an applied current pulse (timedomain
method) or lowfrequency variations of the earth’s impedance (frequencydomain method).
Induced polarization is represented by, echargeability, the ratio of initial decay voltage to
primary voltage, in the timedomain method. The IP method has taken the place of the SP
method in mineral exploration since the 1960s.
3. Planning
1) The survey design is prepared considering various conditions of the investigation area:
selection of measuring method: total field, gradient or leapfrog survey;
distribution of survey lines and survey points (average interval of survey
points); and
fixed dipole to record timevarying electric field.
Notes
1) Repeated surveys require a consistent measuring method each time.
2) Survey lines (points) should not be set along metal stairways or fences.
Supplementary Notes
1) In a small survey area, survey points should be distributed evenly in the area.
2) An efficient survey can be achieved if lines are along roads and berms or survey lines that
are set for another survey method.
3) For a large survey area, survey lines are arranged to maximize the number of closed loops.
4) Fixed dipole is suitable to record timevarying electric fields but may be omitted
particularly for smallscale surveys done in a short period.
Description
There are two types of survey configuration: “total field” survey and “gradient” or “leapfrog”
survey (Figure 3.1). In a total field survey, a fixed base electrode is used for the entire survey or
for each subarea. In the gradient survey, a dipole of fixed length is stepped along the survey
line and successive voltages are added to obtain the total field. This is easier to handle than the
long wire used for the total field survey. In the leapfrog survey configuration, the leading and
following electrodes are alternated.
In engineering applications, the survey points are distributed as evenly as possible by using a
grid pattern (Figure 3.2(a)) or survey lines perpendicular to the slope connected by a fewer
number of tielines (Figure 3.2(b)). In artificially completed steep slopes, survey lines are
commonly set along berms and connected by a few tielines (Figure 3.2(c)). Survey point
spacing is usually 2 to 10 meters along the survey line. Survey lines should not be set along
stairways or fences made of metal, to avoid local SP anomalies generated by the corrosion of
buried metal objects.
The survey area is large in geothermal exploration. In such cases, survey lines are usually
deployed along roads and/or reusing lines from other surveys arranged to maximize the
number of closed loops to evaluate closed loop offsets (Figure 3.2(d)). Typical survey point
spacing is 50 to 100 meters.
Figure 3.1: Selfpotential survey procedures.
Figure 3.2: Typical deployment of selfpotential survey line.
Telluric current monitoring is desirable to evaluate the effects of timevarying electric fields
on the SP measurements by using two fixed dipoles perpendicular to each other (Figure 3.3).
The dipoles are set at a remote place where no manmade structures are present and no
subsurface water flow channel is expected.
Figure 3.3: Fixed dipoles for telluric current measurement.
4. Field Survey
4.1 Permission to Carry Out the Survey
1) It is necessary to obtain permission to carry out the survey in advance.
Note
1) If cutting plants and bushes along the survey line is required, the appropriate permission is
necessary.
Description
The selfpotential method uses a relatively simple instrument and can be carried out safely
without affecting local people, construction or the environment. But it is necessary to obtain
access permission in advance. To set up straight survey lines particularly on slopes, permission
for cutting weeds, bamboo or bushes along the survey lines may be necessary.
If using fixed dipoles for more than several days, particularly outside the survey area,
permission to use the space is necessary.
4.2 Instrumentation
2) The following instruments are used for the survey:
digital multimeter;
nonpolarizing electrodes;
electric cables;
simple location survey instruments (compass, tape measure, GPS, etc.);
instruments for electrode setting (garden trowel, hoe, etc.); and
radio set for communication among survey crew.
Notes
1) Analog voltmeters, analog circuit testers or digital circuit testers with insufficient accuracy
should not be used.
2) The potential difference between the electrodes is usually measured with a handheld,
batteryoperated digital multimeter with a resolution of 0.1 mV or higher and an input
impedance of 10 MW or higher.
3) Metal stakes should not be used as electrodes.
Notes
1) A datalogger is used for continuous monitoring with fixed dipoles.
2) Vinylinsulated (copper) wire of 0.75–1.25 mm2 effective crosssection area is suitable for
the electric cables.
3) Total field survey in a large area may require electric cables of 200–1000 meters in total
length and reels.
Description
Analog voltmeters are not suitable for SP measurements because the polarity of voltage
difference between two electrodes changes with the position. Digital multimeters with high
accuracy and resolution are now easily available and they are usually used for selfpotential
surveys.
Nonpolarizing electrodes such as coppercopper sulfate (CuCuSO4), leadlead chloride
(PbPbCl2) or silversilver chloride (AgAgCl) electrodes are used for SP measurements
(Figure 4.1). The simplest electrode is a coppercopper sulfate type; a copper rod or wire
immersed in saturated copper sulfate solution in a porous ceramic pot. A silversilver chloride
electrode requires more work to prepare; first, the silver rod or wire needs to be coated with
silver chloride by electrolysis or a sintering process, it is then immersed in (saturated)
potassium chloride solution. Nonpolarizing electrodes are specialized to the SP method, so
custommade electrodes are used if they are not commercially available.
Figure 4.1: Nonpolarizing electrodes for selfpotential measurements.
Vinylinsulated copper wires, which are easily available, are used as electric cables for the
SP survey. Marking the cable at a regular intervals helps the field procedure. In the total field
survey, the maximum distance between the fixed and measuring electrodes may exceed 1000
meters. If each cable is longer than 200 meters, reels are required. Typical field instruments for
SP measurements are shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Field equipment for selfpotential measurements.
4.3 Field Procedure
3) Check the electrode potential of electrodes used for the survey at the beginning of
each day’s survey.
4) Measurement is carried out by repeating the following procedure:
locate the survey points;
make sure the electrodes make contact with the soil; and
read the voltage difference between the two electrodes and record it with the
time of measurement.
5) Check the electrode potential of electrodes used for the survey at the end of each day’s
survey.
Notes
1) Check the volume of electrolyte solution in the pot of nonpolarizing electrodes at the
beginning of each day’s survey.
2) Assign a number to each electrode for identification.
3) Take sufficient care not to damage electrodes during transport and handling.
4) Note possible noise sources in the field book, such as manmade metal structures in the
neighborhood of survey points.
Supplementary Notes
1) Record the DC voltage on the digital multimeter after it has become stable.
2) Concrete and asphalt surfaces should as survey points.
Arrange survey line(s) to maximize the number of closed loops and estimate closure offset
3) values.
4) When more than one fixed electrode is used in the total field survey, additional
measurements are required to estimate the potential difference between the fixed electrodes.
Description
Instrumentation and field procedure for SP measurements are relatively simple but care must be
taken to ensure that reproducible data are obtained and that noise from a wide variety of
sources is not mistaken for the desired signal. In engineering surveys, the magnitude of
anomalies is generally smaller, cultural noise is more severe, and anomaly patterns are less
predictable than surveys for mineral exploration. Thus, engineering SP surveys must be
conducted with a great deal of care to ensure that the data are repeatable and interpretable for
the desired information.
A voltage difference is present between any two electrodes, even if they are in direct contact
with each other (Figure 4.3). This is called electrode potential or polarization and usually
defined as the voltage difference between a reference electrode and the electrode in question.
The reference electrode is chosen from the same type of electrodes; if only two electrodes are
available, one of the two is chosen as the reference. The electrode potential is usually small for
nonpolarizing electrodes but may change during the survey. Therefore, it needs to be checked
at least at the beginning and end of each day’s survey. In this respect, every electrode used for
the survey needs to be identifiable by number.
In a gradient survey, a dipole of fixed length is stepped along the survey line and successive
voltages are added to obtain the total field. When many such additions are performed, small
errors may accumulate to large values. In such a situation, the leapfrogging survey
configuration (in which the leading and following electrodes are alternated) will help to reduce
cumulative error caused by electrode polarization and/or recontact of an electrode with the soil
(Figure 4.3).
In the total field survey, more than one fixed base electrode is often required to cover a large
survey area. In such a case, the potential difference among the fixed electrodes needs to be
determined by an additional procedure, such as measuring the potential(s) of the same survey
point(s) from the different fixed base electrodes.
Figure 4.3: Measurement of voltage difference between a pair of electrodes.
Measurement along a survey line is carried out by repeating the following procedure. First,
locate the survey points using a tape measure or referring to the marks painted on an electric
cable (Figure 4.4(a)). If a scheduled survey point is covered with concrete, asphalt or thick
gravel, move to a nearby point with a soil surface. If an existing survey line set for other
surveys is used (Figure 4.4(b)), the survey points can be set by referring to existing
benchmarks, stakes, etc. Portable GPS is also useful for measuring the rough position of survey
points.
Figure 4.4: Measurement of survey point positions.
Next, remove fallen leaves and/or weeds and dig a hole 5–10 cm deep using a garden trowel,
so as to get good electrical contact between the soil surface and the bottom of the electrode pot.
In the gradient survey, both of the leading and following electrodes are moved to the next
survey point (the following electrode is moved to the hole where the leading electrode was set
for the former measurement). In the leapfrog survey, the leading and following electrodes are
alternated (only the following electrode is moved to the next point). Then, connect the electric
cables from the two electrodes to the input of a digital multimeter and read the DC voltage with
an appropriate range after it has become stable (typically after 1–2 minutes). After each
measurement, the holes for electrode setting need to be refilled with soil (Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.5: Measurement procedure at each survey point.
5.1 Data Processing
1) Potential values referenced to one of the survey points are estimated from raw data
(voltage readings) for each survey line.
2) Tie the potentials along all survey lines to a common ground reference.
3) Make the following plots from the processed data:
selfpotential profile along the survey lines;
location map of survey lines and points;
topography profile along survey lines; and
plans of selfpotential distribution.
Note
1) Evaluate closure offsets of closed loops composed of various combinations of survey lines
and apply appropriate corrections to them if necessary.
Supplementary Notes
1) If corrections for the effects of timevarying electrode potential (polarization) or telluric
current are made for each survey line, the corrected potentials are treated as a
supplementary dataset. For this supplementary dataset, also tie the potentials along all
survey lines to a common ground reference and make plots of the SP profile or distribution.
Shortwavelength anomalies that are in magnitude may require an appropriate smoothing
2) process.
Description
Raw voltage readings in the gradient or leapfrog survey need to be processed by the following
equation:
where Vi: potential of ith point referring to the first point of each survey line, DVi: voltage
between the leading (ith) and following (i–1)th electrodes.
If the variation of electrode potential can be assumed to be linear with time, the correction
for timevarying polarization Ve is given by the following equation:
where Ves: the electrode potential at time, tes (the beginning of the survey), Vee: the electrode
potential at time and tee (the end of the survey).
Evaluate closure offsets of closed loops composed of various combinations of survey lines and
make appropriate corrections for them, if necessary.
One of the ways to treat a closure offset is to distribute it over all the survey points of
the closed loop by the following equation:
where DVn: correction value for nth survey point, V1s–V1e. closure offset, m: total number of
survey points along the closed loop.
If the number of intersections between survey lines is large, it is difficult to manually
calculate appropriate corrections for closure offsets. In such cases, a correction by the
least squares method needs to be applied.
An example of the data after processing is shown as SP profiles (Figure 5.1), a contour map of
SP distribution, in which the location of the survey points is superimposed (Figure 5.2), etc.
Figure 5.1: An example of a selfpotential profile.
Figure 5.2: An example of a contour map of selfpotential distribution.
If shortwavelength anomalies need to be suppressed from the selfpotential profiles or
contour maps, an appropriate smoothing process is applied to the data. The result of applying a
fivepoint moving average to the profile is shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: An example of a selfpotential profile after smoothing by moving average.
5.2 Analysis and Interpretation
1) Interpretation of the SP profiles or distributions is carried out on the basis of available
geological and hydrological information of the survey area.
Note
1) The description in this section is limited to qualitative analysis and interpretation for
engineering applications.
Supplementary Notes
1) Quantitative modeling techniques, which form the analytical link between the basic source
mechanisms and the observed SP anomalies, have been developed during the last decade
and used in geothermal applications, etc. Only an outline of this technique is given here.
Description
An example of an interpretation plot is shown in Figure 5.4. In this profile, the SP anomalies
suggesting subsurface water flow channels are marked by red hatched lines and the location of
known springs is shown by star symbols. Interpretation plots such as this one are made by
adding geological, hydrological and engineering interpretations to SP profiles.
If subsurface flows of fluids or ions, coupling coefficients and electrical properties are
known, SP anomalies generated by electrokinetic or electrochemical processes can be
calculated using techniques based on principles of coupled flows and irreversible
thermodynamics. For streaming potential, a software tool has been developed to calculate SP
distribution caused by electrokinetic coupling from subsurface fluid flow and other pertinent
conditions from reservoir simulations and is applied to interpretations of SP data in geothermal
and volcanic areas.
Figure 5.4: An example of an interpretation plot of selfpotential profile.
6. Deliverables
6.1 Deliverables
1) The deliverables from the survey include:
survey map(s);
location map of survey lines and points;
selfpotential profiles along survey lines;
contour map of selfpotential distribution;
interpretation plot of selfpotential data; and
table of measured data.
2) The following data should be presented in digital format:
coordinates of survey points, measured selfpotential values (ASCII file); and
the abovelisted plots (Image file).
Notes
1) Maps and diagrams should be clearly presented and the descriptions should be complete,
without omitting any necessary information.
2) Labeling in contour maps and color division should be clear.
Supplementary Notes
1) Interpretation plots are made by adding geological, hydrological and engineering
interpretations to SP profiles or contour maps.
2) The scale of maps and diagrams should be decided in consultation with the client.
Description
The deliverable should include diagrams and tables that clearly outline the survey results. For
future reinterpretation, all the data should be presented in digital format where possible.
6.2 Report
equipment used;
analysis method and result; and
references.
Note
1) The methods of the survey and analysis should be described in detail. If any special
measurements are taken or data processing is done in the survey, the reason for them should
be clearly described.
Description
Generally, the results of the survey and interpretations are most important as the contents of the
report. As geological information on the survey area increases through time, it could be
necessary to reevaluate the results of the survey or carry out additional surveys. In preparation
for such future needs, it is important to describe the method of the survey and analysis as
clearly as possible in the report or digital files.
References
Corwin, R.F. (1990) The selfpotential method for environmental and engineering applications.
In: Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics, Volume I: Review and Tutorial, (ed. S.H.
Ward). Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 127–145.
Butler, D.K. and Llopis, J.L. (1990) Assessment of anomalous seepage conditions. In:
Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics, Volume II: Environmental and Groundwater,
(ed. S.H. Ward). Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 153–173.
7 Electromagnetic Method
1. General
1) The electromagnetic (EM) method is a geophysical method to investigate the geology
and geological faults and folds for ore and coal resources of oil and gas groundwater.
The method detects the difference of electromagnetic properties of the ground: a
different geology presents a different electromagnetic response.
Note
1) Among the many kinds of EM methods, an appropriate method should be chosen for
purposes, local geology and the environment.
Supplementary Note
1) The EM survey does not include groundpenetrating radar. It is discussed separately
(Chapter 8).
2) Resistivity is one of the parameters that the EM method can address. Hence, in a broad
sense, it may be considered as a kind of electrical survey method (see Chapter 6).
3) Most of the surveys are able to conduct with a good efficiency.
4) The EM surveys are mainly used as a reconnaissance survey and are often complemented
by a detailed study by the resistivity method.
Description
Ease of flow of an electric current (electrical conductivity) depends on the properties of rocks
and minerals. In other words, the difficulty in flow of electricity (electrical resistivity) varies by
the type of rock. This means that we can estimate the geology under the ground, such as
mineral and oil resources, water springs, argillic alteration zones and faults, by distribution of
the electric conductivity or resistivity. The EM method detects the difference of the electrical
properties of rocks. Therefore, the EM method may be considered as a kind of electrical
method.
Electrical and electromagnetic waves used in radio, television and wireless communication
propagate changing magnetic fields and electric fields simultaneously. The electromagnetic
waves pass through relatively homogeneous media such as air and water without changing
fields, while they respond to inhomogeneous geology like soil and rock following the principle
of the electromagnetic theory (see Section 2 Principle). The EM methods analyze these
physical phenomena to investigate the geological structure and buried objects under the ground
surface.
Groundpenetrating radar (GPR) also uses an electromagnetic wave for detecting objects
under the ground. This method is similar to conventional radar to spot aircrafts and vessels: it
looks for bodies that reflect electromagnetic waves (Table 1.1). The term “EM method” usually
excludes GPR and denotes a method that uses electromagnetic induction.
There are several different methods within the electromagnetic survey method. They have
been developed for different purposes. The magnetotelluric (MT) and audio frequency
magnetotelluric (AMT) methods (Chapter 7.1) can measure up to a depth of 1,000 m and
airborne electromagnetic methods can rapidly measure a large area (Section 7.4). This chapter
describes these methods in detail in six subsections. Selection of the method depends on the
purpose of the survey and the environment of the site: surrounding geology, field condition,
etc.
Most of the sensor devices of the electromagnetic methods (for example, the looploop
method in Chapter 7.5 and the VLF method in Chapter 7.6) are used without contact from the
ground and have highoperational efficiency in the field. Even the EM methods that require a
longer recording time with electrodes buried in the ground (for example, the CSAMT method
in Chapter 7.2 and the MT and AMT methods in Chapter 7.1) can conduct a more efficient
survey then other geophysical methods to probe similar depths.
Electromagnetic method GroundPenetrating Radar
(Electromagnetic induction method)
Physical quantity Change of electric and magnetic fields Propagation time
to measure (amplitude and phase)
Physical property Resistivity (Conductivity) Contrast of dielectric constant or
electric conductivity
Physical Electromagnetic induction (Diffusion Electromagnetic wave
phenomenon field) propagation
Related method Resistivity method (Direct current Seismic reflection method
method)
Table 1.1: Comparison of the electromagnetic method and groundpenetrating radar.
2. Principle
1) The EM methods observe the secondary electromagnetic field induced by changes of
the electromagnetic field in the ground.
2) The range of frequency used in EM methods is from 0.001 kHz to 100 kHz.
The EM methods are good at detecting highconductivity (lowresistivity) in the
3) ground.
4) Higher resolution is achieved by using higher frequencies and greater depth
penetration by lower frequencies.
Note
1) Select a suiTable method from the variety of EM methods for the purpose of the survey,
local geology and the environment. The electromagnetic conditions to consider include
highvoltage transmission lines, radio transmitters and urban areas where electromagnetic
waves are abundant.
Description
High school physics classes demonstrate that wire connected to a battery moves when a magnet
is close to the wire (the principle of the electric motor) and electricity is generated when a wire
is moved nearby a magnet (the principle of the generator, Figure 2.1). These are the phenomena
called electromagnetic induction. The electromagnetic method is a way to survey the
subsurface based on this electromagnetic induction. Fleming's left and righthand rules are
used to determine the direction and strength of the current and magnetic field by
electromagnetic induction.
Figure 2.1: Electromagnetic induction as studied in a physics classroom.
Alternating current (AC) is generated proportionally to the frequency of the magnetic field, if
a wire is placed in a changing magnetic field at a certain frequency (Figure 2.1(b); the principle
of a generator). Figure 2.1(a) is the principle of an electrical motor (pulled or pushed forces by
a magnetic field move the wire by a direct current (DC) around the wire). The wire is fluctuated
by a magnetic field at the frequency generated by the AC instead of the DC. The EM method
applies an alternating magnetic field into the earth to induce an eddy current by the principle of
a generator. The eddy current, in turn, generates a secondary alternating magnetic field
(secondary magnetic field). The strength of the eddy current and the secondary magnetic field
is proportional to the strength of the primary magnetic field and the strength of the conductive
layer of the earth or around buried objects is stronger. The eddy current and the secondary
magnetic field lag due to the reaction time of the earth material to the change of the primary
magnetic field. Therefore, by using these principles, we can estimate the conductivity (or
resistivity) of layers of earth and buried objects calculated from the ratio of the strengths of
primary and secondary fields and the delay time (phase lags) measured by a magnetic or
electric sensor.
The frequency of observed electric and magnetic fields and the distance of the transmitter
and receiver are related to the target layer and the depth of the buried objects. This leads to an
estimation of the geology and the geological structure from the subsurface distribution of the
resistivity.
Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram of the electromagnetic sounding principle.
3. Application
1) Taking advantage of the efficiency of the survey, the EM methods are applied as a
reconnaissance survey in the early stage of a project (airborne electromagnetic
method, looploop method, VLF method etc.).
2) Apply to the following specific survey objectives:
targets at a depth of more than 500 m (MT, AMT and CSAMT methods); and
inaccessible area by steep topography or poor road access (airborne
electromagnetic method etc.).
Notes
1) The methods are not applied to areas close to noise sources (highvoltage lines, power lines,
generators, motors, transformers, radio tower etc.), or urban noise sources.
2) The ground anomaly is not the only source of EM signals; for example, signals from man
made metal objects close to the surface may produce confusing signals.
Supplementary Note
1) The direct current (electric resistivity) method is often conducted as a detailed survey
within a limited area selected by the results of EM methods.
Description
The EM survey has many varieties with different procedures and characteristics. Table 3.1
shows a comparison of six common EM methods discussed in this chapter.
A survey with porTable noncontact magnetic sensors like induction coils is very efficient in
field operations and it is suiTable for a reconnaissance survey in the early stage of a project for
general information on regional geology, target geology, geological structures and subsurface
distribution of resources.
Because of the lower resolution of this method, the result is often followed up by another
geophysical survey that has higher resolution, such as the direct current (electric resistivity)
method. Surface geological mapping is often conducted in the limited areas targeted by an EM
survey.
The MT, AMT and CSAMT methods can probe to a depth of more than 500 m but take a
longer time ranging from 30 minutes to overnight at each station, because they need to bury
electrodes for the observation of a feeble electric field. However, these are still the most
convenient methods for such deep targets in geophysical methods.
The airborne method can be conducted for a survey in an inaccessible area due to severe
topography and poor vehicular access. An induction coil suspended by a helicopter is capable
of acquiring data without ground contact from low altitude.
Table 3.1: Typical characteristics of EM methods and their applications.
All of the EM methods have one feature in common: they are vulnerable to electromagnetic
noise and metal objects close to the surface. The signals from the earth’s current and secondary
magnetic field are feeble and adversely affected by nearby electromagnetic sources, such as
highvoltage cables, power lines, generators, motors, voltage inverters and radio towers. The
signal may also be contaminated by the earth’s current and secondary magnetic field generated
by strong electromagnetic induction by the high conductivity of metal objects close to the
station. It is important that the data acquisition takes place somewhere free from sources of
electric noise and metal objects. Urban and suburban areas have many sources of
electromagnetic noise and metal objects and are not suitable for the EM method.
The electromagnetic method is widely used in the United States, Canada and Australia for
mineral exploration. The original objective of the survey was to effectively identify anomalies
related to conductive alterations associated with mineral deposits in a larger area. Areas of
interest identified by the EM methods are subject to other exploration methods. The
electromagnetic method is young as a commercial or prevailing technology to interpret a
geological structure by itself and it is still under development.
4. Terminology
Following is a brief description of the terminology used in the electromagnetic method.
Theory
Magnetic the space of the effects of a magnetic force (unit of its intensity: nT).
field:
Electric the gradient of the electrical potential: (unit: V/m).
field:
Primary the electric and magnetic fields caused by the ground by transmission of an
field: electromagnetic wave.
Secondary the electric and magnetic fields induced by the primary electromagnetic field.
field:
[Electric] electric property of the material; resistance per unit length of the material with a
resistivity: unit crosssection area (unit: Ohmm). Note this is not resistance per unit
volume. This physical property is a common subject of the electric,
electromagnetic and resistivity tomography methods and the electric log.
[Electric] ease of flow of the electrical current per unit length per unit area (unit: S/m).
conductivity: The reciprocal of resistivity is conductivity. This is often used for the
description of water quality.
Skin depth: the depth of energy of the electromagnetic wave with frequency f (Hz) to
attenuate to l/e (or about 37%) in the earth’s resistivity ρ (Ohmm). This is used
as a benchmark for the depth of probe. The skin depth is estimated by:
where, σ is conductivity (S/m); μ permeability; π angular frequency and e base
of the natural logarithm. Induction number: a nondimensional parameter that
represents the electromagnetic response, also called the response function. The
number depends on the methods and models.
Near field: the area where the absolute value of induction number kr is much less than 1, or
the separation between the transmitter and receiver r is significantly smaller
than the skin depth δ, where the electromagnetic wave cannot be regarded as a
plane wave (Figure 4.1) and the geometrical effect of the electromagnetic
induction with the distance between them must be considered. The looploop
and airborne magnetic methods investigate this region. The CSAMT method
uses the term “near field” for less than three times of the skin depth, where its
application is difficult.
Far field: the area where the absolute value of induction number kr is much greater than 1,
or the separation r of the transmitter and receiver is greater than the skin depth
δ. This is the opposite of near field, where the magnetic field can be regarded as
a plane wave and the effect of separation of the transmitter and receiver
becomes negligible. We are able to evaluate the electrical property (impedance)
of the ratio of the components at a station in this region. The MT, AMT,
CSAMT and VLF methods are used this region as shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Near field and far field in electromagnetic exploration.
Instrumentation
Coil: magnetic sensor formed by a wire wound into a cylindrical shape.
Loop [Coil]: a larger radius (l~200m) coil. The shape may be circular or square.
Figure 4.2: Magnetic field sensors used in electromagnetic surveys.
Electrode: sensors for the electric field used in the MT, AMT and CSAMT methods.
There are metal rods and nonpolarizing electrodes that have plaster or an electrolyte
two types: solution between a metal electrode and the ground.
References
Nabighian, M.N. (1988) Electromagnetic Methods in Applied Geophysics. Society of
Exploration Geophysicists, Tulsa OK.
7.1 MT and AMT Methods
1. General
1) The MT and AMT methods observe the Earth’s magnetic field and telluric currents in
nature with magnetic and electric sensors to investigate underground structures.
2) The MT method can investigate more than 10,000 meters deep and the AMT method
up to around 1,000 meters.
Supplementary Notes
1) The AMT method uses higher frequencies than the MT method. The AMT method takes
less time to observe.
2) The AMT method observes the Earth’s natural magnetic field and telluric currents, while
the CSAMT method (Chapter 7.2) uses artificially generated electromagnetic waves.
3) Because MTonly observes signals in nature, it does not disturb the neighboring
environment.
4) MTcan estimate the geological trend, which is difficult to find by other geophysical
methods.
5) Adopting a remote reference point can reduce noise around the survey points.
Description
The term “MT method” is an abbreviation for magnetotelluric method, derived from the
combination of the Earth’s magnetism and telluric currents. It denotes a survey method using
the Earth’s telluric currents produced in the ground by variations of the Earth’s magnetic field
(Earth’s magnetism) (Figure 1.1). The Earth’s magnetic field changes naturally and is thought
to be due to the Earth’s magnetic oscillation, less than 1Hz, driven by solar activity and the
Earth’s magnetic pulsation, more than 1Hz, produced by lightning. The MT method observes
these activities in the frequency range between 0.001Hz and 1,000Hz. Observation is
commonly carried out overnight when the noise level is low. The Earth’s magnetic pulsation
changes its signal strength in response to solar rotation in about a 27 day period. Because good
data are not detectable when the signal is weak, the observations are often repeated at the same
survey points in a 3 to 7 day period. The remote reference method eliminates the noise at
survey points. It uses an observation result at a reference point more than 50 km away from the
subject area of the survey.
The AMT method focuses on the frequency range of 0.110,000Hz of the Earth’s magnetic
field variation, in which the signals are comparatively stable. Because the sound of this
frequency band is mostly within our audible range, the MT method using this frequency range
is called AudioFrequency MT, abbreviated as AMT. It acquires data by observations
approximately for 1 to 3 hours. Observations are generally carried out during the night to avoid
noise and the remote reference method is also used. The Controlled Source AMT method
measures the same frequency band as the AMT method but it uses an artificial signal source
instead of the Earth’s magnetic field. It is commonly abbreviated as CSAMT.
The MT and AMT methods use two sets of horizontal magnetic and electricity sensors to
record anisotropy information of the resistivity (Figure 1.1). From this anisotropy information,
the orientation of geological structures are derived.
Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of the principles of the MT and AMT methods.
There are many people who believe that resistivity means electric resistance per unit of volume.
This is even written in certain literature. The unit of the resistivity must become Ω/m3 if this
definition is right. However, the correct unit for resistivity is Ωm and the correct definition is:
‘electric resistance per unit of length with electric current flowing through the unit cross section
area’. This means, the apparent resistivity value is different depending on the directions of the
measurements. In other words, the resistivity shows anisotropy. For example, the telluric
current flowing along layers is greater than that flowing across layers. In terms of resistivity, it
appears lower along the layers and higher across the layers. This is the same for joints and
faults, in which the resistivity appears lower along them and higher across them. The MT and
AMT methods routinely measure this apparent anisotropy of resistivity.
2. Applicability
1) Both the MT and AMT methods are applicable to prospecting for underground
resources such as petroleum, natural gas, metallic minerals, geothermal energy, hot
springs as well as largescale surveys for faults and volcanoes at the deeper part of the
ground.
2) Use the AMT method for searches for underground structures in the depth of 100 m to
1,000 m such as mountain tunnels, underground power plants and radioactive waste
disposal sites.
Supplementary Notes
1) The applications for the AMT method should be the same as the ones for the CSAMT
method (see Chapter 7.2).
2) The AMT method however can be applied to a larger area and an area with hard bedrock
like granite where the CSAMT is difficult.
Description
Both the MT and AMT methods can survey for the geological structure of electrical properties
where it is easy produce electricity such as hot springs, aquifers, clay layers, alteration zones
and metal deposits, which is similar to other electromagnetic prospecting methods. The MT
method is one of the geophysical methods with the greatest depth of probe.
The cost of the MT survey is higher than the CSAMT per location, because the MT survey
takes longer per observation. The MT method is used for largescale surveys because of its
long duration and cost.
The AMT method does not need a source outside the survey area and it is advantageous in
areas with firm bedrocks. It requires a shorter duration and lower cost than the MT method and
the AMT method is anticipated to be used more frequently than the CSAMT in the future. This
chapter describes the AMT method, which is easy to apply to geotechnical and civil
engineering.
3. Planning
1) If the survey is to probe 500 m in depth for groundwater, clay and deep weathered
zones, the MT and AMT methods are preferred.
2) Consider the AMT method for a depth of probe less than 1,500 m and the MT method
for greater depths.
3) Apply to areas with little electromagnetic noise.
Note
1) The environments with intense electromagnetic noise where application is difficult include:
urban areas;
areas within a 500 m range from highvoltage transmission lines, power plants,
substations and large factories.
Supplementary Note
1) Consider the AMT method after comparing with CSAMT results.
Description
The MT and AMT methods are some of the few geophysical methods capable of surveying
deeper than 500 meters below ground; others include the seismic reflection method (Chapter
3). They are most efficient where the survey object has lowelectric resistivity such as
groundwater, clay and deep weathering zones. The depth of probe δ(m) is called skin depth for
both the MT and AMT methods. As a rule of thumb, the skin depth is estimated as:
where ρ is the resistivity of the ground (Ωm), f is the frequency (Hz) and m the electric
permeability.
This equation shows that the higher the resistivity and the lower the frequency, the deeper
the probe into the ground. The MT and AMT methods can acquire detailed data at low
frequencies and either method may be selected for surveys to 1500 below ground, without a
concern to the depth of probe as the CSAMT would require. Electromagnetic waves are
generated not only from equipment but there are other sources such as radio, electric wires,
generators, powermachines and various electronic appliances. These electromagnetic waves
cause geomagnetic field variations and telluric currents. The geomagnetic field variation and
the telluric currents caused by artificial sources become noise that cannot be distinguished from
ones that naturally occur observed by MT and AMT analyses. This electromagnetic noise is
strong in urban areas, around large factories and places near highvoltage lines, power stations
and substations. The observations in such an environment are not reliable.
The AMT and CSAMT methods use the same frequency band. However each of them has
both merits and demerits. Choose carefully between the methods according to the purpose and
the measurement conditions for the survey.
4) The interval between survey points should be between 100 and 1,000 m.
5) Methods of noise reduction could be by nighttime operation, the remote reference
method or both.
Notes
1) Stations should be planned on sites as flat as possible.
2) The stations should be located at least 500 m away from the origin of noises such as high
voltage wires, power plants, substations, radio masts, largesize factories and suburbs.
Supplementary Notes
1) The stations near roads are easy to manage.
2) Unlike seismic and resistivity methods, the MT and AMT methods do not require extended
lines to match the depth of probe.
3) For the search of hot springs, groundwater and underground resources, the stations should
be distributed uniformly in the survey area.
4) For a survey for tunnel alignment and faults, the survey points should be placed at a
constant interval on the alignment.
5) Plan the survey lines to cross the geological structure at the right angle.
6) The principal line for a tunnel survey should be on the tunnel alignment.
7) The secondary lines should be set to cross the geological structure at the right angle, if the
geological structure of concern such as a fault is known.
Description
Unlike the resistivity and seismic methods, which require a longer line for a greater depth of
probe, the survey depth of the MT, AMT and CSAMT methods does not depend on the length
of the survey line. The depth of probe only depends on the frequency of the electromagnetic
field measured. A flat surface over 30 to 50 m is desired for an observation station. In other
words, these surveys are based on pointmeasurement rather than by lines. We often place
survey points along a line only for the convenience of analysis and drawing a crosssection or
contour map. Selection of the observation location should focus on the measurement of flat
topography rather than a straight line of equal intervals. Considering the transportation of
measurement equipment, it is operationally effective to survey along roads. In practice, survey
stations are planned on a topographic map at places flat or with gentle gradient, trying to form a
nearstraight line with intervals approximately equal (Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Example of line and station arrangements for the MT and AMT methods.
Depending on the purpose of the search, the placement of observation stations for MT and
AMT surveys is planned considering the influence of electromagnetic noise, orientation of the
geological structure and undergroundstructured items.
An example is shown in Figure 3.2. The placement of the survey stations in Figure 3.2 is the
same for the CSAMT method. However, the station intervals for the AMT method can be
slightly larger than for the CSAMT method.
Figure 3.2: An example of station/ line arrangement for the MT and AMT methods.
4. Field Operation
4.1 Preliminary Site Investigation
1) A preliminary site scouting for the MT and AMT methods should include:
permission to access the land for observation stations; and
the distribution of undocumented noise sources such electric cables and
telephone cables around the stations.
Notes
1) If a new reference station is to be setup for the survey, access permission should be
obtained.
2) If there is any noise source around a survey point, an alternative location is selected in the
vicinity.
3) Confirm good reception of GPS signals with a portable GPS receiver.
Supplementary Notes
1) Avoid places with big trees and large running water in the vicinity.
2) Find a place where you can use cell phones.
3) Document the information related to the locations’ coordinates, outlines, entrance and/or
surrounding environment for the stations.
Description
Obtain an entry permit from the land owners because the MT and AMT methods need
observation equipment installed 3050 m apart. It may take some time to obtain an approval
from some authorities for entrance to forests and mountains. Notifying not only land owners
but also the neighbors will ensure a smooth site operation.
In addition to manmade noise sources such as electric and telephone lines, the ambient noise
sources include the movement of water in streams and the telluric currents caused by large trees
moving in the wind. Only site inspection can identify these noise sources. Select a location for
survey stations away from noisesources, on a flat spot without a crop. If the planned location
is unsuitable, find an alternative location.
The accuracy of a time record is important for the MT and AMT methods. Because most
clocks use GPS signals, confirm the quality of GPS signals at the survey stations. At the same
time, confirm the location coordinate of the survey point. Check that mobile phone reception is
adequate to communicate with crewmembers at remote reference positions.
The results of the scouting should be organized at the survey station and the field crew
informed.
2) The equipment for the survey should include:
data recorder;
GPS receiver;
induction coil and interconnection cable;
electrode and electric wire;
batteries; and
simple location survey tools (compass, measuring tape, GPS).
Notes
1) Use nonpolarizing electrodes such as lead lead chloride, copper copper sulfate, or silver
silver chloride.
2) The induction coil used for the MT method is different from the one for AMT.
3) Confirm the conversioncoefficient for the induction coil by calibration.
Supplementary Notes
1) Waterproof the induction coil.
2) Prepare the electric wires for the electrode through a hose.
3) Arrange twice as many batteries as required for the field operation.
Description
The MT methods observe a feeble potential in the order of several µV between two electrodes
that are 3050 m apart. The observation uses nonpolarizing electrodes as a polarization
potential, which could occur in metal electrodes that would adversely affect the measured
value. Recent MT and AMT surveys used a gypsum electrode filled with powdered lead
chloride (called “lead lead chloride electrode” or “PbPbCl electrode”) as shown in Figure
4.1. The “copper copper sulfate electrode” is an alternative; it is an unglazed pot filled with a
copper sulfate solution with a copper rod as an electrode.
Figure 4.1: Nonpolarizing electrode used in MT and AMT surveys.
A wire covered with plastic with a crosssection area 0.75 to 1.25 mm2 for home use is
sufficient as an electric cable between the observation instrument and electrodes. However, it is
recommended to put it in a protectiontube such as a garden hose to protect from biting animals
such as cows, kangaroos, wild mice and rabbits during an observation, particularly at night.
There are three types of observation instruments: one for the MT method, one for AMT and
the other for both. A dualpurpose induction coil for a magnetic sensor is not often available.
An induction coil suitable for the method should be selected. In general, an induction coil for
the AMT method is shorter than that for MT. Each induction coil has its own unique
conversion coefficient. Recalibrate on site before the observation to revise the conversion
coefficient and keep it constant during the survey as well as the configuration of the
observation equipment and electric coil. In addition, it is recommended to waterproof the
equipment by wrapping it in a plastic bag, because the electrical measuring instrument could be
damaged by rain during the observation. Use vinyl tape to wrap the electrical measurement
instrument tightly so that the plastic bag does not flatten and influence the measurement.
Recent instruments have external batteries as a power supply. Because it takes some time to
charge the batteries, several spare batteries should be arranged so that one can be charged while
measurement is underway with another. Figure 4.2 shows an example of observation
equipment and the nonpolarizing electrode of leadlead chloride for the AMT method.
Figure 4.2: Example of observation equipment, magnetic coil and nonpolarizing electrode for the AMT
survey.
3) Prepare the following setup at the measurement stations:
arrange underground electrodes at a predetermined interval and orientation
using a compass and measuring tape and connect them to the observation
instrument with electric wire;
place induction coils in the predetermined orientation with a compass and
connect cables to the observation instrument; and
enter parameters for the observation into the observation software.
4) Acquire data for the predetermined duration.
5) Collect data from the observation instrument.
Notes
1) The coils are generally installed horizontally or vertically firmly into the ground to prevent
them from shaking.
2) Document the orientation of the induction coils and electrodes with attention to true or
magnetic north.
3) Install cables and wires from the induction coils and the electrodes on firm ground or bury
to prevent vibration during the observation.
4) Make simultaneous observations at the reference and survey stations when using the remote
reference method.
5) Do not enter area of stations during the observations.
Supplementary Notes
1) It is recommended to install the coils on a layer of bentonite for good ground contact of the
electrodes.
2) The orientation of the induction coils and electrodes should always be either southnorth, or
eastwest.
3) Before the observation, measure and record the grounding resistance between the electrodes
electrical potentials with DC and AC. Document in the field note the coordinates and a
sketch of the survey stations, the orientation and interval of the magnetic coils and
electrodes, the model and serial numbers of the coil and the electrodes and the observation
time.
4) Try a preliminary processing of the collected data for quality assurance.
Description
The MT and AMT methods observe minute variation. Movement of the magnetic coil and
electric wires by wind affects the observation data. The induction coil is installed
approximately 20 cm in depth (Figure 4.3). The electric wires and cables are laid directly on the
ground, better still buried under the ground. Large trees may shake the magnetic coil and
therefore locating stations near trees should be avoided. Avoid observation on windy days in a
forest. No person should enter the observation area because human movement causes the
ground to shake and movement of the metal object affects measurements and use of wireless
devices introduces noise.
The orientation of the coils for the horizontal magnetic field should be confirmed with a
compass and a spirit level. The coils observing the vertical magnetic field should be installed as
deep as possible. Because the directions of the induction coil and electrode are important for
processing, record their orientation with an explicit record of true or magnetic north. If the
orientation of all the parts is planned consistently either north south or eastwest in a survey,
confusions can be avoided.
The quality of data is checked by a preliminary analysis plotting the apparent resistivity
curve (see Section 5). If the data are poor, repeat the observation eliminating the cause. If there
are no data from simultaneous observations at the reference station, the observed data at survey
stations are usable. It is therefore important to double check with the observation team at the
reference station to ensure the simultaneous observations of the data are of good quality.
Figure 4.3: Installation of the electrode and induction coil.
5.1 Data Processing
1) Make two sets of apparent resistivity curves from the observation data.
2) Rotate the two sets of apparent resistivity mathematically on a map and find the
azimuths where the apparent resistivity becomes the minimum and maximum at every
frequency and make an additional two sets of apparent resistivity curves for analysis.
3) Make the following drawings to show the analysis results:
a base map with the position of the stations and lines; and
topographic crosssection.
Note
1) Extract only data that have good correlation with the data from the reference station before
drawing the apparent resistivity curves.
Supplementary Notes
1) A series of processes to calculate azimuth parameters from the observation data is
performed automatically by data processing software for the observation equipment.
2) Extract the data in the time window with little noise before the data processing sequence.
3) Compute the azimuth parameters that are unique to the MT method.
Description
The acquired observation data are a temporal variation of the horizontal magnetic fields
mutually perpendicular, the horizontal electric fields that are perpendicular to the magnetic
fields and the vertical magnetic fields. This section schematically describes the concept of data
processing to prepare the data for analysis.
(1) Divide the temporal data into each component of a data set with m segments with a constant
time t.
Figure 5.1: The temporal data sliced into segments.
(2) Consider the nth data set after dividing. Extract the signals, comparing with the data from
the reference station. In practice this process is applied through a crosscorrelation process.
Figure 5.2: A concept of reference processing.
(3) Perform a spectrum analysis on the temporal data to compute the power and the phase
spectra from the data at the survey point.
Figure 5.3: Spectrum analysis to transform the data from the time domain to the frequency domain.
(4) Compute the spectrum ratio Zab for horizontal magnetic field a and horizontal electric field
b. A spectrum ratio is a vector quantity to compute impedancetensor Z with four spectrum
ratios
where,
Zxx: the spectrum ratio between the NS electric field and the NS magnetic field (Ex/Hx);
Zxy: the spectrum ratio between the EW electric field and the NS magnetic field (Ey/Hx);
Zyx: the spectrum ratio between the NS electric field and the EW magnetic field (Ex/Hy);
and
Zyy: the spectrum ratio between the EW electric field and the EW magnetic field (Ey/Hy).
(5) Each component of impedancetensor Z changes when the horizontal axes are rotated
around the azimuth axis. The spectrum ratio between the electric field and the magnetic
field, which are perpendicular to each other, is calculated at every azimuth. A polar diagram
is drawn by plotting this spectrum ratio on a map. The direction at which the spectrum ratio
becomes maximum is called “Principal Direction”. Two apparent resistivities, ρxy and ρxy,
are calculated for analysis from the spectrum ratio of the principal and perpendicular
directions by the following equations:
where f is the frequency (Hz) and m is the magnetic permeability.
Figure 5.4: Rotation of the impedance tensor.
(6) Perform the processes from (6) to (5) on all the m segments and plot the result of the
apparent resistivity curve on a 2D space with the frequencies on the horizontal axis and the
apparent resistivity on the vertical axis. The apparent resistivity for each frequency may
scatter. It is expressed by error bars on the apparent resistivity plot. Figure 5.5 shows an
example of an apparent resistivity curve. These processes are performed automatically
and/or semiautomatically by the dataprocessing software combined with the observation
equipment.
One of the advantages of the MT and AMT methods, besides deriving apparent resistivity, is
obtaining parameters related to the orientation of anomalies. At each survey point, in addition
to the two apparent resistivities, Zxy and Z yx, for every frequency, parameters useful for 2D
and 3D analysis, such as induction vector, tipper and skewness, can be calculated by using the
vertical magnetic field. These parameters can be computed by the data processing software
used for apparent resistivity. For details of these parameters refer to textbooks of the MT
method.
Figure 5.5: An example of an apparent resistivity curve.
An important feature in the data processes with the MT and AMT methods is the static shift.
The apparent resistivity curve in Figure 5.6 contains a static shift caused by a local resistivity
anomaly in the shallow ground near the survey station. Before starting the analysis, it is
necessary to move the apparent resistivity curve back to its normal position, where it would be
without the anomaly. A qualitative process is used for this purpose, incorporating shallow
resistivity information by resistivity or other electromagnetic methods, or the difference in
apparent resistivities ρxy and ρyx in a higher frequency band. Other than the static shift, local
resistivity anomalies may introduce distortion to the data. This must be dealt with by a special
process.
Figure 5.6: Staticshift due to a nearsurface anomaly.
5.2 Analysis
4) Choose ρxy and ρyx for analysis from the apparent resistivity data set.
5) Analyze quantitatively with the apparent resistivity selected. Depending on the
purpose of the survey and geological structure to consider, a 1, 2 or 3dimensional
quantitative analysis is chosen.
Supplementary Notes
1) Select the apparent resistivity for analysis using the orientation parameters.
2) Perform the 2dimensional analysis in TM mode.
3) The result of the quantitative interpretation is plotted in a crosssection and/or plan maps.
4) Evaluate the result of the quantitative analysis by a sensitivity test varying the selection of
apparent resistivities to analyze and different parameters to use.
Description
Onedimensional analysis (Figure 5.7) has long been the mainstream of interpretation of the
MT and AMT methods. It assumes the underground is made of multiple horizontal layers and
analyses for the number, thickness and resistivity of the layers. In later years, twodimensional
analysis in search of resistivity distribution in the crosssection became the mainstream and the
threedimensional analysis, which demands real resistivity distribution, came to be performed.
Figure 5.7: Example of onedimensional interpretation.
Both of the apparent resistivities ρxy and ρyx are used for threedimensional interpretation,
while the one and twodimensional analyses use them separately. When the electric field is
regarded as along the strike, it is called the “TE mode” and when the electric field is
perpendicular to the strike, it is called the “TM mode” (Figure 5.8). The TE mode is suitable
for the geological structure at large and the TM mode is suitable for a detailed survey.
Therefore, TM mode analysis is often adapted for quantitative analysis of a crosssection.
Judgment between TE and TM modes uses the directional parameters unique to the MT and
AMT methods. However, there is no clear standard criterion for this. If the result of the
quantitative analysis is not satisfactory, the selection between the TE and TM modes may be
reconsidered. In some cases, the analysis may need to return to the staticshift process. The MT
and AMT methods have the advantage of having many measured values and parameters for
judgment. To reach optimum analysis results, reference to the expected geological structure and
known survey results during analysis and examining the initial model and the parameter values
are necessary in order to obtain consistent results.
There are two types of displays for the results: contour display and analysis block display
(Figure 5.9).
Figure 5.8: The TE and TM mode analyses in the MT and AMT methods.
Figure 5.9: Examples of displays of a twodimensional analysis.
6. Deliverables
6.1 Deliverable
1) Submit the following as product results:
map of the survey location;
figures of station / line (or crosssection) positions;
crosssections of resistivity;
plan map of resistivity (as needed);
crosssections of general analysis;
plan map of general analysis (as needed); and
a set of apparent resistivity curves.
2) Submit the following data electronically:
station / line (or crosssection) and location coordinates;
all measurement data;
crosssections of resistivity, plan map of resistivity, crosssections of general
analysis, plan map of general analysis in graphic files; and
a set of apparent resistivity curves in image files.
Note
1) Make clear drawings, remembering not to miss information in legends, contour labels and
color levels.
Supplementary Notes
1) The sections and maps of general analysis show the resistivity features with geological and
geotechnical interpretation.
2) The scale of the drawing should be decided by consulting with the client.
3) It is encouraged to submit a copy of the field notes.
Description
Submit the drawings that clearly show an overview of the survey results. See an example of a
crosssection of general analysis in Figure 6.1. If possible, it is desirable to submit cross
sections and maps of apparent resistivity and a map of the orientation parameters. These data
contribute to assess the analysis results. These may make the report bulky; consult the client for
the amount of information to submit.
Submit data as electronically as much as possible. These may be usable for the reevaluation
and reinterpretation of the survey. Submitting only processed data may be more desirable,
because the volume of observationrelated temporal data is very large. Use SEG format for the
processed data readable by many application software.
Figure 6.1: An example of a resistivity crosssection from a general analysis with interpretation.
6.2 Report
3) Describe the following items clearly:
method of data acquisition;
equipment for measurement;
method of analysis;
analysis software, initial model and parameter values;
method of interpretation and result; and
citation and references.
Note
1) Describe the method of the survey and analysis in detail to contribute to future re
evaluation and reanalysis; especially, the name and version number of the analysis
software, initial model for the analysis and the parameter values have to be described.
Description
Generally, the result of the survey, especially, the general analysis/interpretation will be
focused on in the report.
As the investigation progresses, more geological information becomes available and re
evaluation of the result may become necessary. In some cases, additional surveys may be
needed. Then a description of what has been carried out is invaluable. Include it in an appendix,
a separate supplement volume or an electronic file. It is especially important to describe the
concepts of the analysis and the interpretation as the MT and AMT methods may involve the
knowledge of many engineers on many levels.
References
Uchida, T. (1993) Smooth 2D inversion for magnetotelluric data based on statistical criterion
ABIC.
Journal of Geomagnetism and Geoelectricity 45, 841–858.
Further Reading
Uchida, T. and Sasaki, Y. (2006) Stable 3D inversion of MT data and its application to
geothermal exploration. Exploration Geophysics 37, 223–230.
7.2 CSAMT Method
1. General
1) The CSAMT method is an electromagnetic method to search for underground
structures, to several hundred meters deep, by receiving magnetic and electric
responses to signals from an artificial electromagnetic source.
Note
1) The transmitters of the CSAMT survey are installed approximately 3 to 10 km away from
the survey area.
Supplementary Notes
2) The principles and data acquisition procedure of the CSAMT method are similar to the MT
and AMT methods (Chapter 7.1).
3) The CSAMT survey may not deliver a good result where the electric resistivity is high
across the entire survey area such as an area dominated by granite, because of a
phenomenon unique to the CSAMT method called the ‘nearfield effect’, which will be
described later.
Description
CSAMT is an abbreviation for the ‘controlled source audiofrequency magneto telluric’
method, which uses an artificial source of signal transmission. Its advantage over the MT and
AMT methods is its shorter period of observation with simple equipment, as it can record
stable signals by sending stronger electromagnetic waves from the source.
The CSAMT method assumes that the source is located infinitesimally far away from the
observation stations (in the farfield). Where the survey station is close to the source, a negative
effect called the ‘nearfield effect’ may occur in the measurement. Therefore, the source must
be placed as far from stations as possible. However, the greater distance weakens the vital
signals affecting the reliability of the data.
The source is generally installed 3 to 10 km away from the survey area. With this distance
the nearfield effect tends to occur in the measurement at the lower frequencies below 100Hz. It
is difficult to predict the frequencies at which the nearfield effect occurs during a
reconnaissance. The nearfield effect could also occur at remote stations far from the artificial
transmission source, even in frequencies higher than 100Hz, significantly lowering the
accuracy in the investigation, in areas where highresistivity rocks such as granite are
extensively distributed.
Figure 1.1: Schematic of CSAMT method.
2. Applicability
1) Apply the CSAMT method to the following surveys from 100 to 1,000 m in depth:
underground resources (hot springs, geothermal energy, groundwater, metal
mineral deposits and oil, natural gas);
faults and volcanoes; and
surveys for mountain tunnels, underground power plants and radioactive waste
disposal sites.
Note
The method is not recommended for areas with hard bedrocks such as granite.
Description
Like the other electromagnetic methods, the CSAMT method is applicable to the search for
electrically conductive geological features such as hot springs, aquifers, clay layers, alternation
zones and metal mineral deposits. Hard rocks usually have high resistivity and the nearfield
effect easily occurs in such areas, making it difficult to survey to the depths desired.
3. Planning
The survey area should satisfy the following conditions for the CSAMT method:
not in urban areas where electromagnetic noises are severe, which have a negative
impact on measurements;
the area is at least over 500 m away from highvoltage transmission lines, power
plants, power transformers and large factories where strong electrode noises are
generated; and
the geological condition is unlikely to cause the nearfield effect: no hard and
dense rock such as granite are widely distributed.
Supplementary Note
It is recommended that the survey has 10 or fewer stations because of operational efficiency.
Description
Electromagnetic noise is greatly attenuated underground. The magnetic sensor, however,
collects data directly influenced by electromagnetic noise generated by buildings in urban
areas, because it observes the magnetic fields on the ground.
The CSAMT method requires largescale transmitters (3.2.2) regardless of the number of
stations, so the significant part of the cost of the survey is for mobilization and demobilization.
3.2 Planning Data Acquisition
3.2.1 Planning Survey Stations
2) The distances between stations are typically 50 to 1,000 meters.
3) In prospecting for underground resources such as hot springs, groundwater and
deposits, the survey stations need to distribute uniformly across the area of
investigation.
4) Maintain the same station interval along survey lines in surveys for tunnels and faults.
Notes
1) Plan survey lines as perpendicular to the geological structure as possible.
2) The stations should be located at least 500 meters away from noise sources such as high
voltage wires, power plants, substations, radio masts, largescale factories and urban areas.
Supplementary Notes
1) Plan stations on a flat place.
2) It is not required to extend lines to match the depth of probe unlike seismic refraction or
electric resistivity surveys.
3) The location of the main survey line for a tunnel survey is controlled by the planned
alignment. Plan secondary lines perpendicular to the geological structure.
Description
A CSAMT survey measures electromagnetic responses at a series of stations on a point by
point basis. Its accuracy is adjusted by changing the frequency of the source signal. Therefore,
the survey line does not have to be a straight line.
In planning survey stations, first plot the area for investigation and the structures that are the
object of investigation, such as tunnel alignments, on a topographic map at 1:25,000 with
roads, highvoltage transmission lines, power plants, electric transformers, radio masts, large
factories, and residential areas. Then plan survey stations considering the location of noise
sources and the object of the survey.
Place observation stations on a flat location with no influence from ground features.
Consider vehicular access to minimize the time for moving and preparation. Stations are often
arranged along survey lines. Plot the planned stations along a straight line on the map and set
them up in the field on flat places near the planned locations. The primary survey lines are
often laid parallel to expected geological features and the stations at a regular interval forming
a grid pattern (Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Layout of stations and lines.
Using an array measurement is an efficient method (Figure 3.2). However, this requires a
multichannel measurement tool (GDP32 by Zonge for example).
Figure 3.2: Measurements of a CSAMT survey along a line.
3.2.2 Planning of Transmission Source
5) The signal transmitter is made of two electrodes and should meet the following
conditions:
source is located 3 to 10 km away from the investigation area;
the length of the transmitter source is from 1 to 3 km;
the investigation area is to be enclosed within a fan with a 60 degrees opening
centered at the middle of the transmitter (Figure 3.3).
Note
1) On a topographical map, plan the electrode positions 1 to 3 km apart as the end points of
the transmission source.
Supplementary Notes
1) Placing a transmission source along a road improves operational efficiency by ease of
access.
2) The CSAMT survey uses two electrodes as the signal source. The survey line is set up
parallel to the line between the two electrodes (Figure 3.3).
3) Plan to install the electrodes where electric current can flow easily, such as rice paddies,
creeks and swamps. However, avoid builtup areas because of the usage of large electric
current, which can be a safety issue.
4) Prepare alternative places for the electrodes as there may be difficulty in access, which may
not be apparent until site scouting.
Description
As previously mentioned, the CSAMT method is a variation of the AMT method that uses the
electromagnetic signal generated artificially (Chapter 7.1). The distance between survey points
and source electrodes should be more than three times as long as the depth of probe as applied
to the AMT method. Therefore, for a depth of probe of 1000 m, the distance between the source
line and the survey stations has to be more than 3,000 m (see Section 3.2.4).
The depth of probe varies depending also on the frequencies of the electromagnetic signal
used and conductivity of the ground (see Section 3.2.3). The minimum distance can be changed
accordingly. The area beyond the minimumrequired distance is called the ‘farfield, while the
area closer to the source line is called the ‘nearfield’ (Figure 3.3). The further it is from the
signal source, the weaker the signal becomes. It is often difficult to detect measurable signals
further than 10 km. Therefore, the signal source should be in the range of 3 to 10 km for an
investigation depth of 1 km.
The CSAMT method uses strong electromagnetic waves generated by electric current as
high as 1 to 15 amperes between two electrodes 1 to 3 kilometers apart.
Conceptually, the electric current in the nearfield is directly affected by the current between
the source electrodes, while the farfield can measure the underground electric current induced
by the electromagnetic field caused by the source current. As seen in Figure 1.1, the
electromagnetic wave travels perpendicular to the straight line between the source electrodes.
Because of this, the area available for the survey is restricted not only by the distance from the
current source but also by the azimuth from the line of the source current. In short, the source
electrodes are installed to maintain the position relative to the survey area as shown in Figure
3.3.
A highvoltage power line affects the measurement. The source line should be away from
power lines by at least 500 m.
Figure 3.3: Plan of source.
The subsurface electric current is measured with two electrodes 30 to 50 meters apart at a
survey point (details in Section 4.2). The orientation of the two electrodes should be parallel to
the source line. The field operation is efficient if the source line and the observation line are
parallel (Figure 3.3).
3.2.3 Planning Frequency for Measurement
6) Use 10 to 15 frequencies between 1 and 10,000Hz.
Supplementary Note
1) The standard frequency sets used for a CSAMT survey are based on exponential intervals:
for example 1, 2, 4,…, 2048 and 4092Hz, or 2.5, 5, 10, 20, …, 2560 and 5120Hz. These
frequencies form a series with a constant interval in the logarithmic scale.
Description
The frequencies used for data acquisition are a series with a constant interval in a logarithmic
scale. Plan the frequencies to match the availability of the equipment. Table 3.1 shows the
standard frequency series commonly used for CSAMT surveys.
Table 3.1: Typical sets of frequency used in the CSAMT method.
3.2.4 Depth of Probe
7) The depth of probe δ (m) can be calculated by:
where, δ: resistivity of the ground (Ωm), f: frequency (Hz) and µ: magnetic
permeability (H/m).
Notes
1) The depth of probe is greater in more resistive ground.
2) The lower frequency signals probe deeper in the ground.
3) Where the resistivity exceeds several hundreds Ωm such as a granite area, the nearfield
effect (Section 5.1)occurs in the frequency under 100Hz reducing the depth of probe.
Supplementary Note
1) Assume 100 Ωm for resistivity of the ground, if the actual value is unknown.
Description
The depth of probe discussed here is the depth where the strength of the electromagnetic signal
becomes 1/e ( 0.36798). This depth is called the ‘skin depth’. Figure 3.4 shows the depth of
probe used for planning. Instead of skin depth, the penetration depth, Zd, is sometimes used. It
is calculated as:
which is approximately 0.707 times the skin depth. In the CSAMT method, a phenomenon
called the nearfield effect occurs at the lowfrequency range, in which the measured resistivity
appears twice as high as the true value. Therefore the data at low frequency affected by the
nearfield effect are not used for interpretation. This means that the frequency not affected by
the nearfield effect is the lowest frequency to use for estimating depth of probe. Around 1,000
m is the standard depth of probe in the CSAMT method.
Figure 3.4: Plan of depthexploration.
4. Field Works
4.1 Site Scouting
1) Preliminary site scouting for the CSAMT method should include:
permission to access the land for observation stations; and
the distribution of undocumented noise sources such as electric cables and
telephone cables around the stations.
Notes
1) Find a place for the installation of signal electrodes where the electric current flows easily
such as wet soil.
2) Select a place away from phone lines and earthing systems for cable TV for installation of
electrodes.
Description
A detailed explanation of the project to local officials and residents of the area is necessary,
because a highcurrent electric line is installed and unattended for several days. Access permits
from landowners should be obtained for electrode sites. The cable between the electrodes is as
long as 1 to 2 km and permission is necessary from all the land owners along the line.
4.2.1 Equipment for Source
2) The following equipment is used for the signal source:
currenttransmitter;
generator;
metallic electrodes; and
electric cable with a crosssection area more than 2 mm2.
Note
1) Use a powerful current transmitter and generators for the source with a high output.
Supplementary Note
1) Prepare spare fuel for the generator in a metal container. Check the remaining amount of
fuel in the generator every two hours for uninterrupted fuel supply.
Description
The transmission of the electric current signal is to be as large as possible, generally
transmitting between 1 and 20 amperes of electric current with a few hundred volts by a
combination of transmitters and a generator capable of outputting 4 to 20 kW.
Even with powerful equipment, a large electric current is hard to transmit through a cable as
long as 2 to 5 km due to the resistance of the wire, ground resistance and contact resistance
between the ground and electrodes. Plan to use electric wires that have a thicker than 2 mm2
crosssectional area with low resistance. Use several dozen metal ground bars, metal wire net
over several square meters of ground and a few metallic plates for source electrodes. Photo 4.1
shows an example of a transmitting system.
Photo 4.1: Example of transmitters and generator.
4.2.2 Equipment for Measurement
3) The following is equipment used for measurements:
receiver;
induction coil and connection cable;
electrode;
electric wire; and
simple land survey tools (compass, tape measure and GPS).
Note
1) Select a receiver and coil compatible with the electric transmitter and generator.
Supplementary Note
1) Use nonpolarizing electrodes such as coppercopper sulfate electrodes and powder gypsum
electrodes (Figure 4.1). The section on the natural potential method (Chapter 6.3, Section
4.2) describes nonpolarizing electrodes further.
Figure 4.1: Examples of receiver electrodes.
Photo 4.2: Examples of measurement equipment.
Description
The measured voltage of a CSAMT survey is in the order of a few µV and the length of cable is
30 to 50 m. A thin wire with a crosssection area 0.75 to 1.25 mm2 is sufficient. However,
metal electrodes may generate polarization potential, which may adversely affect the measured
value. For this reason, nonpolarizing electrodes such as the leadlead chloride, silversilver
chloride and coppercopper sulfate types are often used. Minimize contact resistivity by using
metallic electrodes. Electrodes made of stainless steel are also often used. Photo 4.2 shows an
example of measurement equipment.
4.2.3 Installation of Signal Source Transmitter
4) Install the transmitter as follows; based on the plan and scouting:
place the electrodes at the ends of the transmitter; and
lay the electric wire connecting the electrodes and transmitters.
Notes
1) Install the source electrodes ensuring a contact resistance less than 100 Ω.
2) Raise electric cables in the air utilizing trees and wooden posts. Take care not to interfere
with traffic.
3) Connect electric wires firmly and cover the connection with insulating tape.
4) Enclose the electrodes with a simple fence and place a “Do not enter” sign with contact
information.
Supplementary Notes
1) When electric cables have no choice but to cross a road, it is recommended to bury them or
to run through a culvert.
2) Record the coordinates of locations of source electrodes with a portable GPS.
Description
It is desirable to transmit as large an electric current as possible. Reducing the contact
resistance at the source electrodes is the most efficient way to achieve this. The contact
resistance is reduced by (Figure 4.2):
installing many metal bars (20 to 100 pieces); keeping the interval between bars equal;
using long and thick electrodes; and
using large metal nets.
Figure 4.2: Installation of source electrodes.
Install a simple fence and a notice board telling people not to enter. A security guard is also
needed for surveillance.
Small animals such as rats and rabbits may chew and damage the cables on the ground. Hang
the cables in the air on wooden poles or utilize trees and shrubs. However, permission for this
is needed from landowners and local residents. If the electric cables need to cross roads and
paths, implement some method such as burying them or running them through a culvert.
Keeping a weak current with a battery through the night may repel animals.
4.3.1 Transmitting Signals
5) Transmit the electric current with frequencies scheduled by the planned timetable.
Supplementary Note
1) It is best to change frequencies at the transmitter in response to instructions from the
measurement crew, if wireless communication or cell phones are possible.
Description
A CSAMT survey measures electromagnetic signals at various frequencies. In general, the
electromagnetic signal is measured at measurement stations at designated frequencies from the
source. It is simple if a station crew and transmitter crew can directly communicate by wireless
radios or cell phones. But, this is not often the case. Therefore, frequency changes are
scheduled in advance and the transmitter crew changes the frequencies according to the
timetable, with the measurement crew at the station following the same timetable. Table 4.1
shows an example of a timetable.
Depending on the receiver used, we can measure multiple frequencies of transmitted
electromagnetic waves.
Table 4.1: An example of a timetable for frequencies from the source.
4.3.2 Measurement
6) Set up the coils and electrodes in planned orientation and distance using a compass
and tape measure.
7) Measure the magnetic field (nT) and the electric field (V/m) according to the
timetable.
Notes
1) Install coils on a firm ground to avoid wind disturbance.
2) Evaluate the quality and characteristics of data by plotting an apparent resistivity curve
estimated from magnetic and electric fields after data aquisition.
Supplementary Notes
1) Sprinkle water on the ground to improve contacts where nonpolarizing electrodes are used.
2) Record the coordinates of the stations with a portable GPS.
3) The intensity of magnetic and electric fields increases when the signal is transmitted at the
desired frequency.
Description
A strong wind shakes an induction coil and affects the measurement of the variation of the
magnetic field. It is good to bury the coil in the ground because coils on dead trees and on grass
are easily affected by wind. In addition, it is desirable to install the coil away from a big tree,
because the ground may be shaken by a big tree when the wind is strong.
When installing nonpolarizing electrodes, some betonies added in the hole will improve
contact with the ground.
After a measurement, evaluate the data by plotting the apparent resistivity curve described in
Section 5.1 and Figure 4.3 in terms of:
(1) Repeatability: consistent data within 10 % of variance in each frequency.
(2) Smoothness of the curve: The curve does not vary wildly.
(3) Gentle gradient: Slope of the curve should be less than 45 degrees on a loglog plot.
(4) Analysis of the absolute value: No extreme high or low in data.
(5) Validation of the nearfield: The nearfield effect is only detected under 100Hz.
If there is an issue in (1) to (4) above, check the equipment, machineries and consider repeat
measurements and relocate the station. If (5), consider relocating the transmission source.
Figure 4.3: Viewpoints on the quality of measurement data and evaluation of characteristics.
5. Preprocessing and Interpretation
5.1 Preprocessing
1) Plot apparent resistivity curves ρa (Ωm) and their phase Δφ (rad) at each station using
the measured magnetic field Hy and electric field Ex at each frequency:
where, f: frequency (Hz), μ: permeability (H/m), &3#x03C6; (Hy) : phase of magnetic
field (rad), &3#x03C6; (Ex) : phase of electric field (rad).
2) Plot the results of the analysis and draw the following figures:
location of stations and survey lines (or crosssection); and
topographic crosssections.
Note
1) The data showing characteristics such as below are ones of the nearfield (see Figure 5.1):
if the gradient of the apparent resistivity is 45 degrees; and
the phase difference is almost zero.
Supplementary Notes
1) It is common to use the mean values of resistivity and phase difference to draw an apparent
resistivity curve. It is recommended to remove poor quality data before averaging.
2) Recognize and extract the farfield resistivity data for interpretation by plotting apparent
resistivity and phase difference curves.
3) An approximate distribution of resistivity can be estimated from an apparent resistivity plot
by compiling the apparent resistivity at a specific frequency along the survey lines or
topographic crosssections.
Description
The common CSAMT survey equipment in the marketplace outputs apparent resistivity and
phase difference as acquired values. In the CSAMT method, the apparent resistivity curve is
commonly plotted on the loglog scale with the frequency on the horizontal axis and the
resistivity on the vertical axis. Similarly, the phase difference curve is drawn along the vertical
axis. Topographical maps at 1:25,000 to 1:5,000 are used to plot the locations of stations and
lines, (or crosssections) and topography sections. Figure 5.1 shows an example of a cross
section of apparent resistivity and phase difference.
Figure 5.1: Example plots of apparent resistivity curve, and phasedifference curve.
Figure 5.2: Example crosssection of apparent resistivity.
5.2 Interpretation
3) Obtain the distribution of resistivity under the survey lines (crosssection) using the
farfield data.
4) Plot a crosssection of apparent resistivity with topography and stations along the
survey lines.
5) Depending on needs, draw a plan view map of interpreted resistivity at a specific
level.
Notes
1) Different results of interpretation depend on the initial model and values of parameters.
2) Examine the initial model and parameter values to lead to an interpretation consistent with
the expected geological structure and existing geophysical survey results.
Supplementary Notes
1) Poor quality results such as false images can be identified by comparing apparent resistivity
with resistivity on crosssections and maps.
2) Analysis assuming a layered earth (1D layered analysis) can evaluate the quality of the data
and the result. Where the stations are spatially distributed, the resistivity may be plotted in
crosssections and maps.
3) Onedimensional analysis takes the effect of the location of the signal source into
consideration, while it is difficult in 2D analysis.
Description
Crosssectional interpretation (2D interpretation) is performed using the farfield data at all the
stations on the lines. The same interpretation software as described in Chapter 7.1 is used. In
principle, we perform analysis in TM mode. 3D interpretation software may also be used.
Figure 5.3 shows an example of a result of interpretation with the geological features and
structures, on a twodimensional resistivity section.
Figure 5.3: Example of results obtained by twodimensional analysis and geological interpretation.
Crosssections and maps of apparent resistivity schematically represent a model of resistivity
distribution. These are examined for any problems in analysis, which may be remarkably
different from the local knowledge.
Onedimensional analysis takes the effect of the location of the signal source into
consideration. On the other hand, 2D analysis can only use farfield data and the source
location cannot be accounted for.
Some may consider that a unique result is drawn from one observed data set. However, the
result varies depending on different sets of initial values of parameters. Examine sets of initial
values and parameters to make consistent results with geological feature structures and existing
physical knowledge.
6. Report
6.1 Deliverable
1) Submit the following:
map of the survey location;
figures of station / line (or crosssection) positions;
crosssections of resistivity;
plan map of resistivity (as needed);
crosssections of general analysis;
plan map of general analysis (as needed);
table of measured data; and
a set of apparent resistivity curves.
station / line (or crosssection) and location coordinates;
all measurement data;
crosssections of resistivity, plan map of resistivity, crosssections of general
analysis, plan map of general analysis in graphic files; and
a set of apparent resistivity curves in image files.
Note
1) Make clear drawings, remembering not to miss information in legends, contour labels and
color levels.
Supplementary Notes
1) The sections and maps of general analysis show the resistivity features with geological and
geotechnical interpretation.
2) The scale of the drawing should be decided by consulting with the client.
3) List only the data used for plotting apparent resistivity and analysis in the drawing and
submit the entire measured data set electronically.
Description
Submit the drawings that clearly show an overview of the survey results. See an example of a
crosssection of general analysis in Figure 6.1. If possible, it is desirable to submit cross
sections and maps of apparent resistivity. Submit as much electronic data as possible to be
usable for reevaluation and reanalysis of the results.
6.2 Reports
equipment for measurement;
analysis software, initial model and parameter values;
method of interpretation and results; and
citations and references.
Note
1) Describe the method of the survey and analysis in detail to contribute to future re
evaluation and reanalysis; especially, the name and version number of the analysis
software, initial model for the analysis and the parameter values have to be described.
Description
Generally, the result of the survey, especially, the general analysis/interpretation will be
focused on in the report.
As the investigation progresses, more geological information becomes available and re
evaluation of the result may become necessary. In some cases, additional surveys may be
needed. Then a description of what has been carried out is invaluable. Include it in an appendix,
a separate supplement volume or an electronic file.
7.3 TEM Method
1. General
1) The TEM method is an electromagnetic method to investigate an underground
structure by the time transient characteristics of a magnetic field after the input of
artificial magnetic fields are cut off.
2) It is suitable for exploration of tens of meters to some hundreds of meters in depth in a
short time.
Supplementary Notes
1) The TDEM method is the same technique as the TEM method.
2) It takes a shorter time compared with the MT and AMT methods (Chapter 7.1) and/or the
CSAMT method (Chapter 7.2).
3) It is more tolerant against electromagnetic noise than other electromagnetic methods.
4) There are various ways of measuring.
Description
The “TEM” method is an abbreviation for the transient electromagnetic method. It means a
method that observes the transients of a magnetic field after turning an input artificial magnetic
field off (Figure 1.1). It can also be an abbreviation for the timedomain electromagnetic
method. Therefore, it may be referred to as the “TDEM” method by adding the first letter of
‘domain’.
An artificial magnetic field is transmitted in a vertical direction when an electric current
flows in an electric square loop on the ground (a transmission loop). The loop may be rectangle
or circle. When the electric current is turned off, a secondary electric current starts in the
ground in a circle to maintain the input magnetic field. This current gradually spreads under the
ground further. This current is called the eddy current, or often called the “smoke ring”
comparing to the smoke loop from a cigar.
The input artificial magnetic field decays in time and its rate is less where the resistivity is
low. The resistivity of the subsurface is estimated by measuring the decay of the artificial
magnetic field by an induction (receiver) coil.
The decay immediately after stopping the current signal (“early time response”) indicates
resistivity at shallow ground and the “late time response” resistivity at deeper parts.
The TEM method has many variations for measurement. One of them is the movingloop
method that moves a pair of transmitter and receiver loops at the same time (Figure 1.2(a)). The
other uses a fixed transmitter and moving receiver coil. The fixed transmitter method is applied
to an area where it is difficult to move the transmitter due to mountainous topography or
vegetation and for the survey of a deeper target that requires stronger signals.
Figure 1.1: The principle and schematic diagram of TEM method.
Figure 1.2: Measurement technique of TEM method.
2. Applicability
1) The TEM method is applicable for the following subjects from tens of meters to
several hundred meters in depth:
survey for underground structures (mountaintunnels, underground power
plants, radioactive waste disposal sites, etc.);
survey for natural resources (oil, natural gas, metallic minerals, geothermal
potential potential of geothermal energy, hot springs, etc.); and
active faults and volcanoes.
2) Vertical probe for geological features under a survey point and horizontal profiling to
find the locations of anomalies such as faults.
3) Buried metal detection for a few meters in depth.
Notes
1) A special set of loops and coils made for high mobility is required when used as a metal
detector.
Supplementary Notes
1) In theory, resolution of the TEM method is higher than the AMT and CSAMT methods
used for similar depths. However, an inversion method for two and threedimensional data
has not yet been established (as of 2008).
2) With a fixed transmission source, the TEM method can be applied to a borehole survey by
inserting a receiver coil into a hole.
Description
The TEM method is an adaptable method. It is able to control the strength of transmitter signals
to suite different depths of targets ranging from several meters to hundreds of meters.
Like other electromagnetic methods the geological features with low resistivity such as hot
springs, aquifers, clay, alteration zones and metal deposits are easier to detect. Therefore,
equipment with transmitter and receiver loops installed on a wheeled carrier to search for
buried metal objects a few meters deep is used for highermobility (Figure 2.1). Compared with
conventional metal detectors, it is suitable for prospecting buried metallic objects in greater
depth and it is easier to interpret than the looploop method.
Figure 2.1: Example of sensor of the TEM method used as a metal detector.
The TEM method takes less time for measurements and has higher resolution than the
CSAMT and AMT methods. It has fewer disadvantages such as nonuniqueness, static shift and
electromagnetic noise. The TEM method is capable of conducting horizontal and vertical
surveys (Figure 2.1). The horizontal survey explores for locations of faults, fracture zones,
alteration zones and buried objects. The vertical survey analyzes transient time data based on a
layer model (onedimensional analysis: Figure 5.2) and estimates underground apparent
resistivity structures. However, two and threedimensional inversions of this method have not
yet been established in practice.
3. Planning
1) Apply to objects tens of meters to hundreds of meters in depth for search of
groundwater, clay, deep weathered zones, etc.
2) Apply to mountain tunnel surveys using a fixed transmitter.
3) Apply to an area with no electromagnetic noise.
4) Particularly good at areas with a shallower lowresistivity layer.
Supplementary Notes
1) To select a method for a survey of hundreds of meters deep, compare the TEM with the
AMT and CSAMT methods.
2) Do not apply the moving loop method to dense vegetation areas.
Description
For investigating layers around 500 m, the TEM method is one of a few effective methods. It is
particularly effective for an underground structure when the target has low resistivity such as
groundwater, clay, deep weathered zones, alteration zones, etc.
The depth of probe of the TEM method δ(m) is approximated by the following equation:
where ρ is the resistivity of the ground (Ωhmm), t: time after turning off the primary field (in
seconds) and µ: magnetic permeability.
The equation shows that the depth of probe increases as the resistivity of the ground
increases and as the period of observation is longer.
The TEM method can analyze deep geological layers in the areas where resistivity of the
shallow layer is lower than deeper layers due to clay or alteration zones. This is a situation in
which the direct current method has difficulty. Therefore the TEM method is particularly suited
for areas where clay layers are distributed near the ground surface or areas with highsalinity
groundwater.
The TEM method can analyze for deep geological layers in the areas where the shallower
layers are more conductive than the deeper layers. This is an advantage of TEM over the direct
(DC) current resistivity method: if conductive clay layer is present in the shallow part of the
ground, the DC resistivity method cannot probe. Choice of transmitter is an important factor in
planning a TEM survey.
The moving loop method requires cutting dense vegetation for efficient operation and it may
take a longer time than the actual survey. The fixed transmitter method needs only one ground
wire loop. It may be as large as tens of meters up to 1 kilometer. However, the receiver coil is
small and portable and this method is suitable for areas with thick vegetation and difficult
topography.
5) Decide upon the configuration of the measurement method and parameters such as
arrangement of lines and stations and source intensity depending on the purpose,
location and time of the survey.
Note
1) Use a large source for deep probing and a small source for shallow targets.
Supplementary Notes
1) Plan a survey in the dormant season, if the survey area is in an agricultural area.
2) Unlike the elastic wave and direct electric surveys, it is not necessary to extend lines to
increase the depth of probe.
3) The vertical survey does not require a survey line; typical for hot springs and groundwater.
4) Set a constant station interval along lines for a tunnelroute survey and fault search.
5) Set up lines perpendicular to the geological strike.
6) In a survey for a tunnelroute, set up the main lines along the planned alignment.
7) Set up sublines across geological feature structures if a problematic geological structure
such as a fault is known to be parallel to the main survey lines.
Description
Equipment for the TEM method in the marketplace is for small loop methods and the
transmitter and receiver are embedded in one single unit. Even with the moving loop method, a
pair of transmitter loop and receiver coils is used as seen in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Configuration of moving loop method.
The inner loop configuration (Figure 3.1(a)) is commonly used. There are other
configurations that do not require the receiver coil in the center of the loop, which is applicable
where dense vegetation makes installation of the coils difficult.
The single loop configuration (Figure 3.1(b)) is the most efficient in the measurement
operation. However, there are some negative impacts resulting from the usage of a single loop
for both transmitting and receiving. Where an ironrich layer such as laterite is present, the
single and coincident loop system may be affected by nearsurface anomalies. In such a
scenario, use an inloop or displacement loop. Some systems do not allow choice of loop
configuration.
A large loop and powerful transmission source is needed to survey a greater depth. A larger
source is less mobile. The size of the transmitter loop can be as large as 100 m x 100 m square.
In a mountainous area, with steep slopes and densevegetation, bamboo thickets or long grass,
it is difficult to move such a large loop. In such an environment, consider using a fixed source.
In agricultural fields, it is easier to obtain an entry permit from landowners when surveying
after a harvest season. An area with dense vegetation may be efficiently surveyed when it is
covered with snow.
There are two configurations in the fixed loop method: one using a large transmitter loop and
another using an electric bipole (Figure 1.2(b)). The topography has to be flat for a large loop
and use of an electric bipole is recommended on irregular ground.
A vertical survey does not require the stations to be on a straight line with equal distances
(see Figure 5.2). The survey is particularly for the depth of underground resources such as
aquifers, groundwater, hot springs or ore deposits.
On the other hand, a tunnel investigation needs the stations on a constant interval along the
planned alignment. Another consideration should be given to setting lines perpendicular to the
direction of geological features such as faults and strikes of formations to map. When the
planned alignment is near parallel to the geological features then set up supplementary lines
perpendicular to the geological features in addition to the main line along the alignment.
4. Field Works
4.1 Site Scouting
1) Local scouting in advance for a TEM survey should include:
permission to enter the site; and
identifying noise sources around the survey point not shown on the
topographical map such as electric wires, telephone wires and metallic
structures.
Notes
1) In installing a fixed source, choose the place of the signal source and notify the local
residents of permission for landuse.
2) For a moving loop survey, check the vegetation around the stations and obtain permission
for mowing if necessary.
3) If there are any noise sources around stations, choose an alternative site for stations within
the neighborhood.
Supplementary Note
1) Ensure an adequate GPS signal with a handheld GPS receiver.
Description
The work can be smoothly carried out if a notice is given not only to landowners but also to
local residents, because the electric wires may be more than hundreds of meters long and
remain for several days to weeks.
The receiver of the fix loop survey is small. It can be used for a noise source and its level
during the scouting.
In the moving loop method, the desired geological information may be masked if there is a
conductive material inside the transmission loop. Investigate for buried metal wastes, base of
structure traces and the presence of heavy machinery as well as aboveground structures such
as houses, electric wires and telephone wires. If the sites initially planned are not suitable,
select an alternative location for stations.
Movement of trees and plants in winds affects data if the transmission loop is on them.
Weeds and bamboo should be slashed (permission from a landowner is needed).
4.2.1 Measurement Equipment
2) The following equipment is used for measurements:
transmitter;
cables for transmissionloop;
ohmmeter or multimeter;
receiver;
receiving coil or cables;
battery or generator for power; and
simple land survey tool (compass, measuring tape, GPS, etc.).
Notes
1) Select cable for the loop with a size suitable for a transmitter.
2) Check the calibrationcoefficient of the receiver coil for input into the receiver.
3) In the fixed source method with an electric bipole (Figure 1.2(b)), prepare metal electrodes.
Supplementary Note
1) Prepare a few resistors to add when the resistor of the transmitter loop is too small for the
moving loop method.
Description
Transmitters for the moving loop method have maximum limits of current to deliver to the
loop. The current is usually adjusted by a resistor added to the transmitter loop. The resistance
of the loop depends on the thickness and length of the cable. Prepare a cable of appropriate size
for the transmitter and the length of the loop.
Prepare a receiver coil suitable for the purpose; some measurement equipment requires
different receiver coils for different depths to probe. Some systems for the moving loop method
combine the transmitter and receiver into a single unit.
4.3.1 Site Measurement
3) Preparation of source:
install an electric bipole or fixed loop transmission source (Figure 1.2) for the
fixed source method; and
install transmitter loop based on the preliminary location survey for the
moving loop method.
4) After connecting the receiver and the sensor, input appropriate parameters for
observation, then start the measurements.
Notes
1) Minimize the contact resistance at the edges of the electric bipoles (Chapter 1.2).
2) Install the fixed transmitter so as to not interfere with the neighborhood.
3) Install the transmitter loop on a flat surface and do not include a metallic structure inside
the loop.
4) Adjust the electric resistance of the loop before data acquisition of the moving loop method.
5) Maintain constant data acquisition parameters such as time window, observation time and
ramp time within the same survey area.
6) Do not enter inside the loop and do not get close to the receiver coil.
Supplementary Notes
1) The coordinates of the electrode locations of the transmitter and the four corners of the loop
should be recorded by GPS.
2) Repeat measurements may be taken to ensure data quality.
3) Observe for a longer period for a deeper target.
4) The field note should record the data acquisition parameters (such as electric coil
identification number, dimension of the loop and electric resistance, transmitted current,
ramp time and time windows) with the coordinates.
5) In a metal detection survey by the TEM method, check the peak of the anomaly in the field
by monitoring the variation within the time window preset during the preliminary survey.
Description
Installation of the source is important, because it takes the most time in a TEM survey. The
fixed source method may use a source loop as large as several hundred meters to two
kilometers and will try to reduce electric resistance in order to transmit a sufficient signal. To
reduce electric resistance, a thick electric wire is used. In installing an electric bipole (Figure
1.2), minimize the contact resistance of the electrodes at endpoints as well as electric wire, to
less than 100 ohm. Reducing grounding resistance is achieved by installing multiple electrodes
in a conductive area such as rice fields, swamps and streams or by burying a metallic board or
net. After installation of the source, measure the contact resistance of the source circuitry with
an ohmmeter or multimeter. Install warning signs and deploy security personnel because the
electric current used can be as large as several amperes. When using a fixed loop transmission
source (Figure 1.2), install it on flat ground without a metallic structure or buried objects.
In the moving loop method, it is necessary to decide the location of the transmission loop on
a flat surface by a simple location survey.
The simple location survey requires a compass, a tape measure and an electronic distance
measurer with a reflecting mirror or a GPS. The transmitter loop in the moving loop survey
requires a shorter electric wire compared with the fixed source method, so the electric
resistance is small. It is possible to exceed the maximum current allowed for the transmitter.
Observe the minimum resistance for the loop specified for the equipment used. If the resistance
is under the minimum, the resistance of the transmitter loop must be increased in the circuit by:
connecting a resistor to the transmission loop in series;
duplicating the transmitter loop and lengthing the cable; and
replacing the cable with a thinner one (with greater resistance).
The measurement is carried out by connecting the receiver with the loop or coil. A simple coil
is generally used for the fixed source method.
Install a loop and receiver coil according to the loop configuration (Figure 3.1) chosen in the

survey plan (3.2) of the moving loop method.
As the moving loop method uses a receiver sensor and transmitter loop in close proximity,
an accurate cutoff time is recorded by using measurement equipment incorporating the
transmitter and receiver in one unit, or by synchronizing the transmitter and receiver via a
cable.
The radar acquisition parameters for measurements include:
size and current of the transmitter loop;
time window per every channel and period of observing time;
ramp time; and
number of stackings.
Figure 4.1: Typical parameters for data acquisition in TEM method.
The time window per every channel, period of observing time and ramp time are illustrated in
Figure 4.1. As these parameters impact the measurement result, keep them constant throughout
the survey of one area.
The duration needed for recording is in the order of tens of seconds for each measurement
after the cutoff time. The measured data are stacked to reduce the noise. The repetition of this
command is the number of stacks. The signals are strong near the fixed source where the data
are stacked a few dozen times.
The number of stacks may be increased to approximately 1,000 times where the station is far
from the fixed source for a weak signal. Any metallic items should not be allowed close to the
receiving sensor, because these interfere with the magnetic field measured by the TEM method.
People should not enter the area of the transmitter loop as well as its vicinity, because they are
carrying metallic items such as a watch and belt buckle. These items often vibrate the coil.
In a metal detecting survey using TEM (Figure 2.1), it is important to note any local
anomaly. It can be observed on the monitor of the measurement equipment and the anomaly
can be confirmed by the change of measured values with an appropriate time window. Possible
causes of anomaly may be estimated onsite. An appropriate time window can be determined
before field operations by checking at a site with a known buried metal.
5. Data Preprocessing and Interpretation
5.1 Data Preprocessing
1) Plot the strength of the signal or apparent resistivity curve that indicates the decay of
the magnetic field.
2) Plot a horizontal profile of the signal strength at each time window or apparent
resistivity for each line.
3) Plot the following maps for interpretation purposes:
location map of stations/lines (or crosssections); and
crosssection of topography.
Note
1) If commercial data processing software is to be used, select one that matches the data
acquisition equipment.
Figure 5.1: Examples of horizontal profile of the signal strength.
Supplementary Notes
1) Calculation for apparent resistivity is not always required for the TEM method.
2) Post plan view maps with signal levels and apparent resistivity at stations, if stations are
distributed in a twodimensional space.
Figure 5.2: Example of horizontal profile of the apparent resistivity.
Description
Commercial software for TEM analysis is available in the marketplace. Time windows
recorded in each channel vary depending on recording equipment. Using suitable analysis
software for the measurement equipment used facilitates data processing.
Unlike other electromagnetic methods and electric survey methods, the way of calculating
apparent resistivity from TEM data has not yet been established. This is because there is a vast
variation in the configuration of loops and use of current source. Commercial data processing
software may calculate and display apparent resistivity. But measured signal strength values are
often displayed as a final result. The essence of the data processing is to draw curves of
horizontal variation of one of these parameters: apparent resistivity or signal strength. Figure
5.1(a) shows an example of horizontal profiles of signal strength. In the TEM method,
horizontal profiles of “late time” (Figure 5.1(b)) are often drawn, as anomalies caused by low
resistivity metallic objects often appear in a later time window. Figure 5.2 shows horizontal
profiles of the calculated apparent resistivity of the same line as in Figure 5.1.
When a large number of stations are surveyed in a twodimensional space, distribution of the
true resistivity is estimated by drawing a contour map of the measured signal strength or
calculated apparent resistivity at a time window. If the purpose of the survey is to detect buried
metal objects, this 2D map or 1D profile is sufficient for locating the targets.
At the time of data analysis, plot the “signal strength curve” with the measured signal
strength on the vertical axis against time windows or channel number on the horizontal axis
(Figure 5.4(a)) and the “apparent resistivity curve” with calculated apparent resistivity on the
vertical axis (Figure 5.4(b)) at each station. These plots will be used for the layer analysis
described in Section 5.2.
5.2 Interpretation
4) Qualitatively estimate resistivity distribution from the apparent resistivity profiles or

maps.
5) Perform a layer structure analysis on the signal strength curve or apparent resistivity
curve at every station.
Supplementary Notes
1) When the receiver sensor is away from the transmission source the conductive body is
located between a negative and positive anomaly. There is a special filter to shift the
anomalies directly above the causative body.
2) A steeply dipping lowresistivity layer like a fractured zone can be interpreted as a thin
sheet with a width and dip.
3) An inversion method for a 2D section or 3D volume has not been established (current in
2008).
4) The result of the layer structure is plotted as a crosssection or a planview map.
Description
As described in the preprocess and interpretation (Chapter 5.1), a qualitative analysis of
resistivity distribution by horizontal profiles and maps of apparent resistivity may often be
sufficient in many cases. For example, positions of buried electric conductors can be estimated
qualitatively without a layer structure analysis. However, as the anomaly does not appear
directly above the center of an electric conductor as shown in Figure 5.3, the anomaly shift by
the Fraser filter (Fraser, 1969) should be applied. This filter shifts the anomaly to the position
directly above the conductor.
The TEM data are analyzed based on layer structure models (Chapter 6.1) where the scope of
the survey requires more precise information of the resistivity structure than simple detection of
buried metal objects. The layer structure analysis is a method to estimate the resistivity
structure under survey points by plotting the signal strength or apparent resistivity curve at
every station. Figure (5.4) shows the result of layeranalysis with signal strength apparent
resistivity curves at the same survey points.
The layer resistivity structure is plotted on a topographic crosssection (Figure 5.5). In
addition, a resistivity contours map (Figure 5.6) may be drawn on a survey map at a specific
depth or height level.
Figure 5.3: Conductor appeared in a horizontal profile after adding abnormality.
Figure 5.4: Example of interpretation of layers structure.
Figure 5.5: An example of resistivity cross section (Ω–m).
Figure 5.6: An example of resistivity contour map.
A twodimensional analysis equivalent to twodimensional resistivity inversion (Chapter 6.2)
is not practical with the TEM method. However, a simple estimation of a thin conductive sheet
is often performed to interpret fracture and alteration zones from the late time data.
5.3 Interpretation
6) Estimate the geological structure by interpreting distribution of resistivity in both
depth and horizontal directions.
Notes
1) Horizontal profiles are useful for the detection of buried metal objects.
2) A conductive plate with a steep dip like a fault or fracture zone could be interpreted as a
highresistivity layer.
Supplementary Notes
1) If geological maps and other geophysical surveys or borehole log data are available, a
composite analysis map may be drawn incorporating results of the TEM survey.
2) These data are useful in groundtruthing the data.
Description
The TEM method can estimate geology, physical properties and underground water by
distribution of resistivity, inline with the direct current method and other electromagnetic
methods. In addition, faults and formation boundaries are interpreted where resistivity greatly
changes horizontally. Considering those cases, we estimate geological structures by the
distribution of resistivity. However, the relationship between resistivity and geological features
varies from place to place so existing data should be referred to if available in the vicinity. If
boreholes are drilled before the final report, the data should be incorporated into the analysis of
the resistivity and their geologic evaluation.
Geological structures can be interpreted from different aspects; such as elastic properties by
a seismic survey.
Figure 5.7 shows an example of a composite crosssection of analyses of TEM and magnetic
surveys for faults. In this example the lowresistivity dipping plate appears as a highresistivity
layer. This mismatch should be watched for in interpretation. Figure 5.8 shows an example of a
composite interpretation map of geology and resistivity.
Figure 5.7: Example of crosssection of general analysis.
Figure 5.8: Example of plain map of general analysis.
6. Reporting
6.1 Deliverable
map of survey location;
maps of stations/lines (or, crosssectional) positions;
horizontal profile of resistivity;
resistivity crosssections;
plan view resistivity map (as needed);
composite crosssections of general analysis;
plan view map of general analysis (as needed); and
signal strength or apparent resistivity curves.
stations/lines (or, crosssections) and location coordinates (text file);
all measurement data (text file);
resistivity crosssections, planview resistivity maps, composite crosssections
of general analysis, planview map of general analysis (graphics file); and
signal strength or apparent resistivity curves (graphics file).
Notes
1) Make drawings as clear as possible and do no omit legends or explanatory notes. Pay extra
attention to contour labels and color scheme.
2) If a fixed source is used, post the locations of the transmission source clearly on the maps.
Supplementary Notes
1) Composite crosssections and maps of general analysis are the final results of interpretation
of the TEM survey incorporating geological and geotechnical information.
2) The scale of the map has to be decided in consultation with the client.
Description
Submit figures and charts that can be easily understood.
Submit the original digital data for future reevaluation and reanalysis.
6.2 Reports
equipment of measurement;
analysis software, values and parameters of the initial model;
method of interpretation and results; and
Note
1) Describe the details of the measurement method and the interpretation; these may be used
in future reevaluation and reanalysis. In particular, if an unusual procedure has been
performed, describe the reason for using it. A comprehensive description including the
analysis software, version, model for analysis and initial values of the parameters is needed.
Description
In general, comprehensive interpretation is the most important result to present.
As the investigation progresses, reevaluation of the survey result may become necessary
with additional information of the area. Even an additional survey may be conducted. At that
stage, it is important to know how the previous data were measured and interpreted. The report
should describe the details in appendices, in a supplementary volume or in digital format.
References
Strack, K.M. (1991) Exploration with Deep Transient Electromagnetics (Methods in
Geochemistry and Geophysics). Elsevier Science.
7.4 Airborne EM Method
1. General
1) The airborne electromagnetic (AEM) method is an electromagnetic method to explore
with an aircraft from the air.
Supplementary Notes
1) A helicopter is used to suspend an instrument called an “EM bird”, which contains a
transmitter coil and receiver coil for measurements. For a larger survey, an airplane with
loops around its body and wings is used.
2) The prospecting depth ranges from 5 m to 150 m.
Description
The airborne electromagnetic method is a way to survey with an electromagnetic instrument
installed/mounted on an aircraft or a helicopter (Figure 1.1). It is generally called the airborne
electromagnetic method (AEM). When a helicopter is used, it is called the “helicopterborne
(or heliborne) electromagnetic method” (HEM). The HEM is the main method used in civil
engineering, because the HEM method achieves highspatial resolution and is easy to use in
mountainous areas, however, it has a shallow depth of probe and higher cost.
The airborne electromagnetic method is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
An alternating magnetic field (a primary magnetic field) generated by a transmitter coil into
the ground induces an eddy current and in turn induces another alternating magnetic field (the
secondary magnetic field).
The intensity of the secondary magnetic field has a negative correlation with the resistivity
of the ground. The ratio of the second magnetic field to the primary magnetic field indicates the
average resistivity of the ground from the surface to the depth of penetration of the magnetic
field. The higher the frequency of the alternating field transmitted, the shallower the
penetration of the magnetic field. A threedimensional distribution of electric resistivity is
obtained by analyzing the average resistivity of the ground to the depth at each frequency.
Figure 1.1: Conception of airborne electromagnetic method measurement.
The standardground altitude of an EM bird is 30 m and the airspeed is 30 km/h with a range
between 20 to 50 km/h according to the topography affecting it. The standard sampling rate is
10 per second and is equivalent to a measurement at 0 every 8 m along the flight path. The
validation of the flight paths requires both video image observation and relative positioning
GPS; its accuracy is less than ±5 m. The altitude data are obtained by a radio altimeter and
razor altimeter.
2. Application Area
1) The airborne electromagnetic method is applied to surveys of 5‒150 m in depth for the
following purposes:
properties of the ground;
locations and characteristics of fault fractured zones; and
reconnaissance surveys of groundwater conditions.
2) The airborne electromagnetic method is effective for the following conditions:
where ground access is difficult; and
where a preliminary survey of a large area in a short time is required.
Note
1) A highly accurate analysis from the surface to deep underground is achieved by joint
interpretation with a frequency domain electromagnetic survey.
Description
While the resolution of an airborne electromagnetic method is inferior to a twodimensional
resistivity survey, the technique works well in an area where there is little access and when
resistivity distributions in a large area are required in a short time.
In engineering applications, the airborne electromagnetic method efficiently detects areas
with poor geological conditions by distribution of resistivity. Areas with poor geological
conditions including faults, fractures, weathering and alteration zones have high resistivity over
several thousands of Ohmm, or extremely low resistivity of tens of Ohmm:
location search for a preliminary design of routes (including mountain tunnel
evaluations);
brief survey around planned reservoir dams and landslide sites.
Combining the frequency domain EM method (Chapter 7.2) with AEM, a highly accurate
analysis of the depth from the surface to deep underground may be achieved.
3. Planning
1) The survey area must meet the following conditions to adopt the airborne
electromagnetic method:
the Aviation Act allows a helicopter to navigate; and
the level of electromagnetic noises is not too high to influence the
measurements.
Notes
1) There are only a few restrictions by the topography.
2) The AEM survey is not applicable in a neighborhood where the navigation of a helicopter
at a low altitude (less than 300 m above ground) is not permitted; including dense
residential areas.
3) It is difficult to interpret in urban areas where electromagnetic noises of housing, power
lines and steel constructions are high.
Description
The Aviation Act applies to the navigation of a helicopter. The Aviation Act allows helicopters
to navigate over 300 m above ground as a minimum safe flight height and takeoff and landing
are only allowed at the aerodrome. Bearing this is mind, when the airborne electromagnetic
method is to be applied, an application based on the Aviation Act must be submitted to the
jurisdiction organization for permission. Electromagnetic noise is strong around buildings of
steel construction masking information of the ground.
3.2 Planning Flight Lines
2) Plan flight lines satisfying the following conditions:
the standard intervals of the flight lines are 50 m or 100 m;
set flight lines directly above the objects to survey; and
arrange flight lines avoiding obstacles for helicopter navigation.
Notes
1) The common flight line intervals are 50 meters for a landslide survey and 100 m for road
alignment.
2) Check for installations on the ground and confirm by a local visit if necessary.
3) Discuss the planned flight beforehand with owners/managers of power transmission lines,
railways and the radio wave facility tower that could be of hindrance to the helicopter
navigation, for safe distance and traverse.
4) Place flight lines considering the distance from transmission lines, railways and the radio
wave facility tower.
5) The flight direction in a mountains area is in principle from the lower part of the slope to
the top to keep the ground altitude of the EM bird constant.
Supplementary Notes
1) Place a central survey line as a base line and add flight lines on both sides for linear objects
such as roads/tunnels.
2) Set up lines parallel to keep a constant interval.
Description
Electromagnetic data are acquired at positions directly under the flight lines and the spaces
between lines are interpolated. Therefore, the interval of flight lines is determined with
consideration of the resolution required by the purpose of investigation. For example, the
interval between flying survey lines is often set to 50 meters as the objects of a landslide search
are limited to shallow targets and 100 meters for a survey for road alignment survey.
Power lines, railways and radio transmission towers are a hindrance to helicopter navigation.
An explanation should be given to owners of these facilities beforehand. The flight lines should
be planned a clear distance from the facilities. The safety clearance distance of the flight
traversal should be discussed with the owners.
The flight direction in a mountains area is in principle from the foothill to the top to keep the
ground clearance of the EM bird constant. Therefore we divide the survey area into some
blocks in terms of orientation of survey lines. However, the number of subdivisions may be too
large in areas with steep topography and fewer subdivisions may be made according to regional
gradients.
A maintenance patrol may be flown by helicopter along the power lines. The flight routes of
the survey may be too close to the patrol. In planning an airborne electromagnetic survey near a
transmission line, make an adjustment according to the schedule of the patrol to secure a
sufficient distance between the helicopters.
3.3 Application for Permission to the Civil Aviation Authority
3) Submit the following applications for permission to the Civil Aviation Authority in
your jurisdiction:
application for landing and taking off outside of an airport; and
application for cruising under the minimum safety altitudes.
Note
1) In the application to the civil aviation authority, a temporary heliport for emergency
purposes must be available near the survey lines.
Supplementary Notes
1) Location of a temporary heliport should meet the following requirements:
place within or close to the survey area;
place with a safe distance from steel structure buildings; and
place where there are no residences.
2) It will take a week to 10 days to get permission after submitting the applications.
Description
Avoid areas with residential housing and steel structured buildings, because the helicopter may
repeatedly take off and land for calibration electromagnetic measurement equipment on the
ground depending on the volume of survey and the installation of ground bases of the GPS at
the temporary heliport.
Both permissions for landing and takeoff at the temporary heliport and for flying at an
altitude lower than the specified minimum flight altitude are needed; more than one application
is necessary. It may take a week to 10 days to process these permissions. Refer to local law for
the application procedure.
3.4 Depth of Probe
4) The depth of probe is determined by the frequency used and the resistivity of the
ground.
5) The depth information needed for geotechnical engineering is from 5 m to 150 m
below the surface.
Note
1) Select a measuring system depending on the nature of the ground.
Description
The interval between the transmitter and receiver coils is fixed, as the change of the mutual
inductance of transmitter and receiver coils is measured in an airborne electromagnetic survey
to estimate resistivity. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a measuring system suitable to the
nature of the target ground.
For example, the systems for engineering applications typically measure five frequencies:
140,000, 31,000, 6,900, 1,500 and 340Hz, which can be used on geological features in depths
from 5 m to 150 m. In comparison, the systems for natural resources are made for
approximately 80 meters to 120 meters in depth.
There are two ways for the arrangement of coils: the horizontally level type (Horizontal
coplanar) and the perpendicular coaxial type (Vertical coaxial). The former is good for
investigating properties of a horizontal layer and the latter for vertical sheets.
4. Measurement
4.1 Equipment for Measurements
1) The following tools are used for measurements:
EM Bird (transmitter coil and receiver coil);
console (EM control, data storage);
electric cables;
flightpath video;
GPS equipment (for helicopters and for landuse); and
radio altimeter.
Note
1) Check the operation of the data acquisition system regularly.
Description
The size of the EM bird is approximately 10 m in length x 0.6 m in diameter. Several
transmitter and receiver coils are installed in a bird. The interval between a pair of transmitting
and receiving coils is approximately 8 meters. The output power of the transmitter is about
100W per period and the receiver sensitivity is about 200 µV/ppm
2) Install the ground stations of the GPS at a place with a good line of vision to the sky.
3) Perform a scouting flight safety check with the helicopter and from the ground. Scout
the topography in the survey area for obstacles.
4) Make sure that the external fixtures are firmly installed on the helicopter including the
EM bird.
Notes
1) Confirm location of overhead wire for wood transport in mountainous areas from the
ground and make changes to flight paths or altitude of the survey if necessary.
2) Do not install the EM bird in rain.
Supplementary Note
1) Perform a scouting flight without the EM bird.
Description
The GPS station at the temporary heliport collects data for postprocessing of location data
during data collection.
There may be overhead cables for wood transport in mountainous areas. It is mandatory to
check for cables from the ground, because it is difficult to find cables from above. Confirm
location of overhead wires for wood transport in mountainous areas from the ground and make
changes to flight paths or altitude of the survey if necessary.
4.3 Adjustment/Calibration of the Instrument for Electromagnetic
Measurement
5) Calibrate the instrument for electromagnetic measurement both on the ground and in
the air (at high altitude) before measurement.
Notes
1) Calibration should take place after warming up the electromagnetic measuring system.
2) Calibrate the EM bird at the temporary ground heliport and make sure that any steel
structure building is at least 100 meters away from the EM bird.
Description
The recording components and the gain control of the instrument are calibrated on the ground
by sending a certain level of current into the transmission at each frequency and placing a
standard piece at the appropriate distance on the receiving coil. The records of the adjustment
and calibration have to be stored as a data file for later data processing. Adjustment with the
EM bird on the ground is carried out at the temporary heliport. Since it is difficult to calibrate
near a steel structure building, keep a distance at of least 100 m between the EM bird and any
steel structure building.
The adjustment for the base (zero) level of measured components is done at a high altitude of
over 600 m where influence from the ground is negligible.
4.4 Measurement
6) Acquire data along planned flight lines towing an EM bird.
Notes
1) Keep the ground altitude around 30m and fly in order to follow the topography to take
measurements.
2) The crew on a helicopter consists of:
a pilot;
a navigator for guidance of survey lines and safetycheck; and
an operator for data acquisition.
3) Operators watch measured values at all times of measurementflights and instruct re
measurement to a navigator in case of system error.
Description
The measured secondary magnetic field is amplified and separated into inphase and quadrature
components and records the ratio of inphase (I) and quadrature components (Q) against the
primary field (unit is ppm for both components).
Figure 4.1 shows steps of the measurement.
Figure 4.1: Field procedure.
4.5 Quality Control of the Measurement Data
7) Check the quality control of the measurement data in the field and repeat the
measurements if the data contain a high level of noise.
Note
1) Electromagnetic noise in airborne measurements may be caused by a magnetic storm and
lightning (including distant thunder).
Description
The operator ensures that the system is functioning properly and monitors the quality of raw
data. If the noise level in the data is high compared with the neighboring line, repeat the
measurements along the noisy line.
The sensor of the airborne electromagnetic method is an induction coil. A normal
measurement with this coil is difficult when a magnetic storm or lightning (including distant
thunder) occurs. Stop the measurementflight under these conditions.
4.6 Safety Measures
8) For helicopter flights, take diligent safety measures to prevent accidents.
9) Ensure you have permission of using a temporary heliport for landing and taking off
outside of an airport and cruising under the minimum safety altitudes.
Notes
1) Do not fly when the visibility is poor due to fog or rain.
2) Do not fly on windy days.
3) Make sure that equipment including the EM bird, GPS antenna, terrain clearance indicator
and flightpath video are securely installed for every flight.
Supplementary Notes
1) Notify local residents, local police officers and power plant offices in advance, not to cause
uneasiness, as an appearance of an EM bird is similar to a missile weapon. Ensure that all
the instruments including the EM bird, GPS antenna, terrain clearance indicator and flight
path video equipment are securely installed before takeoffs. If deterioration is found, repair
or change the equipment immediately.
2) The helicopter cannot fly in poor visibility due to fog and rain, because the helicopter
navigation relies on sight of the pilot. It cannot fly on days with extreme wind.
5. Data Processing
5.1 Data Base for Interpretation
1) Create a data base with the acquired raw data.
Supplementary Note
1) Build the data base in the field.
Description
Data of an airborne electromagnetic survey are recorded continuously at the rate of ten
points/seconds including the time of approach to and changeover of flight lines. Create a data
base by survey lines to ensure easy access to any data. The data for each survey line are
separated based on the time signals recorded by operators during the measurements, who mark
the start and end of each planned survey line. Prepare another data base of entire raw data not
separated by flight lines.
5.2 Drawing of Flight Paths
2) Make a map of flight lines using GPS data.
Supplementary Note
1) Confirm the flight paths by video as needed.
Description
The flight paths are determined by GPS. Adjust the flight paths with the data from the base
station on the ground to the accuracy of a few meters. Express the coordinates of the flight lines
in the world geodetic system. Convert flight line coordinates into an appropriate coordinate
system for the project.
The flightpath video mainly monitors points directly under the helicopter with a clock and it
is used for validation of the flight path.
5.3 Primary Processing
3) Correct anomalous data affected by steelstructure buildings using the flightpath
video.
4) Apply the following corrections:
calibration; and
leveling (zerolevel detection).
5) Compute the following with a phaser diagram for the entire raw data:
apparent resistivity; and
apparent altitude of measurement.
6) Plot the following from the calculated apparent resistivity:
plan view map of apparent resistivity for each frequency; and
profile of apparent resistivity for representative lines.
Notes
1) Make the data consistent among frequencies by adjusting the zerolevel at each frequency.
2) Phaser diagrams are plotted for combinations of the items below:
frequency;
interval of transmitter and receiver; and
configuration of induction coils.
Supplementary Note
2) Influence of steel structures and buildings may be examined with the flight video and a
local survey.
Description
Correct data by removing local noise with a filter.
Leveling (highaltitude correction) is applied using the data acquired before and after the
measurement at high altitude where the influence from the ground is negligible.
The apparent resistivity is calculated using a phaser diagram based on a numerical geology
model. Figure 5.1 shows an example of a phaser diagram of the ratio between the inphase and
quadrature components of a homogeneous halfspace at frequency f = 31,000Hz with an
interval between the transmitter and receiver r = 8.03 m. Read the apparent resistivity ρo and
apparent altitude of measurement at the crosspoint of the components of the inphase and
quadrature components in the phaser diagram. The apparent resistivity and apparent altitude of
measurement in all the data are obtained from the phaser diagram, which fits the configuration
of coils, separation of the transmitter and receiver and the frequencies used.
Plot the apparent resistivity profiles along the flight lines. Plot plan view color contour maps
from the apparent resistivity profiles along the flight lines.
Figure 5.1: Example of phaser diagram (31,000Hz).
5.4 Secondary Processing
7) The result of 1D inversion of an airborne electromagnetic survey is expressed as a
series of profiles arranged along the flight lines.
8) Computer software is available for 1D inversion of airborne electromagnetic data.
Note
1) An insufficient quality of primary processing results in a poor analysis.
Supplementary Note
1) Twodimensional inversion techniques, resembling twodimensional resistivity inversion,
have been proposed.
Description
The airborne electromagnetic method is less sensitive to the effect of topography than the
resistivity method. Therefore the crosssection is based on onedimensional inversion. Figure
5.2 shows a recent result of twodimensional inversion that used the entire data set along a line
and interpreted for the area under the line. This requires a measured altitude, not a phaser
diagram.
Figure 5.2: Example of twodimensional analysis of the airborne electromagnetic survey.
9) Examine the following items:
limitation and restriction in interpretation imposed by flying lines; and
the equivalent layers.
Note
1) Consider the accuracy of an interpolated region of data from the ground altitude and flight
lines.
Supplementary Note
2) Where a stringent examination is required, a vertical resistivity method may be applied at
several locations for verification.
Description
The airborne electromagnetic method acquires data with high density along survey lines,
however, the data between lines are interpolated for displays. The areas with power
transmission lines, railways and radio wave facility towers are also an interpolation region, as
the interval of survey lines there may be different from normal. This leads to unevenness in
resolution to consider in interpretation.
Evaluate the equivalent layers and precision limit on a theoretical basis. The equivalent layer
is, as shown in Figure 5.3, a different layer structure that causes the same apparent resistivity
distribution.
Figure 5.3: Examples of the equivalent layers.
A comparison with a ground electrical survey may be effective in examining the result.
Conduct a vertical resistivity survey (Chapter 5.1) at several locations for verification in the
prospecting area.
5.6 Display of the Results
10) Sort the resistivity values to effectively characterize the subdivisions of the survey
area in accordance with the purpose of the survey.
11) Plot results in the following maps:
depth slices of resistivity in plan view maps;
resistivity maps at equal elevations; and
resistivity crosssections.
Note
1) Exclude the points of less accurate analysis from the display of the results.
Supplementary Notes
1) Resistivities are classed in equal logarithmic division and lower resistivity is expressed in
warm colors.
2) A threedimensional distribution of resistivity by interpolation may be effectively displayed
by a GIS.
3) A plan grid of the interpreted resistivity may be made to display crosssections of arbitrary
lines that are not along the flight lines.
Description
An interpolated threedimensional resistivity model is made from the interpretation. From this
3D model, a distribution of resistivity in any position is extracted to create sections in arbitrary
directions and maps in an arbitrary plane. The data are typically displayed by color iso
resistivity contours. Figures 5.4 and 5.5 show a plan view resistivity map and a resistivity
crosssection.
To identify anomalies in resistivity, a contrast four times the background of resistivity is
needed. On the other hand, gross subdivision of resistivity values are displayed for
classification of characteristics in a survey area. Where the difference between the maximum
and minimum in resistivity values in the survey area is not large, the fine divisions of the
resistivity values may not match the variation of the geology.
A color scheme for resistivitydivision has not been standardized but geotechnical engineers
generally use cold colors for highgrade bedrocks and warm colors for lowergrade bedrocks.
As lowgrade the bedrocks generally have low resistivity, warm colors are used for low
resistivity.
Figure 5.4: Example of plain map of the resistivity 2).
Figure 5.5: Example of crosssection of the resistivity 2).
6. Analysis Incorporating Other Information
6.1 Geological Interpretation of Analysis Results
1) Interpret analysis results for:
distribution of the strata;
extent of weathering and change of rock quality;
locations of fractured zones and their nature; and
distribution of groundwater.
2) Interpret results to fulfill the purpose of the survey considering the accuracy,
restriction, and limitation in measurement and analysis.
3) Refer to existing survey data and make them consistent.
Notes
1) Explain the basis of the conclusions clearly stating the location and the extent of analysis.
2) State clearly what is accomplished and what was not.
3) Clearly distinguish between the facts and the interpretation in the results.
4) Collect existing geological information in advance.
Supplementary Notes
1) Prepare the following information for geological interpretation:
results of the ground geological survey;
results of drilling, borehole tests and logging;
results of seismic refraction and other geophysical surveys;
laboratory test results;
location of springs; and
conductivity and other analyses of ground and surface water.
2) Surfacegeological prospecting using the result of an airborne electromagnetic survey often
improves the accuracy in geological interpretation.
3) The resistivity of ground and surface water should be measured at the time of the survey, if
it is not readily available.
4) Plot interpreted results in the following diagrams:
plan view maps of general analysis or interpretation; and
crosssections of general analysis or interpretation.
Description
The resistivity reflects the type of rocks, porosity, resistivity of the pore water, degree of
saturation, presence of electrically conductive minerals such as clay and ground temperature.
These factors collectively influence the resistivity. Therefore, it is generally difficult to
interpret a geological feature uniquely from distribution of resistivity alone. The resistivity of
the main minerals and rocks are shown in Figure 6.1.
Topography and geological features are the main factors that influence interpretation of
resistivity distribution from electromagnetic survey data. Therefore, these data should be
collected and organized in advance. The data required include (but not limited to) the result of
the geological survey, drilling, geophysical surveys and borehole logging. It is recommended to
refer to prospecting case studies and experiment results published in the public domain.
Measure the resistivity of underground water, the rock core and quality of soil sample as
needed.
Figure 6.1: Typical resistivity of rocks.
Recently, quantitative interpretations of resistivity have been proposed, for example,
conversion from resistivty to velocity of an elastic wave. However, the limitation of
applicability of these methods must be considered.
7.1 Overview
1) In the report, clearly describe all the steps of investigation including purposes of the
survey and the process from surveying to geological interpretation in detail.
Note
1) The report should include details of the following items:
survey principle;
result of data acquisition;
result of analysis; and
basis of geological interpretation.
Supplementary Note
1) List the references of publications cited.
Description
The reports are written for nonspecialist clients to understand the details of the survey.
Especially, the survey principles, measurement, analysis, geological interpretation are to be
clearly stated.
Clearly state the method of classification of the resistivity and coloring. The legends for
drawings must be included.
As described before, the result of the electromagnetic survey is merely an interpreted
resitivity model. Describe the process from the survey result to geological interpretation using
figures and diagrams so that nonspecialists can understand.
2) The following topics should be included in the report:
overview of the survey;
specification of the survey and equipment;
result of the survey; and
result of the studies, issues to be resolved afterward and other remarks.
3) Measurement and analysis data need to be digitized as a final product.
Notes
1) Consult with the client to finalize the report to be useful for designing and implementation.
2) Digitize products according to the specification and requirements of the client.
Supplementary Notes
1) Submit the flightpath video in the format specified by the client.
2) Discuss with the client how to store and deliver the measurement and interpreted data.
3) Save the electronic data in a highly versatile format. Avoid formats specific to some
computers or program.
Description
The report should describe:
Outline of the survey
Include a map of the survey points, map of the flight lines and their quantity.
Specification of the survey and equipment
Describe an overview of the airborne electromagnetic method and list the specification of the
equipment. Include conditions and data acquisition parameters of measurement such as
frequencies used.
Result of the survey
Evaluate the validity by plotting plan view maps of apparent resistivity for each frequency
and typical crosssections of interpreted resistivity. State the depth of probe for each
frequency, as different frequencies represent different depths.
Discuss with the client about the method of displaying the 3D structure of resistivity
obtained by the airborne electromagnetic survey. It is important to process the result with a
GIS.
Results of studies, the remaining issues and other remarks
Carry out geological interpretation referring to previous studies appropriate to the purpose of
the survey and process and evaluate the accuracy. Make a proposal for follow up
investigations if necessary.
The volume of data in an airborne electromagnetic survey is large. Store and submit in digital
form on a CDR or DVD. The data should be in a common format such as ASCII text or
generic spreadsheet software. The data format should be clearly described with instructions on
how to read the files. If any uncommon software is used in report, store the software with data
on the same medium and state clearly how to use it in the report.
7.5 LoopLoop Method (Slingram Method)
1. General
1) The looploop method is a simplified electromagnetic method to survey underground
by using a receiver loop to sense the ground’s response to an alternating magnetic
field from a transmitter loop by a receiver loop.
Note
1) There are two types of surveying equipment for the looploop method:
‘separated loops type’: a system linking a receiving loop and transmitting loop via a
cable of 10 to 100 meters (Figure 1.1(a)); and
‘integrated loops type’: equipment 1 to 2 meters long installed with transmitter and
receiver loops (Figure 1.1(b)).
Supplementary Notes
1) It is used for investigating depths of a few meters to some tens of meters.
2) It is recommended to investigate the details around the areas with which you have narrowed
down with the looploop method by e.g., resistivity methods.
Description
The equipment for the looploop method consists in a set of transmitter and receiver loops
(Figure 1.1). The term “loop” in this surveying method designates a large flat coil with a large
crosssection compared with its length. This method is sometimes called the “Slingram
method” after the developer.
Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of the Looploop method.
The looploop survey is simple and quick, because it takes only a few minutes to measure at
each station, moving from station to station on foot. To ensure the best performance of the
equipment, it must be calibrated correctly.
The survey principle is in common with the airborne electromagnetic method (Chapter 7.4).
While the vertical distribution of resistivity can be estimated by the looploop method, its quick
operation is more suited for horizontal surveying (mapping): anomaly hunting or screening.
The anomalies found by this method may be followed up by a direct current resistivity survey
(Chapter 6) and the TEM method (Chapter 7.3).
The ‘separated loops type’ and the ‘integrated loops type’ have different application areas.
Metaldetectors are integrated loops type.
The arrangement of the transmitter and receiver loops is called the ‘configuration of loops’.
The horizontal configuration has both the transmitter and receiver loops horizontal, while the
vertical configuration has them vertical (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Typical configurations of loops.
2. Applicability
1) The looploop method is applied to the search of lowresistivity objects in the depth
range of a few meters to tens of meters such as:
aquifers and salt water regions;
cracked zones, weathering zones, alteration zones and clay zones;
buried metallic objects, waste, remains, unexploded shells and mines;
frozen ground layers; and
metal mineral deposits.
Note
1) Some objects and depths are more suitable to the application of the looploop method than
others, depending on surveying equipment, loop configuration, loopinterval and frequency
used.
Supplementary Note
1) Lowresistivity objects such as a clay zone can be detected at a shallower layer by applying
a lowfrequency, horizontal loop configuration with a long interval between loops.
Description
In general, the electromagnetic method has higher sensitivity to lower resistivity (or higher
conductivity) and is applied to a survey of lowresistivity targets such as groundwater, clay,
buried metal objects or metal mineral deposits, in highresistivity ground and bedrock.
The separated loop type, used for greater depths, is applied to select drilling locations for
groundwater and damages by rising highsaline groundwater. The integrated loops type is used
for a shallow investigation like a metal detector to search for buried metallic objects such as
iron pipes, drums and UXO. It is also used for searching metal objects in archeology. For civil
engineering it is applicable to shear, weathering, alteration and clay zones, which are obstacles
to construction, as well as a simple survey of soil quality of river banks and locating remaining
foundations of buildings.
McNeil et al. (1990) showed that the sensitivity of a horizontal loop configuration is higher
at around half the depth of the loop separation and that it is suitable for the investigation of
conductive shear zones in resistive host rock (Figure 2.1), under a conductive nearsurface
layer.
Figure 2.1: Difference of the sensitivity on loop disposition.
The looploop method was originally developed as a technique to survey for metal mineral
deposits simply and efficiently in countries with large areas and hard bedrock such as, Sweden,
Canada, U.S.A. and Australia. These areas are covered with a conductive surface layer with
high salinity and a resistivity survey for metal mineral deposits is difficult to apply. Slingram,
another name for the looploop method, is a Swedish word. The looploop method as well as
the TEM method (Chapter 7.4) overcame this problem as shown in Figure 2.1(a) and have
gained popularity in minerals exploration. There are many applications of the separated loop
type looploop method for groundwater in arid and semiarid areas such as Africa. On the other
hand, it has not been so popular in Japan, where there are lots of unsuitable vegetation and
electromagnetic noise, where a high accuracy is required. Recently, an easytouse integrated
type has been applied to surveys for buried metallic objects in a shallow depth.
3. Planning
1) Apply to horizontal surveys in a limited area (a few kilometers square at the
maximum) for lowresistivity objects.
2) The depth of probe is between a few meters and tens of meters.
Notes
1) Application of the looploop method is difficult where electromagnetic noise and metal
structures are present, i.e.:
urban areas;
near highvoltage power lines, electric wires, power plants, substations, radio
facilities, large factories; and
near guardrails, metal fences and barbed wire.
Supplementary Notes
1) Consider integrating another method for deeper targets such as the direct current resistivity
and TEM methods.
2) Avoid applying to areas with steep topography or thick vegetation higher than one meter.
Description
The best feature of the looploop method is its efficient operation with simple and easy
measuring. Therefore, it is suitable for horizontal surveying to identify a location of
underground structures. Its vertical resolution is poorer than its’ horizontal. For a vertical probe
at specific locations identified by the looploop method, an additional survey by the direct
current method or TEM method is recommended. Equipment capable of surveying over 50
meters deep is hard to find.
The operator(s) have to walk on the ground surface with a sensor because the sensor and
interconnection cables may be caught and steep topography and vegetation over one meter high
reduce the efficiency of a survey. The looploop method might be affected by the topography
depending on the loop configuration. In such areas, assess the use of the method based on the
assumption that the best features of the looploop method may not be achieved.
Like any electromagnetic method, measuring with the looploop survey is affected by
electromagnetic noises and metal structures on the surface of the earth.
3) Acquire data along survey lines.
4) The interval between stations is between 1 and 100 m.
Notes
1) Set survey lines perpendicular to the direction of the likely geological trend.
2) Select equipment and parameters such as loop configuration, loopinterval and frequency
appropriate to the purpose of the survey, depth of probe and scale of the objects.
3) Plan the survey guided by Table 3.1.
Depth of probe Equipment Separation of loops Separation of stations

~5m Integrate loops type 12 m 12 m
5~50 m Separated loop type 2 times target depth Separation of loops
Table 3.1: Separation of loops and measurement.
Supplementary Notes
1) Some equipment does not directly display properties such as resistivity and conductivity as
measured values.
2) If vegetation over 1 meter high obstructs survey lines, cut open the lines.
Description
The looploop method takes measurements while moving along survey lines on foot. It is
desirable to have a dense distribution of stations. As a guide, the measurement interval is set to
about 1/2–2 times of the loop interval.
Sensitivity with the separate loop type is highest at a depth of 1/2 of the loop interval (Figure
2.1), so it is best to choose the loop interval almost twice the depth of the survey object. Most
separate loop systems have fixed combinations of loopintervals and frequencies. Among the
integrated loops type, some models allow to vary the transmission frequency. Theoretically,
lower frequencies can probe deeper ground. The method for analysis and interpretation for
frequency changes at one survey point is still under development.
The looploop method does not always need to calculate absolute values of an electrical
property such as apparent resistivity, because the looploop method was designed to find a
location of an anomaly such as a metaldeposit and water underground. Some models directly
output parameters from the measurements. Those parameters include ratio and phase difference
between transmitted and received magnetic fields. Planning should start from the selection of
surveying equipment suitable for the purpose and depth of objects.
4. Field Operation
4.1 Site Scouting
1) In the site scouting for a looploop survey check for:
permission of site entry for survey lines;
location of power and telephone lines that may not appear in site maps; and
details of vegetation and topography near the planned lines.
Supplementary Note
1) Meet land surveyors and discuss line setting and entry permission.
Description
Find the land owners of the site of the planned survey lines and obtain entry permission. Some
permissions may take some time to issue. The operation may go smoother if local residents are
also informed of the survey. Only site scouting can confirm local sources of noise like power
lines and telephone lines.
A simple location survey for line setup at the time of scouting facilitates future procedures.
Confirm the survey benchmark and orientations of lines at the site with the surveyors and check
the trimming and condition of entry. The coordinates of both ends of the survey lines should be
noted with a GPS.
4.2 Preparation for Survey
2) Following are the equipment needed for the survey:
transmitter and receiver loops;
loop connection cable; and
battery for equipment.
Notes
1) Prepare equipment suitable for surveying.
2) Calibrate the equipment according to the instructions before measuring.
3) Prepare sufficient batteries and charge them in advance.
Supplementary Notes
1) A purposebuilt carrier is good for higher mobility and efficiency.
Description
The equipment of the looploop survey is a set of transmitter and receiver loops and connecting
cables. Preparation of suitable equipment is considerable work before a survey.
The most likely problem in a looploop survey is insufficient calibration. The equipment
should be calibrated in the same condition as the survey. If possible, calibrate them every day.
However, do not change the calibration in the middle of the same line.
The most frequent inconvenience during a survey is a flat battery. Charge the batteries and
prepare spare batteries.
It is difficult to keep moving for a long time while holding the loop with your hands and
therefore it is recommended to prepare a carrier such as a shoulderstrap or a loop holder. No
metallic items should be used in these tools.
4.3 OnSite Measurements
3) Take measurement stoppings at each station and then move along the survey line.
Notes
1) Support the loop horizontally or vertically, do not shake during the measurements.
2) Take note of any possible influence from electric cables and metallic structures on the
ground that may introduce electromagnetic noise and write it down with station numbers.
Supplementary Note
1) Maintain constant relative positions between the loops and stations.
Description
Measuring with the looploop method is simple. Assemble loops and cables with the instrument
by connecting them. When calibration and setup of the data acquisition parameters are
complete, it is ready for measuring. We only have to keep the loops steady for 1 to 2 minutes
during measuring. A scene of measuring with the looploop method is shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Looploop method measurement scene.
The station is usually located at the point of the transmitter loop, receiver loop, or at the
center of the loops of the separate loops type. A constant relationship between the station and
configuration should be maintained throughout the survey.
Take note of the location of electromagnetic noise during the survey: power lines, metallic
structures on the ground such as a fence. This will be important information for interpretation
later.
5.1 Processing and Interpretation
1) Plot the horizontal profile of the values measured at the stations.
2) Plot the following maps to show results:
location map of lines; and
crosssection of topography.
Note
1) Plot the measured values at the center position of the transmitting loop and receiving loop
of the separated loops type.
Supplementary Notes
1) We can grasp the location of anomalies, their shape and scales by plotting measured values
on lines.
2) Multiplefrequency data can be processed to allow multilayer interpretation.
Description
Figure 5.1 shows an example of horizontal profiles by the horizontal configuration of the loop
loop method compared with the direct current resistivity survey with Wenner arrays.
Figure 5.1: Comparison of horizontal profiles between the looploop method and DC resistivity survey.
In this figure, the inverse of the apparent conductivity is plotted as apparent resistivity. The
data of a larger loop interval represent information from greater depth.
Figure 5.1 shows that the apparent resistivity changes greatly across a fault. Anomalous low
apparent conductivity (highapparent resistivity) between higher apparent conductivity (lower
apparent resistivity) represents groundwater in the fault fracture zone in Figure 2.1. Figure 5.1
also shows profiles of two measurements at 10 and 20 meter intervals on the same survey line.
It is common to locate a target from the pattern of horizontal profiles of apparent resistivity or
apparent conductivity. An image of a crosssection of topography superimposed on horizontal
profiles is convenient for geological evaluation.
The horizontal extension of a target can at a certain depth be estimated from the distribution
of apparent conductivity or apparent resistivity of measured values for a constant frequency or
separation of loops plotted as a contour map on a topographic map with lines and stations.
Measurements taken at more than three frequencies on a line allows to interpret structures of
two or more layers. Each equipment has its own analysis curves; refer to them for details of the
procedure.
In recent years, instruments capable of measuring multiple frequencies at each station
simultaneously have been developed and inversion with a large volume of data has been tried.
Figure 5.2 shows a case at an industrial waste disposal site by such an inversion.
Figure 5.2: An example of inversion of looploop method.
6. Deliverables
6.1 Deliverables
map of line location;
resistivity profiles along survey lines;
plan view map of measured values (as needed);
interpreted crosssections; and
interpretation map (as needed).
2) Submit the following digital data:
survey points, lines and coordination of locations (text files);
entire set of measured data (text files); and
horizontal profiles, plan view maps of measurements, interpreted cross
sections, interpreted maps (graphics files).
Note
1) Draw diagrams and maps as clearly as possible and include legends. Especially, make clear
with labels the contour lines and color distinction.
Supplementary Notes
1) Crosssections and maps of the general analysis illustrate the results of geological and
geotechnological interpretations of resistivity structures.
2) The scale of the drawing has to be decided by consulting with the client.
Description
Submit figures and tables that clearly show an overview of the survey results. The survey is
simple and effective and the deliverable is the raw measured values in most cases. Therefore it
is best to draft a report quickly.
The digital data to submit are only coordinates and measurement values. These can be
combined in text files.
6.2 Reports
3) The final report should describe the following items clearly:
method;
equipment used;
interpretation method, procedure and result; and
Notes
1) In the “method” section, clearly describe:
station interval;
loop configuration, loop interval and frequencies used; and
relationship between the stations plotted and marker pegs at the site.
2) Description of equipment should include:
manufacturer and model; and
interval between transmitter and receiver loops.
Description
The emphasis of the looploop method is on its convenience and efficiency rather than its
accuracy and precision that are expected in other quantitative highresolution survey methods.
The result is often qualitatively described.
The selection of equipment and the data acquisition method should be described in detail in
the evaluation of the data quality.
If a special analysis or an attempt of a new procedure has been tried, it should be described
in the report. It should include the interpretation method, name of software and parameters used
in the processes.
References
McNeill, J.D. (1990) Use of electromagnetic methods for ground water studies. In:
Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics, Vol.1 Review and Tutorial, (ed. S.H. Ward).
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 191–218.
7.6 VLF Methods
1. General
1) The VLF method is a simple electromagnetic method that uses a permanent source
and is able to acquire data carrying a receiver unit.
2) It is suitable for reconnaissance surveys and preliminary investigations.
Note
1) It is a simple method to identify the general location of faults and groundwater. The
resolution of its depth is low.
Supplementary Notes
1) There are two kinds of methods: the VLFEM method and the VLFMT method.
2) A receiver can be installed on a helicopter for an airborne survey.
3) Depth information may be complemented by the resistivity (Chapter 6) or TEM method
(Chapter 7.3).
Description
The VLF method is an electromagnetic method that uses a signal with a long wavelength in a
very lowfrequency (VLF) band (3–30 kHz) of radio communication. In comparison, television
broadcasting uses very highfrequency (VHL) (30–300MHz) and ultrahigh frequency (UHF)
bands (300–3000MHz).
The VLF method can use radio waves transmitted by a large antenna for submarine
communication (Figure 1.1). The 22.2 kHz radio wave used for this method can be transmitted
from the station of the Marine SelfDefence Forces in Ebino City, Miyazaki, Japan. There are
several transmitters for exclusive use for this method in the marketplace. However, these are
not often used, as this method has the benefit of utilizing a permanent source.
The VLFMT method uses the ratio of two orthogonal components of magnetic fields, while
the VLFEM method uses the ratio of magnetic and electric fields obtained by two electrodes.
This chapter mainly describes the VLFEM method, which is most commonly used and
supplements the VLFMT method as needed.
An airborne survey can be carried out by installing a VLFEM receiver on an aircraft. The
airplane tows a large container called a ‘bird’ (Chapter 7.4) and holds transmitter and receiver
coils. The airborne survey of the VLF method tows a smaller receiver so it is often associated
with airborne magnetic and airborne radioactive surveys.
The VLF method is an electromagnetic method that uses the farfield like the MT (Chapter
7.1) and CSAMT methods (Chapter 7.2). Especially the MT method and VLFMT method are
based on the same principle.
The VLF method can be simple and quick, because it takes only a few minutes to measure
after walking. It is suitable for horizontal profiling (mapping), focused on anomaly hunting
(extraction of abnormalities) and screening. For a follow up survey, detailed methods such as
the resistivity or TEM method are recommended.
Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of the VLF methods.
2. Applicability
1) The VLF method is applicable to lowresistivity targets in a depth of a few meters to
tens of meters, such as:
aquifers and hot springs;
shear zones, weathering zones, alteration zones and clay zones;
buried metallic objects and remains; and
metal mineral deposits.
Supplementary Note
1) It is suitable for a preliminary investigation to narrow down the target area for a detailed
survey.
Description
Electromagnetic methods generally have high sensitivity to conductive or lowresistivity
targets. Therefore, the VLF method is applied to objects with low resistivity in the ground or
host rocks that have higher resistivity. The method has an advantage of fast surveying and can
be used in a quick and dense survey for the selection of a drilling location for groundwater and
hot springs. Since the VLFMT method allows estimating apparent resistivity, it is often used
for mapping horizontal distribution of resistivity. It is also used for the investigation of
landslides, faults and archaeology.
3. Planning
1) Use for the horizontal distribution of targets with low resistivity.
2) The depth of the probe is a few meters to tens of meters.
Notes
1) It is difficult to apply the VLF method to areas with strong electromagnetic noise:
urban areas; and
near highvoltage lines, electric cables, power plants, substations, radio facilities
and large factories.
Supplementary Notes
1) Consider obtaining depth information by a vertical survey such as the direct current
resistivity or TEM method.
2) Geological structures may be hard to detect in some cases in relation to the directions of the
transmitters and geologic strike (Figure 3.1).
3) Select between the VLFEM and VLFMT methods.
Description
The highlight of the VLF method is its quick, simple and easy measurement. Therefore it is
suitable for a reconnaissance survey covering a large area to identify the location of
underground structures on the ground. The equipment is small enough to operate by one
person. This method is not expected to have highvertical resolution and can be applied to
varied topography in mountainous areas. For vertical resolution, a follow up survey by the
direct current method or TEM method is recommended at the location selected by the VLF
method.
Like other electromagnetic methods, measuring is affected by electromagnetic noises, metal
structures on the surface or shallow parts of the earth.
The VLFEM method is good at detecting structures such as faults in the direction of the
transmitter and when the geological strikes are parallel, while the VLFMT method is better
when they are near perpendicular. If this relationship is violated, it could be difficult to detect
the intended structures.
3) Acquire data at stations with intervals of 5–20 m.
Note
1) To use the VLFEM method, set lines in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the
transmitter.
Supplementary Notes
1) In the VLFMT method set lines parallel to the direction of the transmission station.
2) Survey lines can be set on a road with a gentle curve, which can be regarded as a straight
line.
3) Use of a GPS to record the station coordinates facilitates data processing later.
Description
Dense measurements with survey points with intervals around 5–20 m are recommended,
because a quick measurement is a feature of the VLF method. Set up lines by a simple location
survey with a GPS.
The survey lines are generally laid perpendicular to the geological strike. However, as seen
in Figure 3.1, the difference in the directional sensitivity between the VLFEM and VLFMT
methods may be considered: The VLFEM method is most sensitive when the survey line is
perpendicular to the direction of the transmitter, while the VLFMT method is more sensitive
when the survey line is parallel to the direction of the transmitter. The direction to Ebino City
from a survey area can be adequately determined by a small compass. You may choose the
direction as the direction of the strongest signal.
When sensitivity in the direction of the geological strike is low against the direction of the
transmitter, setting up an artificial source may be considered.
The survey line should ideally be straight. Slight bends are permissible as a substitute. A
road may be used as long as there are no electric cables nearby.
Figure 3.1: Layout plan of the VLF methods.
4.1 Preparation
1) Measuring needs the following equipment:
electromagnetic sensor and recorder;
electrodes and electric cables (for the VLFMT method); and
batteries for equipment.
2) Obtain entry permission for the field before the operation.
Notes
1) Calibrate in accordance with the manufacturer’s manual of the survey equipment before the
measurements.
2) Prepare a sufficient quantity of batteries for equipment use and charge them in advance.
Description
The equipment for the VLF method is compact and light weight. Equipment especially for the
VLFEM method has a sensor integrated in one box that only a person can operate. The VLF
MT method requires electrodes and electric cables to measure the underground telluric current.
Preparation of equipment suitable for our plan is a major part of survey preparation.
The most likely inconvenience during the survey is a flat battery. Prepare a few spare fully
charged batteries.
The VLF method does not involve a largescale operation and it is easy to obtain permission
to enter land. Make sure to get one.
4.2 Field Data Acquisition
3) Take measurement stoppings at each station and then move along the survey line to
the next.
Notes
1) Orient equipment to the direction of the transmitter.
2) Notice and note possible noise sources such as electric cables and groundmetallic
structures with the station number.
Supplementary Note
1) Confirm the locations of stations with a handheld GPS.
Description
Measurements with the VLF method are quite simple. They can be easily done by turning the
direction of the sensor to the direction of transmitter. With the VLFMT method, an electric
cable should be extended to the direction perpendicular to the direction of the transmitters’
station and connect with an electrode. It is important to do this according to the manual of the
surveying equipment.
A field note that describes the location of electromagnetic noise and its effects caused by
power lines is quite important for interpretation and information should be recorded during the
operation.
VFL is used for reconnaissance, a simple location survey by a handheld GPS is adequate.
1) The VLFEM method estimates equivalent current density.
2) The VLFMT method estimates apparent resistivity.
3) Plot horizontal profiles of the data measured at stations along the survey lines.
4) Plot contour maps of measured values.
5) The VLFEM method analyzes for approximate locations of inclined thin low
resistivity layers such as fault fracture zones.
6) For results, draw the following maps:
location map of lines; and
topographic crosssection.
Supplementary Notes
1) A smoothing filtering on the graph may be used to remove noise.
2) A tool that allows onsite interpretation of the VLFEM data for dipping lowresistivity
layers is available.
3) The VLFMT method only allows qualitative analysis from variation and distribution of the
apparent resistivity.
Description
(1) VLFEM method
The VLFEM method analyzes the ratio between vertical and horizontal components of
magnetic fields measured by induction coils. There is commonly a time lag between the
variations of the two components and the data are expressed in two components shown in
Figure 5.1(a). These are a pair of inphase and quadrature components or a pair of real and
imaginary components. Figure 5.1 shows a schematic diagram of the process.
Figure 5.1: Schematic view of Data processing steps with VLFEM method.
First, plot horizontal profiles of measured data for each line (Figure 5.1(a)). The quadrature
component shows the general distribution of resistivity on the ground, which estimates
apparent resistivity. Recently, however, equivalent current density has been estimated as
described below.
A smoothing filter is applied to the profiles to eliminate noise resulting from inhomogeneity
of the ground, which is not the target of the survey i.e., faults (Figure 5.1(b)). A moving
average filter of three to five points is often applied. The equivalent current density is
calculated using the following expression (Figure 5.1(c)).
where K is a constant dependent on the interval between computing points and hn is the
measured values at stations near the point where equivalent current density is calculated. For
example, if the interval is 25 meters, h3, h2 …h3 of the above expression are substituted to
calculate the equivalent current density of station 10 per depth.
Table 5.1: Stations used for equivalent current intensity at station number 10 with a separation of 25 m.
The larger current density means low resistivity. Fractured zones and dips are drawn as in
Figure 5.1(d), by plotting the crests of the current density curves ( ☆ ) on the topographic
crosssection in Figure 5.1(c). Instead of plotting the crests, it is sometimes expressed by
contour lines of current density onto the topographic crosssection.
(2) VLFMT method
The VLFMT method is based upon the same theory as the CSAMT (Chapter 7.1) and
MT/AMT methods (Chapter 7.2). It can estimate apparent resistivity ρa from the ratio of
electric field Ex and magnetic field Hy:
where f is the frequency of the source signal (Hz).
The location of a fault or fractured zone is estimated by horizontal profiles shown in Figure
5.2. It is a plot of apparent resistivity and phase difference along a survey line. The Figure
shows that the crest of the lower apparent resistivity feature indicates that the fractured zone is
present to the east of the fault observed on the ground surface.
In many cases, the location of the fractured zone is shown clearer by computing the pointing
vector S by the equation below:
Figure 5.2: Example of horizontal prospecting curve of VLFMT method: addition to 2).
where r is apparent resistivity (Ohmm) and q is phase difference.
Figure 5.3 is an apparent resistivity contour map superimposed on a topographic contour.
This survey was conducted to evaluate the location of an ancient burial mound and the high
apparent resistivity represents the central burial mound. The VMFMT method can only
compute apparent resistivity for 1 to 3 frequencies. At least five frequencies are required for
vertical evaluation. Unlike the CSAMT and MTAMT methods, it is hard for the VMFMT
method to conduct a quantitative interpretation.
Figure 5.3: An example of apparent resistivity contour map.
6. Report
6.1 Deliverable
map of survey lines;
resistivity profiles;
plan view map of measured values (as needed);
crosssection of geological interpretation; and
plan view map of geological interpretation (as needed).
survey points, lines and coordinates of locations (text files);
an entire set of measured data (text files); and
profiles, plan view maps of measurements, crosssection of interpretation, map
of interpretation (graphics files).
Note
1) Make drawings as clear as possible and do not miss information such as legends.
Especially, include numbers on contour lines and a color scale on color drawings to make
the drawings clear.
Supplementary Notes
1) The interpreted sections and maps show the survey results with geological and geo
technical interpretation.
2) The reduction scale of the drawing has to be decided after consulting with clients.
Description
Submit figures and charts that clearly show an overview of the survey results. Since the raw
measured values can immediately be a deliverable, the reporting is simple. Prepare a draft
report as quickly as possible.
The numerical data to submit are only coordinates and measured values. The text files may
integrate both of them.
6.2 Reports
3) Describe the following items clearly in the report:
method;
equipment used;
names of transmitter stations and the frequencies transmitted;
interpretation approach/effect; and
Description
The report should include the characteristics of the measured data because the VLF method has
advantageous features of convenience and efficiency over other highresolution methods.
The report should detail the choice of equipment and way of data acquisition and quality
evaluation of measured data.
If a special analysis method was used or a new method attempted, describe the way of
analysis, name of software and parameters used in the processing.
References
Karous, M. and Hjelt, S.E. (1983) Linear filtering of VLF dipangle measurements.
Geophysical
Prospecting 31, 782794. Society of Exploration Geophysics of Japan (2000) Geophysical
Handbook, VLF Method, 366–369.
(in Japanese) Nishitani, T. (2000) Investigation of underground resistivity structures using the
VLFMT method.
Archaeological Prospection 7, 231–240.
8 Ground Penetrating Radar
1. General
1) Ground penetrating radar is one of the methods of researching underground by
emitting electromagnetic (EM) waves into the Earth and receiving the reflected EM
waves that occur where there is a change in the electrical properties between two
layers.
Supplementary Notes
1) The electrical properties concerned are the electrical conductivity and the dielectric
constant.
2) Magnetic permeability is one of the physical quantities included in the magnetic properties.
Generally, the magnetic permeability of the air is assumed to be the same as that of a
vacuum.
3) The electrical properties change at cavities, buried pipes and buried objects, layer
boundaries, cracks, fracture zones and the upper surfaces of manmade structures and
boundaries of wastes.
2) The EM waves emitted from a transmitter antenna are influenced by the effects of
physical phenomena, such as a penetration, reflection and refraction on their path.
Then the waveforms are finally received by a receiver antenna.
3) Radar waveforms are recorded with a moving transmitter and receiver antennas at a
constant interval moving at a constant speed.
4) The records of acquired waveforms data are arranged in the order of recording to form
a section view.
5) Based on a record section, underground structures are analyzed and interpreted.
Supplementary Notes
1) Ground penetrating radar is a survey method which uses the EM waves of a frequency band
centered at higher than about 10MHz.
2) A survey using lower frequency EM waves is classified as an electromagnetic (EM) method
(Chapter 7).
Notes
1) The record obtained by a ground penetrating radar survey is a twodimensional section
which is generated by arranging the reflected waves in the order of recording. Here, we do
not discuss some other techniques, such as EM wave tomography, which obtains the EM
wave velocity distribution and the technique of performing many wideangle measurements
and obtaining twodimensional EM wave velocity distribution, since they are not general
techniques.
2) Like other geophysical survey methods, The GPR survey result does not image cavities,
buried pipes or layer boundaries necessarily in the same way as seen with the naked eye.
Images by the ground penetrating radar survey do not necessarily agree with the actual
shape of the survey targets (described later).
Description
The principle of ground penetrating radar is shown in Figure 1.1. Ground penetrating radar is a
survey method that can investigate the near surface region (less than 10 m for basement rock
and 2–3 m in soil foundations) with high resolution. The method was used for the investigation
of Antarctic ice in the 1970s and spread widely. Ground penetrating radar is a nondestructive
survey method, utilizing lowpower EM waves with frequencies ranging from 1MHz to
10GHz. Compared with other geophysical survey methods, it has characteristics such as:
quicker and nondestructive measurements;
higher resolution survey results; and
cheaper survey costs.
Figure 1.1: Principle of ground penetrating radar survey method.
1.2 Measurement Method
6) GPR profiling is used to estimate subsurface structures.
7) The wideangle method (Wide Angle Reflection and Refraction method: WARR) for
subsurface EM wave velocity is applied if needed.
Description
Usually, impulsetype waveforms are used for ground penetrating radar surveys. Unlike a sine
wave, an impulse has a wide frequency band and a short period (from one to ten nanoseconds)
waveform. An impulsetype waveform releases EM wave energy instantaneously. A ground
penetrating radar system consists of a transmitter antenna, a receiver antenna, a controller and a
recorder, a cable and a power supply. There is a GPR antenna system into which transmitter
and receiver antennas are integrated. Most GPR systems have an integrated unit of controller
and recorder, while some of them have a separate unit. Recent GPR systems incorporate
recording and data display functions on a notebook PC. The size of an antenna varies with
center frequency and about 100 mm for 1.5GHz and about 3 m for 20MHz are common. It is
necessary to use a suiTable frequency range (usually expressed as center frequency) for the
investigation purpose, geological conditions, target depth or resolution required. The reflected
waves from subsurface objects are detected with a receiver antenna and they are amplified,
displayed and recorded after applying a bandpass filter. As shown in Figure 1.2, the measuring
of ground penetrating radar are classed roughly into two methods; (a) GPR profiling and (b)
wide angle method (Wide Angle Reflection and Refraction: WARR). The former method
acquires the data by moving transmitter and receiver antennas at a constant interval or a
constant speed by using human power or a tractor vehicle. The antenna may also be mounted
on a wheeled trolley or sled to protect the equipment and speed up the survey. In most cases,
the transmitter and the receiver antennas are placed directly on the ground surface. On the other
hand, some antennas are kept a fixed distance from the ground surface.
Figure 1.2: Data acquisition method of ground penetrating radar survey.
Reflections occur where there is a change in the electric properties at a soil boundary
between two layers or a material interface. The results obtained by this method are not the
depth to a layer boundary but the travel time of EM waves from transmission. The horizontal
axis of a record section is horizontal distance and the vertical axis is the travel time of EM
waves. Therefore, we need to know the subsurface EM wave velocity to estimate the depth of
reflection surfaces. The subsurface velocity information can be derived by the wide angle
(WARR) method (Figure 1.2(b)). This method obtains EM wave velocity distribution from the
travel time difference for the different raypath of the reflected waves at a common reflection
point, by moving transmitter and receiver antennas away from each other at equal intervals and
fixing the center point of the antennas. The timeaxis of a record section is converted to a depth
axis, using the EM wave velocity estimated by this procedure. If the depth of the survey target
can be detected using information such as depth or reflection patterns of known buried pipes, it
is not necessary to carry out the WARR measurements. The estimation of an EM wave velocity
uses the same as that used in the seismic reflection method.
Various arrays of multiple antennae may also be used to derive layer properties and improve
subsurface resolution (Figure 1.2(c)). However, since this method requires time for the data
conversion process, it is expensive and is seldom used for investigation in the engineering field,
where fast turnaround and low cost are strongly required.
Monostatic antenna systems with the transmitter and the receiver antennas combined into a
single unit are sometimes used. This type of antenna has the merit of its compact size. On the
other hand, it has the disadvantage of an inability to perform wideangle measurements.
Among the GPR equipments, there is a system which can be used not only from the ground
surface but within a borehole, called a borehole radar system. A borehole radar requires special
waterproof antennas to insert into boreholes and is suspended by a cable and winch system. For
inclined boreholes, fiberglass or PVC rods are used to push the antennas into the borehole. A
borehole radar survey measures in an open hole or boreholes cased with the nonmetallic (e.g.,
PVC) casing but not in a metallic casing).
The profiling measurement method using one borehole (a single hole method) is shown in
Figure 1.3(a). Keeping the distance between the transmitter and receiver antennas constant,
antennas moving up and down investigate targets such as fractures and layer boundaries near
the borehole. Recently, it has been used for the investigation of the embedment depth of
foundation pillars.
When more than one borehole is available at a site, the borehole transmission measurements
can be used. This is called crosshole measurement (Figure 1.3(b)). The EMwave tomography
is the method of analyzing a crosshole measurement result in detail. In the EMwave
tomography, data are acquired at multiple receiver depths, normally with the depth of the
transmitter antenna fixed in one borehole while the receiver antenna is moved in another
borehole. The position of the transmitter antenna is then raised or lowered to the next recording
position and the same measurement process is repeated. This process is repeated successively
to provide full raypath coverage of the target area between boreholes.
Figure 1.3: Data acquisition method of borehole radar.
The number of ray paths may reach some hundreds to thousands. It is possible to obtain an
image inside a rock bed by the following procedure: firstly, the travel time and amplitude of
received waveforms are read as inputs for EM wave tomography. And then, by assuming the
distributions of the EM wave velocity and attenuation, forward modeling calculation is
repeated so that the calculated distributions of the EM wave velocity and attenuation agree with
the observation.
1.3 Terminology used in GPR Surveys
Electrical A measure of a material’s ability to conduct an electric current. It has the units
conductivity: of S/m.
Dielectric Positive and negative electrical charges produced by induction appearing on the
polarization: both ends of the dielectric body placed in the electrical field.
Center The center or the dominant value of the frequency range contained in a
frequency: transmitted signal or a received signal. When it is higher, the wave length of EM
waves will become shorter, hence higher resolution records are achieved.
Transmitter The equipment for emitting EM waves in the ground.
antenna:
Receiver The equipment for receiving the reflected wave from the subsurface. The dipole
antenna: type antennas are the most common type, in which a combination of two
conductive plates is configured as both transmitter and receiver.
Controller The equipment which records signals while controlling the timing of a
and recorder transmitted signal, the multiplying power of an amplifier and other parameters.
units: A recorder usually has a display (e.g., CRT and LCD) to monitor reflected wave
forms.
Cable: The electric wire which connects transmitter and/or receiver antennas to the
controller and recorder unit to transmit electric signals.
Power A battery or generator is used to power the equipment.
supply:
Impulse: A wavelet which is of sufficiently short timeduration.
Signal to The signal energy divided by all remaining energy (noise) at the time. As this
noise ratio: value is large, the obtained record contains less noise, accordingly, the record is
the good one.
2. Applicability
1) The GPR survey is applied to broad areas including locating of buried services,
detection of cavities or loosened zones under the road, mapping the layer boundaries
or faults and fracture zones in the bedrock.
2) Other applications include locating steel reinforcing in concrete, geotechnical
foundation investigations, archaeological, environmental and hydrogeological
surveys.
Notes
1) Surveyline design, center frequency of antennas and data coverage and density are issues
to carefully consider for the survey target.
2) Depending on geological conditions, the depth of the probe may be limited to extremely
shallow, especially when the resistivity of the ground is low or the ground water is
contaminated by seawater, the GPR survey may not be effective.
3) If the soil conditions are good, it is possible to receive the reflected wave from the top of
the groundwater. The GPR survey can be applied to monitor changes in the underground
water level.
Supplementary Notes
1) As described above, the GPR survey results have almost no correlation with dynamic
properties, such as rigidity or strength of the ground, because the GPR survey method uses
electromagnetic waves reflecting at the boundaries where electrical properties differ.
2) However, GPR may be applied to estimate the water content of the ground (or rock), as the
EMwave propagation velocity of water is extremely low.
Description
GPRs are widely used for various applications, especially in the civil engineering field.
Consider equipment and the surveyline design suiTable for the application. The center
frequency of antennas is related to the effective depth of investigation and vertical resolution.
The horizontal resolution is related to data density (inline measurement spacing or surveyline
spacing).
3. Planning
1) It is necessary to reconnoiter the site to understand the survey field for the
applicability of a GPR survey.
2) The survey should be designed and planned considering the geological properties and
the size, shape and depth of survey targets and the effective survey depth of the
equipment.
Notes
1) The key features of the GPR survey are: they provide continuous records of the subsurface
and have much higher resolution than any other geophysical methods, such as seismic and
electrical surveys.
2) The GPR survey may have shallower penetration depths than other methods if the site
conditions are unfavorable, which is a possible disadvantage of the GPR method.
3.1 Review of Existing Material and Master Survey Planning
3) It is important to collect and organize the existing materials to properly interpret the
survey results.
4) Information like geological map or the construction plot of the existing underground
pipes is used as backing data for GPR results as needed.
Notes
1) It is desirable to obtain and organize the existing materials before survey.
2) Analysis should be free from the preconceived ideas induced by the existing materials in
interpreting a GPR result.
Description
Since the actual conditions of the survey site may be different from what was expected, it is
necessary to reconnoiter the site beforehand to understand the situation of the survey field at
the design and planning stage of a GPR survey. When investigating for buried objects and
cavities, collect information on buried objects and manmade structures from the local
authorities beforehand. It is also important to note the locations of the surface structures (e.g.,
guardrails, electrical signboards, cars, wire fences or overhead electric wires) to distinguish
surface and subsurface reflections, as these objects reflect EM waves. Since the EMwave
velocity in the air is high, the shapes of the hyperbolic curve of the reflected waves from
surface structures are distinctively different from those from subsurface targets, such as cavities
and buried pipes. Therefore, it is also possible to remove the waves reflected at a surface
structure by data processing.
The GPR survey can sense the reflected wave from the top of buried metallic objects, such as
metallic wire in mortar, a manhole cover, a power line and an anchor bolt or concrete structures
(e.g., box culvert). It cannot investigate directly beneath them. It is required to map the
locations of these obstacles on a survey record. This information helps interpretation of the
survey, avoiding interpretation errors.
3.2.1 Arrangement of Survey Lines and Their Spacing
5) When surveying for a linear target such as buried pipes, the survey lines should be
arranged as orthogonal as possible to the orientation of the target.
6) Multiple parallel survey lines are necessary to image the distribution of targets in three
dimensions.
7) The line spacing should usually be below half the size of the target.
8) Determine the inline sampling frequency according to the size of the target and the
horizontal resolution required.
9) Spacing of the parallel survey lines is required for sufficient horizontal resolution
when the survey targets are small or there is more than one target.
Note
1) Decide the locations and spacing of the survey lines, considering the issues listed below:
center frequency of antennas;
size of survey targets;
scanning speed;
topography, surface conditions including visitations and geological settings;
data length;
survey costs; and
specific conditions of the survey field.
Supplementary Note
1) When the survey target is a metallic object like a steel pipe, the reflected wave may appear
clearly if the longitudinal directions of the antenna dipole is arranged to the strike direction
of the target. On the other hand, when a survey target is made of vinyl resin like a PVC
pipe, orthogonal configurations may show better results.
Description
For surveys for linear objects like buried pipes or cables, clearer images are obtained by placing
the survey line orthogonal to the strike of the targets. In a survey on a road, however, survey
targets are often buried in the same direction as the road. Therefore, it is difficult to design the
survey lines orthogonal to the targets. In such cases, it is difficult to detect the targets clearly.
For e survey on streets, design dense survey lines and many short lines, which cross
orthogonally to the targets regulating traffic lanes.
When the shape and size of the targets are uncertain, survey on coarsely spaced lines and
roughly estimate their locations first then survey with finer spacing. In a survey for complex
structures such as the layout of reinforcement, complicatedshaped ruins and distributions of
waste, interpretations will become easier if the survey results are displayed three dimensionally
(however, it may cost more for analysis). Depth slice displays parallel to the ground surface
may sometimes be effective. With these display methods, the shape and distribution of the
survey targets are imaged more clearly.
3.2.2 Choice of Frequency and Plans for Survey Depth
10) There is a positive correlation between the center frequency of transmitted waves and
resolution.
11) There is a negative correlation between the center frequency and survey depth.
12) Smaller targets can be detected with higher frequency electromagnetic waves but
effective survey depth becomes less. If lower frequency waves are used, targets in
deeper zones can be found but feasible target size becomes larger.
Note
When selecting the center frequency of the EM wave generated, consider the following
1) issues:
size, depth and material of survey targets
Example 1: A metallic object has a strong EM reflectivity, while the reflectivity of
nonmetal objects like PVC piping, is weak.
Example 2: The detection of a layer boundary is difficult when the surveytarget layer is
very thin or there is little contrast in the physical property between the target layer and its
surroundings:
electrical property;
resolution to detect the targets;
moisture content of the ground, ground water level;
topography and vegetation, the condition of the ground surface; and
specific conditions of the survey field.
Remark
Attenuation of the EM wave is large in a conductive material and small in an insulator. The
results of electrical surveys and electrical loggings are helpful before the survey.
The antenna characteristics may be affected on wet ground surfaces and the competence of
instruments may decline. It is necessary to understand the performance and characteristics of
the equipment well.
Description
Table 3.1 shows the relationship between transmitting frequency and electrical property of the
GPR, mainly dielectric constant and electrical conductivity. Decide the optimum transmitting
frequency for the survey conditions according to the depth of investigation, the size of survey
targets and the purpose of the survey. Generally, attenuation of EM waves becomes large below
the groundwater level and maximum survey depth becomes shallower. When conductive media
such as clay minerals and peat exist in the survey area, maximum survey depth becomes
extremely shallow. The same phenomenon occurs when seawater infiltrates.
On the other hand, when the media of the surveysite consists of crystalline rocks like the
unweathered granite and the Paleozoic strata, maximum effective survey depth becomes deeper
and may reach 10 m.
Considering the situation of the survey site, use the additional equipment below as
necessary:
odometer: a device for measuring the moving distance of an antenna;
tractor vehicle: a vehicle with a motor for antennas to scan at a constant speed;
sled: the tool which supports the bottom of an antenna for smooth scanning; and
wheeled trolley: a cart loaded with an antenna for smooth scanning.
GPR Dielectric Electrical Transmitting Remarks

parameter constant conductivity frequency
low → low → high low → high
high
Propagation fast → Velocity is high in media such as dry
velocity slow sand and slow in water saturated
media.
Attenuation high → Low → high low → high Signal attenuation is strongly affected
low by electrical conductivity at high
frequencies.
Penetration short → Long → long → short The lower the attenuation, the greater
distance long short the penetration distance.
Wavelength long → long → short Short wavelengths are normally used
short for concrete structures; long
wavelengths are applied to mapping
geological layers.
Resolution low → low → high The shorter the wavelength, the higher
high the resolution
Table 3.1: The relationship between transmitting frequencies and electrical properties of a GPR survey.
3.2.3 Other Plans
13) For a survey on a road, obtain permission for road usage beforehand and carry out the
survey under the terms of the permit.
14) Grass on the survey line should be mowed before the survey.
15) If the surface of the survey line is uneven we should smooth out the ground before the
survey.
Note
1) The height of antennas from the ground surface may need to be changed during the
measurements according to the type of antenna used. Some antennas are towed in contact
with the ground surface and others are mounted at a constant height from the ground.
4. Field Operations
4.1 Survey Line Arrangement and Location Survey
1) The locations of the survey lines should be marked out at the site. These are normally
painted on the ground or marked with chalk.
2) The starting and ending positions of each survey line should be recorded and marked
on a site plan map.
Description
When the survey area is on a road, a closure permit should be obtained from the relevant local
community or authorities. Survey lines are usually arranged on site by tape measure. Consider
the optimum survey line layout for the best efficiency. Features such as layout of roads, buried
objects, buildings, topography and vegetation should be noted to support the data. The site
conditions may not be as expected.
When performing a series of timelapse surveys like groundwater level monitoring, leave
posts or rivets on the ends of the survey line after the initial survey, so that you can repeat
subsequent surveys on the same line.
3) Check the proper operation of equipment and optimize the acquisition parameters.
4) Antennas should be moved at a constant speed.
5) The field observer’s logs should include relevant site information to assist
interpretation: the detailed locations of the GPR survey lines, variations in surface
conditions, sources of spurious reflections from aboveground metal objects close to
the survey lines.
6) The velocity of electromagnetic waves can be measured using the wideangle method,
if required.
7) When an antenna system with a transmitter and receiver combined in a single unit
(monostatic system) is used, we should estimate the velocity of the electromagnetic
waves using the twoway travel time to a target with known depth, such as a buried
pipe.
Notes
1) The same observation parameters should be used for the surveys on the same site.
2) For timelapse surveys, use the same parameters each time.
Supplementary Notes
1) The GPR equipment requires a power supply (normally, 9–24 V DC or 100 V AC).
2) Check the connections of cables after assembly of the equipment before turning the power
on.
3) Check the connections carefully, as some cables may carry high voltage.
4) If you turn on the electrical switch with insufficient connections, it may cause not only an
equipment failure but also an accident by electrical shock.
5) Wait until the equipment sufficiently warms up to generate sTable waveforms at a constant
zerotime position.
6) The internal circuits of some equipment may change its characteristics by temperature
variation. Especially in winter, it takes a while until the waveforms stabilize. Some
equipment may take several minutes to stabilize.
Description
The scene of data acquisition and a photo of the survey equipment are shown in Figure 4.1. A
“monostatic type” system is shown in this example, with which the transmitter and the receiver
antennas are integrated into one unit. There is another system called the “bistatic type”, with
which the transmitter and the receiver antennas are separated (Figure 4.2). A wideangle
observation is possible using a bistatic type system of antennas.
Recording parameters include record length, sampling rate, amplification factor and filter
parameters are determined according to the depth of the survey targets and the frequency of the
antennas. The odometer should be calibrated on site against a known distance.
The display equipment should be set up so that the operator can clearly see the monitor
screen. The antennas should be set up to obtain clear records during the survey. The antennas
are normally mounted on a wheeled trolley or sled to facilitate movement. Care should be taken
to avoid rough handling of the interconnecting cables between the controller unit and the
antennas because they may easily be damaged. Unexpected problems may occur when cables
are treated roughly, moreover, the wear of cables may be severe on an irregular surface. Snap
on strain relief loops are normally fitted to both ends of the cables to avoid pulling the cable out
of the connectors. Plastic spiralwrap cable protection can be added to the sections at the ends
of the controller cables, to prevent the cables being damaged by frequent tight bending. A spare
set of cables should be taken to the survey site.
Figure 4.1: The scene of data acquisition and an example of survey equipment.
The typical EM wave velocity of the survey site should be studied to obtain the depth of the
survey targets. Data processing routines such as migration require an accurate velocity
distribution. Therefore, velocity measurements by the wideangle method are strongly
recommended. Alternatively, the velocity can be obtained during postprocessing by analyzing
the hyperbolic diffraction patterns from the survey targets. It can also be estimated by using
information about the depth of the known target and the twoway travel time of the reflected
wave from the target. The velocity can also be determined in the laboratory, using undisturbed
core samples and a network analyzer, if equipment is available.
The relationship between relative permittivity and electromagneticwave velocity is
expressed by:
(1)
or
(2)
where
C: Electromagnetic wave velocity in a vacuum (= 2.998×108 m/sec),
V: Electromagnetic wave velocity in the ground (m/sec),
εr: Relative permittivity (nondimensional).
Recording can normally be completed in light rain during the survey, if adequate waterproof
covering is provided for the survey equipment. It is convenient to carry waterproof plastic
covers for the antennas, which can easily be attached when required. Heavy rain may saturate
the ground, causing an adverse effect on GPR signals and it may also cause failure of the
survey equipment.
Figure 4.2: Integrated (on the left) and separated (on the right) types of GPR antenna.
8) The quality of the results acquired on site should be assessed during or immediately
after the field survey, by examining the GPR images displayed on the monitor screen.
Notes
1) Ensure the repeatability of data by measuring more than once on the same survey line.
2) Time constraints may not allow checking the results of the entire survey.
3) Therefore, only check the key points including a file recorded at the beginning and the end
of the day and data acquired before and after a break.
4) Checking the size of the files is one of the ways to confirm data in the file.
Description
Mobile phones or twoway radios mounted on trucks may sometimes introduce noise. Spurious
airwave reflections from roll guards, a footbridge or vehicles may also contaminate the data.
The survey should be carried out after removing the noise sources or the data acquisition may
be repeated after the noise source goes away. If spurious airwave reflections are observed,
acquire the data again, moving the survey line locations slightly to avoid the noise
contamination. When the spurious airwave reflections cannot be removed, record the entire
record with the airwave noise and note the noise in the observer’s report. A postsurvey data
processing procedure, such as velocity filtering, may remove some of the noise.
Welldefined subsurface anomalies may be interpreted on site and marked directly on the
ground using chalk, paint or survey markers. More complex targets, for example archeological
ruins, may require sophisticated signal processing, which is normally carried out afterwards in
the office.
9) Exercise due care to prevent injury to the operators.
10) Safe traffic control is required to avoid accidents during surveys on roads.
11) During surveys on a slope or in high places, special caution is required to preventing
falling or rolling down. Under these specially dangerous situations, lifelines should be
worn to prevent accidents.
Notes
1) Sufficiently consider the safety measures to prevent accidents.
2) Special attention must be paid to prevent third parties (e.g., pedestrians or passing vehicles)
from being harmed.
3) In order to obtain permission for road usage, a sketch as shown in Figure 4.3 may be
required.
Description
In order to avoid accidents during GPR surveys on the public roads, traffic controllers, speed
control signs and barriers are recommended. For night surveys, reflective barriers should be
used and the operators should wear appropriate reflective clothing. Flashing lights and
reflective tape attached to the antennas may also be effective. For surveys on heavytraffic
roads, guard cars with flashing lights should be used to protect the operators and equipment.
Figure 4.3: Example of safety measures.
5. Data Processing
5.1 Production of Survey Location Map
1) A survey location map on an appropriate scale should be made to understand the total
configuration of the survey site by showing the layout of the GPR lines and their
relative locations.
Note
1) The survey line map in plan view is used for presenting the final survey results.
Supplementary Notes
1) Prepare a location map, which can be also used after the survey; for remedial construction,
for example.
2) Discuss with the client beforehand the figures that will be used in the deliverables.
Description
The map should include the layout of the GPR survey lines, scale and direction. Write the
condition of the field on the map as precisely as possible. The surveying positions measured
with a survey tape, GPS or a total station theodolite should be plotted by a CAD drawing.
Sketches and photos of the site are also useful in interpreting the survey results.
5.2 Production of GPR Profile Sections
2) To present analysis and interpretation of the GPR results, the GPR profiles are
normally displayed as 2D sections.
3) Digital signal processing is applied to the data if required.
4) The results are displayed on a graphic display using various color palettes or wiggle
traces.
Note
1) The data processing method is basically the same as the shallow seismic reflection method.
Description
It is common for the GPR profile to be displayed line by line. The interpreted objects, such as
buried pipes and cavities, are indicated on these 2D profile sections. In many cases, the raw
GPR data have sufficiently high S/N ratio for interpretation. However, if targets are complex or
with deeper layers, data processing sequences similar to shallow seismic reflection surveys are
applied.
The GPR processing includes the following routines:
a) Deconvolution filtering (to remove undesirable multiple echoes, or signal ‘ringing’).
b) Bandpass filtering (to reduce high or low frequency noise).
c) Moving average filtering (to smooth out jitter between waveforms).
d) Migration (to focus the hyperbolic diffractions from buried objects back to their true
positions).
e) Gain control (to control the acquired signal amplitude). This may be applied manually or
automatically, using automatic gain control (AGC).
f) Depth conversion. The timeaxis of the GPR section is converted to the depth axis using the
velocity of the electromagnetic wave or using the information of the known depth and the
twoway travel time of a target.
g) Topographic correction. Depth section after correction of the ground surface elevation is
created if it is needed.
Test processing should be conducted on selected lines to optimize the processing parameters
prior to the actual data processing. The following equation is used for the time to depth
conversion:
(3)
where,
d: depth (m),
V: velocity of electromagnetic wave (m/sec),
t: twoway travel time (sec), and
x: distance between transmitter and receiver antennas (m).
Usually, the processed data is recorded digitally onto the hard disc of a personal computer or
stored on removable external media such as rewriteable optical discs (CDRW, DVDRW) or
magnetooptical discs (MO). The GPR profiles are printed using standard printers or plotters.
6. Data Analysis
1) Discrete buried objects perpendicular to the survey line typically appear as hyperbolic
reflections in the raw data, with the hyperbolae projected downwards.
2) Subsurface layers appear as continuous reflectors on the GPR sections.
3) When the data are recorded with multiple lines on a grid, the results can be displayed
in a 3D plot.
Notes
1) GPR survey records may be displayed in color (described later).
2) The color display of the GPR results express the amplitude of a reflected electromagnetic
wave (reflectivity). It does not show the physical properties.
3) The display method of 3D GPR data includes the block or cubic diagram, the chair diagram
or the panel diagram, which combine the survey line and the twodimensional cross
sections.
4) The spatial distribution of the target can be displayed by time (or depth) slicing the 3D
volume.
Description
Reflection patterns in the raw GPR profiles do not represent the true shape or dip of subsurface
objects. Discrete buried objects (e.g., pipes or cavities) typically appear as hyperbola in the raw
data. Meanwhile, dipping layers appear as linear interfaces with shallower dip than their true
position in the ground. Figure 6.1 is an example of a GPR record with hyperbolic patterns from
pipes or cavities and continuous reflection events from layer boundaries.
Figure 6.1: An example of a GPR reflection section, including reflections from underground pipes,
cavities and layer boundaries.
The GPR data obtained on the parallel and dense survey lines should be displayed three
dimensionally. The plan view display of a threedimensional volume at an equal time is called
a time slice or time section. A time slice is a horizontal section at a given time range or depth
from the surface.
Various GPR sections are shown in Figure 6.2:
(a) Wiggle trace display: wave forms are displayed.
(b) Wiggle trace and variable area display: wave forms are displayed with the positive side
filled.
(c) Gray scale display: positive amplitudes are indicated in black, negative in white and zero in
gray or vice versa.
(d) Color display: There are various color display methods. In the example in Figure 6.2(d),
positive amplitudes are indicated in blue, negative in red and zero in yellow.
(e) Seismic color display: The color palette frequently used for the seismic reflection survey
results.
(f) Combined display: There are various methods for indication. Figure 6.2(f) shows an
example of the combination of (a) Wiggle trace display and (d) Color display.
The EM waves are emitted from the antenna and propagate underground, spreading in a
spherical shape (Figure 6.3). Therefore, not only the reflected waves from just below the survey
line but those from surrounding reflectors are received. A GPR antenna has 45 degree sensitive
zone one side, hence 90 degrees in total for both sides, although it varies depending on the
electrical properties of the subsurface media and EM wave frequencies. Therefore, the reflected
wave from local anomalies such as the buried pipes or cavities can be detected before the
antennas come directly above the targets. Initially, this reflection appears in a deeper zone. It
then comes to the shallowest position when the antenna comes directly above the reflector. And
then it moves gradually deeper again with the antenna moving away from the target. As a
result, a sequence of reflected waves appears as a hyperbolic curve.
The series of waves is called diffraction wave. The local anomalies (cavities and buried
pipes), which produce diffraction wave patterns, are called sources of diffraction. In the
example in Figure 6.1, assuming the velocity of the electromagnetic wave is 0.08 m/ns, 50 ns in
twoway time is equivalent to 2 m in depth; which means the vertical axis is enlarged by 2.5
times or, the horizontal axis is reduced by 1/2.5.
Diffraction waves from artificial images: buried pipes show a nearly bilateral symmetrical
shape, for example. However, with a natural cavity or an airraid shelter with an irregular
shaped ceiling, the curve often deviates from geometrical hyperbola. It sometimes shows
asymmetrical features. In some cases, two or more hyperbolas may be superimposed.
As the shape of a hyperbola changes with the subsurface electromagnetic wave velocity, the
velocity of the electromagnetic waves can be obtained by the shape of the hyperbola from the
subsurface targets (buried pipes or cavities).
Figure 6.2: Examples of survey results (central part of Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.3: A hyperbolic sequence of the reflection waves (diffraction waves) generated from local
anomalies (such as buried pipes or cavities).
7. Interpretation
1) Reflection patterns in GPR data are interpreted and categorized into classes: such as
geological boundaries, buried utilities or cavities. The interpretation results should be
summarized in plan view.
2) The survey results should be interpreted with due consideration of possible sources of
error in measurement and analysis.
3) Other complimentary geophysical investigation methods, such as the electromagnetic,
magnetic and/or resistivity surveys, may be combined where appropriate. These are
often helpful by complementing the GPR data.
4) By comparing it with the sketches or documentary photographs of a road surface on
site, examine the validity of the GPR survey result.
Notes
1) The interpretation of survey results by different interpreters may vary.
2) When GPR results are interpreted by an interpreter, checking and verification of the
interpretation by other technical experts may be beneficial.
Description
Survey targets should be decided according to the survey objectives. Reflection events on the
GPR profiles are interpreted and categorized into classes such as geological boundaries, pipes,
buried objects, loosened zones and cavities. It may be difficult to identify the nature of the
survey target from the results of GPR surveys alone. A careful observation of other features at
the site, including the presence of electrical junction boxes, water stop valves and sewage
covers, may contribute to the interpretation.
The 3D displays and time slices are effective in showing the relative locations of buried
utilities and artificial objects.
1) The deliverables (survey report) from the GPR surveys should e contain following
materials:
the name of survey location and a survey location map;
quantity of observation;
observation date;
description of survey method and the type of GPR equipment, including
antenna frequencies and recording time range;
survey line plot;
survey results;
data processing routines applied;
results of data processing and interpretation; and
conclusions, recommendations, future work required and other remarks.
Note
1) The survey report should be drawn up after sufficient discussion with the client, so that the
report can be used for subsequent planning or construction.
Supplementary Notes
1) Include in the report the following items as necessary:
a) Comparison with other survey results.
Other surveys include boring and other geophysical surveys.
b) Electronic delivery: electronic delivery should follow the standards and outlines
described below:
• the standard for electronic delivery of geological and soil investigation results
(proposal);
• the standard for digital photograph management information system (proposal); and
• the guideline for electronic delivery of the surveying results (proposal).
c) Digital data
The digital data, including waveform data, image data and land surveying data should
be delivered according to the wishes of the client. Especially when delivering waveform
data, it is desirable to save them in a common format like SEGY. Avoid formats that
are specific to a computer or program.
Description
The name of survey location and a survey location map:
Describe the address of the survey location in detail, so that the survey location can be
identified exactly. A survey location map is created by using materials like a topographical
map, a road map and the chart provided by the client. An example of a survey location map
is shown in Figure 8.1.
Quantity of observation:
Surveyline names, number of surveylines and surveyline length should be described. A
summarized list as in Table 8.1 makes it easier to understand. The final redemption of the
survey costs may be based on this.
Observation date:
Describe the survey date. It presents important information for temporal variation of the
ground caused by the development of cavities or loosening below a road.
Description of survey method and type of GPR equipment:
As there are a lot of variations in GPR surveys, the method used for the particular survey
should be described here. A specification Table like Table 8.2 may sufficiently describe
equipment and enter the frequency of antennas and other parameters.
Survey line plot:
The location of survey lines should be displayed on a plan view map. The scale of the map,
orientation and geological conditions relevant to the survey site should be included in the
map and reflected in the interpretations.
Survey results:
The survey results are displayed with the vertical axis in twoway travel time (ns) or depth
(m or cm) and the horizontal axis for lateral distance (m). The survey results should be
displayed in a consistent manner (e.g., survey line number order) and direction (e.g., usually
from west and south to the left and east and north to the right). Orientations and directions
should be included in the survey results, so that they can be compared with other plan view
materials such as survey line plots or survey result maps.
Data processing routines applied:
Description of the data processing should include the procedures and parameters in detail.
The processing procedure presented as a flow chart (as shown in Figure 8.3) is easier to
understand. The data processing has to be reproducible. Especially when a series of time
lapse surveys is performed, the same data processing procedure and parameters should be
used.
Results of data processing and interpretation: Interpreted survey targets such as cavities,
buried pipes and layer boundaries should be clearly displayed in the survey results.
Comments should be added as necessary. Finally, the interpretation results should be
summarized and plotted into the plan view map; examples are shown in Figure 8.4 and
Figure 8.5.
Conclusions, recommendations, future work and other remarks:
The conclusion (essence) of the survey should be described. Based on the GPR survey
results, an additional survey may be proposed if necessary. In addition, the deliverables
should be summarized, as this can be used for subsequent construction.
Figure 8.1: Example of survey location map.
Items Specifications
Center frequency of the transmitted wave (width of 500 MHz (2 nsec)
transmitted pulse)
Transmitted voltage 50 Vpp
Receiver gains 60 dB
STC gains 20 dB
Recording length 200 nsec
Sampling interval (real time) 0.2 nsec
Inputandoutput impedance 50 Ω
Display and recording PC(HDD:4 GB)
Power supply AC100 V or DC12 V
Power consumption 350 W
(including PC)
Manufacturer XXX inc. Ltd. (2002)
Table 8.2: Example of the main specifications of the GPR equipment.
Figure 8.2: Survey line plot for buried pipe survey.
Figure 8.3: Example of data processing flow.
Figure 8.4: Example of the interpretation for a buriedpipe survey (estimated location of buried pipes).
Figure 8.5: Example of the interpretation for a cavity survey (plan view of estimated location of
cavities).
References
Annan, A.P. (2005) GroundPenetrating Radar. In: NearSurface Geophysics, Chapter 11, (ed.
D.K. Butler). Society of Exploration Geophysics, pp. 357–438.
Further Reading
Bachrach, R. and Mukerji, T. (2005) Analysis of 3D HighResolution Seismic Reflection and
Crosswell Radar Tomography for Aquifer Characterization: A case Study. In: NearSurface
Geophysics, (ed. D.K. Butler). Society of Exploration Geophysics, 607–620.
Everett, M.E. (2013) Groundpenetrating Radar, NearSurface Applied Geophysics, Chapter 9.
Cambridge University Press, pp. 239–278.
Jol, H.M. (Ed.) (2009) Ground Penetrating Radar: Theory and Applications. Elsevier, pp. 524.
Von der OstenWoldenburg, H.V.D. (2005) Application of GroundPenetrating Radar,
Magnetic and Electric Mapping and Electromagnetic Induction Methods in Archaeological
Investigations. In: NearSurface Geophysics, Chapter 23, (ed. D.K. Butler). Society of
Exploration Geophysics, pp. 621–634.
Zhou, H., Lane Jr., J.W. and Sato, M. (2005) Fracture Imaging and Saline Tracer Monitoring
by Crosshole Borehole Radar. In: NearSurface Geophysics, Chapter 19, (ed. D.K. Butler).
Society of Exploration Geophysics, pp. 563–571.
9 Gravity Survey
1. General
1) In gravity surveys, the gravitational acceleration is measured using gravimeters and
then subsurface structures are estimated from spatial variations of the gravity values
observed.
2) There are three major methods in the gravity survey:
regional gravity survey;
microgravity survey; and
gravity gradiometer survey.
Notes
1) The microgravity survey is mainly applied to civil engineering problems.
2) Gravity values depend on the densities of buried causative bodies.
3) The μGal (micro Gal) is used as a unit of the gravitational acceleration for microgravity
surveys.
4) Gravity surveys need high accuracy for the measurements of elevations of gravity stations.
Supplementary Note
1) Highsensitivity gravimeters are recommended for microgravity surveys.
Description
Gravity surveys have been widely used as a geophysical method to understand general
subsurface structures as measurement gravity by gravimeters is relatively easy. A gravity
survey is a method to estimate the subsurface density distribution. Gravity values observed on
the ground are affected by various causes. To estimate the subsurface density distribution
effects caused by other sources must be eliminated. The larger the density contrast between the
causative body and its surroundings is, the easier it is to estimate the dimension of the causative
body. An example of subsurface structures and their corresponding gravity anomaly patterns in
microgravity surveys is shown in Figure 1.1.
Regional gravity surveys usually takes place over the areas from a few to 100 square
kilometers with a gravity station interval of several hundred meters or more and estimate
regional subsurface structures to depths from several hundred meters to a few kilometers.
Microgravity surveys with a gravity station distance from a few meters to several tens of meters
are applied to civil engineering problems such as mapping basement structures and voids. In
this chapter, the conventional gravity survey is referred to as a regional gravity survey or an
ordinary gravity survey, as opposed to the microgravity survey. The absolute gravity values are
usually used for ordinary gravity surveys but not for microgravity surveys.
Figure 1.1: Subsurface structures and their corresponding gravity anomaly patterns.
The first vertical derivative of gravity distribution is called the vertical gravity gradient.
Small subsurface structures such as voids can be investigated by the vertical gravity gradient
more clearly than by microgravity surveys and is not likely to be affected by topographic relief.
The vertical gravity gradient is usually observed by gravity gradiometers but few institutions
can afford a gradiometer because it is expensive. Therefore, as shown in Figure 1.2(c), the
vertical gravity gradient is often observed by two ordinary gravimeters placed on two tables
with different heights at the same horizontal location. In this book, explanations of
microgravity surveys applied mainly to civil engineering problems are highlighted.
The unit of gravity is m/s in SI but Gal (= cm/s2) in cgs is usually used for gravity surveys.
The mGal (= 103 Gal = 105 m/s2) and μGal (= 106 Gal = 108 m/s2) are used for ordinary
gravity surveys and microgravity surveys, respectively. In this book, the Gal is used though the
gal is also useable. The unit of μGal/m has been used for the vertical gravity gradient recently.
The unit of density is 103kg/m3 in SI but alternatively g/cm3 is used in this book because of
practices in soil surveys, including gravity surveys.
Figure 1.2: Types of gravity surveys.
2. Applications
1) In gravity surveys, the gravitational acceleration is measured using gravimeters and
then subsurface structures are estimated from spatial variations of the gravity values
observed.
2) There are three major methods in the gravity survey:
regional gravity survey;
microgravity survey; and
gravity gradiometer survey.
Notes
1) In case of the measurement sensitivity of 5μGal, a void of 1 m thick can be detectable down
to 1 m depth.
2) The detectable depth of horizontal long voids like airraid shelters becomes deep.
Supplementary Notes
1) Continuous gravity measurements are sometimes used for monitoring magma and water
movements in volcanic environments.
2) Published gravity maps can be used for understanding regional gravity distributions.
Description
Detectable depths of voids by microgravity surveys are as follows: assuming a void of 1 m3
without water in a surrounding layer with a density of 1.8 g/cm3, a gravity anomaly is observed
as shown in Figure 2.1. This map shows that small subsurface structures are not easily
detectable but larger structures, such as long airraid shelters and/or abandoned galleries, are
sometimes detectable down to a depth of around 10 m.
Figure 2.1: Voids and gravity anomalies detectable by microgravity surveys.
To better understand large geological structures such as faults and calderas, regional gravity
surveys are conducted for oil, metal and geothermal explorations by major research institutions.
However, these surveys need a large budget. Therefore, it is better to use existing gravity maps
published by public organizations, in case of academic research, engineering geology and hot
spring surveys. The National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)
publishes a gravity database and gravity maps on CDROM. AIST, Japan Coast Guard,
University of Tokyo, Nagoya University and others publish gravity maps with various scales
corresponding to the objectives of each map. AIST also publishes geologic maps with gravity
contours.
3. Survey Planning and Preparation
3.1 Decision of Methods and Basic Planning
1) Microgravity surveys are applied in case of the following:
the density contrast between the target and surroundings is more than 0.5
g/cm3;
terrain surface is as flat as possible;
the ground surface is made of firm material such as asphalt; and
no major roads, factories and cliffs within a radius of 100 m.
Supplementary Notes
1) In advance, it is necessary to collect and look through existing materials as follows:
topographic maps;
geologic maps;
columnar sections of drilling cores; and
gravity measurement data collected from neighborhood.
2) The g/cm3 is used as the unit of the density of soil in microgravity surveys.
Description
In gravity surveys, gravity anomalies depend on density contrasts between a target and its
environment. For instance, gravity anomalies by voids without water are more obvious than
those saturated with water. The g/cm3 in cgs is used for the unit of density. Densities of
materials that compose the ground are shown in Table 3.1. Incidentally, 2.67 g/cm3 is adopted
as an average crustal density and equals approximately that of granites.
Materials Density (g/cm3) Materials Density (g/cm3)

Air Nearly 0 Soft rock layer 2.2∼2.5
Water Nearly 1 Hard rock layer 2.5∼3.0
Soil 1.5∼2.1 Metal deposits 2.8∼3.5
Table 3.1: Densities of materials that compose the ground.
Terrain correction is adapted to gravity measurements to eliminate the effects of terrain
undulation. However, some artifacts of gravity anomalies may arise if the terrain undulation is
too rough to correct. The survey area should be as flat as possible because the closer to the
terrain undulation, the larger the terrain effects become. If the ground is soft, it is difficult to
make gravimeters even with the ground, causing lack of accuracy of gravity measurements and
determinations of instrument and terrain heights. It is desirable to conduct gravity
measurements on ground that is as hard as possible.
If the ground is shaking when making measurements, it is difficult to conduct highaccuracy
measurements. It is better to be away from vibration sources such as major roads and factories.
It is also desirable to be away from steep cliffs when conducting measurements because terrain
correction does not work well for the areas close to steep cliffs.
There are various subsurface structures which cause the same gravity anomaly, as no unique
solution can be obtained by interpretation only from gravity anomalies. Geological information
including vertical information can help in this situation. Information from drillings is
indispensable for the interpretation as control data.
It is important to estimate the appropriate densities of subsurface structures by referring to
geologic maps. If information from drillings can be incorporated, the accuracy of the
interpretation increases. If necessary, it is better to conduct rock sampling from outcrops and
drilling cores and measure the densities of those rocks. However, subsurface structures
estimated by gravity interpretation sometimes does not make sense if densities estimated by the
measurements of rock samples are used. The measured densities are often larger than those of
the target layers since it is difficult to measure the densities of unconsolidated soil and rocks as
well as rocks with many cracks. The measured densities should be treated as references.
It might be dangerous if you believe asphalt roads are always hard. On hot summer days with
an air temperature of 30 °C or higher, the temperature of the asphalt road surface can exceed 40
°C and the asphalt becomes soft. When this occurs, a gravimeter sinks into the asphalt unevenly
by its own weight though the asphalt seems to be hard. There is little issue if the gravimeter
sinks evenly. However, they cannot be kept horizontal when they sink unevenly and a high
accuracy measurement is impossible. Furthermore, it is not easy to squat on the ground to take
gravity readings because of the intense reflected heat. It is better to avoid gravity measurements
in the middle of a hot summer’s day.
3.2 Survey Planning
2) The area of the survey should be five times as large as the depth of the target in each
direction.
3) Station intervals should be shorter than the lateral dimension of a target.
4) Gravity stations should be distributed depending on the target.
5) Leveling methods are planned as follows:
leveling with levels and staffs;
surveying with electrodistance meters; and
GPS surveying.
Notes
1) It is difficult to image a target with dimensions smaller than 1 m.
2) Leveling by portable GPS receiver is not accurate enough for microgravity surveys.
Supplementary Notes
1) A survey line for gravity stations should be oriented as perpendicular to targets and
structures as possible.
2) If the position of target is uncertain, spread gravity stations twodimensionally
3) Use roads to place stations.
4) If the survey area has only gentle topographic variation, elevations can be read from
topographic maps without a leveling survey.
Description
The lateral extent of the gravity anomaly depends on the depth of the target regardless of
whether it is a void or subsurface structure: the deeper the target is, the more extensive the
anomaly becomes. Therefore, the extent of a survey area depends on the depths of targets. It
needs an extent five times as large as the target depth. However, it does not mean that the
survey area is 10 m to search for a void located 2 m below the ground. If surveying for a void
located 2 m below ground within an area of 50 m, the survey area requires 70 m in each
dimension or more.
When surveying for air raid shelters, abandoned galleries and faults aligned in a specific
direction, survey lines should be planned perpendicular to their orientation. If the orientation of
the target is uncertain, the gravity stations should be distributed twodimensionally. When
surveying for a basement structure in the area of interest, stations should be also distributed
twodimensionally. If the survey area is large, it is better to use roads with little traffic. If the
ambient vibration is not severe, a gravity survey can be conducted in commercial and
residential areas. Figure 3.1 shows examples of station distribution schemes.
Figure 3.1: Example of station planning of microgravity surveys.
Leveling surveys should be carried out for all the stations within a survey area; the elevations
should be measured to centimeter accuracy in a microgravity survey. Leveling surveys with an
optical level and staffs are practical where the areas of the microgravity surveys are not too
large. Surveying with electrodistance meters is suitable for microgravity surveys because it
can survey efficiently and the horizontal location can be measured with good accuracy. The
accuracy of leveling is inferior to the optical leveling survey. The accuracy of leveling of a
portable GPS receiver is not sufficient and a differential GPS positioning with a base and
mobile stations should be used. Realtime GPS using wireless communication with a base
station or a combination of GPS surveys and total station surveys are suitable for a
microgravity survey. In ordinary gravity surveys, a leveling survey with an optical level and
staffs used to be commonplace but the differential GPS survey, which can measure the
horizontal locations with high accuracy as well, has taken its place recently and it has also
reduced the survey costs.
3.3 Survey Preparation
6) Obtain access permissions from land owners and administrators to enter the
properties.
7) Identify the locations and time of vibration sources in the survey areas.
Note
1) Confirm the stiffness of land and vegetation in survey areas.
Supplementary Notes
1) Make residents in survey areas well aware of the surveys.
2) Collect rock samples to make density measurements, if possible.
Description
A gravity survey is easy to conduct; only by reading measurements of gravimeters on the
ground or on platform and it is a safe survey method without causing any vibration or noise.
However, access permissions to enter land properties should be obtained from their owners and
administrators beforehand. When gravity and leveling surveys are planned especially at night,
information about the surveys should be also circulated among residents of the survey areas in
advance, to avoid confrontations.
The locations of vibration sources and times when vibrations occur in survey areas need to
be identified since vibrations are obstacles to gravity surveys. If vibration decreases at night
and/or early morning, gravity measurements should be planned then.
Ground with soft soil and much vegetation affects gravity measurements. Confirmations by
preparatory surveys and eliminating problems are recommended, since it is difficult to
anticipate these situations only by seeing topographic maps. Collecting rock samples from
outcrops or cores from drilling in the neighborhood for density measurement is also
recommended.
4. Filed Measurements
4.1 Survey Equipments
1) Highsensitivity relative gravimeters with a sensitivity of 10 μGal or less are used for
gravity measurements.
2) Additional equipment used on demand are:
clocks;
tape measures;
fieldnotes;
measurement platforms; and
leveling equipment.
Note
1) Use calibrated gravimeters.
Supplementary Notes
1) Prepare special platforms in case of soft ground or for gradiometer surveys.
2) To mark spots of stations, prepare:
spray paint;
measure nails;
measure stakes; and
marking tapes.
3) Prepare portable GPS receivers for locating stations.
Description
Two types of gravimeters are: 1. absolute gravimeters, which measure absolute gravity values
at each station, and 2. relative gravimeters, which measure differences between master and
moving stations. Absolute gravimeters are usually large. It drops an object in a chamber many
times and absolute gravity is calculated by averaging the change of its velocity. These are
seldom used for gravity surveys. On the other hand, the relative gravimeters are small: these
only measure relative variation of gravity from extensions of a spring by hanging a weight
within a temperaturecontrolled chamber. These are used for almost all the ordinary gravity and
microgravity surveys. Superconductor gravimeters, based on electromagnetic repulsion, with
an extraordinary sensitivity have been recently developed but they are seldom used for gravity
surveys because of their price and high maintenance costs.
As of 2008, typical springbased digital relative gravimeters are available from two
manufactures. Analogue gravimeters, which were commonly used in the twentieth century, are
no longer sold now but they can still be used for surveys as long as they are properly calibrated.
Calibration of gravimeters is carried out at several stations where precise gravity values have
been determined and their validity confirmed. Usually, a gravimeter with measurement errors
less than 100 μGal are approved for use. Gravity stations are officially prepared for calibration
by the Geographical Survey Institute of Japan (GSI) (discussed in Section 4.2) and those
prepared independently by GSI, the Geological Survey of Japan, AIST and universities.
In gravity measurements, recording of observation time and heights of gravimeters is
indispensable. Clocks and bowlshaped plates for leveling are necessary for gravity
measurements by analog gravimeters. On a soft ground, platforms with long legs stacked deep
into the ground can make the measurements stable. A solid platform is necessary for stable
measurements in the gravity gradiometer surveys. The heights are measured by a tape measure,
since it is difficult to keep the heights of gravity sensors of gravimeters constant from the
ground for all the stations.
Fieldnotes are indispensable for gravity measurements by analog gravimeters, to keep
records of observed gravity values, observation time and heights of gravimeters. Even for a
gravity survey with a digital gravimeter, fieldnotes are recommended to sketch terrain cross
sections for terrain correction. A leveling survey uses, an automatic level, staffs and staff
platforms. An electrooptical distance measurement survey uses an electrooptical distance
meter and total stations with prisms. A GPS surveying requires a differential GPS system.
Leveling is often conducted at the same site as gravity measurement, and the stations are
marked in advance. If gravity stations are situated on a solid surface such as pavement,
concrete and stones, the locations are marked by spray paint and measure nails. If gravity
stations are on soft ground or soil, the locations are marked by marking stakes. Marking tapes
with station numbers attached to gravity stations will improve survey efficiency, reducing the
chances of mistakes related to station numbers.
A gravimeter is the most important instrument for gravity surveys. Textbooks on the gravity
method devote many pages to gravimeters. As of 2008, there are two springbased relative
gravimeters available: by LaCoste & Romberg and Scintrex. They are explained below.
(1) LaCoste & Romberg gravimeter (Photo 4.1)
A springbased analog relative gravimeter manufactured by LaCoste & Romberg, US. This was
the most popular gravimeter and it was a synonymous of the gravimeter from 1970 to around
2000, because of its highsensitivity, small drift and stable measurement. The stability of its
spring is said to be better than Scintrex gravimeter, which is the mainstream now. LaCoste &
Romberg gravimeters manufactured 30 years ago can still be used for gravity surveys.
Coefficients converting from measurement readings to gravity values are prepared exclusively
for each gravimeter with own serial number and are recommended to be periodically examined
for adjustment. This gravimeter has two types: standard Gtype with a reading resolution of 1
μGal and Dtype with a reading resolution of 0.1 μGal. The Dtype is more suitable for
microgravity surveys. The Gtype has a wide measuring range of more than 5,000 mGals and
can be used all over the world. Whereas the measuring range of the Dtype is narrower at
around 200 mGals, and some adjustments are necessary to fit readings into the measuring range
when latitudes and altitudes of survey areas vary. Some adjustments are recommended on site
before the start of surveys since the drift does not stabilize immediately after the adjustments.
LaCoste & Romberg gravimeters keep the temperature of springs at 50 –60 degrees Centigrade
by a heater to limit extensions of the springs. The heaters should be plugged in all the time if
possible or at least one week before the start of surveys, since it takes some time for the
extension of the springs to become stable. The heaters are also connected to batteries on site
and during moves. Fullycharged spare batteries are recommended at all times. LaCoste &
Romberg gravimeters have clamps to fix the springs. The clamps are used to tighten and fix the
springs all the time except while taking measurements.
Photo 4.1: LaCoste & Romberg Gtype gravimeter.
Photo 4.2: Scintrex gravimeter (CG5).
(2) Scintrex gravimeter (Photo 4.2)
A springbased digital relative gravimeter manufactured by Scintrex Co. Ltd, Canada. It is easy
to take gravity measurements as it is a digital gravimeter. This gravimeter has become the
mainstream of gravimeters after 1990s as this gravimeter has many easytouse functions such
as outputs of tidal corrected gravity values and automatic leveling in itself.
As of 2008, it is one of the dominant digital relative gravimeters in the marketplace. The drift
of this gravimeter is larger than a LaCoste & Romberg gravimeter but it can easily be corrected
because of its linearity.
4.2 Establishing Base Stations
3) Before starting surveys, gravity base stations should be established in areas which
satisfy the following requirements:
close to the survey site;
calm environments with little vibration;
solid ground surface; and
not obstructive to traffic.
Notes
1) Repeat gravity measurements are taken at the base stations at the start and end of each
survey.
2) Base stations should be marked by spray paints or survey nails to ensure to recapture the
same point.
Supplementary Notes
1) The gravity value at each base station should be tied to the absolute gravity of the Japan
Gravity Standardization Net 1996 (JGSN96) (Yamamoto et al. 1998) as well as JGSN75.
2) Benchmarks and triangulation stations can be used for base stations.
Description
Gravity base stations have two roles. The first role is as a site to close looping procedure for
correction of instrumental drift. Gravity measurements are taken at the same base station at the
start and end, forming a loop through ordinary stations. The difference in two measurements
after tidal correction is due to instrumental drift, which is caused by stretching of the
gravimeter spring. The quality of measurements is judged by the amount of drift. Therefore,
gravity measurements of base stations should be taken at the exactly same point and for this
reason the base station is marked by spray paint and/or survey nails.
The other role of the base station is to tie in with other surveys. By using the same base
stations, we can compare several gravity surveys in different areas. If we relate the
measurements to IGSN96 absolute values, we can compare the values all over the world. The
JGSN96 absolute gravity values are determined by relative gravity measurements at the
benchmarks and triangular spots, where the Geographical Survey Institute (GSI) established
absolute gravity values. The information about station names, latitudes, longitudes, elevations,
absolute gravity values and station ranks can be searched at the GSI’s web site
(http://vldb.gsi.go.jp/sokuchi/gravity/grv_search/gravity.pl), by name of 1:200,000 and/or
1:50,000 topographic map sheet. Select a JGSN location close to the survey area and take
relative gravity measurements at the JGSN location and the base station of the survey to relate
the survey to the JGSN absolute gravity value at the point. Since many benchmarks and
triangular points have moved and are hard to be find, confirm the locations of these JGSN
localities on 1:25,000 topographic maps and download layout maps called ‘Tennoki’ from the
GSI’s web site (http://sokuservice1.gsi.go.jp).
4.3 Measurement Procedures
4) Gravity measurements are taken by loops as follows:
Base station → Gravity station 1 → Gravity station 2 ⋯ → Gravity station N → Base
station (N: station number)
5) Measurement procedure at a gravity station is as follows:
Establish the locations of the gravity stations at provisional spots of a survey plan and/or
appropriate for the particular survey.
Set up a gravimeter horizontally at a gravity station.
Take a gravity measurement and record the gravity reading and the time of the
measurement in a field note:
repeat measurements three times or more to confirm repeatability;
measure the instrument height and record;
move the gravimeter and mark the location of the station; and
sketch a topographic crosssection within 20 m from the station.
Notes
1) Establish stations at flat locations without rugged terrain nearby.
2) The locations of stations may be moved if the planned locations are very close to ditches or
retaining walls.
3) Pay attention to not causing severe shocks and vibrations to gravimeters while moving and
measuring.
4) Microgravity measurements are taken by looping with shortest possible time span between
base station measurements.
5) If the amount of the drift found by looping is large, repeat measurements at all the stations
observed.
Supplementary Notes
1) Take gravity measurements on a flat and solid ground such as pavement, roads and/or stone
paving.
2) Measurements cannot be taken during earthquakes.
3) Surveys are efficiently conducted by a pair of operators: one takes a gravity measurement,
the other sketches the topographic crosssection at the same time.
Description
Like a looping procedure in surveying, gravity measurements start at the base station, followed
by subordinate stations and end at the same base station by looping. During the survey period,
base station measurements are taken at least at the start and end of each day, or even better to
return to the base station for repeat measurement from one to three times in a day. Repeat
measurements at all the stations of the loop if the amount of the drift is large.
Although the terrain effect is removed by the terrain correction, it cannot be perfect.
Therefore, the stations should be established at flat and solid ground surfaces. The stations
should be away from ditches, retaining walls and slopes, as their effects decrease by the
distance. The same is true for an undulating terrain.
Set up a gravimeter horizontally at the established gravity station and take a measurement. A
digital gravimeter will automatically keep itself level if it is set up within a few degrees. An
analog gravimeter placed on a bowlshaped plate may need some adjustment of its level by an
adjustment screw. Photo 4.3(a) shows leveling the gravimeter.
Photo 4.3: Scene of a gravity measurement at a station (analog relative gravimeter).
The sensor of a springtyped relative gravimeter is adversely affected by a shaking ground
surface. Vibration caused by a passing car does not last long, and it diminishes in a short while.
However, precise measurements in areas with heavy traffic are difficult because the ground
vibrates continuously. Earthquakes, felt and unfelt, also prevent precise measurement and they
may last a long time. Then repeat measurements at base station and all the stations in the same
loop should be taken. If the ground at the station is soft, the amplitude of the vibration is large
and the gravimeter cannot be kept level. Therefore, the stations should be situated on a solid
ground if possible. If severe vibration and/or impacts are applied to a gravimeter, the spring
extension property may change. So, we should keep as quiet as possible during the
measurements. An analogue gravimeter has a clamp to fix the spring and is transported packed
in a special container. In transit, both digital gravimeters and analog gravimeter containers are
placed on sponges protected from vibration and impact, and fixed firmly to prevent falling.
We should repeat gravity measurements three or more times at a station to confirm
repeatability. The mean value of the repeated measurements with good repeatability is treated
as an observed value. After each gravity measurement, the height of the upper part of the
gravimeter from the ground is measured with a tape measure. Though the height strictly means
the height of the sensor of the gravimeter, but the height of a part of the gravimeter can
represent it as long as it is always consistent. Photo 4.3(b) shows measurement of the
instrument height.
After the measurements, the station locations are marked by spray paint, measuring nails and
stakes for a later leveling survey. Marking tapes may be used to post station numbers and
placed nearby. If gravity values at base stations are referenced to absolute gravity values, the
latitudes and longitudes of the stations are determined in the World Geodetic System 1984
(WGS84). A portable GPS receiver can be used for this purpose.
A crosssection of landmarks is sketched including ditches, retaining walls and slopes to the
direction perpendicular to the terrain within 20 m from the station. The heights and/or lengths
in the crosssection can be recorded by pacing off or eyeball estimation. The scales and/or
accuracies of crosssections in a fieldnote can vary among crosssections with distances
different from stations and ditches close to stations may be drawn exaggerated with numerical
values. Figure 4.1 shows an example of a crosssection sketched in a fieldnote.
Figure 4.1: Topographic crosssection for terrain correction as an example for fieldnotes.
4.4 Leveling
6) Level the elevation of a station with an accuracy of 1 cm or less.
Note
1) Determine the elevations of the stations where actual gravity measurements are taken.
Supplementary Notes
1) The elevation should be recorded referenced to sea level and tying to benchmarks and/or
triangular spots.
2) For microgravity measurements, the elevations can be determined by electrooptical
distance measurements.
Description
An error of 1 cm in leveling corresponds to a 3 μGal error in gravity measurement. The error in
leveling should be kept on the millimeter order since gravity anomalies detectable by a
microgravity survey are a few μGals. Loop closure error, ε (mm) corresponding to the third
order – the fourth order survey is acceptable for leveling using levels and staffs.
D: Length of loop in km.
The accuracy of electrooptical distance measurement is accepted since the area of
microgravity survey is small. It is not necessary for a microgravity survey to convert altitude
into elevation, as absolute gravity values are not required for the survey. However, it is
desirable to conduct a survey based on benchmarks and triangular spots established by the GSI.
We had better use benchmarks for leveling since the accuracies of altitudes of triangular spots
are on a cm order.
GPS survey has an enough accuracy compared to this accuracy. A GPS survey is more
economical than a leveling survey using an optical level and staffs for ordinary gravity surveys.
It also has the advantage of its capability of obtaining precise latitudes and longitudes and
corresponding rectangular coordinate values of stations.
Differential GPS surveys can calculate the difference between an observed altitude (altitude
from the Ellipsoid) and an elevation surveyed by leveling as the Geoid height. For that purpose,
we have to calculate the Geoid height accessing the GSI’s URL
(http://vldb.gsi.go.jp/sokuchi/geoid/calcgh/calcframe. html) and remove it from the observed
altitude to obtain the elevation.
5. Data Processing
1) Calculate a gravity value at each station from a measurement value by corrections as
follows:
tidal correction;
instrument height correction; and
instrument drift correction.
2) Calculate a gravity anomaly from a gravity value at each station by corrections as
follows:
latitude correction;
atmospheric correction;
terrain correction; and
freeair correction and Bouguer correction.
3) Plot a gravity anomaly value at the location of stations and draw a gravity map of
gravimetric contours.
Note
1) Gravity anomalies is calculated from observed values following general rules in earth
sciences.
Supplementary Notes
1) Readings of analog gravimeters are converted into gravity values before all the corrections.
2) In the microgravity survey, the area applied for terrain correction can be limited within the
distance of 20 m or 250 m from stations.
3) In the microgravity surveys, densities used for terrain correction and/or freeair corrections
are determined from collected geologic and drilling data.
4) Gravity anomalies calculated from absolute gravity values and elevations are called
Bouguer anomalies.
5) “Gravity map” means a gravity anomaly map.
6) Gravity anomalies without terrain correction are calculated in the field and the data quality
of measurements is evaluated by them.
Description
The reduction procedure to calculate gravity anomalies has long been established, because
gravity surveys are one of the most important methods in earth sciences, including geophysics
and geodesy. The procedure is shown in Figure 5.1. This section mainly describes the
procedure for microgravity surveys. The general procedure of each correction step is explained
as follows. The gravity unit used in this section is mGal. The correction procedure is described
in Chapter 8 Gravity Survey of the Handbook of Exploration Geophysics published by the
Society of Exploration Geophysicists of Japan (SEGJ, 1998) and it is explained here in further
detail.
(1) Gravity measurements: a
Reading from an analog gravimeter requires a conversion to gravity values in mGal, while a
digital gravimeter directly outputs a gravity value. In conversion, a specific equation with
conversion constants is provided for each instrument. These calibration constants are unique to
the instrument and should be clearly documented with the serial numbers of the gravimeter in
the survey report.
Figure 5.1: Data processing procedure of gravity surveys.
(2) Tidal correction: Td(t)
The gravity values are affected by the attraction of the moon and the sun fluctuating just like
the rises and falls of ocean tides. An example of this variation is shown in Figure 5.2. The
correction for this effect is called the tidal correction. The amount of the tidal correction, Td(t)
is calculated by a specific program as a function of time, t, latitude φ and longitude λ of the
measurement station. These programs are open to the public from research organizations.
Recent digital gravimeters can also show tidal corrected values while measurements. Tables of
correction values calculated at every five minutes should be prepared for gravity surveys with
an analog gravimeter beforehand. While tidal calculate correction values are desired for each
location (latitude, longitude), the value does not vary within an area of some 10 km squared. So
alternatively, the correction value may be adapted to the center of the survey area as long as the
survey area is not too large.
Figure 5.2: Example of tidal effect to gravity (July 25, 2009; 36° 14′N, 140° 6′E).
(3) Instrument height correction: I
Gravity measurement is the value at the height of gravimeter, not one at ground station
surveyed by leveling. The instrument height correction reduces gravity measurements to the
ground level. As shown in Figure 4.3(b), the height of the top of a gravimeter from ground h
(m) is measured and the amount for correction (I) is calculated using the following equation:
(4) Instrument drift correction: Dr(t)
This is the correction for the effect of the extension of the spring of gravimeter. The difference
between two measurements at the base station at the start and end of the looping is attributed to
the instrumental drift and tide. These are assumed to be timelinear and distributed to each
measurement through the loop for correction. In practice, the correction for instrumental drift,
tide and instrument height are bunched together and treated as total drift for each loop. The
amount of drift correction Dr (t) at time t is calculated from the difference Δab between initial
(tb0) and final (tb1) measurements at the base station:
where,
ab0: gravity value at the base station at the start of looping; Ib0: Instrument height correction,
ab1: gravity value at the base station at the end of looping; Ib1: Instrument height correction.
The gravity value at each station (gst) is calculated by adding the difference between station
and base values (Δg) to base values (gbase) as shown in the next equation. If the gravity values
at the base station are absolute gravity values, about 980,000 mGal, the gravity values at other
stations are also absolute gravity values:
where, gst: Gravity value at station, Ist: Instrument height correction.
The gravity anomalies (gb) originating only from the subsurface density distribution from the
gravity value (gst) at a station is extract through following procedure:
(1) Latitude correction
The latitude correction is the procedure to calculate the differences between observed gravity
values (gst) at a station in absolute values and the “normal” gravity values (γ(φ)) theoretically
calculated for the latitude (φ) of the station. If the gravity value at the station is not in absolute
value, the latitude correction is not necessary.
There are several equations to calculate the “normal” gravity. If the observed values are tied
to the absolute values from the JGSN96, the normal gravity is calculated by the following
equation:
In this equation, note that the unit of latitude is not degrees but radians. The latitudes used for
the correction are read from station locations on topographic maps or are measured by portable
GPS receivers during gravity measurements.
(2) Atmospheric correction
The latitude correction may result in an excessive adjustment for the normal gravity since the
mass of the atmosphere is included in the mass of the Earth, on which normal gravity is based.
The atmospheric correction removes this overcorrection of the latitude correction. The
atmospheric correction is unnecessary if the latitude correction is not applied to the gravity
values, i.e., when they are not obtained in absolute values.
The atmospheric correction (gair) is calculated using the station elevation (h(m)) by:
(3) Terrain correction
The terrain correction, shown in Figure 5.3, removes the vertical component of the
gravitational effects by the topographic undulation and reduces gravity values to a horizontal
plane. The terrain correction is always a positive addition since the topographic effects by both
topographic highs and lows reduce gravity values.
Figure 5.3: Concept of the terrain correction.
The effect of the topography away from the station is small and can be ignored. The range
necessary for the terrain correction depends on the size and purpose of the specific survey. A
microgravity survey only requires terrain correction within several km from each station. while
correction up to 50 km is recommended for ordinary gravity surveys.
A computer program calculates the terrain correction with digital elevation models (DEM),
as the calculation is somewhat complicated. The programs for correction are developed by
research organizations and commercial software is also available. In Japan, the Geographical
Institute of Japan provides the DEM with 50 m mesh and 250 m mesh.
2D models based on topographic crosssections sketched during gravity measurements are
often used for correction since the topography within a radius of 20 m from each station cannot
be obtained from the DEM. This manner of terrain correction is called terrain correction of the
nearest zone or terrain correction by sketching and has to be carried out at any cost in any
gravity survey.
For the calculation of the terrain correction (T(ρ)), the density of the ground (ρ(g/cm3)) has
to be assumed. This density for the terrain correction is called the “assumed density” or the
“reduction density” and its value is generally between 2.0 and 2.7 g/cm3. It is usually
determined by integrating the following three methods:
GH relationship map (Nettleton’s method) (Nettleton, 1939);
by comparing gravity maps and topographic maps;
rock density measurements.
All the above methods are not generally available for microgravity surveys and a reduction
density between 1.8 and 2.2 g/cm3 is determined from collected geologic and drilling data.
(4) Freeair Correction and Bouguer Correction
The freeair correction calculates normal gravity at a station. The amount of freeair correction
(gfa) is calculated from the elevation of the station (h(m)) by:
The Bouguer correction removes the gravitational effects of the mass between the station and
the mean sea level.
Assuming a slab with infinite lateral extent with a uniform density ρ and thickness h(m), the
Bouguer correction (gbg) is usually calculated using the station height (h(m)) and reduction
density (ρ(g/cm3)):
where G is the universal gravitational constant (= 6.673×1011 Nm/kg2).
Usually, the same reduction density used for the terrain correction is applied to the Bouguer
correction.
The residual gravity after applying corrections above is called the “gravity anomaly”. The
residual after applying the Bouguer correction is called the “Bouguer anomaly”.
A map with gravity contour lines and gravity anomalies at the station locations is called a
“gravity anomaly” map or a “gravity map”. When the map expresses the Bouguer anomaly, it is
called a “Bouguer anomaly map” or a “gravity map”. Most published gravity maps are Bouguer
anomaly maps. Figure 5.4 shows an example of a gravity map. Spreadsheet software can be
used for such a purpose since gravity corrections, except for the terrain correction, are
straightforward. The gravity corrections, except for the terrain correction, should be calculated
immediately after obtaining the gravity and leveling data. A gravity map can indicate gravity
anomalies conspicuously higher than the surroundings. It is recommended to repeat the gravity
and leveling measurements at those stations.
Figure 5.4: An example of a gravity map (scale: arbitrary).
The freeair correction calculates normal gravity at a station and removes it from the observed
gravity. It might be perplexing if gravity anomalies arising from anomalous bodies between the
ground surface and mean sea level diminish only by this correction. This is the case in most
microgravity surveys. Gravity anomalies may still remain after the Bouguer correction, which
removes the gravitational effects by the mass between a station and the mean sea level by
assuming a uniform density. After applying the freeair correction, the terrain effect still
remains and hence, anomalies arising from subsurface structures are not obvious. The
subsurface density distribution becomes clearer after applying both the terrain and Bouguer
corrections following the freeair correction.
Figure 5.5: Meaning of gravity anomalies after applying the Bouguer correction.
6. Analysis
6.1 Filtering Analysis
1) To estimate the depth of targets from gravity maps, the following analyses are carried
out:
trend analysis;
residual analysis; and
wavelength filtering.
Notes
1) For filtering analyses, the gravity values at grid points are read from gravity maps.
2) The information about the shallow subsurface structure is obtained from shortwavelength
anomalies by the following methods:
residual analysis;
downward continuation;
derivatives; and
lowcut, highcut and/or bandpass filtering.
3) The information about the deep subsurface structure is obtained from longwavelength
anomalies by the following methods:
trend analysis;
upward continuation; and
highcut or lowpass filtering.
4) The resultant anomalies after residual analysis are used for quantitative analyses.
Supplementary Note
1) Incorporating existing gravity data around the survey boundaries improves the accuracy of
filtering analyses at the edges of the survey area.
Description
Gravity anomalies contain density information on subsurface structures. Filtering analyses are
used to extract a density anomaly of a specific depth from the gravity anomalies. Figure 6.1
shows the concept of correlating short and longwavelength anomalies to the density
information of the shallow and deep subsurface structures. As microgravity surveys focus on
shallow targets, shortwavelength anomalies are of interest.
Figure 6.1: Schematic diagram of the filtering analysis.
Among various kinds of filtering analysis, the trend analysis and residual analysis are
commonly applied to microgravity surveys and they are explained here.
The density information of the deep subsurface structure within a limited area can be
approximated as a surface expressed by a simple thirdorder polynomial. This approximated
surface is called a trend surface. The shallow subsurface structure can be extracted with a
higherorder polynomial. The first to fifthorder polynomials are used to approximate the
density distribution. In microgravity surveys, the density structure is usually approximated by a
plane, namely the firstorder polynomial shown:
To apply the trend analysis, a gravity anomaly Δg(x,y) at the grid point (x,y) is first read on a
gravity map. The coefficients of a polynomial which approximates grid data (a0, a1 and a2 for
the firstorder trend shown above) are estimated by the least squares method.
Gravity anomalies are the sum of long and shortwavelength components representing
deeper and short shallow structures, respectively (Figure 6.1). Residual gravity gres(x,y)
obtained by a subtraction of a regional trend gt(x,y) from a gravity anomaly Δg(x,y) at each grid
point (x,y) is a shortwavelength component, which reflects shallow structures. This processing
to extract the shortwavelength component is called “residualizing”. Instead of using the
regional trend gt(x,y), an upwardcontinuation filter gup(x,y) may be applied for the calculation
of the residual gravity gres(x,y) as a longwavelength component. The distribution of residual
gravity gres(x,y) is used for both qualitative and quantitative interpretations. Figure 6.2 shows
the firstorder polynomial trend and residual gravity of the gravity anomaly in Figure 5.4.
Figure 6.2: Example of trend analysis and residualizing.
Other filtering analyses are discussed in the Handbook of Exploration Geophysics (SEGJ,
1998) and other literature. Figure 6.3 shows an example of use of a first vertical derivative
filter. The area with the dense contours at the edges of the map is an artifact of the filtering and
does not represent shallow subsurface structures. These areas should not be included in the
reports. If gravity data in the surrounding areas are incorporated, the filtering also works well
for the marginal parts.
Figure 6.4: Schematic diagram of prism models.
6.2 Quantitative Interpretation
2) A twodimensional quantitative interpretation estimates the subsurface structure

causing gravity anomalies or residual gravities along the crosssection of the survey
line.
3) A threedimensional quantitative interpretation estimates the subsurface structure
causing gravity anomalies or residual gravities under the survey area.
Notes
1) A quantitative interpretation for residual gravities estimates the density contrast not the
density.
2) A quantitative interpretation incorporates drilling data and knowledge of geology of the
area in estimating the subsurface structure from residual gravities.
Supplementary Notes
1) There are two kinds of quantitative interpretation:
interactive processing of revised subsurface models (Forward modeling); and
automated processing of obtained subsurface models (Inverse modeling).
Description
Although general features of the subsurface structure can be determined from gravity maps or
residual gravity maps, depths of voids and inclinations of faults are estimated by a quantitative
interpretation. The most common technique for quantitative interpretation is modeling gravity
anomaly by the method by Talwani et al. (1959). This method calculates gravity for relatively
simple subsurface models such as geologic layers, anomalous bodies and voids inferred from
known geologic information or drilling data. Comparing the modeled gravity with the gravity
data, the boundary or density of the causative body is modified for a better fit.
The recent development of the computer made it possible to estimate the threedimensional
density distribution of the subsurface. This section explains the quantitative interpretation to
estimate the threedimensional density distribution.
The vertical component of gravity by a prism is expressed as:
If the prism consists of an assemblage of threedimensionally distributed prisms, the residual is
calculated by:
(Banerjee and Das Gupta, 1977)
where, Δg is residual gravity (mGal), G is the universal gravitational constant, and Δρi,j,k is the
density contrast of each prism (g/cm3).
The density contrast of each prism is expressed by the next equation:
where, ρi,j,k is the density of each prism and ρ0 assumed density for the terrain and Bouguer

corrections (g/cm3).
First an initial density distribution is assumed. Gravity anomalies for the density distribution
are then calculated at all the stations and compared with the observed values. The density
distribution is modified by trial and error until the difference between the modeled and
observed gravity satisfies a certain condition for termination. An automated inverse modeling
such as the least squares method can be used to modify the density distribution model. When
determining the subsurface density distribution, incorporate known geologic information and
results of other geophysical surveys as much as possible to construct a simple model.
Figure 6.4: Schematic diagram of prism models.
During a quantitative interpretation, it is important to compare the gravity interpretation with
topographic and geologic information, drilling data and the results of rock density
measurements. It is necessary to confirm if the subsurface density distribution estimated from
the interpretation is consistent with known geologic information and other geophysical survey
results.
In microgravity surveys for voids, the locations of voids can be estimated by setting up a
small station interval. The estimated depths of voids should be kept as a reference, since the
density contrast cannot be determined without some information on what is in the voids; such
as water content or collapses.
Figure 6.5 shows an example of quantitative interpretation of a survey for air raid shelters.
This is one of the crosssections of a threedimensional model with 1 m cubes. The upper
Figure shows modeled values agree with observed residual gravities. The white parts of the
lower Figure correspond to voids. It estimates the voids are not saturated with water.
Figure 6.5: Example of quantitative interpretation (Shelter survey).
7. Deliverable
7.1 Main Deliverable
1) The following items should be included in the final report:
outline of surveys;
survey equipment;
survey method;
analysis method;
results; and
discussion of the results.
2) As for deliverables, following items should be included:
location map of survey area;
location map of gravity survey;
gravity maps;
filter analysis maps;
quantitative analysis maps; and
list of contents.
Notes
The final report should include information on:
1) The gravimeter used; model name and serial number.
2) The survey method: for the gravity survey and for leveling.
3) The analysis method: names and specifications of programs used.
4) A location map of the gravity survey: locations, names of survey lines and base station and
gravity station number.
5) Plane figures such as a locality map of the survey, a location map of gravity stations and
gravity maps with scales and geographic reference marks.
6) Survey summary table should include the following items for each station: • coordinates
(latitude and longitude);
elevation;
reading of gravimeter;
observed (absolute) gravity;
gravity corrections; and
(Bouguer) Gravity anomaly.
Supplementary Notes
1) Each LaCoste & Romberg gravimeter has its own unique conversion table; it should be
included in the report.
2) Layout maps and photos of base stations should be included.
3) Fieldnotes of gravity surveys and leveling are preferable to be included as support
information.
Description
A final report should include details of the survey and analysis methods used and description of
survey and analysis results. In gravity surveys, the depth of investigation depends on the size of
survey area and the resolution depends on the station interval. Understanding of the subsurface
structure of interest is described within the limitations of the survey specifications, which
should be accounted for at the planning stage.
The summary data table should include the original reading and as many other items used for
processing as possible; these gravity data can easily be incorporated into subsequent followup
surveys. Locations of the gravity stations should be described in the geographic coordinates of
latitudes and longitudes because of their repeatability. When using an orthogonal coordinate
system, the name and specifications of the coordinate system should be described in the report.
If gravity anomalies are calculated for different assumed densities, corrections and resultant
gravity anomalies for all the assumed densities should be included. Names and serial numbers
of gravimeters used should be included and equations used for each correction need to be
described as accurately as possible. If commercial software was used for gravity corrections
and analyses, the author and name and version of the software should be included. For
following surveys, the base stations are documented with a plotted location map, coordinates
(latitude, longitude), layout maps and photos. If the gravity values at the base stations are
determined as absolute gravity values, coordinates, station names and absolute gravity values
of the reference points should also be indicated.
Scales and geographic reference marks should be specified on plan view figures. Contour
maps such as a gravity map should record contour intervals, contour values and color scales for
colored on the same sheet.
7.2 Electronic Delivery
3) A contents summary table may be delivered electronically in text format or common
spreadsheet format.
4) Maps such as gravity maps should be prepared according to the standard specified by
the Procedure for Electronic Delivery of Civil Engineering Design Work.
Notes
1) Maps should be created in common image format.
2) Electronic files should be delivered on common media.
3) The media and their cases should list the survey information such as the title of survey,
creators and contents of electronic files on them.
Supplementary Notes
1) The maps attached to the report should be in the format of the application software and in a
common image format.
2) Supplementary materials such as fieldnotes should be electronically scanned and delivered
in a common image format.
3) Inclusion of a note describing the format of the electronic files and importing method is
recommended in the text format on the same media.
Description
The Procedure for Electronic Delivery of Civil Engineering Design Work by the Ministry of
Land, Infrastructure and Transport (MLIT)
(http://www.mlit.go.jp/tec/it/cals/panf/CALS_E.pdf) requires a delivery of reports in image
files for a geophysical survey. Image files should be delivered in a common format such as
PDF or JPEG.
In the gravity survey report, the numerical summary tables are the most useful. Such tables
are recommended to be delivered in electronic files even if they are not required in the survey
specifications. The final summary tables should be written in a formatted text file or a text file
with delimiters such as CVS. The tables could be also delivered in a common spreadsheet
application format. The record format and its column order of each item should be described in
the report and also included in a text file on the same media.
The report should be delivered electronically on common media. As of 2008, CD and DVD
are versatile media. Floppy disks are considered obsolete, although they were the mainstream
before 2000. There is also the possibility that CD and DVD will lose their popularity in the
future.
References
Banerjee, B. and Das Gupta, S.P (1977) Gravitational attraction of a rectangular parallelepiped.
Geophysics 42, 1053–1055.
Nettleton, L.L. (1939) Determination of density for reduction of gravimeter observations.
Geophysics 4, 176–183.
Talwani, M., Worzel, J.L. and Landisman, M. (1959) Rapid gravity computations for two
dimensional bodies with application to the Mendocino submarine fracture zone. Journal of
Geophysical Research 64, 49–59.
Yamamoto, H., Nishimura, O. and Fujiwara, S. (1998) Establishment of the Japan Gravity
Standardization Net 1996. Bulletin of the Geographic Survey Institute 44, 1–10.
10 The Magnetic Survey (Buried Metal Survey)
1. General
1) The magnetic survey uses a magnetometer to detect metal (mainly iron) objects buried
under the ground.
2) Sometimes, a buried metal object survey by using metal detector is included in the
magnetic survey.
Notes
1) The magnetic survey in this chapter does not include the largescale application used for
exploring for mineral deposits.
2) The magnetic survey provides information on the presence and location of iron objects.
However, it is difficult to judge the precise shape or composition of the source objects (as
for other methods).
3) As the strength of the signal is related to the size of the source, small sources may not be
detected near other anomaly sources, such as piers.
4) In many cases, the electric railroads and highvoltage power lines may cause noise in the
observations.
Description
Various manmade objects are buried near the subsurface. Among them, those buried in recent
years are mostly metallic (mainly of iron). They may be still in use, left after service or
disposed of. The public works often needs to know the presence and the location of buried iron
objects, including dangerous unexploded or abandoned bombs and mines, buried pipelines,
foundation piles, Hbeams and sheet piles, reinforced concrete and steel waste.
There are two methods commonly applied for a buried metal survey:
magnetic survey; and
metal detector survey.
In the magnetic survey, a magnetic sensor measures local disturbance of the Earth’s magnetic
field, to detect the presence of ferrous magnetic bodies. In the metal detector survey, an
electromagnetic wave is transmitted into the ground to sense the electromagnetic response of
metal (conductive) bodies.
It is necessary to select a suitable method for survey objectives considering the nature of the
target objects and conditions of the survey site. Both principles may often be used stage by
stage along the progress of the survey.
2. Principle
2.1 Principle of Magnetic Survey
1) Ferrous bodies on Earth are magnetized by the strong magnetic field of the Earth and
the Earth’s magnetic field is in turn disturbed locally. In the magnetic survey, a
magnetic sensor senses the disturbance of the magnetic field and detects the ferrous
bodies.
Description
The Earth’s magnetic field is much larger than the one caused by ferrous bodies on Earth (the
magnetic flux density in Japan amounts to 40 to 50 thousand nT) [T: Tesla] and the ferrous
bodies are inductively magnetized by the Earth’s magnetic field. As a ferrous body thus
magnetized has a magnetic N (positive) pole on its northern end and an S (negative) pole on its
southern end, these poles induce a local magnetic field around it (Figure 1.1). The magnetic
field H [A/m] and magnetic flux density B [T] at the distance r [m] caused by a point magnetic
pole q [Wb] are given by the next formulae:
(1)
(2)
(3)
where, r is the distance vector (r = ∣ r ∣), and μ signifies the magnetic permeability of the air.
Here, μ is almost identical to μ0,the constant permeability of the vacuum.
The magnetic field measured by the magnetic sensor is composed of the Earth’s field and the
effect caused by ferrous bodies. From the analysis of spatial distribution of the magnetic field
values, the presence of a ferrous body can be detected.
The magnetic field caused by a ferrous body is much smaller than the Earth’s field and
rapidly decreases in proportional to distance, as in equation (1). The effect of a ferrous body is
smaller by several orders of magnitude than the Earth’s field, unless observed at the immediate
vicinity of the body. As the Earth’s magnetic field spreads out globally, it can be regarded as
constant, both in intensity and direction within a small survey area such as civil engineering
site. If the magnetic field is observed at two points simultaneously by e sensors with the same
property and the component by the Earth’s field is cancelled by taking the difference and only
the effect of the ferrous body (difference between two locations) remains. Surveys based on
this observation method are quite common and the equipment acquiring the data free of the
Earth’s field by using two magnetic sensors with the same property is called a differential type
magnetometer or magnetic gradiometer.
An iron body is magnetized in the direction of the ambient magnetic field (usually the
Earth’s field) at the time of production. If the iron body stays unmoved at the site of
production, the magnetic polarity remains as magnetized. If the body is transported and its
orientation changes, a new magnetic polarity is induced depending on its new orientation,
which is known as induced magnetization. However, the previous magnetic polarity at the time
of production does not extinguish but remain with the body; this is called remnant
magnetization. Remnant magnetization gradually weakens over the years. The actual
magnetization of the body is rather complicated as the combination of the remnant and induced
magnetization. If the shape of the source body is not simple (such as a sphere), the surrounding
magnetic field is not straightforward and it increases the difficulty in judging the data analysis
results.
In surveys for dangerous objects such as unexploded bombs, the intensity of the
magnetization or the magnetic moment of the source is estimated based upon an assumed
model to discriminate the source object. The probable range of the values for each target object
is investigated empirically. In the following discussion, the term “magnetic charge index” is
used to represent this measure.
Figure 2.1: Magnetic field caused by a ferrous body (NS section view).
2.2 Principle of Metal Detector
2) Magnetic field variation near the metallic body causes a variation in the secondary
magnetic field due to its electromagnetic induction. Metal detectors use this principle
to detect the presence of metallic (conductive) bodies.
Note
1) Although the metal detector survey is an electromagnetic method in principle, it is included
in this chapter as a tool for the same objective.
Description
When a metal detector is activated, it transmits an electromagnetic wave to generate a
(primary) magnetic field in the surroundings. A metal object then produces a secondary
magnetic field to counteract the primary field. When the primary field is stable, the secondary
field diminishes. But when the primary field is applied periodically or intermittently, the
secondary field is continuously generated. From observation of the intensity and phase of the
secondary electromagnetic wave, the presence and the location of metal objects can be
detected.
The frequency of the electromagnetic wave varies from one tool to another and the survey
ability depends on the frequency and intensity of the electromagnetic wave used and the
sensitivity of secondary field detection. There are various ways to alert a metal response, use of
sound (tone or volume) is quite common.
3. Survey Methods
1) Including the metal detector survey, there are four methods in the magnetic survey:
Horizontal magnetic survey on land;
Horizontal magnetic survey in water area;
Vertical magnetic survey; and
Metal detector survey.
2) A survey should be designed based on the survey objectives, the nature of the target,
the conditions of survey site and the merits of the method.
Note
1) Be aware that the depth of probe range of the survey depends on the method and nature of
the target.
Supplementary Notes
1) Horizontal magnetic (on and offshore) and metal detector (profiling) surveys are applied
to large areas. The observation is conducted on the ground surface or the water bottom, and
the effective depth range of the survey is small.
2) Vertical magnetic surveys are applied where the depth of investigation required is too large
for surface surveys. The observation is performed by a magnetic sensor inserted into bore
holes, the lateral range of the survey is limited to the vicinity of the borehole.
3) If the target object is nonferrous metal, a metal detector survey should be selected.
4) For small targets like bullets or shells, the metal detector survey might be more effective
than the magnetic survey.
Figure 3.1: Horizontal magnetic survey on land; Left: Scene of fluxgate magnetometer observation.
Right: Scene of dualcoil fluxmeter observation.
Description
(a) Horizontal magnetic survey on land
This is a method for shallow targets on land. The magnetic field is observed along the survey
lines marked on the ground in the survey area. Usually, an operator walks along the lines
holding a magnetic sensor and records the magnetic signal continuously.
The line spacing and arrangement depends on the target, its size and the conditions of the
site.
(b) Horizontal magnetic survey offshore
This is a method for targets under the water bottom at sea, rivers or lakes. Usually, several
magnetic sensors are combined on a frame and the frame is suspended near the water bottom
and towed within the survey area to record continuous data. The survey lines and the magnetic
sensor separation are arranged considering the target object, its size and the conditions of the
site.
(c) Vertical magnetic survey
This is a method for deep targets where the horizontal magnetic survey is not effective. The
magnetic sensor is inserted into a borehole for recording. The depth, location and the separation
of the holes are planned considering the target object, its size and the conditions of the site.
Vertical magnetic surveys are often used for locating buried pipelines, estimating the depth
of basement piles, sheet piles, Hbeams, etc.
(d) Metal detector survey
The metal detector survey is carried out along survey lines, surface or water. The survey lines
are arranged considering the target object, its size and the conditions of the site.
Figure 3.2: Scene of an offshore horizontal magnetic survey.
Figure 3.3: Scene of vertical magnetic survey.
Figure 3.4: Scene of metal detector survey on land.
4. Instrumentation
1) There are various instruments for magnetic surveys and metal detection. The selection
of suitable instrument is important for the survey objectives, as each has its specific
character.
Description
There are various magnetometers (instruments for magnetic surveys) as follows:
A protonprecession magnetometer measures the total magnetic intensity (force). This
is little used in the field of civil engineering, with the only exception of surveying for
the distribution of serpentines and basalt.
A cesium (optical pumping) magnetometer measures the total magnetic intensity
(force). It is used in horizontal magnetic surveys.
A fluxgate magnetometer measures a single directional component. Three orthogonal
components can be measured by three sensors. As it is difficult to strictly maintain the
tool’s orientation in e mobile measurements, the gradiometer configuration with two
fluxgate sensors in the same direction is used in practice.
A fluxmeter (induction magnetometer) measures the spatial variation of a single
directional component of the magnetic field. The signal is recorded only when the
sensor is shifted. A dualcoil configuration (same as the gradiometer) is adopted to
eliminate the effect of the Earth’s field. This system is called the “dualcoil fluxmeter”.
The fluxmeter survey commonly measures the lateral gradient of the inline component of the
magnetic field. The fluxgate survey can measure the inline component, vertical component or
three orthogonal components.
For vertical magnetic surveys, a slimbody tool is required. A fluxgate sensor or a fluxmeter
sensor is used to measure the magnetic field along the direction of the borehole axis (usually a
vertical gradient).
Figure 4.1: Block diagram of each survey method.
Figure 4.2: Configuration of the sensing head of a dualcoil fluxmeter. Two coils with the same
performance are situated coaxially to remove the common Earth’s field component. Fluxgate
gradiometers also have a similar configuration and detecting coils are replaced with the fluxgate type
ones.
5. Terminology
Earth’s Magnetic field caused by the Earth. Often represented by a pair of north (N)
magnetic field: and south (S) magnetic poles. The S is pole at the north pole and N at the
south pole of the Earth.
Induced Magnetization which appears in the ambient magnetic field.
magnetization:
Magnetic A local magnetic field disturbance superimposed on the Earth’s field.
anomaly:
Magnetic The intensity of a magnetic monopole (Unit: Wb). In the field of unexploded
charge: bombs survey, observed data are analyzed with a nearby point charge source
model and the magnetic charge intensity calculated becomes the “magnetic
charge index” to judge the presence of a dangerous body.
Magnetic A quantity (measured in Wb·m) used as the “magnetic charge index”,
dipole derived from analysis with a dipolar source model (complementary magnetic
moment: charges are situated at a small distance).
Magnetic field:The field that exerts a force on a magnet.
Magnetic field The magnetic field is a vector described by three orthogonal components.
component: The magnetic survey in the field of civil engineering often deals with only
one component of the magnetic field.
Remnant Magnetization remaining after being magnetized by the magnetic field at the
magnetization: time of production. Steel products have a dominant remnant magnetization.
Magnetic flux Ability B of exerting a force on a moving electric charge [unit: Tesla (T)],
density which is related to the magnetizing force H and permeability μ of the
(Magnetic medium (the air) as B = μH.
induction):
Magnetization: The status in which a ferrous body is magnetized to acquire magnetic
moment or the quantity of being magnetized (magnetic moment per unit
volume). the appearance of magnetic poles is a surface manifestation of
magnetization.
Total magnetic The absolute value of the magnetic field vector.
force
(intensity):
10.1 The Horizontal Magnetic Survey on Land
1. General
1) The horizontal magnetic survey on land is a survey method for shallow targets under
the ground. Observation is made by a magnetic sensor along lines on the ground to
locate a ferrous object.
Note
1) The method is applicable only for ferromagnetic objects such as iron, cobalt and nickel.
Description
The magnetic field is measured on the ground to locate buried ferrous objects at a shallow
depth.
Usually, operators walk along the survey lines holding the magnetic sensor and continuously
record the magnetic field. From analysis of the data, the location and the depth of the buried
ferrous object are estimated.
Supplementary Note
1) If the surface is flat, a few sensors may be framed up to survey along several lines
simultaneously.
1) The horizontal magnetic survey on land can be applied to the following objectives:
Search for unexploded or abandoned bombs (dangerous objects);
Locating buried pipelines;
Search for vehicles buried under landslides (disaster relief); and
Industrial waste inspection.
Notes
1) If the target is small, surveying near existing structures is often difficult.
2) Nonferrous targets, such as newly developed land mines and plastic pipelines, are out of the
scope of magnetic surveys.
Description
The bombs dropped during World War II are detectable by magnetic survey as they are housed
in an iron shell. The effectiveness of the method is dependent on the magnetic properties and
size of the object.
Buried pipelines are detectable if they are made of steel. Shallow reinforced Hume pipes are
also a probable target under favorable conditions. The magnetic survey may be used for
inspecting industrial waste if it contains ferrous objects.
3. Planning
3.1 Instrumentation
1) Select an appropriate instrument for the objectives and conditions of the site.
Notes
1) Some instruments produce strong magnetic / electromagnetic noise. The effect of such
noise on the surrounding environment should be considered.
2) If the target is a dangerous object, instruments which may activate the detonator must be
avoided.
Description
It is important to select an instrument suitable for the objective and the target. The condition of
the site may restrict the selection of instruments, e.g., large instruments may be hard to deploy
in a forest.
Consideration of the method of analysis is also important. A suitable instrument is selected
for analysis and final presentation.
2) Define the feasible depth range of the survey considering the target object, the survey
instruments and conditions of the survey site.
Note
1) Even ferrous buried objects of the same size and material can have a wide range of values
of magnetic charge index. Especially in surveys for dangerous objects, the feasible depth
range of the survey should be determined to detect the weakest magnetic signal from the
probable target objects.
Description
The feasible depth of probe of the horizontal magnetic survey should be decided considering
the capability of the measuring instrument, the size and material of the target object, the survey
line spacing and the ambient magnetic noise level. The wider the line spacing, the shallower the
depth range of survey in the dangerous object survey.
In case of land surveys, the feasible depth of probe should be defined considering the
observation level (the height of the magnetic sensor above the ground’s surface). Usually, the
survey is done at a sensor height of 10–20 cm above ground. The feasible depth of probe for a
horizontal magnetic survey for a 250 kg bomb using a line spacing of 1 m, for instance, may be
around 1.5 m.
Supplementary Notes
1) If the feasible depth of probe of survey is determined in advance, the instruments and
survey line spacing have to be selected or decided to cover the required depth.
2) When a deep effective depth of survey is required for a large area, a horizontal survey to a
limited depth may be carried out followed by an excavation to the depth that is confirmed
safe. Another survey on the excavated surface is the repeated for the deeper level. This style
of survey is called a “layerbylayer survey”.
Figure 3.1: The feasible depth of probe of the horizontal magnetic survey: a: Survey line spacing; b:
Height of observation surface above ground; c: Effective distance range from magnetic sensor; d:
feasible depth of probe from the surface of observation; e: Valid depth range from the ground surface.
3) Design the survey line arrangement considering the survey objectives and conditions
of the survey site.
Notes
1) All buried ferrous bodies other than the target become noise sources.
This method cannot be applied to surveys for the penetrating depth of basement piles, sheet
2) piles, Hbeams, etc.
Figure 3.2: The concept of the “layerbylayer survey”.
Description
The arrangement of survey lines and their spacing should suit the survey objectives and the
targets.
(a) Unexploded ordnance (UXO) survey: Buried ferrous material with a shape like a bomb is
mostly magnetized in the NorthSouth (NS) direction inductively and the survey lines close
to the NS direction is favorable. The line spacing is usually 1 m when the target is a 250 kg
bomb or larger and smaller spacing is required for smaller dangerous targets, such as
bullets.
(b) Buried pipeline location survey: The desired direction of the survey lines is perpendicular
to the pipeline. If the direction of the survey lines is restricted to near parallel to the
pipeline, some crosslines should be surveyed for necessary supplements. Otherwise, a
good result from the survey cannot be expected. If the location and direction of the pipeline
is not known or multiple pipelines are running in many directions, two groups of survey
lines perpendicular to each other should be arranged. Select the survey line spacing
considering the survey instruments and conditions of the survey site.
(c) Others: The specification should be designed to suit the survey instruments and conditions
of the survey site.
It is important to investigate in advance the locations of existing structures in and around the
survey area. Knowledge of the existence / location of pipelines different from target objects or
other source’s information is quite useful.
The method of positioning should be studied to enable the reoccupation of a survey line at
any time.
4. Location Survey
1) At first, carry out a location survey and define the survey lines.
Description
In the horizontal magnetic survey, the survey area should be marked with signs, stakes or pegs
and the planned survey lines are marked with chalk, tapes or ropes. If the lines are long,
distance index markers at a constant interval should be placed to correlate the sample points
with the recorded data.
Supplementary Note
1) It is good to remove surface iron litter when setting the survey lines. This will reduce the
noise level in the observation. If some noise sources cannot be removed, a document of the
location and size of the sources helps following analysis work.
5. Field Operations
1) The magnetic field is observed keeping the magnetic sensor at 10–20 cm height above
the ground’s surface and moving (walking) along the survey lines.
Notes
1) The moving (walking) speed of the sensor is preferred as constant as possible.
2) The operator carrying the magnetic sensor must not wear ferrous material. If the magnetic
sensor is moved by means other than handcarrying, its mechanism must be modified for
least magnetic noise.
Description
The magnetic field is observed keeping the magnetic sensor at 10–20 cm height above the
ground’s surface and moving (walking) along the survey lines at a constant speed. Throughout
the observation the magnetic signal should be monitored to confirm normal operation of the
instrument. If any target sources or noise sources are evident, it should be documented with the
record. When using digital data recording, the saved data file should be verified after each
observation.
As the record in general does not include the sensor location, add the event marks in the
record at the time the magnetic sensor passes distance index markers, to correlate sensor
location with the record. If the recorder does not accept event marks, long survey lines should
be divided into sections to reduce positioning errors.
The magnetic sensors are moved continuously, measuring weak magnetic signals. If the sensor
is dragged on the ground’s surface or water’s bottom, the vibration or impulse may cause a
large noise in the observation record. Make sure to move the sensor smoothly, with a constant
clearance above the ground surface or water bottom.
Figure 5.1: A scene of a horizontal magnetic survey on land. Survey is carried out along the white tape
measure stretched parallel to the projected area.
Figure 5.2: A sample record of a horizontal magnetic survey on land.
6. Analysis
1) There are two basic methods of analyzing the data of horizontal magnetic surveys on
land:
Magnetic anomaly waveform on each survey line is analyzed and organized
for points of anomalous sources.
Magnetic anomaly distribution in the survey area is illustrated with a contour
map and each of the anomalous patterns is analyzed for source parameters.
Note
1) The method of analysis should be selected considering the characteristics of the instrument,
the component of measurement (in case of single component measurement), etc.
Description
There are two basic methods of analyzing the data of horizontal magnetic surveys on land:
Analysis of magnetic anomaly waveform on each survey line:
This method is mainly used for surveys by fluxgate magnetometer or fluxmeter (induction
magnetometer). If signals (magnetic anomalies) from a single ferrous source are detected on
several lines, the analysis result should be systematically put together as a single point of
anomalous source. The method analyzes the amplitude, period and phase of the anomalies in
the magnetic survey data.
Analysis of magnetic anomaly pattern after generating a contour map:
This method is mainly used for surveys with total force (protonprecession or optical
pumping) magnetometers or when the vertical magnetic gradient is measured by uniaxial
fluxgate magnetometers. To ensure the quality of contour mapping, sufficient digital data is
required. The method utilizes the information of positive and negative peak locations and
their anomaly values in the contours.
The points of anomalous sources derived from the analysis are summarized in a table and a
planview illustration of source locations.
Supplementary Notes
1) Both methods provide analysis results of similar quality. The presentation by contour (color
grading) maps can deliver a stronger visual impact (Figure 6.1).
2) The procedure in detail to analyze for source parameters from the magnetic anomaly record
depends on the instrument used and the type (component) of measurement. In practice, each
survey contractor or instrument manufacturer has developed and uses their own
methodology in analysis.
2) Create a survey location map in planview to show the detailed relationship between
the survey area and the survey lines.
Note
1) The location map (Figure 6.2) is also used as input to analysis work and to illustrate the
results (points of anomalous sources) on it.
Description
Create a survey location map in planview. The map should include the survey area, survey
lines, their names, locations and numbers of the distance index markers.
The scale, orientation and other essential information should be described on the location
map as well.
3) Analyze the magnetic anomaly record for its intensity (amplitude) and affecting range
(period of signal).
4) Estimate the source’s horizontal location and depth from the analysis.
5) In case of a dangerous object survey, also estimate the magnetic charge index as an
evaluation for the anomalous source.
Notes
1) The parameters of the magnetic anomaly source cannot be derived from the amplitudes
alone, as the magnetic anomaly intensity (amplitude) is antiproportional to the square of
the cube of the distance from its source.
2) In case of a dangerous object survey, the value of the magnetic charge index is important
information.
Figure 6.1: A sample of a contour (color grading) map of magnetic anomaly distribution.
Figure 6.2: A sample of a location map (showing survey line arrangement).
Supplementary Note
1) For a survey for dangerous objects, the marks to indicate the location of anomalous sources
in planview map are often classified into ranks of their magnetic charge index values
(Figure 6.3).
Figure 6.3: A sample of a map showing planview anomalous source locations.
Description
The source locations and depths are estimated from analysis of the magnetic anomaly record.
For a survey for dangerous objects, the values of the magnetic charge index are estimated.
6.4 Interpretation
6) Information on the ferrous materials of existing constructions in and around the survey
area should be collected and reviewed to use as a reference for the analysis. This
contributes to a plausible interpretation of the survey results.
Note
1) It is preferable to collect and review the existing information before the survey operation.
Description
The existing constructions, pipelines and ferrous scraps in and around the survey area generate
anomalous magnetic signals in the record of the magnetic survey. The information on their size
and location should be used for the appropriate analysis of target objects.
It is recommended to collect and review the relevant information before the survey operation
and to verify the confidence in the information by monitoring the magnetic anomaly signal in
the survey operation.
7) Study the results of analysis comprehensively together with preexisting information
and interpret it for buried ferrous objects.
8) In case of a dangerous object survey, judge the probability of such objects from
estimation of the magnetic charge index.
9) The interpretation should be based on consideration of the characteristics of the
instrument and the method used.
10) If other survey results using a different methodology (e.g., groundpenetrating radar
survey) are available, the interpretation should be consistent with them.
Note
1) As the interpretation of analysis results tends to reflect the engineer’s personality and
experience, an inspection by another engineer is advised.
Supplementary Note
1) A horizontal magnetic survey on land may accompany a groundpenetrating radar survey
and/or electromagnetic sounding.
Description
Identify the material of anomaly sources by taking account of the survey’s target object,
integrating the location and depth analysis for buried ferrous objects, extent and amplitude of
magnetic anomaly and preexisting information.
When identification of the source material is difficult due to interference from multiple
source signals, do not force a coercive or irrational interpretation but mention several
possibilities.
For a survey for dangerous objects, the relationship between the range of magnetic charge
index values and kinds of unexploded ordnance is estimated from experiments and practice.
Therefore, the possibility of unexploded ordnance at a point of a magnetic anomaly can be
derived from estimation of the magnetic charge index.
It is also important to interpret results with sufficient consideration of the survey
instruments, methodology, conditions of the survey site, etc. If other types of survey have been
used in the area, their results should be referred to, in order to draw an interpretation consistent
with each other.
1) The deliverables from the survey include:
location map;
survey lines arrangement map;
catalog table of the points of anomaly sources;
location map of the points of anomaly sources; and
record of observation.
2) The report should include:
survey outline;
survey method;
instruments used;
analysis method;
results of analysis;
interpretation of analysis results; and
other important matters.
Description
The locality map and survey lines arrangement map should be presented in an appropriate scale
with the points of anomaly sources indicated in the correct positions. Describe the coordinate
system used clearly, to facilitate precise reoccupation of the points of anomaly sources.
The dates of survey operation and the quantities of key works of the survey should be
mentioned in the “survey outline”.
Describe the methods of the survey and the location survey scheme in the “survey method”
and the model and specifications of the instruments in the “instruments used”.
Be prepared for clear presentation of the results of analysis and interpretation and do not
confuse the clients or a third party. For a survey for dangerous objects, state expressly the
possible points of anomalous sources of target objects.
10.2 The Horizontal Magnetic Survey in Offshore
Areas
1. General
1) The horizontal magnetic survey in offshore areas is a survey method for subbottom
targets under a sea or river/lake. Observations by a magnetic sensor are made along
lines at the sea floor to locate ferrous objects.
Note
1) The method is applicable only for ferromagnetic objects such as iron, cobalt and nickel.
Description
The magnetic field is measured in the water bottom to locate buried ferrous object at a shallow
depth.
A framework with multiple magnetic sensors separated by an equal interval is hung down to
the sea floor from a survey boat and the boat cruises in the survey area continuously recording
the magnetic signal. From the data observed, the location and the depth of e buried ferrous
objects are analyzed.
1) The horizontal magnetic survey in offshore areas can be applied to the following
objectives:
search for unexploded or abandoned bombs (dangerous objects);
locating (horizontal and depth) buried pipelines; and
survey of vehicles buried under landslides or sunk to water bottom (disaster
relief).
Notes
1) If the target is small, a survey near existing structures is often difficult.
2) Nonferrous targets, such as newly developed land mines and plastic pipelines, are out of the
Description
The bombs dropped during the Word War II are detectable by the magnetic survey, as they are
housed in an iron shell. The effectiveness of the method is dependent on the magnetic
properties and size of the object.
Buried pipelines are detectable if made of steel.
3. Planning
3.1 Instrumentation
1) Select an appropriate instrument considering the objectives and conditions of the site.
Notes
1) Some instruments produce strong magnetic / electromagnetic noise. The effect of such
2) If the target is a dangerous object, instruments which may activate a detonator must be
avoided.
Description
It is important to select an instrument suitable for the objective and the target. As the sensor
portion of the instrument is immersed in the water during operation, its water resistance is
essential.
Consideration of the method of analysis is also important. If you expect to show the results
by using contour maps, use an appropriate instrument for that purpose.
2) Define the feasible depth range of the survey considering the target, survey
instruments, and conditions of the survey site.
Note
1) Even buried ferrous objects of the same size and material may have a wide range of values
of magnetic charge index. Especially in surveys for dangerous objects, the feasible depth
range of the survey should be determined to detect the weakest magnetic signal from
probable target objects.
Description
The feasible depth of probe of the horizontal magnetic survey should be decided considering
the capability of the measuring instrument, the size and material of the target object, the survey
line spacing and the ambient magnetic noise level. The wider the line spacing, the shallower the
depth range of survey in dangerous object surveys.
For the offshore survey, the valid depth range must be defined considering the observation
level (the height of magnetic sensor above sea floor). Usually, the survey cruise keeping a
sensor at 10–20 cm above the sea floor is difficult and the feasible depth range of the survey
should be defined on the assumption that the sensor can only be kept within 1 meter above the
sea floor.
The feasible depth range is usually around 4.0 m for a horizontal magnetic survey for mines at
a line spacing of 2 m, for instance.
In the magnetic survey method, magnetic sensors are moved continuously during the
measurement of weak magnetic signals. If the sensor is dragged on the ground surface or sea
floor, vibrations and jerks may cause a large noise in the record. Be careful to move the sensor
smoothly, with a certain clearance above the ground surface or sea floor.
Figure 3.1: The feasible depth range of the horizontal magnetic survey: a: Survey line spacing; b: Height
of observation above the sea floor; c: Effective distance range from magnetic sensor; d: Feasible depth
range from the plane of observation; e: Feasible depth range from the sea floor.
3) Determine the vessel to use for the survey, considering the conditions of water depth,
current, etc.
4) Design the survey line spacing (magnetic sensor separation) and the number of
magnetic sensors and build a sensor frame.
5) Decide the method of positioning.
Notes
1) All buried ferrous bodies other than the target are noise sources.
2) If the survey area is in a river or a channel with a strong current, the operation might be
limited in time to neap tide. It is advised to study beforehand the shipping traffic and other
conditions in the area.
3) Permission to survey is often required from the coast guard authorities in advance.
Description
In the offshore horizontal magnetic survey, a frame structure with evenly spaced magnetic
sensors (socalled “sensor frame”) is used to acquire data along multiple lines simultaneously
for an efficient survey operation. The sensor frame is hung down with ropes near the sea floor
and towed to cover the entire survey area. The larger number of sensors assembled on a frame
enables a wider zone of width of measurement in one pass, while it requires a larger boat.
Design and build a sensor frame considering the target object, water depth and other conditions
of the survey.
If the water depth is more than several meters, the sensor frame has to be started from a
sufficient margin in order to achieve stable towing of the frame near the sea floor. In such
cases, a tugboat towing both the survey boat and the sensor frame (top configuration in Figure
3.2) is used.
If the water depth is shallower, a single boat (bottom configuration in Figure 3.2) is used. In
this configuration, a sensor frame even near the sea floor is situated not far from the boat, the
survey boat should be made of nonmagnetic material, wood or FRP, to avoid magnetic noise
contamination in the data record. It is also essential for the materials of the frame to be non
magnetic.
The survey line spacing corresponding to the sensor spacing on the sensor frame should be
designed to match the survey objectives and targets.
Figure 3.2: Configurations of offshore horizontal magnetic survey system (Top: Tugboat method,
Bottom: Single boat method).
(a) Unexploded ordnance (UXO) surveys: The survey line direction is decided considering the
shape of the survey area and the conditions of water depth, current, etc. The line spacing
used is 1–2 m for the usual target of unexploded mines or 250 kg bombs and narrower
spacing is required for smaller dangerous targets, such as bullets.
(b) Buried pipeline location survey: The desired direction of survey lines is perpendicular to
the pipeline. If the direction of the survey lines is forced to be nearparallel to the pipeline,
be aware of the possibility that a good result from the survey may not be obtained. The
survey line spacing is decided considering the survey instruments and conditions of the
survey site.
Others: The specification should be designed to fit the survey instruments and conditions of
(c) the survey site.
Prepare the location data of key points in the survey area before the survey. Accurate
positioning of the boat is essential during the survey: an appropriate method of correct boat
positioning in the survey area should be adopted. Recently, GPS positioning is most common.
Figure 3.3: An example of a sensor frame. Wooden sensor frame for single boat survey consisting of
five magnetic sensors at 1 m spacing.
4. Location Survey
1) Record position data of the survey boat at an appropriate interval during each passage.
Plot the data on a map to visualize the track line of the observations to prevent leaving
areas uncovered.
Description
Prepare the positioning framework (coordinate values) of the survey area before starting the
survey. If any reference station is required for positioning, distinct datum point(s) with the
coordinate values should be selected. GPS positioning is most common for location surveys of
boats.
As the sensor frame is hung down from the survey boat during the survey, the survey lines
are defined as the trace of the survey boat. There are two methods of navigation in offshore
horizontal magnetic surveys:
(1) Random navigation: The survey boat cruises in the survey area a number of times,
continuously monitoring the location and keeps surveying until the tracked line spacing
reaches the specified interval over the survey area. This method is commonly used and the
position of the boat is monitored at intervals of 30 to 50 meters along the line.
(2) Guided linear navigation: Similarly to the onshore magnetic survey, the survey boat is
guided to predetermined survey lines by a person on land piloting the boat. This method is
available when the survey area is near the shore and there is any noticeable bridge or other
construction to guide the survey line.
In the offshore horizontal magnetic survey, the positioning is conducted simultaneously with
the magnetic field observation and personnel are required for each operation.
5. Field Operations
1) Observations are made keeping the sensor frame within 1 m height above the sea floor
while sailing along the survey lines.
2) To ensure no area is left uncovered, the position of the survey boat is checked at an
appropriate interval during each passage of the survey.
Note
1) If stable observation is not feasible due to rapid tidal currents, the operation might be
limited in time to neap tide.
Description
The sensor frame is suspended from the survey boat. If the sensor frame is far away from the
sea floor, the valid depth range of the survey may not fulfill the survey specification.
Accordingly, it is necessary to continuously monitor the depths to the sensor frame and sea
floor by an echo sounder, and to adjust the depth of the sensor frame by means of an onboard
winch, so as to maintain the frame within 1 m above sea floor.
The positioning of the survey boat is started before beginning each survey line, and
displayed on a screen or plotted on a map at a prescribed interval to follow the trace of the
survey boat. As this trace corresponds to actual survey line location, the interval of positioning
should be specified accordingly. Especially when straightline sailing is difficult because of
tidal currents or the wind, the interval of positioning should be shortened to avoid degrading
accuracy.
Figure 5.1: An example of a record (magnetic field sensor) of an offshore horizontal magnetic survey.
The sensor frame consists of five magnetic sensors. At the location mark (arrow), a ferrous object
(anomaly source) exists just below the Magnetic sensor #1. The amplitudes of the signal decrease at
Magnetic sensors #2 and subsequent sensors as the distance from the source increases.
Figure 5.2: An example of a record (echo sounder) collected with an offshore horizontal magnetic
survey. The depths to the sensor frame and sea floor are monitored by an echo sounder and the frame
depth is controlled to keep it within 1 m above the sea floor.
The observations continue until the tracked survey line spacing reaches less than the
prescribed spacing in all the survey area and it is confirmed on a map of tracked line paths that
no area is left uncovered.
The observations are preferably operated at as constant a speed as possible. During the
observations, magnetic field data should be monitored to confirm the normal operation of the
instruments. If any signal from a target or noise source is evident, it should be noted with the
record. When using digital data recording, the saved data file should be verified after each
observation.
6. Analysis
1) The data analysis of the offshore horizontal magnetic survey is carried out by one of
the following methods:
magnetic anomaly waveform along each survey line is analyzed and arranged
as points of anomalous sources; and
magnetic anomaly distribution in the survey area is illustrated as a contour
map and each of the anomalous patterns is analyzed for source parameters.
Note
1) The method of analysis should be selected considering the characteristics of the instrument,
the component of the measurement (in case of single component measurement), etc.
Description
The data analysis of the offshore horizontal magnetic survey is carried out by one of the
following methods.
Analysis of the magnetic anomaly waveform along each survey line:
Used mainly for the surveys with the instruments consisting of fluxgate magnetometer or
fluxmeter (induction magnetometer). If signals (magnetic anomalies) from a single ferrous
source are detected on several lines, the analysis result should be systematically compiled as
a single point anomalous source. This method analyzes the signal amplitude, period and
phase information of the magnetic anomaly data and estimates the position and nature of the
source.
Analysis of the magnetic anomaly pattern on a contour map:
Used for surveys with the total force (protonprecession or optical pumping) magnetometers
or when vertical magnetic gradient is measured by a uniaxial fluxgate magnetometer. A
large amount of digital data is required to draw a reasonable contour map.
This method analyzes the locations and magnitude of positive and negative peaks of an
anomaly on the contour map.
The points of anomalous sources derived from the analysis are summarized in the form of a
catalogue table and a planview map to illustrate source locations.
Supplementary Notes
1) The analysis of a contour map usually uses a dataset of multiple sensors from only one
passage. If several passages of data are combined into one contour map, high precision
positioning is required.
2) The procedure in detail to analyze for source parameters from the magnetic anomaly record
depends on the instrument used and the type (component) of measurement. In practice, h
survey contractors or instrument manufacturers develop and use their own methodology in
analysis.
2) Create a survey location map in planview to show the detailed relationship between
the survey area and the survey lines.
Note
1) The location map is also used as input to analysis work and to illustrate the results (points
of anomalous sources) on it.
Description
Create a survey location map in planview. This navigation map should include the survey area,
survey lines, their names, location and the numbers of distance index markers.
The scale, orientation and other essential information should be included on the location map
as well.
3) Analyze the magnetic anomaly record for its intensity (amplitude) and affecting range
(period of signal).
4) Estimate the source’s horizontal location and depth from the analysis.
5) In case of a dangerous object survey, also estimate the magnetic charge index as an
evaluation for the anomalous source.
Notes
1) The parameters of a magnetic anomaly source cannot be derived from the amplitudes alone,
as the magnetic anomaly intensity (amplitude) is antiproportional to the square to cube of
the distance from its source.
2) For a survey for dangerous objects, the value of the magnetic charge index is important
information.
Description
From the analysis of the magnetic anomaly record, the horizontal locations and depths of the
sources of anomalies are estimated. When the signal from a single source may be detected at
several sensor locations on several passages, the analysis results should be combined as one
magnetic anomaly source.
For a survey for dangerous objects, the values of the magnetic charge index are estimated.
Supplementary Note
1) For a survey for dangerous objects, the marks to indicate the location of anomalous sources
in planview map are often classified into ranks of their magnetic charge index values
(Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: An example of a planview map showing anomalous source locations (a survey for
dangerous objects).
6.4 Interpretation
6) Information on the ferrous materials of existing constructions in and around the survey
area should be collected and reviewed to use as a reference for the analysis. This
contributes to a plausible interpretation of the survey result.
Note
Description
The existing structures, pipelines and ferrous scrap in and around the survey area generate
anomalous magnetic signal in the record of the magnetic survey. I information on their size and
location should be used for the appropriate analysis of target objects.
and to verify the confidence of the information by monitoring the magnetic anomaly signals in
the survey operation.
and interpret them for buried ferrous objects.
8) In case of a dangerous object survey, judge the probability of such an object from
instrument and the method used.
10) If other survey results for different methods are available, the interpretation should be
consistent with them.
Note
experience, an inspection by another engineer is advised.
Description
Identify the material of anomaly sources by taking account of the survey’s target object,
integrating the location and depth analysis for buried ferrous objects, extent and amplitude of
magnetic anomaly and preexisting information.
When identification of the source material is difficult due to interference from multiple
source signals, do not force a coercive or irrational interpretation but mention several
possibilities.
For a survey for dangerous objects, the relationship between the range of magnetic charge
index values and kinds of unexploded ordnance is estimated from experiments and practice.
Therefore, the possibility of unexploded ordnance at a point of magnetic anomaly can be
derived from estimation of the magnetic charge index.
used in the area, theirs results should be referred to, in order to draw an interpretation
consistent with each other.
1) The deliverables from the survey includes:
location map;
navigation map of track line paths (location map of actual observation);
catalog table of the points of anomalous sources;
location map of the points of anomalous sources;
record of observation; and
results of location survey.
2) The report should include:
survey outline;
survey method;
instruments used;
analysis method;
other important matters.
Description
The location map, navigation map of track line paths and map of the points of anomalous
sources should be presented on an appropriate scale to indicate the correct positions. Describe
the coordinate system used clearly to facilitate precise reoccupation of the points of anomalous
sources.
The dates of survey operation and the number of key works performed should be mentioned
in the “survey outline”.
Be prepared for clear presentation of the results of analysis and interpretation, not to confuse
the clients or a third party. For a survey for dangerous objects, state expressly the possible
points of anomalous sources of target objects.
10.3 Vertical Magnetic Prospecting
1. General
1) Vertical magnetic prospecting is a survey method for deeper targets that are difficult
to prospect by horizontal prospecting methods. Measurement by magnetic sensor is
made along boreholes to locate the ferrous object.
Notes
1) The method is applicable only for ferromagnetic objects made of Fe, Co, and/or Ni.
2) Care should be taken that the drill hole does not hit unexploded ordnance (dangerous
objects) or buried pipelines.
Description
The magnetic intensity is measured in boreholes to locate buried ferrous objects at depth.
Boreholes are drilled at the required locations. A magnetic sensor is moved from the surface
to the bottom of the borehole to obtain a continuous record of the magnetic signal. From the
data, the location and depth of the buried ferrous objects are analyzed.
1) Vertical magnetic prospecting can be applied to the following objectives:
survey of unexploded or abandoned bombs (dangerous objects);
locating (horizontal and depth) buried pipelines;
penetrating the depth of foundation piles, Hbeams and sheet piles;
survey of vehicles buried under landslides or sunken under water (disaster
relief); and
industrial waste inspection.
Notes
1) A small target is difficult to detect near existing structures.
2) Nonferrous targets, such as modern land mines and plastic pipelines, are outside the scope
of vertical magnetic prospecting.
Description
Bombs dropped in Word War II are detectable by magnetic prospecting, as they are covered
with iron. Their detectability depends on the size and type of bomb, as their magnetic
properties differ.
Buried steel pipelines are detectable and reinforced Hume pipes are also a probable target
under favorable conditions at depth. Inspecting industrial waste may be possible if it contains
ferrous objects.
Supplementary Note
1) The method of magnetic prospecting (buried metal object survey) was first developed and
used primarily for the survey of unexploded bombs and mines. Based on this development,
the technique has been applied to detecting buried objects, including pipelines and a good
accurate survey is now available with the development of dedicated instruments and
improved analysis procedures.
3. Planning
3.1 Instrumentation
1) Select an appropriate instrument for the objectives and conditions of the site.
Notes
1) There are some instruments producing strong magnetic / electromagnetic noise. The effect
of such noise on the environment of the surrounding area should be well considered.
2) If the target is a dangerous object, instruments that could possible activate detonators must
be avoided.
Description
A suitable instrument should be selected for the objective and the target. The measurements are
taken in the boreholes and a magnetic sensor that is small in diameter should be used,
otherwise, the drilling cost increases. Waterproof magnetic sensors are necessary, as the holes
for survey often contain water.
Magnetic sensors of the fluxgate type or fluxmeter type are commonly used.
3.2 Valid Distance Range of Prospecting
2) Define the valid depth range of prospecting considering the target, survey instruments
and conditions of the survey site.
Note
1) Even ferrous buried objects of the same size and material may have a wide range of values
of magnetic charge index. Especially for a survey for dangerous objects, the valid distance
range of prospecting should be defined so that the weakest magnetic signal from the
probable target objects can be surely detected.
Description
The valid distance range of vertical magnetic prospecting is the lateral range (distance from the
measuring hole) where the target object can be detected with certainty and forms a cylindrical
shape.
For vertical magnetic prospecting for at 250 kg bomb, for instance, the valid distance range
is around 1.5 m.
3.3 Planning Drill Holes
3) Design the measuring holes arrangement and depths, considering the survey
objectives.
4) To prevent measuring holes from hitting buried pipelines, it is advised to verify them
by test drilling, etc.
5) Collect geotechnical information to decide the drilling method.
Notes
1) All buried ferrous bodies other than the target become noise sources.
2) Nonferrous metal targets are out of the scope of this survey.
Description
The design of measuring holes arrangement and depths should fit the survey objectives and the
targets:
Unexploded ordnance (UXO) survey: the measuring holes should be distributed to
cover the whole area where safety is to be verified (Figure 3.1). The valid depth
range of prospection should cover both the depth of the required safe work for
construction and the possible burial depth of the bombs dropped.
A survey for buried pipeline locations or penetrating the depth of foundation piles,
Hbeams and sheet piles: The spacing of the measuring holes should be as close as
possible (0.5 to 1.0 m), as better precision is generally achieved when the
measuring hole is nearer to the target. The depth of measurement (the depth of
measuring hole) should be planned to exceed the expected depth of the target by
about 3 meters, to obtain a clear and definite magnetic signal.
Other: the specification should be designed to fit the survey instruments and
conditions of the survey site.
If there is a possibility of buried pipelines in the survey area, it is important to investigate their
existence and locations in advance via the literature or test drilling. The existing buildings and
structures in and around the area should be examined for their locations.
Decide the method of drilling, considering the hardness of the ground (soil quality, Nvalues,
etc.), the required depth of measurement and conditions of the site. For a survey for dangerous
objects, the method of waterjet boring is widely used for relatively shallow drilling of soft
sediment and rotary drilling for others. For a survey for pipelines or a depth survey of piles, the
method of rotary drilling is commonly used because information on their precise location is
required and the disturbance to the ground has to minimal. A direction survey of the borehole is
then often carried out to record bending.
Supplementary Note
1) Generally, it is difficult to determine the source direction from a single measuring hole. The
combination of results from adjacent holes may be integrated to interpret for the location of
the anomalous body. A recent study reported the determination of source direction by
measuring three orthogonal components of the magnetic field.
Figure 3.1: Examples of hole arrangements (for a survey for dangerous objects with 250 kg bomb target
and a construction site). a) For safety verification at the work site of foundation piles or Hbeams, the
measuring hole is simply arranged on site. (b) If multiple work sites can be included in a circle of valid
distance range, only one measuring hole can cover them. (c) For the safety verification of sheet piles.
4. Location Survey
1) The location of the hole should be surveyed before measurement.
Note
1) A large error in the location survey affects the significance of the survey, as the valid
distance range of the probe is limited.
Description
Locate the positions of the measuring holes designed and mark them by pegs or paint.
A location survey may reveal that drilling at a planned location is not feasible due to
obstacles like buried pipelines. In such a case, the design of the measuring holes arrangement
should be reconsidered.
Supplementary Note
1) Remove surface iron litter at the time of setting survey lines. This reduces the noise level in
the observations. If a noise source cannot be removed, its location and size should be
documented, to reduce difficulty in subsequent analysis work.
5. Field Operations
1) After drilling the measuring hole to the prescribed depth, continuous measurements
are taken from surface to bottom.
2) During the measurement, the depth of the magnetic sensor is checked at appropriate
intervals.
Notes
1) The magnetic sensor should be moved at as constant a speed as possible during measuring.
2) For surveys for dangerous objects and where there is a possibility of the measuring hole
intersecting a buried pipeline, occasionally measure the magnetic intensity at the bottom of
the hole before drilling to prevent accidents.
3) If any iron rod or casing is left in the hole, the magnetic measurement is invalidated. Iron
rods or steel casings should be removed before the survey and the measurement should be
taken in an open hole or in a plastic casing condition. It is also possible to use nonmagnetic
rods for drilling and magnetic sensors for measurement can be inserted in the rods.
Description
In a vertical magnetic survey, a magnetic sensor is moved at a constant speed from the surface
to the bottom of the hole to acquire a continuous record of the magnetic signal. Throughout the
measurement, the magnetic signal should be monitored to confirm normal operation of the
instrument. Any anomaly due to target or noise sources should be documented to correlate with
the record. Add marks on the record when the sensor passes key depth levels to correlate sensor
depth with the record. When using digital data recording, the saved data file should be verified
after each measurement.
Drilling the measuring hole for a survey for dangerous objects may hit the dangerous object
itself. A drill hole may also hit the pipeline being surveyed, if its location is not clearly known.
The measuring hole may be shifted and drilled again if the drilling method used is of small
impact, such as waterjet boring. However, it is dangerous to unconditionally use the rotary
boring method. To avoid this risk, it is important to perform verification measurements at an
appropriate interval during the drilling, to confirm the absence of ferrous bodies near or below
the hole. Even then, the existence of iron rods and casing invalidates the magnetic measurement
and they should be removed or only nonmagnetic rods and casing should be used. The interval
of verification measurements is determined from the size of the target object, the assumed
diameter of the pipeline and other parameters; an interval of less than 1.0 m is a common
choice.
Supplementary Note
1) In a vertical magnetic survey, the vibration of the magnetic sensor is small if the measuring
hole is narrow and filled with water. In such a condition, the record of a single coil
measurement may be acquired as reference data in addition to the (normal) dualcoil
differential measurement.
Figure 5.1: Verification procedure during the drilling the measuring hole (for a survey for a dangerous
object, 250 kg bomb target). The drilling and the safety verification of near the bottom of the hole are
repeated alternately until the prescribed depth is reached. The drilling depth at a time is usually 1 m,
although this is determined considering the survey instruments and conditions of the survey site.
Figure 5.2: A sample record of a vertical magnetic survey (The case of the dualcoil fluxmeter sensor).
Top: Record of differential output of dualcoil; Middle: Record of single coil measurement by the
forward coil;
Bottom: Depth index marks to correlate the record with sensor depth.
6. Analysis
6.1 Preparation of Location Map of Survey Holes
1) Create a location map, drawing the survey location in planview to show the explicit
relationship between the survey area and the measuring holes.
Note
1) The location map is also used for analysis and for presentation of the results, by plotting
points of anomalous sources.
Description
Create a location map, drawing the survey location in planview, on which the survey area,
measuring holes, their names, locations and the valid range of prospecting should be
designated.
The scale, orientation and other essential information should be included on the location
map.
2) Analyze the magnetic anomaly record, especially on its intensity (amplitude) and
effective range (wavelength of signal).
3) Estimate the depth and horizontal location of the source from the analysis.
4) For a survey for dangerous objects, estimate and include the magnetic charge index as
a parameter of the anomalous source.
Notes
1) The source parameters cannot be derived from the amplitude alone, as the intensity
(amplitude) of the magnetic anomaly is inversely proportional to the square to cube of the
distance from the source.
2) For surveys for dangerous objects, the magnetic charge index is important information.
Description
For surveys for dangerous objects, estimate and record the source depth, distance from the
measuring hole and magnetic charge index from the analysis for all the substantial magnetic
anomalies detected. Usually, direction to the source from the hole cannot be determined from a
singlehole measurement. If the precise location of the source is required, other measuring
holes should be arranged and all records should be analyzed systematically.
For a pipeline location survey, estimate and record the depth of the pipeline and its distance
from the measuring hole.
In a survey for the penetrating depth of foundation piles, Hbeams or sheet piles, estimate
and record the bottom depth of the source body and its distance from the measuring hole.
6.3 Interpretation
5) In order to interpret the survey result properly, information on the ferrous materials of
existing structures in and around the survey area should be collected and reviewed to
refer to during the analysis.
Note
Description
magnetic anomalies in the record of the magnetic survey. Information on their size and location
should be recorded and used for the analysis of the target objects.
It is not unreasonable to collect and review relevant information before the survey operation
and to evaluate the accuracy of the information by monitoring the magnetic anomaly signals
during the survey operation.
6) Integrate the results of analysis with preexisting information and interpret them for
the buried ferrous objects.
7) In a survey for dangerous objects, establish the probability of such objects from
8) The interpretation should be based on the characteristics of the instrument and the
method used.
9) If additional data by a different methodology (e.g., borehole radar survey) are
available, the interpretation should be consistent with them.
Note
1) The interpretation of analysis results may reflect the engineer’s personality and experience,
so inspection by another engineer is advisable.
Description
From the integration of the location and depth analysis for buried ferrous objects, extent and
amplitude of magnetic anomaly and preexisting information, predict the sources of anomalies
in terms of the target object of the survey.
When the estimation of the source of anomaly is difficult due to multiple source signals
interfering with each other, avoid a coercive or irrational interpretation and mention the
reasonable possibilities.
For a survey for dangerous objects, the relationship between the types of unexploded bombs
and the range of magnetic charge index values is estimated from various experiments and
practice. Therefore, the possibility of unexploded bombs at a point of magnetic anomaly can be
concluded from the estimate of the magnetic charge index.
applied to the area, their results should be referred to, in order to draw a consistent
interpretation.
Supplementary Note
1) The same borehole (measuring hole) might also be used for a borehole radar survey,
seismic velocity logging, etc.
location map;
measuring hole arrangement map;
catalog table of the points of anomalous sources;
location map of the points of anomalous sources; and
record of measurement.
survey outline;
survey method;
instruments used;
analysis method;
other matters considered important.
Description
The location map, measuring hole arrangement map and location map of the points of
anomalous sources should be presented on an appropriate scale to indicate correct positions.
Clearly describe the coordinate system used, to facilitate a precise reoccupation of the points of
anomalous sources.
The dates of survey operation and the quantities of key works of the survey should be
Describe the method of survey and the location survey scheme in the “survey method” and
the model name and specifications of the instruments under the “instruments used”.
Be prepared to clearly present the results of analysis and interpretation, to avoid
misunderstanding by the client or a third party. For surveys for dangerous objects, state
expressly the possible points of anomaly sources of target objects.
10.4 The Metal Detector Survey
1. General
1) The metal detector survey is a survey method for shallow metallic targets from the
ground surface or water bottom.
Note
1) A quantitative analysis is not generally carried out on the results of a metal detector survey
and the original data are not commonly recorded.
Description
Metal detection is carried out on the ground surface or at the water bottom to detect metallic
targets buried at a shallow depth. Operators walk along the survey lines holding the metal
detector sensor and detect target signals.
1) The metal detector survey can be applied to the following objectives:
survey of unexploded or abandoned bombs and mines (dangerous objects);
locating buried pipelines;
survey of vehicles buried under landslides (disaster relief); and
industrial waste inspection.
Notes
1) With the metal detector survey, it is generally difficult to judge the burial depth.
2) If the target is small, surveys near existing structures are often difficult.
3) Nonmetal targets, such as newly developed land mines and plastic pipelines, are out of the
Description
The bombs dropped during Word War II are detectable by magnetic survey, as they are housed
in an iron shell. The effectiveness of the method is dependent on the magnetic properties and
size of the object.
Buried pipelines are detectable if they are made of steel. Shallow, reinforced Hume pipes are
also a probable target under favorable conditions.
The metal detector survey may be used for inspecting industrial waste if it contains metal
objects.
3. Planning
3.1 Instrumentation
1) Select an appropriate instrument considering the objectives and conditions of the site.
Notes
1) Some instruments produce strong magnetic / electromagnetic noise. The effects of such
2) If the target is a dangerous object, instruments which may activate the detonator must be
avoided.
Description
It is important to select an instrument suitable for the objective and the target. The condition of
the site may restrict the instruments, e.g., sites with trees may restrict the use of largesized
instruments.
2) Define the feasible depth range of the survey considering the target, the survey
Note
1) Especially in surveys for dangerous objects, the feasible depth range of the survey should
be determined so as to cover all the possible depths.
Supplementary Notes
1) The required depth of the survey may be determined beforehand. The instruments and
survey line spacing must then be selected and decided to suit the required depth.
When a large range in the depth of the probe is required, exceeding the limits of the
2) capability of the instrument, a scheme called “layer stripping survey” is used. It repeats the
survey and the excavation alternately to the depth to which safety is confirmed.
Description
The feasible depth range of a metal detector survey should be defined considering the
capability of the instrument and targets. For a 250 kg bomb target, the feasible depth range is
around 1.5 m.
Figure 3.1: The concept of the “layer stripping survey”.
3) Design the survey line arrangement to suit the survey objectives.
Note
1) All buried metal bodies other than the target are noise sources.
Description
The arrangement of survey lines and their spacing should suit the survey objectives and the
targets:
Unexploded ordnance (UXO) survey: the line spacing is usually around 1 m.
Survey for buried pipes: select the survey line spacing, considering the survey
Other: select the survey line spacing considering the survey instruments and conditions
of the survey site.
It is important to investigate the locations of existing structures in and around the survey area in
advance. Knowledge of the existence / location of pipes different from the target objects or
other sources is quite useful.
4. Location Survey
1) First, carry out a location survey and define the survey lines.
Supplementary Note
1) It is good to remove surface iron litter when setting the survey lines. This will reduce the
noise level in the observations. If some noise sources cannot be removed, documenting the
location and size of the source helps following analysis work.
Description
In a metal detector survey on land, the survey area should be marked with signs, stakes or pegs,
and the planned survey lines are marked with chalk, tapes or ropes. If the lines are long,
distance index markers at constant intervals should be placed to correlate the sample points
with the recorded data.
In case of offshore surveys, divers perform the operations with limited visibility. A common
procedure of the survey sets up a guide marker at the center of the survey area and the survey is
carried out along a perimeter centered at the marker, repeating this with the radius increasing
by 1 m each time.
5. Field Operations
1) The metal detector sensor is operated at about 10 cm height above the ground and
moving (walking) along the survey lines. The locations of metal responses are marked
and the coordinates are recorded.
Description
The metal detector sensor is operated at about 10 cm height above the ground and moving
(walking) along the survey lines. Figure 5.1 shows the scene of a metal detector survey. During
the survey, the sensor should be occasionally placed near a metal body to check the response
and confirm the normal operation of the instrument.
If the target is as small as bullets, the operator should slowly swing the sensor right and left
to sweep the surface and ensure no area is left uncovered.
In the metal detector survey, the original data are not often recorded. In order to enable the
reoccupation of the locations of metal response, a location is surveyed or marked on the
ground. Depending on the site conditions, an excavation to examine for metal response is often
carried out accompanying the survey. If metal signals are recorded and the analysis work is to
be done separately, the procedure will be similar to the case of the onshore horizontal magnetic
survey.
Figure 5.1: The scene of a metal detector survey on land.
6. Analysis
1) Create a location map, drawing of survey location planview, to show the explicit
relationship between the survey area and the survey lines.
Note
1) The location map is also used for analysis work and to illustrate the result (points of metal
response).
Description
Create a location map, drawing of survey location planview, on which the survey area, survey
lines, their names, locations and numbers of distance index markers should be designated.
The scale, orientation, and other essential information must be described on the location
map.
2) Summarize the location of the metal response and its intensity.
Note
1) It is generally difficult for the metal detector survey to estimate the source depth from data
analysis.
Figure 6.2: An example of a location map (showing survey line arrangement).
Description
Organize the location, range and signal amplitude of the metal response signal observed and
summarize it in a catalog table. The location and the response intensity (often classified into
several ranks) of metal sources are plotted on a planview map.
6.3 Interpretation
3) In order to interpret the survey results properly, information on the metallic materials
of existing structures in and around the survey area should be collected and reviewed
to utilize as a reference for the analysis.
Note
1) It is advisable to collect and review the existing information before the survey operation.
Description
anomalous metal detector signals in the record of the magnetic survey. Information on their
size and location should be used for appropriate analysis of the target objects.
and to verify confidence in the information by monitoring the magnetic anomaly signals in the
survey operation.
and interpret them for buried ferrous objects.
instrument and the method used,
6) If other survey results by different methods (e.g., groundpenetrating radar survey) are
available, the interpretation should be consistent with them.
Note
experience, inspection by another engineer is advised.
Supplementary Note
1) Another type of prospecting method (groundpenetrating radar survey and/or
electromagnetic prospecting) may be incorporated.
Description
Integrating the location of buried metal objects, intensity of metal response, extent of anomaly
and preexisting information, examine the survey results along with the survey’s target object.
When the judgment of source material is difficult due to signals from multiple sources
interfering with each other, avoid forceful and irrational interpretation and list reasonable
possibilities.
applied to the area, their results should be referred to, to reach a consistent interpretation.
location map;
survey lines arrangement map;
catalog table of the points of metal response; and
location map of the points of metal response.
survey outline;
survey method;
instruments used;
results of analysis and interpretation; and
other matters supposed to be of importance.
Description
The locality map and survey lines arrangement map should be presented on an appropriate
scale with the points of anomaly sources indicated in their correct positions. Describe the
coordinate system used clearly to facilitate precise reoccupation of the points of anomaly
sources.
The dates of survey operation and the number of key works of the survey should be
Be prepared for clear presentation of the results of analysis and interpretation, not to confuse
the clients or a third party.
Figure 7.1: An example of a map showing locations of metal responses.
11 GeoTemperature Survey
1. General
1) Geotemperature survey is one of the methods for evaluation of subsurface thermal
properties and conditions, by measuring the distribution and changes of temperature at
shallow depths. Among them, the “geotemperature survey at 1 m depth” is a
representative and approachable technique. Its applications include works of
subsurface groundwater flow detection, study of the landslide risks and the search for
hot springs.
Supplementary Notes
1) Geotemperature survey generally designates all those methods for measuring temperature
below the surface of the Earth. It includes those physical methods such as infrared thermal
imaging and downhole temperature logging, as well as the method of ‘geotemperature
survey at 1 m depth,’ which is detailed in this section.
2) Infrared thermal imaging is also used in civil engineering applications, for example, as a
checking tool for the completeness of a sprayed cutslope. This method is not included in
this section.
Description
Generally, geotemperature survey is a method to assess the thermal properties of subsurface
formations by measuring the distribution and temporal variation of underground temperature.
There are several variants of this method: geotemperature survey at 1 m depth, geo
temperature survey at 10 m depth, infrared thermal imaging and downhole temperature
logging. Among them, the geotemperature survey at 1 m depth is the simplest and the handiest
method, hence often applied to detection of concealed underground fluid flow as well as
landslides risk evaluation. This section focuses on the method of geotemperature survey at 1 m
depth.
The temperature at depths greater than about 15 m from the surface does not show any
annual variation. Therefore, those formations are sometimes called ‘constant temperature
layers’. It is also well known that the temperature at 0.5 m depth or deeper does not show any
significant daily variation. Based on these facts, it is possible to evaluate the geothermal
structure of a given field by measurements of temperature at 1 m depth at an arbitrary time.
Field operation of this method is very simple: drilling a small hole to the depth of one metre
with an iron bar or an auger, then measuring the temperature at the bottom of the hole.
Interpreting the data of a 1 m depth temperature survey should consider the purposes of the
survey. Besides the signals which come from subsurface heat sources such as magma or a hot
spring, there are thermal effects due to the water content of the layer, flow of groundwater,
geological conditions, surface vegetation and duration of sunshine.
For the investigation of subsurface fluid flow, to which this method is applied most
frequently, it is critical to select an appropriate time of a year for the survey. This is because the
data of the 1 m depth temperature contains the noise component due to seasonal variation of
atmospheric temperature, while the difference between the 1 m depth temperature and the fluid
temperature at the underground conditions is relatively small. We should select a time of a year
for the survey during the periods of either ‘late winter through early spring’ (i.e., from January
to April) or ‘late summer through early autumn’ (i.e., from August to September), both of
which have a larger temperature difference between them than in the cases of other seasons. By
such a consideration, we can visualize the underground flow paths as a low temperature zone in
summer time and a high temperature zone in winter time, if we draw a horizontal distribution
map of the 1 m depth temperatures of a given survey area (see Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: General view of the 1 m depth temperature survey.
2. Applicability
1) The geotemperature survey at 1 m depth, 1 m depth mainly targets the detection and
evaluation of groundwater flow. Its primary applications are as follows:
to detect the positions and paths of groundwater flow related to landslides;
to detect the positions and paths of concealed subsurface water flow in river
areas; and
to detect the positions and paths of leakage from ponds, reservoirs and river
banks.
Supplementary Notes
1) This method has the advantage of high efficiency in field operations for a relatively large
area.
2) Originally, the method was developed for locating hot springs and geothermal resources.
Description
This method has been widely adopted as a survey technique for hot springs as well as other
geothermal resources. It is a very handy method: it gives direct information on the subsurface
sources of hot springs and geothermal bodies by measuring temperature distribution near the
ground surface.
The number of applications is increased by surveys for landslides and concealed fluid flow
channels, as the temperature pattern at 1 m depth shows the subsurface fluid flow in the
shallow part of the ground.
Landslides surveys attempt to locate the subsurface fluid paths from the top to bottom part of
a slope. However, a conventional investigation by drilling is costly and its spatial coverage is
very limited. An electric resistivity survey is not capable of detecting and assessing the fluid
paths. On the other hand, the 1 m depth temperature survey can easily provide useful
information, efficiently covering a larger area.
Major environmental issues include seawater invading under the land and water leakage
from reservoirs and river banks. The 1 m depth temperature survey can deal with these
problems by providing information on subsurface fluid flow detection.
3. Planning
1) Assess the suitability of the method by clearly defining the purposes of the work and
the geographical area to study.
2) This method is applicable to the purposes as follows:
to infer the position and size of subsurface heat sources; and
to infer the position, size and direction of shallow groundwater flows.
3) It is difficult to apply this method to the case of a city area with many buildings,
which cause very large thermal noises unrelated to the subsurface temperature signals.
4) This survey is only possible where we cannot drill holes for the 1 m depth temperature
measurements.
Notes
1) The method of the 1m depth temperature survey is unable to provide information on depth
dependent temperature profiles in the Earth. For this purpose, there are other survey
methods such as the 10 m depth temperature survey and deep temperature logging.
2) The accuracy of measurement of the 1 m depth temperature survey is limited by thermal
effects by environmental conditions such as the presence of buildings and trees above the
ground.
3) Combining this method with other survey methods, such as resistivity survey and deep
drilling may be considered for accuracy.
Description
The 1 m depth temperature survey is regarded as a reconnaissance survey tool for subsurface
fluid flow and geothermal heat sources. Particularly, this method is widely used for hydro
geological exploration works including searches for subsurface flow channels of hotsprings.
However, geomechanical properties of the formations cannot be evaluated based on this survey.
This method is not suitable for information on depthdependent profiles of physical properties.
These are beyond the scope of the 1 m depth temperature survey method.
The major issue to consider the suitability of this survey is whether the site allows the
measurement with good enough accuracy.
While the 1 m depth temperature survey method has the advantage of rapid operation, hence
ease of covering a large area in a short time, it inherently has a drawback in that its data are
often influenced by the solar radiation on the ground’s surface and by manmade structures like
large buildings, There are possibilities of poor accuracy of measurements with this method for
those areas such as an urban zones, where groundsurface temperature is artificially altered,
areas with high variability of vegetation density and areas with rapid changes of ground
elevation. We have to be careful about this factor.
In cases where there exist some thermal source objects which do not represent natural
geological materials, they may act as thermal noise contained in the survey data. For example,
if there are artificially placed materials or structures, such as manmade buried land, stepping
stones and large cubic rocks below the ground surface, we generally cannot obtain reliable
results based on this method. Therefore, it is advisable not to include these areas with such
artificial objects in the survey field.
In case where there is no or little difference between the temperature of groundwater
channels and that of the background, the 1 m depth temperature, we can obtain no (or almost
no) information about the groundwater channels using this method. We need to recognize and
fully understand the characteristics of this method when we adopt the 1 m depth temperature
survey, and we should also combine it with other survey techniques, like resistivity survey
methods.
3.2 Preassessment
5) We should collect information and take the basic steps as follows, before we actually
conduct a survey:
defined location and area of the survey;
purposes of the survey;
topography, geological structure and geothermal manifestations;
rivers and seepages;
estimated temperature of the groundwater channels and the groundwater level;
and
ground surface conditions and presence of artificial materials as sources of
noise.
Notes
It is important to collect a great deal of information about the surface water flow as well as
about the groundwater for the assessment of groundwater channels prior to survey by this
method.
Description
A good knowledge of the topography, geology and groundwater of the area is important for
planning; collect and review these maps for survey planning. This knowledge leads to a general
idea of the size of the survey area and likely location of underground channels; total length of
the survey lines and sampling frequency along the lines may then be decided. This information
is also useful in the analysis and interpretation of the data.
Surface temperature is affected not only by subsurface water flow channels and/or
geothermal heat sources, for which the survey aims, sunshine, but also moisture content of the
ground, presence of manmade structures. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the disturbing
thermal effects by the soil’s humidity and uneven sunshine due to tall trees, when we decide to
set up the survey lines and measurement points. As rainfall disturbs the measurements, rainy
days are to be avoided for the survey. Particularly when a survey spans several days, we have
to be careful of the changes of weather conditions during that period.
3.3 Selection of the Time of the Year for Field Work
6) The most suitable time for field work is from winter to early spring, from January to
April and from summer to early autumn, from August to September. These are the
seasons with a large temperature difference between the surface and the groundwater,
which is needed for detecting groundwater channels.
Notes
In Japan, weather conditions from May to June and from November to December are not
suitable for this method. A good season for surveying for hotsprings or geothermal resources
are from late winter to early spring, when the 1 m depth temperatures are generally low.
Description
The 1 m depth temperature is closely related to the mean atmospheric temperature of a region
in the long term, not diurnal variation. The following formula gives the annual mean
temperature at 1 m depth (θ1) as a function of annual mean atmospheric temperature (θa)
In general, the survey has greater accuracy when the difference between the observed the 1 m
depth temperature (θ1) and the subsurface fluid temperature is larger. Where the difference is
too small or none, the method is not suitable.
In reality, the temperature of a fluid in a subsurface channel stays constant throughout the
year. In contrast, the 1 m depth temperature shows a seasonal variation, which generally lags
the annual variation of surface temperature variation by about 30 days. Therefore, the most
suitable months for this survey are either from January to April or from August to September,
corresponding to the time window 30 days after the time of the lowest and highest atmospheric
temperature.
3.4 Survey Lines and Sampling Sites
7) For planning survey lines and sampling sites, consider several factors such as
topographic conditions, possible surface obstacles for measurements and practical
ease of operations.
8) The basic configuration of a field is a rectangle with a main survey line perpendicular
to the direction of expected groundwater flow channels.
9) The intervals of sampling points should normally be 5 to 20 m.
Notes
1) The natural ground is best for this method; avoid wet and artificially reclaimed land for
measurement.
2) Avoid outcroppings of hard rock, as it is hard to drill a hole for the 1 m depth temperature
measurement.
Supplementary Notes
1) The geographic coordinates of the survey lines and sampling points should be surveyed
before starting temperature measurements.
2) Try to plan more than two or more survey lines perpendicular to the expected orientation of
the target underground fluid flow channel, even measurements of a rectangular grid are
difficult, due to some practical constraints.
Description
Ideally, the sample points should form a rectangular grid in a survey area. This allows for
presentation of the results of the field measurement of the 1 m depth temperatures in a contour
map. The grid measurement may be difficult due to the topographic conditions in the area and
the constraints of time and cost. Sampling along several lines may then be planned. Even in
such cases, the survey lines should be planned perpendicular to the expected orientation of the
fluid flow.
The sampling interval or grid size is generally 5 to 20 metres for landslide occurrence
evaluation. The controlling factors for the sampling interval are efficiency of operations and
requirements in accuracy of measurement. For measurements along a straight survey line, the
interval should be 5 to 10 metres. A very largescale survey for concealed groundwater flow of
a river may require a 10 to 30 metres sampling interval. A smallscale survey, such as one for a
leakage from manmade ponds, may require finer sampling intervals of 2 to 5 metres.
More than two parallel lines should be planned to achieve sufficient accuracy. In planning
survey lines and sampling points, consider topographic constraints and manmade obstacles. If
any anomalous signals are detected, increase the number of sampling points in the vicinity of
where the anomalous temperature signal is observed.
4. Field Operations
4.1 Instrumentation
1) The instruments used are:
a highprecision thermistor thermometer for measuring the 1 m depth
temperatures, and another thermometer for measuring the temperature at a
reference station;
a steel rod and a hammer for digging shallow holes and a wrench for
retrieving the rod out of the holes; and
a magnetic compass and a tape measure for simplified geometrical survey.
Notes
All the thermometers used should be calibrated against a common standard. Mercury
thermometers are not appropriate for the survey because the temperature reading may increase
while pulling it out of the hole, and it also has a high risk of breaking in the field.
Supplementary Note
Mercury thermometers are not often used these days because the temperature reading may
change while it is being raised out of the hole and also because they are rather fragile for field
operations.
Description
In the past, mercury thermometers were commonly used for the surveys for their simplicity but
recently, the highprecision thermistor thermometers have taken their place. The accuracy of
thermistor thermometers is 0.1 °C for the range of 0 to 35 °C. Two sets of thermometers are
required: one for a reference site and the other is for all the sites in the survey area. Both
thermometers need to be calibrated against a good standard thermometer.
For drilling holes, one steel rod and a hammer are needed. The preferred diameter of the rod
used is 25 mm, and the length 150 cm. A pipe wrench is needed to retrieve the steel rod from
the ground.
A magnetic compass and a tape measure for geometrical surveys are required, to set a survey
line and define the sampling points.
4.2 Observation at Reference Station
2) Establish one reference station to collect data for correction for temporal variations of
temperature at the sampling points. Measure the 1 m depth temperature at the
reference station at least three times per day during the entire period of the survey.
Notes
The reference station should be located close to the centre of the survey area and should not be
placed where the topographical and ground surface conditions are anomalous.
Description
The 1 m depth temperature always varies. Over a long survey period, changes in weather
conditions cause a significant variation in average daily temperature.
In order to compensate for this effect, the observed data are corrected for the temporal
variation by comparing them with the data from the reference site. The reference site where
timeseries data are collected needs to be located at a place where topographic effects and
surface temperature changes are minimal. The temperature should be measured at the reference
site at least three times a day: at the start, middle and end of each day. If the weather conditions
change dramatically during the survey period, a continuous recording of the 1 m depth
temperature at the reference site is preferable.
3) Follow the field operations procedure below:
determine the end positions and direction of the survey lines first, then mark
sampling points on the line;
punch a hole to the depth of one metre with a steel rod;
insert the thermistor thermometer in the bottom of the hole;
after ten minutes, measure the temperature and record it over time; and
move to the next sampling point and repeat the same procedure.
Notes
Measurements should not be taken during rain, as the temperature is affected.
Daytoday variation may differ from one case to another depending on the surface
conditions, therefore, it is necessary to shorten the duration of a survey as much as possible,
preferably from one week to 10 days and at longest, 2 weeks. It is impossible to completely
remove the normal effects of daytoday variation.
Supplementary Notes
1) Where hard ground prevents drilling a onemetre deep hole, a shallower hole but deeper
than 0.5 m is acceptable.
2) Marking the rod with a coloured tape at the 1 m point makes it easier to recognize the
penetration depth of a hole for measurement.
3) Measurement can be started immediately after hole preparation. Experiments have proven
that the heat generated by friction of the rod is negligible.
Description
It is more efficient to drill all the holes prior to taking the measurements.
Take a measurement of temperature after keeping the thermometer at the bottom of the hole
for ten minutes and record the measured value. At the same time, take note of additional
information such as weather, air temperature, time of measurement, ground surface conditions
(i.e., presence or absence of solar radiation as well as vegetation) at the sample point.
A shallower hole, but deeper than 0.5 m, is acceptable where gravels or hard formations
prevent drilling a hole to one metre. But it is essential to record the actual measurement depth.
Figure 4.1: Concept of 1 m depth temperature measurement using a thermistor thermometer.
4.4 Data QC
4) During the operations, check the measured value by comparing with neighbouring
points. If there is a considerable difference, repeat the measurement for assurance.
Notes
1) Examine the measured data, considering the surface conditions recorded in the field note.
2) It may be necessary to set an intermediate sampling point if a sudden change in measured
temperature is observed over a short distance.
Description
It is important to check whether the measured the 1 m depth temperature data are not distorted
by the prevailing conditions at the ground’s surface, rather than the desired subsurface thermal
regimes. The raw data should be checked for its validity while taking measurements on site. If
a problem is suspected, repeat measurements at the same site or add extra sampling points in
the vicinity.
A marshy area with very high or very low sunshine requires special attention for an
appropriate correction.
5. Data Processing
5.1 Mapping of Survey Lines and Sampling Points
1) It is necessary to construct a map of the sampling points and lines on a plan view at an
appropriate scale.
Notes
Prepare a planview map of the area at an appropriate scale prior to the survey.
Description
The map of sampling points should be based on a topographic map at a scale appropriate for
the survey objectives; clearly showing the lines and sampling points for temperature
measurement. The map should contain information on survey lines, sampling points and their
ID numbers, as well as map scale, direction and legend. Most frequently, topographic maps at
1/2,500 to 1/500 are used to clearly show the densely distributed sampling points in a survey
area.
5.2 Data Reduction for the Raw Data
2) The raw data are summarized in the form of a table. It includes:
ID number of sampling point;
value of the 1 m depth temperature;
date and time of the measurement;
height of the sampling point with respect to a reference datum;
description of the ground surface conditions near the hole for measurement;
and
physical conditions within the hole for measurement.
Description
These data, which were recorded in a field notebook must be copied into a table of a pre
defined format. Indispensable items in the table are ID number, measured value of temperature,
date/time of measurement, height above a datum and other information should also be included,
such as humidity conditions at the ground surface near the sampling point, condition of
sunshine and vegetation, depth of the hole and physical conditions within the hole.
5.3 Corrections Applied to Measured Data
3) Two types of correction are applied to the raw data:
correction for the diurnal variation of atmospheric temperature, based on the
observation at a reference station (see Section 4.2); and
correction for the latitude and elevation of the sampling point, as in Table 5.1.
Description
The raw data of the 1 m depth temperature should be corrected both for the diurnal variation
and for the elevation of the sampling point. In addition, a longterm temperature variation, such
as annual variation, needs to be compensated for if the survey period exceeds several days. The
continuous measurement at a reference station described in Section 4.2 is used to construct a
correction table or a correction curve for these temporal variations. The diurnal variation of the
1m depth temperature is generally very small; compared with the magnitude of measurement
error, it can be considered negligible. For this reason, it is sufficient to make a correction for
the daily average of the measured temperature at the reference site.
Correction for the effect of elevation is necessary where variation in elevation exceeds 100 m
within the survey area. Fukutomi (1951) summarized the observed standard trend of annual
temperature as a function of elevation and latitude at a sampling point (Table 5.1). Table 5.1(2)
shows the correction values for elevation. For example, if a campaign of 1 m depth temperature
survey is conducted in May, the elevation correction is 0.2 to 0.3°C, assuming the maximum
variation in elevation in the survey area is 50 m. In the areas behind hills, trees and buildings
where it is shady most of time, the values of the 1m depth temperature are lower than sunny
areas by 1 to 3°C.
It is certainly possible to evaluate the effect of sunshine by comparing the data of the 1 m
depth temperature between sites in the sun and shade. However, the effect of sunshine easily
changes with time within a day. Therefore, it is not easy to quantitatively establish its effect
from those comparative experiments. It is safer to deal with this problem in interpretation:
incorporating a rather large errorrange estimation on the order of 1 to 3°C, for example.
Table 5.1: Correction values for the effects of latitude elevation.
6. Analysis
6.1 Data Analysis and Visualization
1) First, summarize all the corrected temperature data for each survey line in a table and
calculate minimum, maximum, average and standard deviation. Draw a graph of the 1
m depth temperature along each survey line.
2) Then, draw a contour map of the 1 m depth temperature if the sampling points are
distributed in the form of a grid with an even interval.
Notes
If the survey area is very large or has some subareas with different topographic features, sub
divide the area into smaller areas and calculate the average and standard deviation of the
temperature for each of the subareas.
Description
Find the minimum, maximum, average and standard deviation values of the 1 m depth
temperature, which have been corrected for diurnal variation and elevation effect. During this
process, anomalous values due to special surface conditions should be excluded.
The result should be shown in a graph along a survey line or a contour map. The contour
map can be constructed when the sampling points are distributed in the form of a regular grid.
Figure 6.1 shows an example of contour map of a 1 m depth temperature survey aimed at
detecting a concealed subsurface channel.
Figure 6.1: Example of temperature contours for a survey for concealed channel of fluid flow.
7.1 Discussions of Results and Interpretation
1) For better interpretation of the 1 m depth temperature for survey geology and
hydrogeology, supplementary data including existing geological information and
aerial photos should be incorporated.
2) Other geophysical surveys (e.g., resistivity, etc.) are applied in the same area; compare
the result of the 1 m depth temperature with them to improve the accuracy of
interpretation for the supposed groundwater channels, for example.
3) It is possible to estimate the location, size and depth of a groundwater channel from
the distribution of the 1 m depth temperature along a survey line.
Notes
It is sometimes very difficult to interpret the presence of groundwater channels from the data of
1 m depth temperatures alone, as due to groundwater flow, the temperature signal might
sometimes be too small, depending on the time of a year. The existing data or reports of
surveys by other geophysical methods in the same area may be referenced for a better
interpretation.
Description
The positions of groundwater flow channels can be estimated from the trend of the distribution
of the 1 m depth temperature for a survey area. Generally, the temperature of groundwater is
stable, without significant annual variation, at 15 to 16°C in Japan. Therefore, the observed 1 m
depth temperature immediately above a channel is influenced by this groundwater temperature,
showing an anomalously high temperature in the colder seasons of the year, winter to early
spring, and an anomalously low temperature in the warmer seasons, summer to early autumn.
In contrast, no significant temperature anomalies can be observed in other seasons.
For surveys seeking for the water leakage from a reservoir or a river, it is necessary to have
prior knowledge of the temperature relationship between the 1 m depth temperature and the
temperature of the reservoirs or rivers.
In the search for high temperature hotsprings, the 1 m depth survey clearly shows a zone of
high temperature corresponding to a channel.
The depth and magnitude of the heat source of a groundwater channel can be estimated from
the data of the 1 m depth temperature, when the survey line happens to be located orthogonal to
the orientation of the channel.
4) The purposes of the survey should be clearly described in the report and all the details
of the procedure, from measurements in the field through to the final interpretation,
should be included in the report. At least the following items should be included:
general outline of the project;
measuring methods and specifications of the instruments used;
description of the method for correction of data;
location map of the sampling points and the survey lines;
distribution map of the 1 m depth temperature;
all the raw data of measurements;
survey results and interpretation, including coherent discussions with other
methods;
evaluation of the survey project and future direction; and
photographs taken in the field.
Notes
The results of the 1 m depth temperature survey should be presented in an easily
understandable manner, like a colourcontour map with a comprehensive legend to explain the
data.
Description
In the ‘General Outline’ or ‘Introduction’ section of the report, the general survey information
should be included: the name of the survey or project; geographical location of the survey area;
the survey period; the nature and scale of the survey operations; the method of the survey; the
name of the company/institute who undertook the task, etc.
In the field operation section, the methodology of survey should be described, using some
figures for ease of understanding. A description of the instrumentation used in the survey and
conditions of field measurement are also described.
Clearly explain the data processing flow as well as the method of analysis in each of the
processing stages, including data correction.
In the ‘Results’ part of the report, the quality of acquired data should be evaluated and
described. Particularly, the special features of the 1 m depth temperature method should be
mentioned, using a diagram or some figures and the logical grounds for the interpretation
should also be explained.
Finally, if some survey methods other than geotemperature are adopted in the same area, an
integrated analysis should be attempted, incorporating both results.
7.3 Disposition of Data
5) The survey data stored on digital media should be accompanied by a document which
clearly defines the format of the data files, overall structure of the data volume,
method of retrieving the data, etc.
6) The data stored on digital media should also include the following information:
files containing the raw data with a description of the data format; and
files containing the results of analysis with a description of the data format.
Supplementary Notes
1) To avoid any trouble when retrieving the data from digital media, it is advisable to store the
data in the form of a file of ASCII text format.
2) CDs or DVDs are commonly used as digital storage media.
References
Takeuchi, A. (1980) Method of Investigating Groundwatervein Streams by Measuring One
meterdepth Temperature in landslide Areas. The Journal of the Japanese Association of
Ground Water Hydrology 22(2), 73–100
12 Radiometric Survey
1. General
1) The radiometric survey is a technique to map fault zones or boundaries between
geological units based on the contrasts in intensity of natural gamma radiation from
the Earth.
2) This survey method is suitable for reconnaissance on nondetailed surveys.
Notes
1) Gammaray radiation is different among different types of minerals, so we use it for
geological investigations. Therefore, the term “radiometric survey” normally designates a
gammaray survey, unless we specify which kind of radioactive source is used.
2) Two different methods of measurement are available:
One is to measure the total intensity of the gammaray and the other is to measure the energy
spectrum of the gammaray called the “spectrometric gammaray method”. The latter is more
frequently used, because it has a better detection capability of open fractures.
Supplementary Note
There are three modes of field operation in the radiometric survey: manborne, carborne and
helicopterborne surveys: the manborne survey, in which an operator carries the instrument
and records data suitable for a small target area with high density sampling; the carborne and
helicopterborne surveys are suitable for covering a large area and good for application where
highefficiency operation is required.
Description
The radiometric survey is a method that measures the intensity of natural radiation from the
Earth’s interior among various sources of natural radioactivity. It is applied to the detection of
subsurface faults and other geological features. Radioactivity is originated from the
spontaneous disintegration of certain isotopes of elements, called radioisotopes. There are three
types of ionizing radiation associated with radioactivity: alpha, beta and gamma radiations.
Ionizing radiation is emitted when an unstable isotope disintegrates through a process called
radioactive decay and changes into a more stable isotope. Radiation is emitted from some
elements contained in minerals that compose the Earth’s crust but it also comes from outer
space. Gamma radiation is most widely used for geological investigations because gamma
radiation can be easily measured by a scintillation counter. Alpha radiation is also used, albeit
less frequently, in radon exhalation studies called the alphatrack method.
The gamma radiation survey is divided into two types: the “total gammaray method”, which
counts the total gamma radiation and the “gammaray spectrometric method” that measures the
intensity of radiation at different energy spectra of gamma radiation. In the gamma ray
spectrometric method, gamma rays emitted from different nuclides are separated by a NI
detector with a pulseheight analyzer. This is based on the fact that different nuclides have their
characteristic gammaray energy values. From the spectrum pattern of the observed gamma
rays, it is possible to infer the migration, diffusion and sedimentation processes of nuclides.
This information is used to identify natural faults and fracture zones in the survey area.
Radon (222Rn) is a rare gas and is the only gaseous element among other radio elements that
emit gammarays. It occurs as a radioactive daughter element in the 238U decay series in
nature. It has a relatively long halflife time of 3.8 days and is thus able to move through
porous rocks and soils. In particular, radon can be transported along subsurface faults and
fracture zones, either as a gas or dissolved in groundwater. This increases gamma radiation
with energy corresponding to 214Bi and 208Tl, both being the daughter element of radon
(222Rn), at the places where porous faults or fissures extend to greater depths.
In applying the gammaray spectrometric method to identify open cracks in a rock mass and
in fracture zones that extend deep, special attention should be paid to the spectrum intensities
of the above two radioactive elements, 214Bi and 208Tl, as well as 40K, which is abundant in
natural rocks and minerals.
Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of the basic concept of the gammaray spectrometric survey.
2. Applications of the Method
1) This method can be mainly used for the following purposes:
to investigate the presence and locations of active faults under the ground
surface;
to estimate the boundaries between geological units;
to search for radioactive mineral deposits; and
to assess environmental radioactivity conditions.
Supplementary Notes
1) The radiometric survey is useful for detecting faults or fracture zones that are concealed
below the ground surface. In particular it is good for active fault investigation as part of
earthquake disaster mitigation programs. It is also useful for the reconnaissance survey of
groundwater and hot spring reservoirs associated with fracture zones.
2) The radiometric survey is valid for the identification of geological boundaries, because
there are differences of radiation depending on the different content of radioisotopes in
rock forming minerals.
3) One of the advantages of this method is its ability to survey a large area efficiently.
Therefore it is suitable for reconnaissance purposes.
4) Besides geological investigation, the method is also useful for monitoring radioactive
pollution.
Description
The radiometric survey was originally developed for uranium exploration and mapping
radioactive contamination, because the intensity of radioactivity can be directly measured and
assessed. In recent years, use of the gammaray spectrometric survey method has progressed to
the capability of locating concealed faults and fracture zones. For example, for a survey of
groundwater or hot spring resources associated with faults, this method has an advantage over
others as a larger survey area can be efficiently covered. The radiometric method has recently
gained more importance to make a survey for active faults as part of earthquake hazard
mitigation programs. This method can be used in their earliest stage as a reconnaissance
survey. Many open fractures in fault zones conduct a gaseous element (i.e., 222Ra) ascent up to
the ground surface and it is suitable to identify those fault zones by high radioactivity.
However, faults may be sealed by clay minerals and may not provide a passage for gases, then
the gaseous radioelements cannot be detected. For this reason the radiometric method should
be combined with other survey methods: this method is regarded as one of the many indicators
of faults to contribute to an integrated geological interpretation of an area. Hence this method is
always a tool for largescale geological phenomena.
Some minerals contain more radioactive elements than others and the radioactivity of rocks
and soils depends on the composition of the source minerals. Figure 2.1 shows gammaray
intensities of different rock types. For example, the intensity of gamma radiation is usually
higher for granites, gneisses and shale and lower for basalts or andesites. Where the rocks are
poorly exposed on the surface, the radiometric method can be effectively used to map
lithological boundaries, assuming that rocks of contrasting gammaray intensities are present in
the area.
Figure 2.1: Gammaray intensity in various rock types.
While the radiometric method has an advantage of quick mapping of large areas, its accuracy
and precision of the measurements may limit the usefulness of the data. This method can be
severely affected by the surface geometry, including manmade structures, ground surface
conditions and cosmic rays, in addition to the subsurface geological conditions in which we are
most interested. In particular, physical conditions near the ground surface, such as humidity
and variation of landfill, will affect the intensity of the observed gamma radiation. Therefore, in
an area with many manmade structures, we generally observe a larger noise in the
measurement.
3. Planning
1) The suitability of the radiometric method to a particular problem should be assessed
considering the purpose of the survey and physical conditions of the field.
2) Where there are manmade structures or unfavorable topographic conditions that
might cause large noises not related to the natural geological features, this method is
not recommended.
Notes
1) The radiometric survey is a method of measuring the intensity of radiation at the ground
surface; therefore it is not suitable to apply this method to search for the depth of a structure
of radioactive source at a site.
2) The accuracy and precision of the measurements by this method may limit its use, because
the measurements are affected not only by the geological factors but also by other sources
such as manmade surface environment, cosmic rays, etc. In particular, radiometric surveys
are not recommended in urban areas where there are too many artificial structures on and
near the ground surface.
Description
The radiometric method is most often used for fault zone identification and it is suitable for a
largearea survey of reconnaissance purpose. Gammaray intensity tends to be higher at places
of open fractures. This principle is widely accepted as a part of surveys for locating
underground flow channels of hotsprings and groundwater and for active faults. This method
is also applicable to those projects to identify the boundaries of certain geological units and
uranium deposits.
Assessment of the rock’s physical properties cannot be made by the radiometric survey
alone. The depth profiling of a physical structure cannot be estimated by the radiometric
method, either. Hence, those purposes are beyond the scope of the radiometric method.
The most important consideration in planning a radiometric survey is whether data of
sufficiently high accuracy can be achieved under the environment of the survey site. Artificial
materials are a noise source to the natural geological environment. Such artificial materials
include landfills, pavement stones on roads and arranged large rocks for barriers. These
artificial materials are often present in urban areas and the areas should be avoided for a
radiometric survey.
The radiometric survey alone cannot provide conclusive information of the subsurface
geology and there is a certain limit of the accuracy of its measurement. On the other hand, this
method has an advantage of its efficiency in surveying a large area. These characteristics of the
method should be noted in deciding whether or not to conduct a radiometric survey within a
particular survey program.
3.2 Preparation
3) In order to provide a better basis for choice of a suitable method and planning a field
operation, materials for the preparatory study should be collected including a location
map, detailed topographic map and other documents on the area. And the following
basic information should be summarized from those materials before conducting a
survey:
location of the survey area and its areal coverage;
purpose(s) of the survey;
topographic and geological conditions, especially the inferred position and
strike of the fault zone(s); and
surface conditions and distribution of manmade structures that may cause
noises.
Supplementary Note
1) For a survey for identification of fault zones, it is particularly important to collect existing
information on the faults including regional geological structures.
Description
Planning of a survey should proceed only after a thorough study of existing information such as
topographic maps, geological maps and active fault maps. These can be used to assist in the
planning of survey location and extent and the line orientation. For example, lines can be set to
traverse crossing the previously mapped faults rather than parallel to their strike. The
information gathered for planning the survey also has an important role in interpreting the
survey results.
The natural radiation environment consists in many factors. In addition to the radioactivity of
the geological sources, the observed radiation is influenced by surface moisture content,
climate and vegetation and cosmic radiation. A thorough knowledge of the intended survey
area and its surface condition is thus essential for optimizing the survey plan, including areal
extent, the location of data points, or the setting of line directions. Some surface conditions
such as waterways, rivers and ponds and manmade structures such as pavement, buildings and
stone walls can adversely affect radiometric measurements. Gammaray spectrometers are
usually calibrated using the assumption of a 2D planar source. The measurements may be
invalid where the assumption of a 2D geometry is violated: in mountainous areas, or in the
vicinity of cliffs, road cuttings and tunnels. Measurements may also be affected in cultivated
areas, such as paddy fields where the soil is saturated and radon diffusion is inhibited. All these
items should be considered in locating survey lines and sampling points. Since rainfall
influences the intensity of gamma radiation, it is not advisable to carry out a radiometric survey
on a day when bad weather is forecast. This is particularly important when the survey duration
is over several days.
3.3 Selection of Survey Mode
4) There are three modes used in the radiometric survey, depending on the requirement
of the area, purpose and data accuracy: manborne, carborne and helicopterborne
surveys:
when the survey area is less than a few km2 and a high accuracy is required,
the manborne survey mode is most appropriate; and
when the survey area is larger than a few km2, a survey mode for a larger area
is used, i.e., carborne or helicopterborne survey.
Description
The manborne survey, or “portable type” gammaray survey, is conducted with survey
equipment carried by a human operator on foot. With this mode of survey, lines and sampling
points can be precisely located resulting in more accurate data.
The manborne mode of the radiometric method is frequently used for a groundwater survey
and civil engineering projects, where the area of survey is generally not large and the target is
faults and fracture zones of various scale. For detecting small open cracks, say one meter wide
and up to twenty meters long, the manborne mode is the most convenient because of its small
incident angle into the detector (see Kimura et al. 1990). It is possible to improve the accuracy
of measurement by integrating counts for a longer time window, even with an instrument of
relatively low sensitivity. The limited mobility of an operator on foot restricts the area coverage
to a few square kilometers, which is small compared with carborne surveys.
The carborne survey is generally conducted along a road with a gammaray spectrometer
mounted on a motor vehicle. Although this mode of survey is suitable for an investigation in
relatively large areas, its coverage depends on the availability of a road network useable as
survey lines. A survey requires careful planning, as there may be many manmade structures
along the roads within the field of view of the spectrometer.
The helicopterborne survey uses a helicopter equipped with a gammaray spectrometer. The
spectrometer used has high sensitivity with an ultralarge scintillation counter. An advantage of
this mode is its ability to cover a large area in a short time, while its disadvantage is its high
cost. When the altitude of a flight is 100 m, the area of investigation can be as large as a circle
with 10,000 meter diameter. Its horizontal resolution is not very high compared with the other
modes.
3.4 Survey Lines and Measurement Sites
5) Issues to consider in planning the locations of survey lines and sampling sites include the
purpose of the survey, required accuracy, topographic and geological conditions, possible
noise sources (manmade structures, etc.) and ease of operation:
when the purpose of a survey is to detect locations of subsurface faults, a survey is
designed so that the survey lines are close to perpendicular to the inferred
orientation of faults; and
the sampling interval should normally be in the range of 5 to 30 meters.
Notes
1) Where there are granitic rocks (rocks arranged for barriers, stepping stones, tomb stones,
etc.) or sands with granitic compositions, the intensity of the radiations would be
remarkably high. This is due to the high concentration of radioactive elements in granitic
rocks. Survey lines and sampling points need to be as far away as possible from artificial
granitic materials.
2) In the case of a manborne survey, survey lines and measurement sites should be located on
a natural ground surface, rather than on paved roads, to avoid introducing noise due to those
materials.
Supplementary Note
Before a field survey, it is necessary to decide the positioning of the survey lines and sampling
sites.
Description
The manborne survey can either be conducted on a regular grid, or along survey lines.
Measurements on a regular grid are effective for mapping faults where both the location and
strike of the fault zone are uncertain. Where the approximate location and strike are known,
then measurements along survey lines can effectively confirm the position of the fault zone.
The sample interval is generally in the range of 20–50 meters for a regular grid, although this
depends on the accuracy required for locating the fault and also on operational conditions. The
sample interval along survey lines is generally in the range of 5–25 meters.
The location of survey lines and measurement points should be determined considering the
surface topography and conditions and possible noise sources such as manmade structures. For
a radiometric survey along lines, several parallel lines are used to improve accuracy.
The availability of a road network limits the locations of the carborne survey. The roads for
the survey should be selected to intersect the estimated position of the fault zone.
4. Field Operation
4.1 Data Acquisition System
1) The survey equipment consists in the following instruments:
a scintillation counter with NaI (Tl) gammaray detectors; and
a gammaray spectrometer with a pulseheight analyzer.
Supplementary Notes
1) A totalcount detector of gammarays good for field use is usually called “gammaray
scintillation survey meter”.
2) A gammaray detector for the spectrometric method is sometimes called “multichannel
analyzer”, because gammarays of different energy levels are separately analyzed by this
method.
Description
A scintillation counter consists in a fluorescent substance and a photomultiplier. NaI crystals,
usually activated by thallium, are commonly used as the fluorescent substance. These crystals
have high specific gravity (3.67) to allow a highly efficient detection of gammarays. This is
partly due to the presence of iodine with a high atomic number. The role of the photomultiplier
is to convert the pulses of light emitted by the gammaray interacting with the fluorescent
crystals into electric signals and to amplify the signals to large electrical pulses. The amplitude
of the pulse is proportional to the energy of the gammaray photon. The counting efficiency of
the scintillation detectors is proportional to the volume of the NaI crystal. A scintillation
detector with a large crystal is indispensable for a carbone survey, as the survey is carried out
while the detector is transported along a road. The unit of measurement is counts per minutes
(cpm) or micro Roentgen per hour (µR /h), depending on the particular instrument used.
A gammaray spectrometer is an instrument that can work as a pulseheight analyzer for the
particular energy level of a gammaray coming from natural radioactive nuclides. Figure 4.1
shows the principle of operation for a scintillation counter system and signal flow. The
spectrometer system measures the radiation intensities of three index radioactive nuclides in the
nature: 40K (1.46 Mev), 214Bi (1.76 Mev) and 208Tl (2.61 Mev). Although there are some
disturbing signals due to surface conditions and other noise sources, the spectrometric method
can remove them better than the total gammaray method.
Figure 4.1: Schematic diagram of the gammaray survey system using a scintillation counter and its
flow chart including the data processing unit.
The total count gammaray survey measures the total radiation output of the Earth. The main
disadvantage of this survey is that it does not discriminate the sources of gamma radiation. It
can be difficult to correct the total count measurements for the effects unrelated to the
geological problem under investigation. Surface conditions, for example, should be carefully
considered in interpreting these data.
A high sensitivity detector needs to be installed for a carborne survey, because it
continuously surveys on a moving vehicle on the road. A common survey system uses an
instrument with three sets of scintillation counters with a NaI crystal of 1.5inch combined
diameter or one scintillation counter of 5inch diameter.
4.2 Observation at a Reference Station for Correction
2) In order to use it for the correction of temporal variation of radiation, the background
measurement should be taken at a fixed reference point at least once or twice a day. If
a survey programme extends over a period of more than one day, continuous
observations at a reference station must be taken every day for correction for dayto
day variations.
Description
The natural radiation rate has a temporal variation component. This is mainly due to changes in
the concentration of atmospheric radon with a minor contribution by the fluctuation of the
cosmic ray. This temporal variation of the background radiation should be removed to estimate
the intensity of the radiation originating from the Earth. This variation should be measured at a
reference point and used for a correction of the measurements at sampling points. The reference
point should preferably be away from the source of any disturbing influences such as roads,
buildings, forests and water features. The measurements at the reference point should be taken
at least once or twice a day and at the start and end of the survey. This should also be followed
if a survey is conducted over a period of several days.
4.3 Measurement
3) For manborne surveys, the gammaray count should be recorded using a sample
integration time of 300–500 seconds, with a stationary sensor at one measurement site.
All the values of radiation intensity for each radionuclide and total gammaray
intensity are recorded and the surface conditions around the site should also be
documented in a notebook.
4) For carborne surveys, the speed of the vehicle should be kept as slow and steady as
possible to ensure good quality of data. The standard speed of the vehicle is
approximately 5 km/h. Data should be recorded automatically.
Note
It is not advisable to carry out the survey during rainy or snowy weather conditions, because
the accuracy of measurement may be insufficient under those conditions.
Supplementary Notes
1) In deciding the integration time for the gammaray measurement, remember that the longer
the time integrated over, the higher accuracy of measurement is attained.
2) The gammaray sensor is usually placed just on the ground surface but it is equally good to
place it 30 cm above the ground. In any case, the same configuration should be strictly kept
throughout the survey.
Description
For manborne surveys, the spectrometer is set on the ground at the sampling points and the
scintillation counter is directly faced on the ground surface for measurement. The sampling
integration time is normally set at 300 to 500 seconds, while the purpose of the survey and the
sensitivity of the instrument may dictate the required sampling integration time. When the soils
or the ground surface are wet, it should be better to use a longer sampling integration time
because of the possible low efficiency of counting. In any case, the same sampling integration
time should be used for all the measurements throughout one survey program.
For carborne surveys, the speed of the vehicle and the sample integration time need to be
decided. For example, a vehicle speed of 4 km/h with a sampling integration time of 30
seconds will result in a radiation data averaged over a distance of about 30 m. It is necessary to
determine these parameters in terms of the accuracy of data required by the survey program.
All the measured data are stored in a digital data storage system. In the gammaray
spectrometric method, the gamma radiation can be separated by energy levels, called
“channels” and the gammarays counted by the detector within the sample integration time are
analyzed for the pulse height, (or count numbers) for the three channels. Plotting the gamma
ray energy in the “channels” on the xaxis and the count numbers on the yaxis, a gammaray
spectrum diagram is drawn (see Figure 5.1). Those results are automatically recorded in the
system. The gammaray intensity values of the three radioactive nuclides, 40K (1.46 Mev),
214Bi (1.76 Mev) and 208Tl (2.61 Mev) and total count are displayed on the monitor screen.
These values should be documented in a field notebook for assurance. If there are any
anomalous values among the data, consider repeat measurements or additional sampling points
to clarify their physical reasons.
Additional items in the field notebook include the surrounding topography, surface
conditions and other observations during the measurement at each survey point. This will later
help in the analysis and assessment of the data. These observations can also be useful in case
the initial survey plan needs to be modified. Measurements under rainy weather should be
treated with special care, because the radiometric survey data under such conditions may
generally be affected by elevated noise level.
4.4 QC of Measured Data
5) The data quality should be assessed at the time of the measurement, by comparing the
values with adjacent sites. This will allow immediate repeat or additional
measurements.
Note
1) If a measurement shows a large abrupt change, take additional measurements near the
anomalous site for a QC purpose.
Description
In order to find out whether anomalous data truly represent the presence of a fault zone, the
data should be carefully examined. Check if the inconsistent measurement is not affected by
noise from nongeological sources, or consider whether the anomaly is not an error due to
adverse weather conditions or diurnal variation within the limits of data correction.
If a clear influence by the surface obstacle is found, or if inexplicable noise is present a
repeat survey should take place. If anomalous data persist even in the repeat survey, it may be
necessary to move the sampling site to another location until an acceptable result is attained.
5. Data Processing
5.1 Base Map Showing Survey Lines and Measurement Sites
1) A map of the survey area is produced at an appropriate scale showing the layout of the
survey lines and sampling sites.
Note
1) A planview map of an appropriate scale should be ready for use before the actual field
operation.
Description
A topographic map should be used to make a survey location base map at an appropriate scale.
The map should clearly show the location of the survey lines and sampling points with their ID
numbers, the scale of the map, azimuthal orientation and legends. For a detailed manborne
survey, location map scales at1/5,000–1/1,000 would be appropriate. On the other hand, a car
borne survey generally covers a larger area and an appropriate scale for the location map would
be around 1/25,000 and 1/10,000.
5.2 Reduction of the Measured Data
2) The totalcount method measures the total gammaray intensity.
3) The gammaray spectrometric method presents results as a graph of the gammaray
spectrum (see Figure 5.1): total counting rate and the spectrum counting rate of the
three index nuclide, 40K (1.46MeV), 214Bi (1.76MeV) and 208Tl (2.61MeV).
4) These counting rates are compiled into a table for each survey line.
Description
Both carborne and manborne radiometric data should be digitally recorded by a survey line in
a sequential file and in the order in which the measurements were made.
Gammaray spectrometer surveys should record all gamma rays in, at least, 3 energy
windows centered on the 40K (1.46MeV) photopeak for potassium, 214Bi (1.76MeV)
photopeak for uranium and 208Tl (2.61MeV) photopeak for thorium. The window limits
recommended by the International Atomic Energy Agency are 1.3701.570 MeV for K, 1.660
1.860 MeV for U and 2.410–2.810 MeV for Th (Figure 5.1). The raw window count rates for
each of the K, U and Th windows may be recorded as a list and plotted as a chart (in the case of
line data). Any field comments relating to the surface conditions, geology and the presence of
interfering cultural features can be noted.
Figure 5.1: Example of a gammaray spectrum used in a radiometric survey.
5.3 Correction Applied to Measured Data
5) The measured values should be corrected for timevarying changes based on the
measurement values at the reference station.
6) Any anomalous values, due to an exceptional surface condition for example, need to
be excluded from the dataset.
Supplementary Note
Generally, it is not so easy to quantify the effects of the weather and surface conditions upon
measured data. Therefore it may be a good idea to experiment on site to estimate the correction
values for these effects.
Description
The timevarying changes may normally be due to the variation of radiation from extra
terrestrial sources. The measured raw data should be corrected for those background variations
by removing the daytoday residuals based on the stationary observations made at the
reference station.
It is necessary to exclude such an uncorrectable part of the variations that may come from
special conditions on the ground surface like an artificial structure.
5.4 Analysis and Visualization of Data
7) The total gammaray intensity and the spectrum intensities of the 40K (1.46MeV),
214Bi (1.76MeV) and 208Tl (2.61MeV) peaks are analyzed and their respective means
and standard deviations calculated. Anomalies are detected on the basis of the mean
and standard deviation.
8) For the spectrum method, spectrum ratios such as Bi/K, Tl/K, Bi/Tl are evaluated. For
surveys along lines, the results are presented as a profile plot with distance, or
measurement points, along the horizontal coordinate axes and gammaray intensity, or
spectrum ratio, on the vertical axes.
9) Where measurements are taken based on a grid configuration, obtained results are to
be presented in the form of a contour map of total gammaray intensity and spectrum
ratios.
Note
When the survey area is very large or it has several different topographic divisions, it is better
to divide the survey area into smaller subareas to separately analyze the means and standard
deviations of the intensities of the three radioactive nuclides as well as their ratios.
Supplementary Note
The running average method may be used to estimate the location and width of a fault zone.
Description
For a total count survey, the measured values of gammaray intensity are corrected for temporal
changes and then displayed either as a profile along a line or as a contour map (Figure 5.2).
For a spectrometer survey, the spectrum intensity ratios such as Bi/K, Tl/K and Bi/Tl are
calculated after correcting for temporal changes and then presented as profile plots or contour
maps. In general, the detection of faults or fissured zones relies on the mapping of 222Rn
concentrations. The Rn isotope occurs in the U decay series and under equilibrium conditions
its concentration is proportional to the amount of 214Bi present. By taking the ratio Bi/K it is
possible to remove the effect of difference of geological blocks on the measured value and to
highlight faults and fracture zones. The Bi/Tl ratio can be used to suppress the influence of
surface conditions and cultural features to enhance the geological signal. It is noted that the Th
decay series is almost always in equilibrium, so the measured Tl concentrations are
proportional to the amount of Th present.
Profile data can be filtered (using moving averages, for example) to remove noise and thus
aid the delineation of fault and fracture zones.
The mean and standard deviation values of spectrum intensities and their ratios are
calculated for different subareas and for the entire survey area. By comparing the observed
values of spectrum intensities and ratios with those mean values, sections showing anomalous
values can be identified.
Figure 5.2: Example of a contour map of the Bi/K ratio obtained by a gammaray spectrometric survey.
1) Based on the results of anomalously high gammaray intensities, interpretation is
made on the presence of faults and of boundaries between certain different geological
units.
Notes
1) It is often difficult to consistently interpret the total counts and the three spectrum ratios,
i.e., Bi/K, Tl/K and Bi/Tl ratios. In such a case, the data should be interpreted from a very
broad standpoint.
2) It should also be noted that the data are given by the horizontal distribution map of gamma
ray intensity simply measured on the ground surface and therefore no information can in
principle be derived concerning the vertical distribution of radiation sources, etc.
Supplementary Notes
1) It is necessary to collect and incorporate as much existing geological data and aero
photographic information as possible in order to correctly interpret and determine the
location of fault zones etc.
2) If any other survey methods have been applied to the same area, incorporate those results
into consideration, to improve the accuracy of the geological interpretation of the
radiometric method.
Description
The presence of fault and fracture zones is interpreted from the distribution of radiation
intensity and changes in radioelement ratios. Radon concentration tends to increase in the
vicinity of fault and fracture zones. These zones are often associated with either an increase in
radioactivity, or anomalous window count rate ratios. But a fault or fracture zone does not
necessarily result in a radiometric anomaly. Where the materials in the fault have been altered
to clay, or where the fault zone materials are not porous, radiometric anomalies can be small or
absent.
It is important to remember that the size of a radiometric anomaly associated with a fault or
fissure zone also depends on the radioactivity of the surrounding country rock. Local geology
must therefore be taken into consideration in the interpretation of the data, because the absolute
values of anomalous gammaray intensity corresponding to faults and fault zones depend on
their background intensities, which may have a large range of values. For example, a fault zone
within highly radioactive granite may have a larger positive anomaly than a similar fault zone
occurring in a volcanic tuff of lower radioactivity (Figure 6.1).
Figure 6.1: Example of correspondence between a geological crosssection and its gammaray profiles,
composed of total gammaray count as well as spectrum ratios.
The interpretation of a geological structure, such as faults, can be facilitated through
synthetic studies based on survey results over known geological sources, through onsite
investigation of the sources of radioactivity, or by other methods. Where data appear to be
inconsistent, it may be necessary to reexamine particular data points to determine whether they
were adversely affected by surface conditions or other interfering influences.
7. Report and Deliverable
1) The purpose of the survey should be clearly stated in the final report. The report
should also describe clearly and in detail, the entire survey process from planning
through to interpretation of the results. As a minimum, the survey report should
include the following items:
survey method and equipment specifications;
method of analysis and software used for it;
layout of survey lines and measurement sites;
figures showing survey results (Gammaray Intensity Maps, Intensity Ratio
Maps, etc.);
the measured data listed in tables;
survey results and interpretations, or comparative studies with other
investigation results;
Evaluation of this work and tasks to be made in future; and
Photographs of the field sites.
Supplementary Note
For presenting the radiation intensity data obtained in a given area, it is necessary to show them
in the form of a contour map accompanied by appropriate classification by a color code and its
legend.
Description
The survey report should summarize all aspects of the survey including the purpose of the
survey, the timing and location of the survey, methods used, instrumentation and the processed
final results.
The survey methodology should be described in detail. Figures should be used where
necessary to describe both the principles and application of the methodology adopted. The
equipment and the data units used should be specified. The report should describe the data
processing procedures. This should include the overall flow of analysis, as well as a detailed
description of each procedure. ‘
The survey results should be accompanied by an evaluation of their quality. The report
should clearly illustrate the distribution of radioactivity over the survey area. The interpretation
methodology should be described and the relevance of the radiometric results, considering the
purpose of the survey, should be discussed. Where other survey data are interpreted jointly with
the radiometric data, the methodology and results should be described in the same way as for
radiometric data.
References
Ochiai, T. (1967) Radiometric Method for Underground Water and Hot Spring Investigation.
Riberu Publ., Co., Inc., Japan. (in Japanese)
13 Offshore Acoustic Reflection Survey
1. General
1.1 Principle
1) An offshore acoustic reflection survey is a method to explore and estimate properties
of subbottom layers based on the principles of reflection seismology. The method
uses equipment consisting in a controlled explosive seismic source and receiver(s) or
hydrophone(s) towed behind a ship.
Supplementary Notes
1) To maximize the efficiency of an acoustic reflection survey, consider:
planning an efficient configuration of survey lines and selection of optimal
instrumentation;
geological correlation and comparison (stratigraphy, phases, physical properties)
with existing borehole data and information; and
integrated interpretation using other independent measurements.
Description
A device that produces a sound wave is called an acoustic source or simply a source. A sound
signal or elastic wave emitted from a source propagates through the media, i.e., water, soil and
rock layers. A fraction of its energy is reflected back from the acoustic impedance boundaries
between the media. A sequence of reflected signals is received by receivers called
hydrophones. It may be directly amplified and printed, or recorded on digital media. The digital
data are processed in the lab for visualization, analyses and geological interpretations of the
subsurface.
The advantages of the Offshore Acoustic Reflection Survey are:
the displayed profiles are twodimensional crosssections from a continuous recording
on paper or a monitor and most useful to image and understand offshore subsurface
structures;
arranging several crosssections of reflection profiles along line locations, it is also
possible to visualize and recognize threedimensional continuity of subsurface
structural patterns, e.g., layer and sediment depositional distributions, fault and fold
configurations;
use of a survey ship makes it easy and efficient and hence cost effective to acquire
dense twodimensional survey data; and
the sound energy source used is not a chemical explosive but controlled compressed air,
which is almost harmless to sea animals.
This is an indirect survey method, as is the case for other geophysical surveys and cannot be
expected to:
directly discriminate facies among gravel, sand and silt (pattern recognition and its
classification is the way to infer the facies);
estimate mechanical properties of the medium but only a propagation velocity through
it;
obtain a structure within hard rocks because the elastic wave used is almost
impenetrable in rocks; and
survey where reflection signals are masked or baffled by diffractions at the seabottom
and/or near subbottom layers as is often the case with closed waters.
1.2 Survey Method
2) There are two methods for offshore acoustic reflection surveys: a singlechannel
acoustic survey method and a multichannel acoustic survey method.
3) A variety of field equipment is available with different combinations of sources,
number of receivers and data acquisition methods.
Description
There are two methods for offshore acoustic reflection surveys: a singlechannel acoustic
survey method (Figure 1.1) and a multichannel acoustic survey method (Figure 1.2). A single
channel survey method employs one channel of a receiver, while a multichannel survey
method uses more than one channel of a receiver. Both the source and receivers are in the water
and a stable signal of a source wave can be easily recorded. The offshore acoustic reflection
survey records the acoustic wave reflected from the marine subsurface and often provides a far
clearer image of the geological structure than the shallow seismic reflection, since shallow sea
bed surveys are rarely affected by surface waves known as ‘ground roll’. A survey vessel tows
both the source and streamer cable (single line of receivers connected on a cable) continuously
during the operation, which makes the field operation much easier and more efficient than on
land.
Singlechannel acoustic surveys are one of the most common marine seismic reflection
methods adopted by industry and are mainly applied to geological investigations in shallow
water. It is the simplest method of shallow water surveying that produces results in real time. In
this method, an energy source similar to the echo sounder, transmits Pwaves from a point near
the seasurface and the recorder records the reflected energy from the seabottom and
underlying geology using a single hydrophone. The parameters of the received reflection are
the twoway traveltime that the sound wave takes from the surface to the seabed and back and
the strength of the reflection known as ‘amplitude’. By maintaining a steady vessel speed, the
geological profile can be displayed as a series of single traces on a plotter, representing the
geological horizons over which the equipment has been towed.
Multichannel acoustic surveys have been developed to explore largescale geological
structures such as oil and natural gas reservoirs. They are used for geological investigations to
profile geology from tens of meters deep for civil engineering applications down to several
thousand meters for hydrocarbon reservoirs. Multichannel acoustic surveys allow common
midpoint stacking (known as ‘CMP’ stacking), which enhances weak reflection signals from
deep layers by coherent summation. The multichannel survey allows data processing to
remove multiple reflections or unnecessary signals such as diffracted energy due to the non
directionality of the recording process.
The Singlechannel Acoustic Reflection Survey has the following advantages:
short interval profiling along the survey line can provide dense coverage of geological
information;
because it requires only a small amount of equipment, a small vessel is sufficient for the
survey;
realtime results can be obtained as the survey proceeds without any further post
processing in the lab (which can be done as an option, though); and
the survey cost is much lower than multichannel acoustic surveys.
Shortcomings of the Singlechannel Acoustic Reflection Surveys are:
on shallow water and a hard seabed, imaging the inner structure of beds may be
difficult, since the transmitted energy is weak compared with multiple reflections.
Multiple reflections appear in the record every twice of water depth to mask the desired
signals of a deeper layer structure;
where rough undulation or steep seabed topography is present, diffracted energy at the
ends of a seismic line reflected to the receivers appears like normal reflections
superimposed on the vertical reflections;
it cannot obtain acoustic velocities of the layers; and
experience and skill of the field operator have a decisive influence on the quality of the
data.
Advantages of the Multichannel Acoustic Reflection Surveys are:
the CMP stacking process will improve the S/N ratio of the result;
the amplitude of the multiple reflections can generally be suppressed or removed by a
deconvolution filtering process or through conventional CMP stacking;
diffractions can sometimes be removed by migration processing;
acoustic velocities in the layers can be estimated by velocity analysis;
using velocity information of the layers, depths of layers can be better estimated; and
by further data processes of source signal extraction or deconvolution, the signal can be
enhanced without affecting its original spatial resolution.
Shortcomings of the Multichannel Acoustic Reflection Surveys are:
it requires a substantially large vessel to equip the survey system;
it usually needs an additional ship to protect and alert the survey vessel from contingent
events during the survey, because the survey vessel tows a long streamer cable
(receivers) behind and cannot change its track swiftly; and
it costs more than the singlechannel acoustic reflection survey.
1.3 Terminology
Acoustic Source: A device to generate a sound wave aka ‘seismic source’, ‘seismic energy
source’ or ‘source’. Varieties of acoustic sources have been designed and available in the
market, e.g., Air Gun® and Water Gun® have low frequency and deeper penetration capability
and Sparker, Sonoprobe and Chirp Sonar have high frequency and are suitable for a shallow
highresolution survey.
Streamer Cable: A signal detection device made of a long flexible electric cable equipped
with singleor multichannel hydrophones inside. The streamer cable is towed in the water
behind the vessel during the survey. The length of the cable varies depending on the objectives
of the survey, e.g., the cable is typically a few hundred meters for shallow surveying in civil
engineering applications. The streamer cable will be longer than 1 km for imaging deeper
geology.
Receiver: A device to convert a sound signal to an electric signal. A hydrophone or underwater
microphone is commonly used.
GPS (Global Positioning System): Spacebased (satellite based) Positioning System that can
be used for all vehicles moving anywhere (Global) on and above the surface of the Earth.
NMO (Normal Moveout) correction: One of the preprocessing techniques for multichannel
reflection data processing used before CMP (common midpoint) stacking. Each trace of a CMP
gather data is shifted in the time domain in accordance with the relationship between the
traveltime and lateral offset from the CMP to make zerooffset gather (conceptual gather) data.
Converting from CMP gather data to zerooffset gather data is called an NMO correction.
CMP (common midpoint) stacking: CMP (common midpoint) gather is a data gather of
seismic traces sorted to a common midpoint from a multitude of records in the distancetime
domain. An NMO correction (see above) is applied to a CMP gather to produce a zerooffset
gather. The zerooffset gather will be summed up (stacked) to a single zerooffset trace, which
should be an S/N ratio enhanced trace.
Acoustic Impedance: The acoustic impedance is a physical quantity of a material defined as
the product of its density and acoustic velocity. The reflection and refraction of acoustic waves
are generated at the boundary between media with different acoustic impedances.
Diffracted Wave: When the wave propagates through media and encounters any obstacle (of
any irregular shape or size), diffracted waves are generated from its boundary of the obstacle
and spreads out as wave trains with characteristic wavefront patterns. The diffraction pattern
seen in the reflection data is usually easy to recognize and also a good indicator of an
anomalous geological structure, such as a fault.
Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of the singlechannel acoustic reflection survey.
Figure 1.2: Schematic diagram of the multichannel acoustic reflection survey.
2. Applicability
1) The offshore acoustic reflection survey applies to the following purposes:
largescale offshore structure for route planning of a submarine tunnel, bridge,
breakwater, sea berth etc.;
soft soil layer mapping as a supplement to offshore drilling for soil
improvement for planning artificial islands and reclaimed ground;
assessment of active faults for a nuclear power plant site; and
marine geological survey for geological structure mapping.
Notes
1) The offshore acoustic reflection survey is used for the investigation of geology and fault
locations, site investigations, bridge foundations, undersea tunnels and where manmade
islands are to be built.
2) A single or multichannel method is chosen according to the purpose, the depth of probe
and water depth.
3) Complexity of the geology and necessary resolution of the outcome image are also taken
into consideration in selecting the method to use.
Description
The multiple reflections between the seasurface and sea floor affect the depth the single
channel method can probe. These multiple reflections, coinciding with whole number multiples
of the water depth, are recorded superimposed on the primary reflections from the depths and
their amplitude is proportional to the reflection coefficient at the sea floor. Data with strong
multiples are difficult to interpret. In this case, a multichannel survey may be considered to aid
the interpretation. The primary reflection may be particularly hard to recognise in areas where
the sea floor is made of hard rocks, particularly where it is shallow, because the acoustic waves
do not penetrate well. In these areas, a reflection or refraction seismic survey using a bay cable
may be considered.
The multichannel survey method is applied to:
2) An offshore area wherever a survey vessel can tow a streamer cable.
3) Investigations into offshore geology or fault location, site investigations for bridge
foundations, undersea tunnels and where manmade islands are to be built, where
single receiver acoustic surveys cannot provide an adequate image of complex
geological structures.
4) The depth of investigation depends on the energy level and frequency content of the
acoustic source, the length of the streamer cable and physical properties of the rocks.
Over 1000 m depth can be investigated under thick Cenozoic formations, for example
Osaka Bay and Ise Bay.
5) Highresolution acoustic reflection data can observe subtle changes of character in
sedimentary formations or rocks. However, it may be difficult to image the internal
structure of volcanic and consolidated formations older than the Cretaceous, as its top
is highly reflective.
Supplementary Notes
1) Multichannel surveys can investigate deeper geological structures than the singlechannel
survey system.
2) The method has been used to profile largescale manmade islands like Kansai International
Airport and Kobe Port Island. In these cases, it was used to find the thickness and
continuity of diluvium clay layers, which may cause a major problem of subsidence after
the islands are reclaimed.
3) More recently, it has been used to image deep faults and activity of growth faults.
Description
Where water is too shallow for streamers, e.g., 3 to 5 meters, a bay cable is used. It is a string
of hydrophones laid under the sea floor (Figure 2.1). These surveys are similar in the approach
to that adopted by multichannel surveying, with the exception that the receiver hydrophones
are located in a cable that is positioned on the seabed rather than being towed behind a vessel,
as is the case with conventional multichannel surveying. The baycable method is not as
efficient in operation as a streamer, because the cables have to be physically laid and moved
along the sea floor. In addition, the direct wave propagating along the sea floor may mask the
shallow reflections. However, the baycable method is superior in signal tonoise ratio as it is
not affected by the tow or propeller noise unlike the towed streamer.
Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram of the baycable acoustic reflection survey.
In the areas of shallow water, the multichannel acoustic survey to collect data for CMP
stacking was difficult as it required a large vessel. Recently a method to record multioffset
data was developed. This method uses a short streamer and a singlechannel recorder on a small
vessel and traverses the survey lines several times (Figure 2.2). A data set similar to that of the
multichannel acoustic survey can be extracted by sorting these records.
To accurately correlate the acoustic reflection data with the borehole data, a reflection
section using borehole data in the vicinity is needed. A method called vertical seismic profiling
(VSP) has been developed mainly for petroleum exploration (Chapter 16). VSP uses a seismic
source near the mouth of a borehole and receiver(s) in the borehole to investigate the acoustic
property of the formation in the vicinity, which can be correlated with the acoustic survey data.
Incorporating the core and geochronological data of the borehole, continuity of the geological
formations can be investigated in a marine area (Figure 2.3). This correlation is useful to
estimate the stratigraphy and chronology under the sea.
Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram of the multioffset singlechannel reflection survey.
Figure 2.3: Schematic diagram of VSP logging at a nearshore borehole hole.
3. Planning
3.1 Literature Study and Survey Planning
1) Plan the survey in accordance with the purpose.
2) Study the topography and geological condition from existing data and plan an
economical survey.
3) The plan should include the length and arrangement of the survey lines, signal source,
receiver interval and location and number of available channels.
4) Plan additional surveys (e.g., drop coring) as necessary to ensure the most effective
use of the survey result.
5) To ensure a smooth field operation, check the weather conditions and movement of
fishing boats beforehand.
Notes
1) At the time of planning, consider:
selection of the acoustic source and recording system to ensure the depth of probe
and resolution;
adequate study of bathymetry, borehole data, acoustic survey records and maritime
conditions including tides and streams;
line interval, length of streamer, recording frequency and other recording
conditions; and
climate of the area and fishing schedule.
Supplementary Notes
1) Notify the survey plan to the local fishery organization and discuss the timing.
2) Avoid the busy fishing season of the area.
3) If the survey site is in an area of busy traffic, print brochures to distribute to the port
authority, security offices and other stakeholders.
4) In the area of busy fishing, fast current and heavy traffic, the operation time may be
restricted for safety concerns and to avoid noise.
Description
The Geological Survey of Japan conducts acoustic surveys with an airgun for marine
geological mapping. The Geographical Survey Institute of Japan has collected acoustic survey
data in the inland seas of Japan. The Maritime Safety Agency is responsible for the ‘Basic
Chart of the Coasts of Japan’ and the ‘Basic Chart of the Continental Shelf’ for the area open to
the outer ocean and carries out acoustic surveys. The acoustic surveys are also used for the
investigation of active faults. These data are useful as basic information in designing a new
survey including selection of acoustic source.
A marine acoustic survey records a feeble signal using hydrophones fixed to or towed behind
a boat. In a bay, the noise level is significant when the wave is as high as 1 to 1.5 meters.
Therefore, it should be planned for the period with calm sea to ensure a good operational
efficiency and low cost. If the site is subject to fishing nets, the fishing season should be
avoided for a survey. Such weather and fishery information is essential for survey planning.
The reliability of the marine acoustic survey is enhanced by correlating with borehole data. If
there is a borehole in the vicinity, plan a survey line to tie the hole.
The raw data are recorded against the time axis. The accurate estimation of the Pwave
velocity is very important in depth conversion. The Pwave velocity is estimated during the
processing of the multichannel data. A more accurate estimate is obtained by velocity logging
or a refraction survey.
The acoustic waves have difficulty penetrating some geological conditions and do not return
good reflection data. Such a geological formation is called an acoustic scattering layer and it is
common in areas with clay deposited on the sea floor. The scattering is considered to be due to
gas trapped in the clay. This phenomenon is common in shallow bays in Japan and it also
occurs in shallow lakes. A detailed geological survey is difficult where the scattering is
dominant. Study the existing data for possibility of scattering. One remedy for this problem is
to use lowfrequency highenergy sources. These sources, however, lower the resolution.
There are laws and regulations to specify the use of a marine area and the surveys must
comply with them. An application must be lodged to the relevant authority to manage the area.
3.2 Survey Line Design
6) In a survey along the alignment of a planned pipeline and submarine tunnel, plan a
primary line along the alignment and several secondary lines crossing it.
7) The secondary lines should be planned to cross as many geological features as
possible by studying the existing data.
8) In a regional study, the primary lines should follow the dip of submarine topography
or a geological structure and the secondary lines should be perpendicular to them.
9) In fault mapping, the lines should be laid across the strike of likely faults.
10) In an area with highly variable geology with faults and palaeochannels, several
secondary lines are necessary to supplement the primary lines.
11) The lengths of the survey lines should be long enough to allow geological analysis.
Notes
1) The consideration for planning should include: purpose of the survey, seafloor profile,
geological structure, depth of probe, resolution, operational efficiency as well as obstacles
in the area and traffic.
2) In order to improve precision in the interpretation, plan several mai survey lines and cross
lines as necessary.
Supplementary Notes
1) The survey lines should be straight.
2) Set the lines nearly perpendicular to the strike of the formation to investigate the
unconformity by dip.
3) A geological section along the alignment is needed for submarine tunnels and bridges.
4) Single line data may lead to a wrong interpretation. Plan several survey lines to monitor
each other.
5) With several survey lines, depth contour, isopach and 3dimensional perspective maps can
be drawn.
6) The secondary lines should cross many geological features.
7) Lines for fault investigation should be laid perpendicular to the strike of the faults so that
the faults can be judged between normal and reverse.
8) Deformation by faulting may vary along a fault. Lay several lines across the fault.
9) Investigation of a folding structure is best served with several survey lines perpendicular to
the strike of the formation to interpret the structure of the crest, trough and wings in 3
dimensional space.
10) Analyzing reflection patterns and continuity are integrated into the analysis of the
geological structure.
11) Analysis of a reflection section in a restricted area alone may lead to a wrong interpretation.
12) Plan a survey area broader than required to ensure accuracy of analysis and interpretation.
Description
The direction and location of survey lines should be determined as a function of the survey
objectives, the seafloor topography, the geological structure to be imaged, survey depth,
resolution required, efficiency of the survey operation, obstacles in areas to be surveyed, the
degree of shipping traffic in the area and so on. In addition, secondary lines are generally
recorded perpendicular to the primary survey line to improve the accuracy of the geological
interpretation. In this case, the main line direction should ideally be along the main trend in the
strike direction, while orthogonal lines provide the variation in dip perpendicular to the main
line direction. Where a construction route is planned, it is expected that a number of
perpendicular lines be recorded along the route.
The minimum line spacing is often 10 m when using a fixed source or a highfrequency
source such as a sonoprobe. A shorter interval than 10 m will not generally improve the
analysis accuracy. For most surveys, the source and receiver are both towed astern of the
recording vessel and the point source/point receiver from such equipment does not improve
survey imaging accuracy by comparison with the use of multiple receiver arrays.
3.3 Instrumentation
12) The recording system consists in an acoustic source, a receiver, a data acquisition unit
and a positioning system.
13) The recording system should be tested with its performance based on testing
procedures and specifications prior to site operations. In particular, some factors, such
as the correct operation of the acoustic source, the output level of the receiver,
waveforms of the received signal, electrical discontinuity or leakage within cables and
the function of the data recording unit should all be tested.
14) The type of digital acquisition unit and sample rate must be decided upon, if digital
recording is to be performed.
15) An analog recording system may be used for a singlechannel survey.
16) For a multichannel survey, each channel is fed by a group of hydrophones.
Notes
1) A sonar bathymetric survey usually accompanies an acoustic reflection survey as an
accurate depth measurement is needed for estimation of the thickness of a nearbottom
layer.
2) Buoys (called ‘Birds’) are used to keep the streamer cable at a constant depth.
Supplementary Note
1) ‘Grouping’ is a scheme to place several receivers at one receiver point to enhance the signal
by stacking the data.
Description
The system for a marine acoustic survey consists in an acoustic source, energy source, receiver,
recorder, onboard GPS and an onshore GPS base station (Figure 3.1).
The energy of the acoustic sources to electromagnetic induction and sparkers is provided by
an electric generator on board. Take proper care of the operation of the instruments according
to the manuals. Particular care should be given to the highvoltage cables. Water guns, airguns
and GI guns use highpressure air supplied from a compressor as an energy source.
Arrangement of the highpressure hose should be safe and should be regularly checked for
deterioration.
The location survey instruments are chosen considering the position, accuracy required and
the size of the vessel. The total station system and GPS are usually used for offshore surveys. If
a differential GPS is used, carefully check the accuracy of the coordinates of the base station.
Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of the acoustic reflection survey system.
Figure 3.2: Multichannel acoustic survey system.
There are analog and digital data recording systems for marine acoustic surveys. The analog
system amplifies and filters the signal and draws a grayscale image on a recording paper. This
system is used in singlechannel surveys and the data can be monitored as acquired. An
appropriate verticalhorizontal ratio of the record is essential in this system. The digital
recording system has an analogdigital converter and the data are recorded on an electronic
medium. The sections are displayed after undergoing data processing. Recently, even single
channel surveys have been recorded digitally.
The basic configuration of the digital recording system consists in a recorder with an analog
digital converter, mathematical operators, visual display unit, recording device such as a hard
disk and magnetic tape and an output device like a printer or a plotter for monitoring. By
watching the monitor, the quality control is carried out on a realtime basis. A good monitoring
system can display all the channels at each shot.
Like reflection seismic and GPR data, deconvolution, amplitude recovery and bandpass
filtering processes can be applied to digital acoustic survey data, which allow a clearer
reflection section than the analog data. CMP processing can also be applied to multichannel
data to improve the S/N ratio as well as enabling a deeper reflection section.
The length of the streamer and the hydrophone interval are determined by the number of
available channels. With a 48channel recording system and a hydrophone interval of 10m, the
length of the sensor part of the streamer is 470 m. The streamer also needs an elastic section
(sometimes called an isolator or stretch section) to reduce the vessel noise to as long as 50 m.
The towing length exceeds 600 m. The survey line planning needs to consider the turning circle
of the vessel and streamer by referring to existing charts. If the water is shallow, the streamer
may be damaged by contact with the sea floor. A seafloor installation of the sensors should be
considered in such a shallow site.
3.4 Selection of Energy Source for Required Depth of Probe and
Resolution
17) The depth of probe of the acoustic survey depends on the acoustic source used and the
nature of the geology of the site. Study the geological formations and their thicknesses
in the area from existing data for planning.
18) Select an appropriate acoustic source and receivers for the frequency and depth of
probe required for the survey.
19) Select an appropriate acoustic source from a sparker, airgun, water gun or GI gun.
Notes
1) A source appropriate for the purpose is important for a marine acoustic survey.
2) There is a tradeoff between the frequency and energy of acoustic sources (see Table 3.1).
3) Characteristics of some of the common acoustic sources are shown in Figure 3.3.
4) Some rules of thumb for selection of an acoustic source for depth and geology are:
soft mud and sandy soil up to 10 m: Sonoprobe and electromagnetic induction
acoustic source;
unconsolidated layer and Holocene sediments up to 10m: electromagnetic induction
acoustic source or sparker;
tens of meters below sea floor: Water gun, airgun or GI gun;
inner bay: Sonoprobe, combination of chirp sonar and sparker around 200–400 J or
electromagnetic induction acoustic source;
fresh water area: electromagnetic induction acoustic source or sonoprobe;
continental shelf: Sonoprobe, combination of chirp sonar and highenergy sparker
or water gun; and
areas deeper than the continental shelf: Combination of chirp sonar and GI gun or
airgun.
Figure 3.3: Relationship between frequency and resolution and/or penetration depth.
Characteristics
High frequency ——— Resolution high ——— Depth of probe small
Small system hardware / Accuracy high Shallow surveying
Small energy
Low frequency ——— Resolution low ——— Depth of probe large
Large system hardware / Accuracy low Deep surveying
Large energy
Table 3.1: Relationship between frequency and resolution and/or penetration depth.
Supplementary Notes
1) The central frequency of the acoustic sources ranges broadly from a few hertz to ten
likohertz.
2) A sonoprobe and chirp sonar with highfrequency capability are suited for surveys of a
shallow surface layer.
A sonoprobe and chirp sonar, on the other hand, are not suitable to investigate layers under
3) a hard formation and pebbles.
4) Airguns, which produce a lowfrequency signal, are used for deep surveys but their
resolution is as coarse as between 5 to 10 meters and not suitable for a fine sedimentary
structure.
5) Marine geology maps of Japan are available from the Geological Survey, Marine Safety
Authority and Geographical Survey Institute.
6) Using public information and references, study the geology and its thickness to select the
suitable acoustic source.
7) The sources for the multichannel acoustic survey include a sparker with 1,000 J energy,
water gun, airgun and GI gun (photos in Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: Various acoustic sources used for the offshore reflection survey.
Description
The indicative depths of probe in an area with thick sediments younger than Miocene are: 200–
500 m by a sparker (1000 J), 500–1000 m by an airgun (10 cu. in.; 165 cm3) and water gun (15
cu. in; 250 cm3). The depth of probe is shallower in areas with older or disturbed sediments.
Bay floors are generally deposited with young diluvia and alluvial sediments. Marine
structures such as sea berths and breakwaters rely on these sediments for their support and the
depth and thickness of these sediments are important information for construction. Soft alluvial
clay layers and buried channels are of more interest for construction of artificial islands and
reclaimed lands. A sonoprobe and a chirp sonar with a transmission frequency 3.5 kHz are
suitable for these purposes. A coarse sedimentary layer may be present in a buried channel,
which may prevent deep imaging with a highfrequency source. A sparker or electromagnetic
source of 200–400 J may be used to overcome this. A sonoprobe and chirp sonar are also
effective for a survey for active faults where fine sampling of displacement is required. The
sonoprobe for surface layers has a limitation in water depth to about 150 meters (outer
continental shelf). For deeper water, the chirp sonar, which uses correlation processing, is
effective.
The ‘vertical resolution’ of an acoustic survey record means the ability of distinguishing
reflectors on a section. Consider there are reflectors at the depths (expressed in traveltime)
shown in the left axis of Figure 3.5. The frequency decreases to the right of this figure, showing
that the adjacent reflections merge and are indistinguishable at low frequency. The high
frequency (or short wavelength) acoustic waves can resolve a fine geological structure close
together, while lowfrequency (or long wave length) waves cannot.
The resolution of the waves used is generally said to be a quarter of its wavelength. For
example, distinguishing two objects 50 cm apart theoretically requires wavelengths shorter than
2 m or a frequency higher than 750Hz (assuming an acoustic velocity of 1500 m/s from the
relationship: wavelength =velocity/frequency). At the same frequency, the resolution is low for
formations with a highacoustic velocity as the wavelength increases. Usually the velocity
increases with depth. Accordingly the practical vertical resolution is a quarter of the increased
wavelength; the 50 cm thick layer needs a frequency as high as 1 kHz. Table 3.2 shows an
indicative resolution for acoustic sources in terms of acoustic velocity of the formation.
The ‘horizontal resolution’ of an acoustic survey is the ability to distinguish the relief of the
reflective surface. The horizontal resolution depends on the shot interval (in time or distance),
as the recording takes place while sailing. The data collected with a short shot interval have
dense sampling and high resolution. If the shot interval is long the resolution becomes poor.
Figure 3.5: Relationship between a source wavelength and its vertical resolution.
Table 3.2: Measure of spatial resolution calculated from the dominant frequency of the source and the velocity
of the layer.
The acoustic survey is a technique to visualize the geology under the sea floor. The data are
usually displayed with a vertical exaggeration rather than 1:1. This sometimes results in over
exaggeration in the vertical scale to mask fine geological features, particularly ones with a long
shot interval. This has more impact in an area where the sea floor is sloped steeply (Figure 3.6).
To clearly image the shallow part under the sea floor, the singlechannel system is superior as it
can increase the shooting frequency. It is important to select instruments and sources
appropriate to the purpose of the survey and geological environment.
Figure 3.6: Variable H/V ratio depending on shooting interval and ship speed.
3.5 Vessel’s Positioning System
20) Select an appropriate positioning system for the survey vessel considering the
accuracy required.
21) Total Station and GPS are usually used for positioning of the vessel.
22) The position of the moving vessel should be continuously monitored.
Description
The reflection point is offset from the position of the vessel. The coordinates should be
adjusted to the positions of the source, receivers and other instruments to draw a navigation
map. To be consistent with other data, a common coordinate system should be used. Usually
the coordinate system specified by the state is used.
A waterbottom topography map can be constructed from a seabed reflection section of an
echo sounder, after correcting for sonic velocity.
It is common to use a shorebased Radio Positioning System or satellite positioning using a
Global Positioning System (GPS) for measuring the vessel’s location. When using GPS, it is
customary to use this in differential mode in which one (reference) receiver is placed onshore
where the survey coordinates of the receiver are known, while the other is on the survey vessel.
The positioning data from any single satellite are then fed directly to both the vessel receiver
and the shorebased reference station, so that any errors in satellite transmission can be
determined in the reference receiver (by comparison with the known receiver location data) and
telecommunicated back to the vessel receiver, so that the vessel’s position can be corrected
immediately. This is an ongoing realtime correction. Alternatively, the Japanese Coast Guard
may be able to provide these differential data from its beacon receiver.
In recent years, realtime constant updating (kinematic) GPS has been used for continuous
and more accurate updating of a receiver vessel but this is really unnecessary since its accuracy
is greater than considered necessary, where towed streamers and sources can drift off location.
In multichannel surveying, it is normal to record during vessel movement, with each shot
being equivalent to the receiver interval. The recording process is determined by the survey
operator, who adjusts the recording interval to coincide with the correct source firing location.
For example, with a vessel speed of 4 knots, the time for a vessel to travel 10 m is 5 seconds.
This constant process of changing the shot timing is difficult if manually performed and it is
instead preferred that the GPS system automatically controls the vessel recording while the
vessel is being navigated also using GPS.
3.6 Shot Interval, Channel Interval and Number of Channels (Multi
channel Method)
23) The shot interval is controlled by the shot controller.
24) The shot interval in a multichannel acoustic survey is generally the same as the
channel interval.
25) If the shot interval cannot be the same as the channel interval, it should be determined
according to the time to charge the energy for the source, speed of the vessel and the
number of CMP stacks required.
26) The number of available channels in the recording system determines the maximum
number of receivers that can be used. This influences the CMP stacking process and
the accuracy of the processing velocity analysis. The more receivers there are, the
more effective the improvement in the signaltonoise ratio and the accuracy of the
velocity analysis.
Description
‘Channel interval’ means the distance between receivers. Either 24 or 48 is the most common
configuration of multichannel recording instruments for a survey of construction projects and
detailed shallow geology.
When the source interval (shot point) distance is the same as the receiver interval, the
maximum amount of CMP traces (fold) to be stacked is half the number of recording channels.
The greater the number of recording channels, the greater the fold and hence the greater the
signaltonoise ratio and quality of records achieved. CMP stacking also improves the accuracy
of the velocity analysis.
The shot interval is determined by a continuous positioning survey with GPS to navigate the
vessel and the shots being controlled by the controller of the source.
In general, a long streamer cable cannot be used in a marine area with heavy traffic. Its limit
is about 350 meters. With a streamer cable with a 10 or 12.5 m channel interval, the number of
channels is therefore limited to 24 (there are exceptional case studies carrying out a survey for a
deep geological investigation using a 1000 meter long streamer in a bay.)
A multichannel acoustic survey gathers acoustic waves reflected from common midpoints
(CMPs) and stacks them to improve the signaltonoise ratio. For efficient gathering of the
CMPs, it requires a regular relationship between the channel interval and shot interval.
By firing a shot the receiver distance apart in a multichannel acoustic survey, continuous
acoustic survey recording can occur. The length of time for recording data is the time lapsed
between each shot and hence, if the survey vessel speed can be reduced, so the data recording
time could be increased. However, the slowest a survey vessel can travel is around 3 to 4 knots,
without losing steerage control. In addition, there must be adequate time to charge the source
between shots and to record the data. Thus, where the source or ‘shot’ interval is too short for
vessel steerage control, it may become necessary to increase the vessel speed until good control
is achieved and then to use a source interval that is twice the receiver channel spacing. In such
cases, the maximum fold for CMP stacking will be 1/4 of the number of receiver channels and
the signaltonoise ratio will be reduced accordingly.
When the receiver interval is shorter, the recorded resolution in the horizontal direction will
be higher than otherwise. Typically, receiver cables can have a group interval of 5, 10, 12.5, or
25 m while a bay cable may have an interval of 2 to 10 m for shallow surveying in civil
engineering applications. For a given streamer having a fixed number of channels, the shorter
the group interval, the shallower the geological column that can be recorded and imaged. While
it is very dependent on the physical nature of the strata to be imaged, it is recommended that a
streamer having a 2.5 m group interval be used for shallow horizon surveys of no more than
100 m depth, whereas a 10 m group interval streamer is preferred where imaging of geology
greater than 100 m is required.
Figure 3.7: Schematic diagram of the CMP (Common Midpoint) concept.
Singlechannel acoustic surveys can have a finer density of reflection point records, since
there is generally no constraint on vessel speed and hence the shot points can be much closer
together. When the objective horizon of a survey is quite shallow, a singlechannel survey may
be adequate and effective.
4. Field Operation
4.1 Preparation
1) An adequate survey vessel or guard boat should be chosen and/or hired after
consideration of the recording conditions, survey systems and local conditions at the
site.
2) In order to conduct a smooth and safe survey, operators should arrange a meeting with
fishery personnel in advance of the survey, as well as obtaining the relevant permits or
government applications of notice of the operation from the relevant organizations
ahead of the survey commencement.
3) In equipping a ship with recording systems, installation should allow for extreme pitch
and roll of the vessel, adequate space for operations and safe passage for personnel
during operations.
Notes
1) The vessels are subject to their registration status and the area of operation and the
personnel capacity may be limited by law.
2) Select a vessel with appropriate registration and sufficient capacity.
Description
1. Vessel
A survey vessel should be hired after considering the amount of equipment and typical
condition of the sea during the survey. The vessel should have enough room and quarters to
house all the survey equipment and should be able to maintain a low survey speed during
recording operations. Otherwise, excessive noise can be caused by engines at recording towing
speeds, which may interfere with the recording and obscure good quality recording. When
working in the open sea, it is necessary to have a vessel that can readily cope with waves or
heavy swell conditions. Sources and receivers may be located on the side of the gunwales of
the vessel or towed some 30–100 m astern of the survey vessel. It may be necessary to
arranging a warning or ‘chase’ boat in heavy seatraffic areas, although a single recorder vessel
can often evade other ships due to its ease of mobility, since the equipment being towed is quite
short compared with that of multireceiver arrays.
If the vessel cannot navigate at the low speed required for a multichannel acoustic survey,
shots cannot be made at the same interval as the channel interval. It downgrades the merit of
using the multichannel system. The number of watch vessels may vary depending on the length
of the streamer and the volume of traffic: typically three to five in areas with heavy traffic and
two in the area facing outer ocean. The watch vessels should be capable of highspeed cruising
and have radio contact with the survey vessel and the relevant authorities.
2. Notification
Notice should be given to the relevant authorities to manage the marine area to survey and
permission for the operation should be obtained. Inform the details of the operation, safety
arrangement and emergency contact system. Follow instructions by the authorities on
operations in the area. Brochures of the survey may be made to distribute to the stakeholders.
Fishermen are another stakeholder. Discuss with them and record the locations of buoys and
time windows of their operations.
3. Safety and Preparation
The equipment should be fixed to the vessel, particularly on the small vessel for the single
channel survey, which is expected to pitch and roll. The multichannel survey uses many pieces
of equipment. If one of them is not in a good order, data acquisition may not be possible. All
the equipment should be checked before boarding and leave only the final adjustments and
noise mitigation for on board.
4.2 Test Operations
4) An operational test should be carried out to confirm that the total system is performing
properly after preparing a vessel and installing the mobile receiver station or the GPS
system. It should be possible to determine the optimum configuration for the energy
source and receivers for highquality data recording prior to departure.
Description
Similarly, tests should be performed on all equipment during transit to the site. Tests should
include shot point timing and wavelet of the source, as well as the receiver characteristics to
ensure correct waveform recording. A major test is required to ensure that the noise levels
during recording are acceptably low. Various noise types include onboard electrical cross
feed, receiver tow noise and equivalent noise. Where noise is a problem, the source of the noise
must be located. Consistent and repetitious noise should be noted for removal at a later date.
Typical noise types are:
1) Ship’s engine or generator electrical noise. Avoid electrical crossfeed by rearranging the
equipment layout or by moving power cables and shielding them. When electrical noise is
apparent in the data recording unit, it may help by changing the grounding of the
equipment; and
2) When receiver tow noise becomes high, the receiver should be moved, perhaps to a longer
tow behind the vessel in order to maintain as long an offset from the ship as reasonable.
Alternatively, it may be necessary to change the receiver depth to distance it from propeller
turbulence.
The multichannel system, in particular, uses many instruments. When they are loaded on
board, check and confirm their normal operation. Check the source so that no misshots occur.
Some sources use highpressure compressed air or highvoltage electricity. Safety should be
of paramount concern. Electromagnetic and sparker sources should be earthed firmly.
The cause of noise may be hard to find. Systematic removal of conceivable causes of noise is
essential. The causes of noise should be documented with the remedies. Accumulation of such
knowledge will help future problem solving.
Good shooting is also important. Determine the position and depth of the source, amount of
input energy and depth and other conditions of receivers by a test run. Also determine the
recording parameters such as record length, sampling interval and property of filters. The
operation of the source should be checked before boarding.
4.3 Field Operation
5) Meteorological information should be obtained to ensure that operations at the site
will be performed in as safe a manner as possible.
6) Prepare the survey plan, application and permission for the survey and take a copy to
the operation.
7) After checking the recording equipment, record the reflection from the sea floor and
beneath.
8) The operator judges the quality of the data from the noise level and pattern of reflected
waves.
9) Repeat recording may be carried out by varying recording conditions, if the quality of
the data is not adequate.
10) The water depth is measured at the same time as the acoustic survey.
Description
In rough seas or poor weather, the safety of operations is critical and consequently it is
important to be aware of any oceanographic or meteorological problems that may exist, prior to
vessel departure. If surveying is performed in bad weather, it may become impossible to
control the vessel’s motion for acceptable data recording of survey lines, or the swell noise may
be unacceptably high on recorded data. During recording, the vessel’s helmsman and navigator
must communicate with each other, to ensure the vessel is recording with correct location along
the survey line. The data recording operator (observer) should judge the quality of the survey
record or echo sounder as it is recorded and tie this with the positioning data. The offset
distance from the source to the receiver must be known and noted, to allow correct maps to be
constructed later.
During the survey, the vessel should be navigated as close to the planned survey line as
possible considering the winds, waves and current. Pay attention to the information from the
watch vessel and other traffic. The speed and location of the vessel should be constantly
monitored from the start to the end of the survey.
When the vessel deviates from the preplotted line, or when poor data are obtained, the first
step is to rerecord the data. The level of data quality is a function of the required survey
accuracy and the objectives of the survey will determine whether data quality is adequate.
If the winds, waves and current affect the speed of the survey vessel, adjust the traction to
keep the speed constant, check the shot numbers and ensure that the quality of the acoustic
records and depth data are adequate. Pressure at the compressor and the normal operation of the
generator should also be checked at the same time.
If the record quality has deteriorated due to bad weather conditions showing excessive noise
on record data, or if the recording vessel has strayed too far off the line to be recorded, the line
must be rerecorded (reshot).
5. Data Processing
5.1 Data Management
1) Using the navigation data (GPS or other), the vessel’s track may be mapped, so that
seismic section images can be tied to appropriate locations on a map.
2) Correct the location data for the offset of the source and receiver from the GPS
(arrange CMPs for the multichannel survey).
3) The seabed depth and estimates of acoustic velocities allow corrections to the echo
sounder record, so that a correct display of the seabed and subsurface topography can
be made later.
Description
A track chart is a marine equivalent of a survey line map on land. The positioning survey
provides the coordinates of the location of the vessel. Plotting these data on a plan map makes a
track map. It is necessary to use the common system of nationally recognized coordinates so
that base maps tie with any other maps produced in the area.
The acoustic survey will provide data in the form of coordinates of the ship’s locations but
these must be corrected to allow for the offset distance from the vessel to each common
midpoint. This location map then provides the location of CMPs and the shot point number, of
which the shot point map is the preferred numbering system.
The water depth base topography map can be constructed from the seabed reflection section
of the echo sounder, after correcting for sonic velocity.
5.2 Time Section (Singlechannel Survey)
4) A reflection time section is made from acoustic survey records. Once variations in the
seabed are allowed for, the reflected time section provides an image of the subseabed.
Description
The analog record of a singlechannel survey printed on paper is the reflection time section. If
the data are digitally recorded, both for single and multichannel surveys, the analysis is
carried out on the processed data. Trace the main reflectors on the section to create a ‘reflection
time section’ with distance on the horizontal axis and time on the vertical axis. Figure 5.1
shows a comparison between analog and digital records.
Figure 5.1: Comparison between analog and digital records.
5.3 Data Processing System (Digitally Recorded Singlechannel
Survey or Multichannel Survey)
5) A data processing computer and a plotter should be used if onboard processing is to
be performed.
6) Adequate software should be used that has enough capability to perform onsite data
analysis and interpretation if this is a requirement of the survey.
Description
Figure 5.2 shows data processing and analysis systems. The recording media may be magnetic
tapes and magnetic or optical disk. The data of multichannel acoustic survey tend to be larger
than that of an onshore reflection survey, because the survey lines are longer. Therefore a
computer with a large capacity is needed for processing these data. Most of the recent
processing software operate interactively.
Figure 5.2: Data processing and analysis systems of reflection survey data.
5.4 Data Format Conversion (Multichannel System)
7) Field data should be converted to an appropriate format before they are forwarded to
onshore data processing software.
Description
The Society of Exploration Geophysicists (SEG) of the USA recommends that the standard
survey format for recording digital acoustic reflection data is the SEG format and the recording
unit normally conforms to this recommendation, recording digital data in an accepted SEG
format. These include SEGY, SEGD, or SEG2. The data format used for recording should be
readily convertible to one of these SEG formats, to allow the data to be correctly read by a data
processing company.
5.5 Data Processing and Analyses (Multichannel System)
8) The data will be processed as a function of the level of common midpoint (CMP)
stacking required to produce an adequate reflection time section with an improved S/N
ratio.
9) A depth section may be produced from a reflection time section where correct velocity
information has been provided.
Supplementary Notes
The data processing is very similar to the processing flow of a shallow seismic reflection and
an example is illustrated in Figure 5.1. A schematic is shown of the various steps in the
acquisition and processing flows in Figure 5.2. The processing parameters will be different
however, due to a marine survey having the following differences:
There will be less variations in the transmitted source waveform since the source is
fired in water, which is homogenous and does not transmit shear energy compared with
the vagaries of land geology; static corrections are rarely needed in offshore surveys
since the water level is constant compared with undulating land; and the acoustic
propagation velocity in seawater is quite constant due to the homogeneity of water
compared with land geology.
The energy of the acoustic wave will be attenuated over longer propagation distances
and can be approximated with a logarithmic attenuation scalar in data processing,
whereas on land this depends on the rock quality (Q) factor.
Multiple reflections occur when recording in water these are caused by the source
energy reverberating between the seasurface and the seabottom, whereas this rarely
happens in land recordings. The amplitude of the multiple reflections can generally be
suppressed or the multiple removed by a process known as ‘deconvolution’ filtering or
through conventional CMP stacking, using the moveout velocity as a natural filter.
Where rough undulations or steep seabed topography occurs, diffracted energy from
the flanks of a seismic line can be reflected to the receivers and appear as normal
reflections overlaying the vertical reflections from beneath the recording vessels. Such
diffractions can sometimes be removed by migration processing methods.
Description
The stacking process improves the signaltonoise ratio. Stacking is an operation to gather and
sum up the traces with common midpoints (CMP) as seen in Figure 3.7. Through this
operation, random noise components are diminished by cancellation to enhance the coherent
reflections from geological boundaries (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3: Schematic diagram of CMP (Common Midpoint) stacking.
Figure 5.4: Flow chart of data processing.
The data processing and analysis is performed using CMP stacking methods. After the recorded
data have been transcribed to the correct processing format, a reflection time section will be
produced. The time section may then be converted to depth if there is input information on
velocities, typically obtained from a well vertical seismic profiling (VSP) survey, compression
P or shear Swave logging data, or a shallow seismic refraction.
The acoustic survey data digitally recorded are further processed to improve the signalto
noise ratio. The workflow of the data processing is shown in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.4. Figure
5.5 shows an example of processing of multichannel acoustic survey data.
Data Description
Processing
Signal Gain The energy of the acoustic wave will be attenuated over longer propagation
Recovery distances and can be approximated with a logarithmic attenuation scalar in
data processing, it is called ‘signal gain recovery’.
Bandpass In the field a record is contaminated or superimposed with unwanted signals
Filtering other than contained in the source, such as electric noise, ship’s mechanical
noise and miscellaneous ambient noise. Many of these noises are different in
nature from the source, particularly in the frequency of the dominant energy.
A bandpass filter is best used to remove these noises from the record.
Deconvolution Multiple reflections occur when recording in water these are caused by the
source energy reverberating between the seasurface and the seabottom,
whereas this rarely happens in land recordings. The amplitude of the multiple
reflections can generally be suppressed or the multiple removed by a process
known as ‘deconvolution’ filtering.
CMP Stacking The data will be processed as a function of the level of common midpoint
(CMP) stacking required to produce an adequate reflection time section with
an improved S/N ratio.
Migration Where rough undulations or steep seabed topography occurs, diffracted
energy from the flanks of a seismic line can be reflected to the receivers and
appear as normal reflections overlaying the vertical reflections from beneath
the recording vessels. Such diffractions can sometimes be removed by
migration processing methods.
Depth A depth section may be produced from the reflection time section where
Conversion correct velocity information has been provided.
Table 5.1: Key components of the data processing flow and their brief descriptions.
Figure 5.5: Processed data of an acoustic reflection survey.
6.1 Interpretation
1) Since an acoustic survey record is a presentation of the acoustic energy reflected at the
boundary between the seawater and the seabed, the data may now be interpreted.
2) This is done by comparing any existing geological maps or drilling logs (if those
materials are available) to establish a good geological tie with the wells. This can then
lead to a good geological interpretation.
Notes
1) The interpretation is basically similar to the interpretation approach used in the single
channel survey or the conventional shallow seismic reflection method (see Chapter 3).
Description
Acoustic survey records data are reflected from the sea subsurface and often provide a far
clearer image of a geological structure than those presented by shallow seismic reflection, since
shallow seabed surveys are rarely affected by surface waves known as ‘ground roll’. However,
shallow marine surveys are more affected by multiple seasurface reflections, which rebound
between the seasurface and seabed. Therefore, it is important to take a close look at the
reflections from layer boundaries and compare these with the multiple reflections, to ensure
there is no confusion in their interpretation.
In singlechannel acoustic surveys, a recording can be performed with a shorter station
interval as opposed to that used for multichannel surveying and therefore a finer spatial
sampling of survey lines can be performed by comparison with multichannel recording.
When interpreting the survey data, the stratigraphy of each unit reflection must be tied in
terms of amplitude and continuity of the reflection, after which estimates can be made of the
soil and geological structure for comparison with known data, to produce a stratigraphic cross
section. Important points regarding interpretation include:
Where there is a significant change in dip between the upper and lower layers at the
boundary of a reflecting horizon, there is potential that this might be an unconformity.
If the reflection pattern appears to be changing in terms of intensity and continuity, this
may point to the existence of diffraction, so that such differences in amplitude can be
used for classifying reflections.
When tracking a dipping layer, it is preferable to interpret it along the maximum dip
direction, since any other direction will not assist in understanding the degree of dip in
the data.
When patterns of blank or weak reflections occur, this may indicate homogeneous clay
type layering, which may have less acoustic impedance than the surrounding layers
(possibly due also to the presence of gas).
Faults, folding or flexuring structures are recognized by observing reflection
displacements and continuity in the reflection section. It is possible to misinterpret such
events as a ridge of a buried valley or remains of a landslide if just the top horizon is
independently interpreted.
Since the vertical time axis is often larger and therefore exaggerates the thickness of
layers, interpreters should be careful to ensure interpretations incorporate the vertical:
horizontal scale ratio, to produce a realistic and sensible interpretation.
Sealevel changes resulting from tectonic activity in the Quaternary period caused a re
distribution of layers and this should be allowed for during interpretation.
If existing drillhole data are available, the reflection horizons should be tied with the
drillhole lithology and facies or Pwave velocities if these are available.
Taking these points into account, the reflected time section can be interpreted. Having
knowledge of velocities allows the construction of an interpreted depth section, to provide a
geological map displayed in plan view, construction of an equidepth map for interpreted layers
and an isopach (isothickness map) may be produced for each layer.
The depth section of the singlechannel acoustic survey is produced from the time section
using the propagation velocity that would have resulted from a study of existing data found
from drillhole cores or sonic logs. In some cases, quasidepth sections may be converted using
an assumed velocity of seawater of about 1500 m/s. The resulting section is of an assumed soil
or geological structure.
The geological plan view map is of seabottom soil or rock distribution and if faults, folding
or a structural dip are present, these will be illustrated in the map. Furthermore, a plan view can
be made of the geology with various overburden layering removed if required.
The equidepth map is based on the depth of a chosen layer. The isopach indicates a layer’s
thickness. Alternatively, a horizontally sliced section of a chosen layer at a particular consistent
depth may be obtained.
These works are done on a time or depth section. Where the velocity used for depth
conversion is great, the waveform is somewhat stretched giving a different impression from the
actual structure. Stacked sections, migrated sections and depth sections are used for
interpretation of a multichannel acoustic survey.
Interpretations of geological divisions and faults have traditionally been expressed on a
colored map using color pencils. With recent interpretation software this can be done
interactively on a VDU.
Velocity distribution sections may be made from multichannel acoustic survey data as the
Pwave velocity is estimated during the data processing. The velocity values are estimated
assuming horizontal layers and they do not necessarily correspond to the geological boundary.
Some errors are expected in the Pwave velocity values caused by a dip of the formations and
other conditions.
6.2 Deliverables
reflection time section;
depth section;
interpreted section;
acoustic survey record;
echo sounder record; and
file of the geodetic survey.
outline of the survey (location of the survey and its size);
method of the data processing and applied parameters;
results of the survey;
interpretation of the results; and
existing materials that were available and any references.
Notes
In addition to the above, a report of a multichannel survey should include a description of the
data processing and its parameters.
Description
The general results of a survey should include a time section, a depth section, the acoustic
profiling records, interpreted sections, echo sounder records and the survey log (including the
navigation base map). The time section will show the time representation of the geology along
the survey lines. Therefore, it does not always show all the changes in the soil or geological
column. The velocity is hard to estimate in a singlechannel analog survey. Then the geological
and geotechnical interpretation is done on the time section. The velocity can be estimated
during the processing of multichannel data and multioffset singlechannel data. Depth
sections are made from these data and geological and geotechnical interpretations are carried
out on the depth sections.
The result of a survey produces various data to assist understanding the geology. These
include a reflection time section, the survey records, the interpreted section, an echo sounder
depth record and a file of the geodetic survey (including a navigation chart). The time section
shows the acoustic representation of the geology below the survey line. Therefore it does not
always coincide with any known changes in the soil or geological formation. Interpretation of
the soil or geology is performed using the time section, since a singlechannel survey cannot
measure the seismic wave propagation velocity directly.
Other material that is useful for interpretation include a seadepth topography map, a
converted seismic depth section, the interpreted section, a geological map, a geological section,
isopach for each layer, equidepth map for each layer and any other information that would be
useful to assist with the survey objectives.
The records of an acoustic survey include raw data from data acquisition, reflection time
sections, depth sections and intermediate data on electronic media such as magnetic tape, CD
ROM or DVD.
A seabottom topography map can be produced using the echo sounder record if the survey
line spacing is sufficiently small. The geological plan base map will indicate the distribution of
strata, faults or folds that occur below the seabed. Since the upper layers are overlaid with
alluvial deposits in inner bay areas, some geological base maps show the strata after removal of
these upper deposits. Faults can be categorized into a concealed fault, a revealed fault, a
presumed fault, a normal fault, a reverse fault and so on.
The geological section is the result of the analysis of the survey data. Another map at the
same scale might be required that should be labeled with any planned route where a site
construction has been proposed, such as foundations for a tunnel or bridge.
The isopach is a layer thickness map that provides the thickness of any alluvial deposits,
diluvium, or sedimentary layer.
The equidepth map provides a contoured view of the depth of chosen strata from a reference
plane. It generally indicates the basement of alluvial deposits or the top of bedrock.
Figure 6.1 is a composite section of acoustic surveys by sea floor sensors, a multioffset
singlechannel system and a VSP and multichannel system, connecting from the land,
transmission zone and marine sections. This can be extended to the onshore area by a land
seismic reflection survey.
Figure 6.2 shows a map of the top of a geological unit and its bird’seye view and Figure 6.3
shows an example of a fence diagram to express the result of a survey.
Figure 6.1: An example of a reflection section composited from landtransitionmarine zones.
Figure 6.2: Examples of a depth map to a specific geological layer and its bird’seye viewmap.
Figure 6.3: A fence diagram of the geological sections.
References
Lavergne, M. (Marshall, N. Trans.) (1989) Seismic Methods. Institut Francais Du Petrole
Publications, pp. 128.
Further Reading
Bacon, M., Simm, R. and Redshaw, T. (2003) 3D Seismic Interpretation. Cambridge
University Press, pp. 212.
Vermeer, G. J. O. (2012) Marine Seismic Data Acquisition, 3D Seismic Survey Design (Second
Ed.) Ch.5, Society of Exploration Geophysics, pp. 143206.
14 Seismic Ahead of a Tunnel Face
1. General
1.1 Principle
1) The “Seismic ahead of a tunnel face” method is a technique to explore the condition of
an area to drill from a drilled part of a tunnel.
Notes
1) A requirement for an exploration ahead of a tunnel face is urgency in data acquisition and
turn around. It should not interfere with the tunnel boring operation but provide information
quickly.
2) This chapter describes a method that uses elastic waves.
Supplementary Note
1) The methods applied to explore ahead of a tunnel face include:
survey by elastic waves;
survey by electromagnetic waves;
horizontal boring; and
borehole logging.
Description
Various geophysical exploration methods are available for predicting geological features ahead
of a cutting face for various depths of probe and required accuracy. Although the geophysical
methods are indirect investigations, they are good at investigating 3dimensional geological
structures.
Various geophysical exploration methods are available for predicting geological features
ahead of a cutting face. Such methods as groundpenetrating radar (GPR) cover a range of
about 1 to 2 meters ahead of a face, while the seismic reflection method covers a range of about
100 to 200 meters. In order of depth of penetration, the following survey methods have been
developed: groundpenetrating radar; electric resistivity; seismic refraction; EM; and surface
wave techniques. Also, there is the method of velocity logging that uses a pilot borehole to
estimate the condition of the formation. When implementing any of these methods it is
important to consider the relaxation area caused by tunnel excavation that may be thicker and
more unstable around the cutting face. In this chapter, the seismic reflection method for
predicting ahead of a tunnel face is treated. Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP) and Tunnel
Horizontal Seismic Profiling (HSP) are considered as examples.
2. Applicability
1) Exploration ahead of a tunnel face is carried out in a tunnel presently being drilled.
Notes
1) The “Seismic ahead of a tunnel face” method is a technique to explore the condition of an
area to drill from a drilled part of a tunnel using elastic waves. It incorporates geological
and geotechnical information gained before and during drilling to improve the accuracy of
prediction.
Description
A survey that predicts ahead of a face does so by generating artificial vibrations by blasting in a
driven zone that is under construction. A linear array of receivers deployed in a tunnel is used
to receive the reflected waves generated by this blast. The survey aims to make a geological
prognosis in a range of 100 to 200 meters ahead of the face (Figure 2.1). In principle, the
techniques of VSP and seismic reflection are employed for this type of survey. Objectives for
the survey are to determine the following:
presence of geological discontinuities such as strata boundaries and fault zones;
their distances from the face;
their width;
their dip and tilt with respect to the tunnel; and
the geological occurrences.
Figure 2.1: Concept of the seismic ahead of a tunnel face.
3. Planning
3.1 Literature Study
1) Consider the conditions to apply to the seismic reflection method.
2) Examine the data gained from the part of the tunnel already drilled and previous
geological surveys.
3) Plan to add other survey methods as necessary.
Note
1) Seismic waves reflect at the boundaries with velocity and density contrasts.
2) The boundaries close to perpendicular to the tunnel axis are easier to detect.
Description
Prediction surveys for looking ahead of a tunnel are investigations carried out during tunnel
construction. The objective is to acquire accurate information about the formation and
anticipated problems. In this way the survey can rapidly impact the tunnel construction. In
preliminary investigations before the tunnel construction, the condition of the formation in
most cases is not grasped in detail because of the limitation of the survey accuracy. This is due
to the complexity of the topography, tunnel extension, thickness of the overburden, complexity
of the geological structure and the condition of outcrops observed on the ground surface. On
application, consider the following issues:
possibility of reflection from the side of the survey line when the geological structure is
complex;
survey along a curved tunnel route is difficult;
where the surface soil cover is thin, the method cannot be applied as the reflection from
the surface will dominate the data; and
where a geological structure is parallel to the axis of the tunnel, only the sides of the
tunnel can be surveyed.
It is necessary to satisfy the following points when conducting a prediction survey:
the possible survey area (survey depth) must keep ahead of the excavation progress;
the process of analysis must be objective and geotechnical interpretation possible;
survey cost is reasonable; and
survey results are obtained in a short time keeping up with the progress of construction.
3.2 Survey Planning
1) Scheduling should be agreed with the drilling operator.
2) Geometry should be designed with consideration given to the geological structure.
This includes dip and strike, inclination of formation, fissured fault zone,
groundwater, lithological change etc. Existing information must also be taken into
account.
3) Also, the location of the array spread should be determined as well as the method of
measurement and the spacing of receivers etc.
Notes
1) The planning includes drilling for receivers and blasting for a seismic source and should be
scheduled to suit the tunneling operation.
Supplementary Notes
1) The survey line is placed up to 100 m back from the tunnel’s cutting face. The placement of
the construction material must be considered to avoid possible conflicts.
Description
Prediction surveys for looking ahead of a tunnel are not versatile enough to provide all the
information that may be needed about a formation. This applies to many seismic techniques.
After the survey objectives for the construction are clarified, application requires a preliminary
investigation of the section already excavated and then the survey location must be decided. It
is also important to understand the principle or the features of seismic reflection (Chapter 3)
and to take these into account in the planning of the survey.
The information obtained from the survey includes the seismic velocity of the formation in
the section already excavated and the acoustic impedance of the formation (the product of
formation density and seismic velocity). For predicting geotechnical characteristics it is
necessary to quantify the reflected seismic waves. However, geological information contained
in reflected seismic waves includes various effects such as complexities in the geology in a
mountaineering tunnel. This makes interpretation of the reflection events rather difficult.
Therefore, in order to improve the accuracy of the seismic interpretation it is necessary to use
all the information already obtained about the formation. This includes results of a preliminary
investigation or from the section already excavated.
3.3 Method of Measurement
1) Geometries are divided into two types. One is a multireceiving type with few sources
and the other is a multisource type with few receivers. You should choose the
geometry type by taking into consideration:
security during operation; and
cost and efficiency.
Description
Predicting ahead of a tunnel face will produce the same result by reversing the array
configuration where the receiving points become source points and vice versa. Although multi
receiving points with few source points is mainly discussed in this chapter, “receiving points”
and “source points” can be interchanged.
The difference between the two types of measurement is illustrated in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Difference in geometry between multireceiver (left) and multisource (right) types.
3.4 Survey Line Setup
1) The geometry should be designed in a line along the tunnel axis avoiding extreme ups
and downs as long as feasible. You place receivers and sources on the side wall (left
or right) or floor of the tunnel. This depends on:
geological structure;
depth of survey objects; and
condition of facility in the tunnel.
Description
The survey line is usually arranged along the side wall and positioned between 0.5 and 1.2 m
above the floor or placed on the floor of the tunnel itself. The line survey result should be
plotted every 5 cm. When the survey line is set on the side wall, reflected waves may not be
captured depending on the dip of the reflector. An example of the location of a survey line
determined with a geological structure is illustrated in Figure 3.2.
The end of the receiver spread is usually arranged in a safe location adjacent to the cutting
face considering the stability of the cutting face. However, in the case that the measurement for
the section excavated has already been conducted as an auxiliary measurement, it is desirable to
set the source point 2050 m away from the end of the receiver spread (toward the cutting face);
then the end of the receiver spread should be shifted by the same distance toward the tunnel
entrance.
Figure 3.2: Geometry design depending on geological structure.
A common way of designing the spread and an example of an array configuration for
source/receiving points are illustrated in Figure 3.3. Also, a spread example for a section
already excavated is illustrated in Figure 3.4.
Figure 3.3: An example of a sourcereceiver arrangement.
Figure 3.4: Geometry design for detecting a driven zone.
In a simplified experiment, the seismic transmission is sometimes made at one source point and
with multireceiver points. If the seismic transmission is made at one point only, the area of
relaxation or the seismic velocity in the formation may be obtained only by a statistical method.
It is better to conduct the site measurement by arranging to have more than 2 points if possible.
Then the distribution of the relaxation area or the seismic velocity can be determined by the
measured data. This is needed for analysis and processing.
3.5 Selection of Energy Source and Receiver
1) In principle, explosives should generate Pwaves as a source of energy.
2) Select an appropriate acoustic source and receivers for the frequency and depth of
probe required for the survey.
Notes
1) Pwaves are the type of waves focused on in the analysis.
2) The receivers are installed directly into drilled holes or on bolts on an undisturbed tunnel
wall.
Supplementary Notes
1) Hammering may also be adequate for a supplementary survey or a short distance survey
where the condition is favorable with minimal noise and attenuation.
2) Sources should be increased in a line when the object is nearly parallel to the tunnel axis to
improve the reflections.
Description
Pwaves are the type of waves focused on in the analysis. Pwaves are common and easy to
handle and easily generated using an explosion charge. Also, the accuracy with which a
reflector can be measured in time is higher because the generated frequency is higher. Although
resolution using Swaves is higher, the refraction rate due to the difference of physical
parameters is higher, which makes them harder to analyze. Swaves are also more difficult to
generate as a source.
It is not possible to judge geological structures such as dips and strikes of layers by simply
using the seismic record. Therefore, in planning a survey, it is important to study existing
materials and the array configuration for the source and receiving points corresponding to the
survey objectives.
4. Instrumentation
1) A basic recording system includes:
receivers;
receiver cables;
extension cables;
data recorder;
trigger; and
power source (battery).
Notes
1) Data recorder should be a digital system.
2) Receivers should be 3component phones.
Description
Since the amplitudes of seismic waves change intensely, the data acquisition unit should have
highdynamic range. In other words it must be able to record and store digitally, small to large
amplitudes. For the receiver, the most suitable sensor should be used considering the expected
frequencies in the received signal. These frequencies may range from several hundreds of Hz to
several thousands of Hz and the equipment used must be able to record this range.
Receivers generally sense velocity or acceleration of the ground movement. The recorder
used should be capable of concurrently recording several waveforms accurately. The 3
component receivers are essential to obtain a 3dimensional structure of the dip and strike of
the geological formation.
5. Field Operation
5.1 Preparation
1) Once preparation of the measurement is completed, perform a test measurement prior
to actual measurement.
2) Avoid possible noise sources.
3) Observe the safety rule of the worksite.
Notes
1) Recording should always be monitored and managed.
2) If a data record is poor, repeat the recording.
3) Field note should document the field operation and source condition.
4) Recorder should be placed within a safe distance from the blast.
Supplementary Notes
1) Ensure safety if lighting or ventilation needs to be turned off.
2) The following are the main points of inspection at the time of quality control provided for
the field measurement:
grasping correct timing of the source triggering;
operational condition of the receiver system;
S to N ratio of measurement data;
existence of occasional noise; and
clarity of firstarrival signal.
Description
The test recording should monitor the noise of each recorder and try to eliminate its source.
Water dropping directly onto the tunnel floor may cause noise. Divert it along a wall. Noise
from flowing water may be reduced by changing the water course with a vinyl sheet. The
ventilation system is a definite noise source. Electric installations in the tunnel may also cause
noise. It is recommended to stop the electricity for about 20 seconds of blasting for the seismic
source. Too many explosives may cause a long reverberation in the tunnel. Optimize the
amount of explosives by experiment. Be prepared for a repeat recording by drilling spare shot
holes beforehand.
Quality assurance should be exercised throughout the recording. Record supporting data in
the field book including parameters such as sampling interval, record length, filters
characteristics, file name, source location, condition of the receivers and their locations.
6.1 Data Sorting
1) Readjust geodetic data (XY coordinates), field notes, existing information and
auxiliary data.
Supplementary Notes
1) Determine the coordinates of receivers and sources based on the geodetic survey data.
2) Conduct format conversion or preprocessing on measured data and provide necessary data
for further analysis.
Description
Location of the survey line, source points and receiver points for each shot spread should be
coordinated and readjusted based on geodetic survey results and field notes. Prepare these for
data processing in addition to creating the location map of the survey line.
6.2 Analysis
2) Data are analyzed following the sequence used for reflection seismic analysis.
Supplementary Note
Procedure and parameters for data processing and analysis are determined by testing several
1) cases.
Description
Using seismic data processing software, data are processed in the sequence shown in Figure
6.1.
The method of analysis cannot be decided uniquely. Therefore, it may be worth analyzing
results from a first attempt and if these are not reasonable try a different analysis.
Also, the parameters used in each processing step should be decided using data quality.
Because of this, the data should be thoroughly studied and perhaps readjusted. Several cases
should be tested and results should be studied and compared. The parameters are to be
determined accordingly.
In the case that the objective geological structure is nearly parallel to the tunnel axis, it is
necessary to study the effect of expanding the survey line and analysis area to the side wall.
Figure 6.1: Data processing flow of tunnel HSP.
6.3 Producing Analysis Section
3) Create a seismic profile ahead of the tunnel face.
4) Examine and process as follows:
adequacy of the velocity model built from the seismic refraction;
adequacy of reflection pattern appearing on the profile;
matching with existing information material.
Notes
1) Attach any supplementary analysis results carried out; they could be relaxed areas around
tunneling and reflective structures.
2) Examine the velocity structure model.
Description
Analyzed sections are illustrated in Figure 6.2 and 6.3. There is a reflection section resulting
from this analysis. Any auxiliary analysis should also include:
the distribution of the velocity and relaxation area along the sidewall or floor of the
tunnel by a reflection seismic survey (elastic wave survey) performed in the tunnel;
reflected section for the rear of the cutting face (excavated section).
The measurement pattern of the seismic ahead of the tunnel face does not generally allow direct
determination of the velocity structure and the velocity in the tunnel is often referred to during
analysis. Examination for adequacy of analysis results can be performed with the procedure
below:
The velocity model section – Adequacy of the velocity model section used during data
processing is studied from the analysis result such as the existing survey result or the
analysis result of the seismic refraction survey.
Reflection pattern on the analyzed section – The reflection pattern on the record (before
or after processing) is the change of waveforms recognized as reflected waves in the
physical boundary inside the formation. In each pattern on the analysis section, features
such as polarity, continuity, periodicity, or a match with the analyzed result of an
auxiliary measurement are studied. Then a judgment is made as to whether the
“pattern” is a true primary reflected wave or not.
Matching with existing survey result – Reflection patterns with a highreflection
intensity and better continuity among the ones judged as reflections, should be studied
in relation to geological structures estimated from an existing survey result.
Figure 6.2: Examples of tunnel HSP profiles.
Figure 6.3: Tunnel HSP profile for a fault.
A prediction survey is implemented in order to estimate the location and scale of a fissured
fault zone anticipated by a previous geological survey. A remarkable reflection pattern
presumed to be a fissured zone appeared on the analysis section. Afterwards, it was recognized
in a horizontal borehole. Since the width of the fissured zone was estimated at about 10 m, it
was expected that the constructed section affected by the fissured zone was short. Careful
construction was therefore suggested. A fissured fault zone was estimated from the survey
result, the borehole survey result, observations from the cutting face and the change of amount
of gunpowder while drilling. Results from all these sources of information coincided extremely
well.
7. Report and Deriverables
7.1 Basic Principle
1) Interpretation must contribute to engineering evaluation. A seismic profile should be
interpreted by surface geology, other geophysical investigations and measurement in
an excavation stage.
Description
The ultimate objectives of this survey method are to conduct a geotechnical interpretation and
evaluation about the objective formation of tunnel excavation and to use the survey result for
effective excavation. The flow of interpretation/evaluation is to conduct comparisons, study the
survey results and excavated section and to interpret and evaluate the reflected wave from the
heading formation. You can then suggest the necessity of a survey with e.g., construction
method, auxiliary method, supporting construction and horizontal boreholes, as illustrated in
Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1: Flow of interpretation and evaluation.
7.2 Interpretation and Evaluation for the Heading Section from a
Cutting Face
2) By comparing seismic reflection events with the geological occurrences in a driven
zone, you should be able to interpret reflection events ahead of a face and manage the
construction.
Description
Interpretation and evaluation should be in a manner that enables excavation corresponding to
the survey objective. As for predicting the section ahead of a cutting face, selection of
supporting structures and points of attentions etc. should be summarized from the interpretation
and evaluation of the formation as it appears on the reflection pattern. In interpretation and
evaluation, materials are used effectively with the following items:
survey result (configuration of survey line and the location of the detected reflection
pattern referred to as the location of the present tunnel);
observation result of the cutting face (geological spread, geological horizontal section,
geological vertical section); and
circumstances of construction (ray out of supporting structure, auxiliary tunneling
method, amount of gunpowder charge).
7.3 Outcome and Report
3) Survey report should include the following:
survey location and geometry;
waveform data as acquired and processed; and
interpretation profile for engineering evaluation (including flow chart and
processed seismic profile).
Description
In the case where the analysis of the rear cutting face or seismic reflection is conducted, the
following will also be outcomes:
result of the rear cutting face analysis (analysis section, geological spread, transverse
section, observation result of tunnel wall with plane section etc.);
analysis by seismic reflection (flow chart, reflected section); and
comparison with survey result during the excavation (construction result of excavated
section, observation of cutting face, measurement result, pile borehole etc.).
References
Research Group on Tunnel Horizontal Seismic Profiling System and Practical Application Sub
Group to Inubasari Tunnel (1994) Experimental Application of Tunnel Horizontal Seismic
Profiling System. Journal of the Japan Society of Engineering Geology 35(4). (in Japanese
with English abstract)
15 Geotomography
1. General
1) Geotomography is a technique that images subsurface physical properties with

geophysical measurements from the ground surface and/or in boreholes.
2) There are various types of methods in geotomography.
Notes
1) There are various methods in geotomography: varying the measurement techniques and the
physical properties to be imaged.
2) The method that delineates subsurface seismic velocity distribution using seismic wave
propagation is called “Seismic Tomography”.
3) The method that delineates subsurface resistivity distribution using electric measurements
is known as “Resistivity Tomography”.
4) There are other methods such as “Electromagnetic Wave Tomography”, which uses
electromagnetic wave propagation and “Acoustic Wave Tomography” for estimating
subsurface permeability using the dispersion characteristics of seismic waves. These
methods are not included in this book because they are not generally used in practical
applications.
Description
The term “Tomo” in tomography means section in Greek. The term “Tomography” is a modern
term to describe the technology imaging the section of an object. The Xray CT (Computerized
Tomography) has been widely used in medical treatments.
“Geotomography” is a term made by adding “Geo” meaning the Earth and the ground to
“Tomography”, representing the technology which images the underground. This is a relatively
new technology which was put in practice in the 1980s.
Figure 1.1: Principles of the medical Xray CT and geotomography.
The principle of geotomography is similar to the Xray CT in the medical field. However,
these two technologies are quite different from each other in practical applications. The biggest
difference between them is the ray coverage available for measurement as shown in Figure 1.1.
The data collection in geotomography cannot ensure the complete ray coverage, resulting in
a “ghost” or artifacts in the image. Many inversion techniques have been developed to reduce
such false images. A comparison between geotomography and Xray CT is summarized in
Table 1.1. Compared with the Xray CT technique, the geotomography bears several
disadvantages including in the ray coverage, number of data, image resolution. Yet,
geotomography is still useful in its application as it can visualize the distribution and continuity
(or discontinuity) of physical properties under the ground, which can readily be used in
construction design in civil engineering.
With the recent advancement of computer technology, analysis in geotomography can be
carried out by a small personal computer much more easily and quickly than in the early stages
of its development.
Item Medical Xray CT Geotomography

Object Human body Ground (soils and rocks)
Change of target Moderate Large and many types
structure
Contrast in physical Moderate One to two orders of magnitude
property
Geometry All azimuths Restricted azimuths
Wave type or signal Xray Elastic wave, electromagnetic wave,
source electric current
Wavelength Short (less than nm) Long (tens of cm to tens of m)
Resolution mm m
Penetration Tens of cm A few meters to 100 m
Number of data for Tens to hundreds of Hundreds to several thousands
analysis thousands
Table 1.1: Comparison of Medical Xray CT and geotomography.
Figure 1.2: A flowchart of an iterative inversion of seismic traveltime tomography data.
The procedure of data analysis of geotomography is briefly illustrated in Figure 1.2. First, an
initial model is prepared using the Back Projection Technique (BPT) or a priori information.
This initial model is repeatedly modified to minimize the residual error between the model
calculation and actual data, to reach the final model with the residual error less than a pre
defined threshold.
Seismic tomography and the resistivity tomography are described in the subchapters 15.1
and 15.2, respectively.
15.1 Seismic Tomography
1. General
1) Seismic tomography is a technique to visualize the seismic properties of the ground by
measuring seismic waves propagating in it.
2) There are several variations in the technology depending on the seismic property used
in the survey.
3) The most commonly used method of seismic tomography is traveltime tomography,
which images seismic velocity distribution in the ground by measuring the first arrival
times of seismic waves propagating between the sources and receivers.
Description
Seismic tomography was developed in the 1970s and has been used in solid earth geophysics
for imaging seismic velocity distribution in the Earth's interior using natural earthquakes.
However, this chapter only describes the method with an artificial controlled source mainly
used for civil engineering applications: the commonly used traveltime tomography in
particular. There is another method called attenuation tomography, which investigates
amplitude decays of propagating seismic waves. It is rarely used in practical applications.
The tomographic inversion of seismic velocity is also applied to the data collected on the
ground surface (the seismic refraction method) and within a borehole (VSP survey) and they
are described in Chapters 2 and 16, respectively.
Figure 1.1: Measurement in seismic tomography.
2. Applicability
1) Seismic tomography can be used for many kinds of investigations in civil engineering.
2) The method should be preferably used for detailed surveys rather than for preliminary
surveys.
Description
Seismic tomography has been used since 1980s in many practical applications. The method can
use both traveltimes and amplitudes of first arrivals to image velocity and attenuation
properties of seismic waves. This chapter mainly deals with the former method, as it is the only
method commonly used in actual applications so far. This is called “traveltime tomography” or
“velocity tomography”.
The seismic tomography images seismic velocity in the ground between the sources and the
receivers in many directions, whereas the seismic refraction method profiles subsurface seismic
velocity underneath a survey line with sources and receivers on the ground surface. Unlike the
seismic refraction method, which can only delineate a subsurface velocity structure increasing
with depth, seismic tomography can provide more accurate and detailed seismic velocity
distribution for a range of subsurface structures.
With this merit, seismic tomography is more often applied to detailed surveys rather than
preliminary ones. It is, for example, used to assist in geological interpretation of borehole data
with a complex geological structure or mapping detailed seismic velocity distribution more
accurately by supplementing the seismic refraction data. Timelapse seismic tomography
surveys before and after excavation of a tunnel are employed for characterizing a zone
damaged by excavation. The method can be applied to the data measured in boreholes and
survey tunnels at a detailed investigation stage. Therefore, it is expected to be used more often
in future as a highresolution seismic method.
Threedimensional seismic tomography has been also developed for delineating the three
dimensional velocity distribution of the ground using sources and receivers installed
horizontally and/or vertically on many surfaces of a rock mass. There are, however, few
applications of threedimensional seismic tomography documented so far. This chapter
therefore describes only twodimensional seismic tomography, which is commonly applied to
civil engineering.
3. Planning
1) To adopt seismic tomography, the investigation area must satisfy the following
conditions:
ambient seismic noises for the measurement are not severe;
the subsurface structure can be assumed to be twodimensional or a two
dimensional projection of the ground is available or can be measured; and
boreholes for measurements can be arranged so as to surround the exploration
target or the area of interest.
Supplementary Notes
In the use of seismic methods, it should be examined whether the contrast of seismic property
and size of the target can be detected through seismic wave propagation. This is a checkpoint to
be examined for any seismic method, including seismic tomography. Selection of an optimum
method should be based on its principle and application case studies in the past.
Description
The amplitudes of first arrivals measured in seismic tomography, in general, are not so large
because the energy of the seismic source used in a borehole is limited. The dominant frequency
of the seismic wave used in seismic tomography is much higher than that of the noises due to
traffics and machines. The noises can be reduced by frequency filtering but the noise may be
too large to reduce it.
In seismic tomography, all transmission ray paths are assumed to be in the section between
the sources and receivers. If a layer with a seismic velocity higher than that of the target section
is located immediately outside the target, the transmitted wave may travel through the higher
velocity layer. Inversion of the traveltimes of such waves together with those in the target
section may create artifacts in the final velocity tomogram.
Measurements in seismic tomography should be planned so that the target is covered by as
many seismic rays and in as many azimuths as possible. Seismic sources and receivers should,
therefore, be arranged so as to surround the target. In planning, it should be examined whether
the boreholes and survey tunnels with sources and receivers can be arranged so as to surround
the target.
3.2.1 Planning for Sections to Image
2) In planning, sources and receivers should be arranged so as to cover the target with as
many azimuths as possible, using boreholes and survey tunnels.
3) The size of section to image should be determined considering the size of the target to
be detected.
Supplementary Notes
For a near surface survey, sources and receivers should be arranged on the ground surface as
well as in boreholes to measure traveltimes for sourcereceiver combinations of both the
surface to surface and surface to boreholes.
A larger target section can be used for a large target but the smaller one should be deployed
for small targets.
Description
Poor seismic ray coverage due to irregular sourcereceiver configuration may generate artifacts
and low resolution images in the final velocity tomogram. For example, if the sources and
receivers are arranged only on the ground surface and in two vertical boreholes, a ghost is
generated around the bottom of the target section due to the poor ray coverage (Case 2 for
Model 2 in Figure 3.1). The near horizontal subsurface layers can be imaged properly even in
such a sourcereceiver configuration, while near vertical subsurface layers cannot be imaged
properly, especially in the sourcereceiver configuration with only two vertical boreholes, as
shown in Case 3 for Model 2 in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1: Sourcereceiver arrangement and artifacts in the tomogram.
Artifacts in the velocity tomograms may occur due to the poor ray coverage that is insufficient
for the subsurface structure. Numerical simulations should be performed for a velocity model
assumed for the survey area before planning and the following alternatives should be
considered:
1) Boreholes used in measurement should be drilled deeper than the depth of the target so that
good ray path coverage is achieved.
2) For a target that is difficult to detect, a borehole drilled to the target should be planned.
The size of the section to image should be determined considering the nature of the target, such
as the position and thickness of a thin weak layer. The resolution of the target image is
determined by its position in the section and the measurement configuration mentioned above.
If the section is too large, the ray paths of first arrivals may run in a higher velocity layer
outside the twodimensional imaging section and generate artifacts in the final velocity
tomogram if the traveltimes for such ray paths are inverted together with those for ray paths on
the target section. Numerical simulations should be performed with a model representing the
geological structure estimated from existing information and with the survey configuration, in
order to devise an optimum plan of sourcereceiver configuration for the size and position of
the target. From experience, the maximum size of the section should be set to 20 to 25 times
the cell or grid size used in inversion. If the survey site has velocity anisotropy, it should be
taken into consideration in the inversion of the measured traveltimes. False images may appear
in the final velocity tomogram due to velocity anisotropy. If velocity anisotropy is inferred in
the survey site, velocities derived from velocity logging (vertical velocity) and from crosshole
measurement (horizontal velocity) should be examined in planning.
3.2.2 Source and Receiver Arrangement Plan
4) After the section of the cell or grid size for inversion is determined as above, the
number and interval of the sources and receivers should be determined so that at least
one source or receiver point is located in a cell along the ground surface and/or a
borehole.
5) Sources and receivers should be arranged so that the seismic ray paths in each cell run
from many azimuths.
Supplementary Note
Too small sourcereceiver intervals may create data redundancy in inversion. However, it is not
useless because it may reduce distortion of the clear velocity boundary in inversion, which may
be caused by a too large sourcereceiver interval.
Description
Tomographic inversion should use as many data points as possible. It is important to use the
data from many azimuths in inversion. For example, if traveltime data with 100 sourcereceiver
pairs are used in inversion, using 10 sources and 10 receivers is preferred to 5 sources and 20
receivers. This is because the independency of the data in the 10 source – 10 receiver case is
greater than the 5 source – 20 receiver case. To ensure this independency, the number of
sources and receivers used should be about the same. Sources and receivers should be
interchanged; this allows measuring the traveltimes of the same paths in reverse directions. The
data from such measurements can reduce the effect of heterogeneity around the source or
receiver point by detecting and editing the data with a large discrepancy. Precise positions of
sources and receivers are required for accurate inversion. Location surveys of sources and
receivers both on the ground surface and in the boreholes are necessary. The borehole survey is
generally conducted by borehole drift logging.
4. Field Operations
4.1 Preliminary Study of the Site
1) Before a seismic tomography survey, the following information should be studied:
groundwater level;
topography of the ground surface between the measurement boreholes; and
existing data on the subsurface structure.
Supplementary Notes
1) If groundwater is absent in the source borehole, the downhole sources which transmit
seismic energy through water into the ground cannot be used. Even if the borehole is filled
with water, the energy from such a source cannot efficiently penetrate into the ground
shallower than the groundwater level. In such a case, it is necessary to reexamine the
sources and receivers used in measurement.
2) The sources and receivers should be arranged on the ground surface as well as in the
boreholes, if possible.
3) In planning the locations and depths of boreholes for sources and receivers for
measurements, existing data on the subsurface structure should be examined. If necessary, a
numerical simulation should be performed to determine the survey design.
4.2 Instrumentation
2) A seismic source should be selected that is appropriate for the source and receiver
distance, efficiency in field operation, ambient noise in the site and the dominant
frequency of the seismic waves generated.
3) A multilevel receiver is recommended.
4) A multichannel data acquisition system capable of a high sampling rate is
recommended.
Notes
1) Only few borehole seismic sources are available, especially downhole Swave sources
compared with Pwave downhole sources.
2) A threecomponent downhole receiver with a locking mechanism to the borehole wall is
required to receive Swaves. Swave data acquisition thus takes longer than Pwave
acquisition.
3) Swave tomography is applicable only where Swave measurement is feasible.
Description
Different downhole sources are used for the Pwave and Swave seismic tomographies. An
appropriate downhole source should be selected for the sourcereceiver interval, measurement
efficiency, ambient noise at the site and dominant frequency of the seismic waves generated.
The source should have a quick shooting cycle and a good repeatability of the waveform
generated, to ensure a good S/N ratio with stacking.
Pwave sources commercially available are:
(a) Explosives (used on the ground surface, in boreholes and in survey tunnels)
The source energy of an explosive source can be controlled by the amount of explosives. It
can be deployed on the ground surface and/or in a borehole. Repeated shots with an
explosive source at the same depth in a borehole are generally impossible because the
borehole wall at the shooting depth is damaged. The operation time with an explosive
source is relatively long because the shooting cable has to be rolled up and down for each
shot. These should be taken into consideration in the survey design.
(b) Airguns (used in boreholes)
An airgun is a source to use below groundwater level. The borehole diameter should be
large enough to ensure a smooth run in the borehole. An airgun has relatively large source
energy and can be used for a larger sourcereceiver interval. It can run quickly in a
borehole. However the air bubbles generated by the airgun shooting in the borehole cause
large seismic energy dissipation. The waiting time for the air bubbles to decay should be
taken into consideration in the survey plan.
(c) OWS source (used in boreholes)
An OWS source is a downhole source which has been developed for the crosshole seismic
tomography and the reverse VSR It is effective only below the groundwater level.
Operationally it is more efficient than those described above as it can run smoothly in a
borehole. It has a good repeatability of the waveform for stacking and can generate seismic
waves with relatively high dominant frequency.
(d) Weight drop (used on the ground surface and in survey tunnels)
A weight drop is a source commonly used in seismic surveys. Its source energy and
dominant frequency of generated waves are lower than those of explosives.
Commonly used Swave sources are:
(e) Plank hammering Plank hammering is used to generate SHwaves on the ground surface
and in the survey tunnel.
(f) Downhole Swave source Downhole Swave sources commercially available include an
electromagnetically driven hammer, a downhole axial vibrator to generate SV waves and a
downhole orbital vibrator (DOV) for SH waves.
Different types of downhole receivers are used for the P and Swave tomography surveys. A
multilevel downhole receiver that can simultaneously receive seismic waves at several depths
should be used for higher operating efficiency and higher accuracy in picking first arrival
times. For a Pwave velocity tomography survey, vertical receivers on the ground surface and
wallcramped threecomponent receivers within a borehole are recommended. A multilevel
hydrophone is recommended for measurements below the groundwater table for high
efficiency. For an SHwave tomography survey, horizontal receivers on the ground surface and
wall cramped threecomponent receivers are commonly used in boreholes.
Seismic data with multilevel receivers are recorded by a multichannel data acquisition
system, which enables us to determine first arrival times accurately. The data acquisition
system should have the functions of high sampling rate and trace stacking to improve S/N ratio.
A pretriggering function is also recommended. If the data acquisition system recomposes
seismic traces from multiplexed multichannel data, the time shifts between channels have to
be checked for accuracy of first arrival time picking: whether they are within the allowable
time lag. In general, the accuracy of first arrival time picking is around 1/20 of the period of the
first arrival. The sampling time of A/D conversion of the system should be less than this
threshold (the sampling rate should be more than 20 times higher than the dominant frequency
of the first arrival). For accurate picking of first arrival times, the accuracy of the source time
(time zero) is also important. It is recommended that the triggering signal is recorded on a
separate channel from the seismic data and pretriggering is always functional.
Figure 4.1: Downhole Pwave source (OWS).
4.3 Field operation
5) Locations of sources and receivers must be surveyed prior to tomographic survey by a
borehole survey method and/or an inclination meter within the required accuracy.
6) Field operation should be performed following the survey plan. Recorded signals
should be printed or displayed to check whether the first arrival time and triggering
time can be clearly detected.
Notes
1) After data acquisition, the common shot and/or common receiver gathers are printed or
displayed for checking the quality of first arrivals.
2) Locations of sources and receivers must be surveyed with a precision of 1/50 of their
intervals for accurate velocity estimation from first arrival time detection.
Description
The required precision of locations of sources and receivers depends on the size of the target.
For example, if the size of the target is 100 m square, a 10 cm precision is required for the
location survey. Locations of sources and receivers in a borehole are determined with a
borehole inclination meter or drift logging.
The data recoded in the field should be displayed on the screen and/or printed out on paper
for checking the quality of first arrivals. Repeated measurements should be conducted to
improve the S/N ratio if necessary. If the reverse measurement data are available, the first
arrival times of the two records should be compared to check whether they are properly
recorded.
5.1 Data Processing
1) First arrival times and triggering time are picked on the waveforms recorded in the
field to determine traveltimes between sources and receivers.
2) The traveltime curve is then constructed and checked.
3) The traveltimes and the coordinates of sources and receivers are prepared for data
inversion later on.
Notes
1) Accuracy of the first arrival time picking is crucial for data processing in seismic
tomography.
2) First arrival time should be carefully picked because it is crucial for further processing.
Description
First arrival times for all combinations of sources and receivers are picked on recorded
waveforms. Automatic picking is available for digital data. The traveltimes thus picked are
plotted as a common shot or a common receiver gather as shown in Figure 5.1 and should be
checked to detect errors in picking. For errors in picking, first arrival times are repicked on the
waveforms or edited if its accuracy is not allowable for subsequent data inversion. Where
reverse measurement data are available, the time difference between the two picks is checked.
If the picks from same sourcesreceivers pairs present a large time difference, the traveltimes
for those sources and receivers should be examined, to minimize the discrepancy by statistical
techniques.
The traveltimes thus obtained are input to the data inversion with the coordinates of the
sources and receivers. The input traveltimes are crucial for estimating a proper velocity model.
Therefore, the first arrival picking should be very carefully performed.
Where traveltimes between sources and receivers on the ground surface are used for data
inversion, they should be checked as is done in seismic refraction data processing; in which the
traveltimes of refraction waves are checked based on their fundamental features, such as
coincidence of twoway times. The traveltime data for crosshole measurements should be also
checked based on their fundamental features.
Figure 5.1: Traveltime curves for common receiver gathers.
5.2 Data Inversion
4) Iterative inversion is used for reconstructing subsurface velocity distribution.
5) Iterative inversion is performed to minimize residuals between theoretical and
observed traveltimes to reach the final velocity tomogram.
6) Residuals should be monitored during iteration.
Description
Seismic tomography is a technology similar to the medical Xray CT. There are, however, two
distinct differences between them:
(a) The medical Xray CT can record the data projected from all azimuths surrounding a
human body. On the other hand, it is difficult for seismic tomography to project the target
from all azimuths due to the limits of possible geometry in boreholes and survey tunnels.
(b) Xray propagates along straight paths from a transmitter to a receiver, while the seismic ray
path cannot be assumed to be a straight line, due to the refraction and diffraction of seismic
waves.
Figure 5.2: A workflow of an iterative inversion of seismic tomography data.
Feature (a) reduces quality of the seismic velocity tomogram while feature (b) prevents seismic
tomography from application of the direct inversion techniques used in the medical Xray CT.
Seismic tomography, therefore, commonly uses iterative inversion techniques.
Figure 5.2 shows a flowchart of an iterative inversion. In this inversion, an initial velocity
model is first constructed and theoretical traveltimes for all combinations of sources and
receivers are then calculated for this model. The differences between these calculated and
observed traveltimes are minimized by repeated calculations, improving the model parameters
to reach the final velocity tomogram.
(1) Preparation of input data
Traveltimes picked on the waveform record are input to the computer. The coordinates of
sources and receivers are also entered.
(2) Initial velocity model construction
An initial velocity model is constructed for the iterative inversion. The initial velocity
model should be as close as possible to the true velocity distribution. The initial velocity
model affects the number of iterations needed and quality of the final velocity tomogram.
A priori information on velocity distribution, such as a seismic refraction image, is
sometimes used in the creation of the initial velocity model. If there is no a priori
information on velocity structure, the BPT (Back Projection Technique) image obtained
from observed data is commonly used for an initial velocity model.
(3) Theoretical traveltime calculation
The theoretical traveltimes for all combinations of sources and receivers are calculated for
the velocity model. The method must be able to calculate traveltimes for curved ray paths.
(4) Traveltime residual calculation
Traveltime residuals for all source and receiver pairs are calculated. This process is iterated
until the residual becomes small enough compared to the predefined value.
(5) Velocity model update
When the residual is still large, the velocity model is updated. The method for the model
update has been studied by many researchers. A method should be selected considering its
stability and computation time.
(6) Final velocity tomogram
Processes (3) to (5) are iterated until the residual becomes small enough, as described in
process (4), to reach the final velocity tomogram. The velocity tomogram is presented as a
cellbased color or grayscale section to visually express velocity distribution. The
traveltime residuals converge in different ways depending on the initial model and method
used to update the model. The residual should, therefore, be monitored during iteration.
5.3 Data Interpretation
7) There may be artifacts in the velocity tomogram. These should be examined
considering existing data and observed traveltimes.
8) The velocity tomogram should be interpreted comparing with the velocities obtained
in boreholes and along the survey tunnels as well as geology and the mechanical
properties of rocks around the site.
Supplementary Notes
1) Artifacts are false images which may appear in the velocity tomogram. There are several
reasons for artifacts in the velocity tomogram, as described below.
2) Artifacts must be reduced by examining observed traveltimes, inversion algorithms and
inversion parameters, or interpreted through numerical simulations.
Description
Artifacts are generated mainly by the following causes:
(1) Irregular observation geometry due to the source and receiver arrangement, which is not
able to cover the target from all azimuths.
(2) Irregular ray coverage due to large velocity contrasts, which create areas (cells) with few
ray paths.
(3) Velocity anisotropy
(4) Inversion error that uses incorrect ray paths running outside the exploration target plane.
The countermeasure for the cause (3) should be studied at the planning stage, as described in
item (2) in Section 3.1. For the causes (1) and (2), all ray paths for the final velocity tomogram
should be calculated to check the ray coverage and cells with small ray densities and limited
azimuths identified. Artifacts will more probably occur in such cells than others. This should be
noted with the velocity tomogram. It should be noticed that artifacts may be generated in the
cells surrounding a cell with few ray paths, even if those cells have many ray paths.
In interpreting a seismic velocity tomogram, it is important that the velocity is compared to
the geological conditions and mechanical properties of the rocks along the boreholes and
survey tunnels used for the measurement. Velocity logs should be acquired in the boreholes
used for the seismic tomography measurement for calibrating the velocity tomogram.
6. Deliverables
6.1 Deliverables
The deliverables from the survey are as follows:
survey map(s);
observation geometry map;
source and receiver location map;
waveforms for all the data or those used in inversion;
traveltime curves or tables;
final velocity tomogram; and
interpretation results, including comparisons with existing data and other
measurements.
Notes
1) The figures should be easily understood. The units and legends must accompany the
figures.
2) The contour and color chart should be especially clearly presented.
Description
The deliverable should include figures and tables which clearly present the survey result.
Figure 6.1 shows an example of a seismic velocity tomogram obtained between two boreholes.
The velocity tomogram can be interpreted by comparing it with existing data such as well logs
and by overlaying them on the tomogram. The deliverables should include as much data as
possible in digital format to allow reprocessing and reevaluation of the data.
6.2 Report
The report should include the following items:
survey method;
equipment used;
data processing method;
data processing software used, velocity models, initial values and parameters;
data interpretation method and results; and
references.
Note
In the report, the methods of the survey and analysis should be described in detail, to facilitate
reprocessing and reevaluation of the survey data in the future, if necessary. Especially when
special operations and techniques are used in the survey, the reasons why they are used should
be explained. Other descriptions should include the data processing software (its name and
version) and initial values of the parameters used in the velocity models of the analysis.
Description
In the contents of the report, in general, the survey method and interpretation results are the
most important. The amount of information about the geology and subsurface structure of the
site increases as the investigation progresses. An additional survey may be performed if
necessary. Description of the survey and analysis methods may be necessary for this.
Therefore, the details should be provided in appendices or in a separate report.
Figure 6.1: An example of an interpreted velocity tomogram between two boreholes.
References
Ohtomo, H. (1986) Present status of the geotomography. Buturitansa 39, 384–397.
Saito, H. et al. (2006) Timelapse crosshole seismic tomography monitoring of CO2 in an
onshore saline aquifer at Nagaoka Test Site. Buturitansa 59, 30–36.
15.2 Resistivity Tomography
1. General
1) Resistivity tomography is one of the electric survey methods that detects geological
structures, hot springs, natural resources such as metal minerals, groundwater and
locations of faults through resistivity images. It measures the electric potential caused
by injected currents through electrodes arranged to surround the target.
2) Unlike 2D and 3D electric survey methods, which use data obtained only with
electrodes on the ground surface, resistivity tomography uses electrodes in boreholes
as well as on the ground surface. It can provide a highresolution resistivity image by
measuring and analyzing the electric potentials.
Notes
1) Remote electrodes may be necessary depending on the electrode array used in
measurements.
2) For the measurement in a borehole, levels of water and casing in the borehole should be
checked.
3) For measurement in a survey tunnel, situations of iron supports and facilities in the tunnel
should be checked.
Supplementary Notes
1) The principle, measurement and analysis of resistivity tomography are the same as the
electric survey method.
2) The major difference of resistivity tomography from 2D and 3D electric survey methods is
the arrangement of electrodes: resistivity tomography uses electrodes in the ground,
borehole or tunnel, as well as on the ground surface, while the electric survey methods only
use electrodes on the ground surface.
3) Resistivity is one of the physical properties of the material, which is defined as the electric
resistance of unit length of the material per unit crosssection. Its unit is Ωm.
Description
Resistivity tomography is one of the electric survey methods. There is no difference between
resistivity tomography and 2D and 3D electric survey methods except for their electrode
arrangements. Resistivity tomography uses electrodes in the ground as well as on the ground
surface, while 2D and 3D electric survey methods only use electrodes on the ground surface. In
resistivity tomography, the electrodes are arranged to surround the target more closely.
Therefore resistivity tomography is expected to provide a higherresolution image than 2D and
3D electric survey methods. On the other hand, resistivity tomography often costs more
because electrodes are arranged in boreholes and its measurement takes a longer time.
Resistivity tomography is, thus, preferably used for a survey that requires higherresolution
images and/or for a researchoriented survey.
Although 3D resistivity tomography has already been well developed, 2D resistivity
tomography is more commonly used in practical applications. This chapter, therefore, mainly
describes 2D resistivity tomography.
Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of 2D resistivity tomography (an example of polePole array).
2. Applicability
1) Resistivity tomography can be applied to delineate subsurface structures, faults,
fracture zones, weathered rocks and cavities.
2) It can also be applied to site characterization for underground caverns, tunnels, dams
and buildings, delineation of waste disposal sites, evaluation of ground improvement,
investigation of river embankments and archeological surveys.
3) It is sometimes used for monitoring changes of subsurface conditions.
Note
1) In principle, resistivity tomography can be applied to any targets in depth and area.
However it has been practically applied to targets whose depth is up to 200 m in civil
engineering applications because of the limited functionality of equipment, the site area
available for measurement and resolution limit of the survey.
Supplementary Notes
1) As with the 2D electric survey method, resistivity tomography can be applied to various
investigations for groundwater, landslides, tunnels, dams, river embankments, cavity
detection and site characterization in civil engineering. It can also be applied to
investigations for disaster prevention, maintenance and environmental applications.
2) Resistivity tomography can be applied to delineation of lowresistive targets, similar to the
electric method.
3) Resistivity tomography can be applied to various stages of investigations, from preliminary
to postconstruction. It is sometimes used for monitoring changes of subsurface conditions.
4) Resistivity tomography cannot delineate the target if it has no contrast in resistivity from its
surroundings.
5) Resistivity tomography estimates resistivity distribution of the subsurface, not mechanical
properties.
6) In a survey near a seashore, the effect of lowresistive seawater on measurement data
should be examined.
Description
Resistivity tomography is applied to site characterizations for underground caverns, tunnels,
dams, river embankments and buildings in civil engineering. In recent years it has been used in
disaster prevention and environmental applications. As it can detect targets with low resistivity,
it is often used for detecting faults and weathered and altered rocks in geological investigations.
It can be applied to sites with rough terrain as well as those with smooth terrain. It is also used
for evaluating ground improvement and monitoring groundwater changes. The main features of
resistivity tomography are:
broad applicability;
no use of dangerous materials such as explosives; and
capability of measurements in boreholes and survey tunnels.
Although 3D resistivity tomography has been in practice recently, it has been used only in
limited applications because of its longer operation time and greater cost in measurement and
data processing than 2D tomography.
Resistivity tomography distinguishes the target from its surroundings by resistivity contrast.
Therefore if the target has no resistivity contrast with its surroundings, it cannot be detected by
this method. In a survey for estimating mechanical properties of the ground such as strength
and deformability, the resistivity from this method is generally used for qualitative
interpretation by empirical correlation.
Resistivity tomography can be practically applied to the target with a depth up to around 200
m although it depends on the geological conditions and equipment used.
3. Planning
3.1 Preliminary Study
3.1.1 Selection of the Method
1) To adopt resistivity tomography, the investigation area must satisfy the following
conditions:
the investigation site is not an urban area with many buildings and has no
ambient electrical noises that may affect measurement;
borehole and survey tunnels for electrodes can be arranged to adequately
cover the target vertically and laterally; and
electrodes can be installed on the ground surface, in boreholes and in survey
tunnels.
2) In applying resistivity tomography, the following items should be examined:
survey purpose and required accuracy;
survey area;
topography and geology of the site; and
operational efficiency and economic feasibility.
Notes
1) Resistivity tomography should not be selected if a sufficient number of electrodes for
measurement are unavailable.
2) Measurement is not possible in an iron cased borehole.
3) Electrodes in a borehole must be installed below the groundwater level.
4) In a survey tunnel, electrodes must be set up on the tunnel surface.
5) In a survey tunnel, the effect of iron supports, bolts and lining for reinforcement of the
tunnel wall and truck rails should be examined.
Supplementary Notes
1) Tomography measurement can be performed for an electrode arrangement where a part is
missing.
2) Measurement near the seashore may be affected by seawater
3) Resistivity tomography costs more than a 2D electric survey.
Description
Resistivity tomography is an electric survey method that delineates resistivity distribution
around the target by measuring electric potential data with electrodes on the ground surface, in
boreholes and in survey tunnels. The electric potential is measured between many combinations
of electrodes arranged at a constant interval. Resistivity tomography should be planned with
sensible arrangements of survey lines using a sufficient number of electrodes to cover the
target.
In a survey in an urban area, electric noises and buildings near survey lines may affect the
measurements. Seawater may affect the measurements near the seashore. The method should be
carefully selected considering the purpose of the survey, site conditions and features of the
method.
Resistivity tomography generally costs more than a 2D electric survey because it requires
boreholes. However it can be performed at a cost comparable to that of a 2D electric survey if
boreholes and survey tunnels are available for measurement.
3.1.2 Selection of 2D/3D Resistivity Tomography
3) Selection of 2D or 3D resistivity tomography should be decided considering the target,
survey purpose, survey area, required accuracy, operational efficiency and cost.
4) A method should be selected considering the following features:
2D resistivity tomography is more robust compared with 3D;
3D resistivity tomography is more suitable for the survey of a site with an
anomalous local 3D structure; and
3D resistivity tomography needs more time than 2D both for measurement and
data processing.
Note
1) 3D resistivity tomography needs more time than 2D for both data acquisition and
processing and larger data storage even if the same number of electrodes is deployed in the
measurements.
Supplementary Notes
1) Data acquisition for 2D resistivity tomography requires electrodes arranged in equal
intervals along the survey lines surrounding the target.
2) For data acquisition for 3D resistivity tomography, a measurement grid is arranged so as to
surround the target and electrodes are placed at each node of the grid.
Description
2D resistivity tomography assumes a twodimensional subsurface structure: the structure is
continuous and horizontal in the direction perpendicular to the survey line. If this assumption is
violated, false images may result in the resistivity tomogram and a proper resistivity image may
not be estimated. 3D resistivity tomography can solve such a problem of the assumption for the
target. For the measurement of 2D resistivity tomography, electrodes are arranged along a
survey line, while for the measurement of 3D resistivity tomography, electrodes are arranged in
a grid pattern. If the number of electrodes used in data acquisition is the same for 3D and 2D
resistivity tomography, the area coverage by 3D is smaller than 2D. In addition, 3D resistivity
tomography requires more time for field data acquisition than 2D because 3D requires more
electrodes. 3D also needs more data storage and data processing time. If the field time, data
storage and data processing time are limited, the resultant resistivity tomogram may suffer in
accuracy and resolution. Therefore 3D resistivity tomography has not been used very often.
5) A survey should be planned by studying the existing information and site conditions.
6) In planning, the topography, geology and inferred subsurface structure of the site
should be studied in advance.
7) Existing information about the resistivity distribution of the site, which may be
obtained with a surface electric survey or electric logging, should be studied.
8) A survey should be planned considering the following items:
the purpose of the survey and current knowledge;
survey line arrangement;
layout of boreholes and survey tunnels;
depth of probe and electrode interval;
electrode arrangement;
instrumentation;
measurement method and procedure;
data processing procedure;
other surveys carried out at the same time; and
time schedule, cost and safety considerations.
9) The field operation should be conducted efficiently when following the survey plan
and procedures.
Notes
1) The survey should be planned considering the present status of use of the site and
permission for access to the site.
2) If remote electrodes are far from the survey line, the survey plan should consider the
locations and the cable route for the remote electrodes and permission should be obtained to
access those sites.
Supplementary Notes
1) The survey plan is similar in many aspects to 2D and 3D electric surveys.
2) The survey procedures should be planned considering the constraints in data processing and
analysis.
Description
In planning, existing data and information of the site should be studied in advance. Considering
the survey purpose and investigation stage, required accuracy and time schedule, a survey plan
is drawn for the locations of survey lines and boreholes, the target area, the electrode intervals,
the electrode arrangement, measuring instruments, the time schedule of the field operation and
data processing and analysis methods. Resistivity tomography uses the same principles as 2D
and 3D electric survey methods in data acquisition and analysis. If measurements in boreholes
cannot contribute much to the improvement of the survey results, borehole measurements may
be replaced with a surface 2D or 3D electric survey.
In planning, the number of data points should be determined to optimize accuracy and cost
balance.
3.2.2 Survey Line Layout
10) The survey line layout should be planned by examining:
the survey purpose and current knowledge;
geology and topography of the site;
the size of the target;
depth of probe and resolution required;
location depth of the boreholes and length of survey tunnels;
survey efficiency, cost and safety issues;
obstacles to the survey;
selection between 2D or 3D resistivity tomography; and
specifications of data analysis software.
11) The survey lines should be arranged so as to surround the target.
12) In planning of survey lines, the survey area and survey line length described in 3.2.3
should be examined.
13) In planning of survey lines, the electrode cable route should be considered.
Notes
1) The ratio between the investigation depth and borehole interval should be adequate for
measurements.
2) If deviated or horizontal boreholes are used in measurements, the location of electrodes
should be examined.
Supplementary Notes
1) The major points to be considered in the field operation plan are similar to those of the 2D
2) The section of probe should be arranged perpendicular to the strike of the geological
structure.
3) When planning electrodes on the ground surface, consider effects to data processing and the
final image.
4) Survey lines should be arranged as far from buildings as possible.
5) Survey lines on the ground should be arranged on smooth slopes, not a rugged surface.
Description
Survey lines should be arranged on a smooth ground surface. Survey lines should also be
arranged away from existing structures (especially conductive structures such as earth anchors,
supports and piles made of steel), power lines, roads and metal fences, which may create
electric noises in measurements. The section of probe should be arranged perpendicular to the
geological structure.
The survey lines are ideally arranged so as to surround the target. The dimension and shape
of the section of probe should be determined to avoid possible artefacts or false images in the
final resistivity tomogram due to an irregular electrode layout.
For example, in planning a survey using electrodes in tunnels and on the ground, the route of
the data cable must be examined for a successful survey.
3.2.3 Target and Survey Design
14) The section of probe is defined as the area surrounded by measurement electrodes.
15) The section of probe should be planned so as to sufficiently cover the target.
16) Examine and adjust the length of the survey line carefully so as to completely
surround the target by downhole electrodes and ground electrodes.
17) The issues to consider in designing sections of probe and line length include:
purpose of survey;
shape and size of the target;
physical properties of the target;
depth of investigation;
survey line arrangement;
geology and topography of the site;
existing data of the boreholes and survey tunnels used for measurement;
groundwater condition;
land use around the survey lines; and
electrode arrangement to use.
Note
1) The survey line should be planned considering land use and availability of the land around
it because the survey line may be extended for larger coverage of the section of probe.
Supplementary Notes
1) The section of probe and survey line are planned in the same way as the 2D electric survey
method.
2) The survey line should be arranged so as to sufficiently surround the target as shown in
Figure 3.1.
3) At both edges of a survey line the area to be imaged becomes smaller.
The section of probe and survey line arrangement for 3D resistivity tomography are
4) planned in the same way.
Figure 3.1: Examples of the survey line arrangement.
Description
The section of probe is generally defined as the area surrounded by measurement electrodes.
The survey line should be arranged to surround the target. When the section of probe cannot
cover the target sufficiently, the survey lines should be rearranged. If the locations and depths
of the boreholes used in the measurement cannot satisfactorily cover the target, the survey line
on the ground surface should be extended; it is generally the easiest to adjust. Refer to the way
of electrode arrangement of the 2D electric survey method.
The section of probe should be arranged to cover the target and some extra. It should be set
up considering the survey purpose and character of the target. Existing data of the investigation
area such as borehole data should be collected and examined.
3.2.4 Electrode Interval
18) The electrode interval is one of the key parameters for controlling the survey accuracy
and efficiency. It should be selected considering the purpose of the survey.
19) The minimum electrode interval should be selected considering the following:
the purpose of the survey and accuracy and resolution required;
survey line layout;
electrode arrangement;
specification and capability of the data analysis software used;
geology and topography of the site; and
costs and operational efficiency.
20) The maximum electrode interval should be selected so as to sufficiently cover the
depth of investigation.
Notes
1) The resolution of the target decreases as the minimum electrode interval and the distance
from the electrode to the target increases. The minimum electrode interval should be
selected considering the survey purpose, the depth of investigation and the length of the
survey line.
2) The depth of investigation increases as the electrode interval increases.
3) The relationship between the electrode interval and the depth of investigation changes
depending on the electrode arrangement (see Section 3.2.5 Electrode Arrangement).
Supplementary Notes
1) The electrode is set up at a constant interval along the survey line. This interval is called the
“minimum electrode interval.”
2) The minimum electrode interval commonly used is:
1m for the survey line with a total length of around 100 m;
1 to 2 m for the survey line with a total length of 100 to 200 m;
2 to 5 m for the survey line with a total length of 200 to 500m.
3) The minimum electrode interval is roughly 1/50 to 1/100 of the total length of the survey
line.
4) The maximum electrode interval should be selected referring to the guidelines for the 2D
5) In selecting the minimum and maximum electrode intervals, the specification and capability
of the data analysis software to use should be examined.
Description
In resistivity tomography, electrodes are set up at equal intervals along survey lines
surrounding the target and measure the electric potentials to estimate the resistivity distribution.
The minimum electrode interval should be selected considering the purpose, required accuracy
and resolution and line length of the survey and economical and operational efficiencies. It is
often selected as the same interval as that of the receiver in seismic tomography when both
methods are planned at the same time.
The smaller the minimum electrode interval is, the higher the resolution achieved of the
target, while the survey efficiency is lower. The resolution becomes lower when the distance
between the electrode and the target is larger. Therefore the minimum electrode interval should
be selected considering these conditions and requirements. An object whose size is smaller than
the electrode interval cannot generally be detected. When the electrodes are set up in the tunnel
and on the ground surface, the electrodes placed at too small an interval, the depth of
installation of the electrodes may affect the measurement. If an electrode interval less than 1m
is used, the installation depth should be carefully determined.
The area to be explored depends on the arrangement of the electrodes. The area of probe of
resistivity tomography is not easily determined. However, the relationship between the
electrode interval and depth of investigation of the electric survey method is often referred to.
21) The electrode arrangement should be planned considering the following:
the survey purpose and accuracy and resolution of the target required;
survey area;
geology and topography around the site;
environments around the survey lines;
specifications of the data analysis software used;
capability of the data acquisition instruments deployed;
volume of the data; and
operational and economic efficiency.
22) The following electrode arrays are commonly used in resistivity tomography:
Polepole array;
Poledipole array;
Dipoledipole array; and
Arbitrary array.
23) Plan a combination of inline and crossline measurements for each survey line to suit
the survey area, surface conditions and the electrode arrangement used.
Notes
1) The polepole and poledipole arrays need remote electrode(s) (see Section 3.2.6).
2) In the crossline measurement, the measured potential value may sometimes be zero or
negative.
Supplementary Notes
1) The combination of current and potential electrodes is called the electrode arrangement. It
is basically the same as that used in the 2D electric survey method (Figure 3.2).
2) Measurement with a combination of electrodes on the same survey line is called the inline
measurement. Measurement with a combination of electrodes on two different survey lines
is called the crossline measurement (Figure 3.3).
3) The area to be explored, detection capability of the subsurface target and
operationalefficiency depend on the electrode arrays used.
4) The polepole array is most commonly used.
5) Two or more electrode arrays are sometimes used in a survey.
6) Sensitivity distribution of the electrode array is determined with reference to the
relationship of the electrode array and depth of investigation in the 2D electric survey
method. It may not be easily determined for resistivity tomography.
7) The capability and specification of the data analysis software should be checked before
deciding the electrode array.
8) The volume of data of resistivity tomography is much larger than that of the 2D electric
survey. Therefore the number of measurements and time spent should be considered in
planning of the electrode array.
Figure 3.2: Examples of the electrode array used in resistivity tomography.
Description
The electric survey method uses four electrodes in a measurement, which are a pair of current
electrodes (C1 and C2) to transmit the electric current and a pair of potential electrodes (P1 and
P2) to measure electric potentials. The combination of these four electrodes is called an
electrode array. Many types of electrode arrays have been developed. In measurement of the
2D electric survey method electrode arrays on a straight line are used, while electrode arrays on
a plane as well as on a straight line are used in resistivity tomography.
The electrode arrays used in resistivity tomography are polepole, poledipole or dipole
dipole arrays. In addition, arbitrary arrays on a plane are sometimes used (Figure 3.2). One type
of array or a combination of these arrays may be used in the survey. The polepole and pole
dipole arrays use remote electrode(s) installed far from the survey line as well as electrodes on
the survey line. Details of the remote electrode are described in Section 3.2.6.
The apparent resistivity ρa in resistivity tomography is expressed using the methods of
mirror images (Figure 3.4):
(1)
(2)
where R11 is the interval between C1, P1, R21 between C2, P1, R12 between C1 and P2 and R22
between C2 and P2. r11 is the interval between C1′ and P1, r21 between C2′ and P1, r12
between C1′ and P2 and r22 between C2′ and P2; V is the measured electric potential and I is
the injected current. Unlike the 2D electric survey method, the location of the point the
calculated apparent resistivity represents for a pair of current and potential electrodes is not
clearly defined. Locations of electrodes should be determined referring to the relationship
between the electrode arrangement and depth of investigation of the 2D electric survey method.
Measurement electrodes should be distributed as evenly as possible in the survey area.
Resistivity tomography measures electric potentials with electrode arrays on multiple lines
on a plane (section) to image. A measurement on a straight line is called an inline
measurement and one on multiple lines is called a crossline measurement. Measurement with
an inline, crossline or their combination should be planned considering the area to survey,
surface conditions and electrode arrangement. For example, a crossline measurement
sometimes shows a “reverse sensitivity”, where the relationship between the apparent
resistivity and the real ground resistivity is reversed. Then an inline measurement must be
taken to supplement the crossline measurement. Since the crossline measurement may
provide a zero or negative potential (Figure 3.5), the electrode array and measurement pattern
should be carefully planned. An inline measurement in a borehole may be strongly affected by
an extremely large resistivity contrast between borehole water and the ground (see Section
3.2.7 Measurement in Borehole(s)). The electrode array to use should be carefully arranged or a
crossline measurement should be added.
Figure 3.3: Examples of inline and crossline measurements.
Figure 3.4: Calculation of apparent resistivity.
Figure 3.5: Examples of electrode arrangement where measured electric potential may be zero.
3.2.6 Arrangement of Remote Electrodes
24) Polepole and poledipole arrays need remote electrode(s) installed far away from the
survey lines.
25) The following should be examined for arranging remote electrodes:
surface conditions around the survey lines;
topography around the survey lines; and
availability of space for remote electrode arrangement and the cable route.
Notes
1) The remote electrodes may be set up away from the survey area. Permission for land use
must be obtained before the remote electrodes are installed.
2) The cable route and electrode locations must be far from electric noise sources.
3) In planning a survey with recording in a tunnel and remote electrodes on the ground
surface, the cable route should be carefully examined in terms of safety and noise.
Supplementary Notes
4) The polepole array needs two remote electrodes far away from each other.
5) The poledipole array needs only one remote electrode.
6) The arrangement of remote electrodes can be planned in a similar way to the 2D electric
survey.
7) Capability and specification of the data processing software should be checked for
suitability for the remote electrode arrangement.
8) The remote electrodes should be installed at a distance of about 10 times of the maximum
electrode interval from the survey line.
Description
For the poledipole array, one of the remote current electrodes should be installed away from
the survey line at about 10 times of the maximum electrode interval. For the polepole array,
one of the remote current electrodes and one of the remote potential electrodes should be
installed away from the survey line at about 10 times of the maximum electrode interval, also
apart from each other. Two remote electrodes should be installed in the direction perpendicular
to the survey so that dependency on the electrode locations and the effects of threedimensional
subsurface resistivity distribution can be minimized. Permission for land use must be obtained
while planning the remote electrode arrangement; including the cable route and electrode
locations, which could be far away.
Where two remote electrodes are difficult to install, the poledipole array should be selected.
If the measurement is taken in a survey tunnel and the remote electrode is installed on the
ground surface, the cable route should be carefully examined. Use of a shaft for the remote
electrode cable should be considered.
Figure 3.6: Examples of remote electrode installation.
3.2.7 Measurement in Borehole(s)
26) In planning measurement in a borehole, the following issues should be examined:
27) The following items about the borehole(s) used in the measurement should be
checked:
drilling direction of the borehole;
length and diameter of the borehole(s);
borehole water condition and resistivity of the water;
casing condition and materials of the casing;
condition of the borehole wall and need of borehole protection; and
presence of installed downhole instruments.
28) Electrodes should be arranged as far from the iron casing as possible.
29) In borehole(s) with water, a downhole floating electrode cable can be deployed.
30) In borehole(s) without water, it is necessary for electrodes to be clamped against the
borehole wall.
31) For measurements in PVC cased borehole(s), the PVC pipe should be porous enough
for measurement.
32) If the borehole is deviated, a deviation survey should be conducted.
Notes
1) An uncased borehole is ideal for resistivity measurement.
2) Where the borehole is cased with PVC, the PVC pipe should have large enough (larger than
about 4%) porosity.
Supplementary Notes
1) An extremely large contrast in resistivity between borehole water and the ground may cause
large errors in measurements.
2) For measurements in upward borehole(s) and low tilted borehole(s), where electrodes are
hard to insert, an insulating rod like a PVC pipe may be attached to the electrodes in order
to push.
3) A normal downhole floating electrode cable can be used in a borehole with an inner
diameter larger than 3 cm.
Description
A downhole floating electrode cable can be deployed in a borehole with water. Measurement in
an open borehole is preferred. If a borehole needs a casing for protection of its wall borehole, a
PVC casing with a large enough perforation (> about 4%) should be used. If the PVC pipe is
covered with a meshed sheet, the sheet must be made of nonconductive material. Around the
seam of the PVC pipe where its porosity must be smaller, the relative position between the
seam and electrode location should be recorded. For measurement in a borehole without water,
the electrodes should be clamped against the borehole wall using a mechanism such as a
packer.
For a deep borehole that might be deviated and a deviated borehole, a borehole deviation
survey should be planned for the correction of electrode locations before data processing.
3.2.8 Measurement in a Test Adit and Survey Tunnel
33) In planning survey lines in a test adit, tunnel(s) and survey tunnel(s), the following
should be examined.
34) The following issues for the test adit(s), tunnel(s) and survey tunnel(s) used in the
measurement should be checked:
direction, inclination, diameter and location of the tunnel(s);
conditions of the tunnel wall and support;
buildings related to the tunnel(s);
usage of the tunnel(s);
time schedule available for measurements; and
existing cable routes in the tunnel(s).
35) Electrodes should be arranged as far away as possible from conductive iron supports
and rock bolts in the tunnel(s).
36) Electrodes and measurement cable routes should be arranged as far away as possible
from electric noise sources such as a power plant.
Notes
1) The underground facility may have electric grounding around the tunnel. Their locations
should be checked in the planning.
2) Installation of electrodes in the tunnel usually takes a long time. Survey schedule including
this installation should be carefully planned.
Supplementary Notes
1) Electrodes should be directly installed into the ground.
2) When the electrode cannot be directly installed into the ground, an anchor bolt can be used
as an electrode.
3) Where sprayed concrete covers the tunnel wall, the electrodes should be installed directly
into the ground through a small hole drilled in the concrete.
4) Where electrodes on the ground surface as well as in the tunnel are used, the cable length
required to connect all the electrodes should be carefully examined.
5) Electrodes should not be arranged at a place where groundwater is dripping or flowing.
Description
In planning, it should be carefully examined whether survey lines can be arranged in the
tunnel(s) considering conditions of tunnel lining and supports. Where the splayed concrete is
thin, electrodes should be installed through a small hole drilled in the concrete. Where rocks of
the tunnel wall are too hard to install electrodes, anchor bolts (a few cm in length) installed into
the tunnel wall can be used as electrodes. The anchor bolts should be tightly installed. In
general the procedure of installing electrodes in tunnels is complex and takes longer than the
ground surface installation. The scheduling should take this into account and be carefully
planned.
There are many electric noise sources in a tunnel such as a power plant. The electrodes and
cables should be arranged as far away as possible from electric noise sources.
When electrodes are arranged both in the tunnel and on the ground surface, routes of
measurement cables should be carefully examined. Even when the survey lines are short, the
cable route may need to be long depending on the locations of the tunnel(s).
4. Measuring Instruments and Materials
1) Instruments and materials required for measurement in resistivity tomography are:
a resistivity survey (transmitter and receiver);
switching box (or scanner) for changing the combination of electrodes used;
electrodes;
downhole floating electrode (cable);
electric cables with single or multiple cores; and
power supply (battery or generator).
2) In selection of the resistivity meter and switching box (or scanner), the following
issues should be examined:
accuracy and resolution required for the purpose of the survey;
the survey area;
surface conditions around the survey line;
geology of the survey area;
the number of electrodes and electrode arrangement used; and
Notes
1) The resistivity meter must be well maintained and calibrated.
2) Some resistivity meters only output absolute potential values. If such an instrument displays
a negative value, it should be checked.
3) Electric cables used must be insulated and not rusted.
4) In the field operation, the following equipment should also be prepared:
tool box;
location survey equipment;
a cable tester for checking conduction of the electric wire;
twoway radios and/or mobile phone; and
consumables (plastic tape and others).
Supplementary Notes
1) The measuring instruments are essentially the same as those used for the 2D electric survey
method.
2) There are two types of resistivity meters: one is the resistivity meter that integrates both the
transmitter and receiver and the other with a separate transmitter and receiver. The
resistivity meter is often equipped with a switching box for electrode change.
3) A resistivity meter with a highpower transmitter should be deployed for deep exploration
and/or asurvey in ground with low resistivity.
4) A stainless steel metal rod (diameter: 10–25 mm, length: 300–700 mm) is commonly used
as an electrode.
5) A downhole electrode is made of a simple cable with an electrode attached.
6) A nonpolarizing electrode with copper sulfate should be carefully deployed because
copper sulfate may be an environmental pollutant.
7) A multicore cable is recommended because it helps efficient field operation and reduces
wiring errors.
8) The power supply must be capable of transmitting sufficient power for the resistivity meter.
9) Measuring instruments and materials for resistivity tomography are similar to those of the
2D electric survey method. A resistivity meter that allows a short measuring time is
however often deployed for resistivity tomography because its measurement time is
generally longer.
Description
1) Resistivity meter
The resistivity meter used in 2D and 3D electric surveys is the same as the one for the electric
survey. It consists in a transmitter to send the electric current into the ground and a receiver
measuring the electric potential on the ground. There are two types of resistivity meters, one
with both the transmitter and receiver in it, the other having the transmitter and receiver
separately. The latter is generally a resistivity meter with a highpower transmitter. The former
is commonly deployed in geological investigations and a faster one is preferably deployed for
resistivity tomography.
The transmitter sends alternating DC current into the ground in a constant current or constant
voltage control. The alternating DC current is a DC current whose polarity changes in a
constant period. It is used to prevent polarization that increases contact resistance at the ground.
The transmitter commonly used in geological investigations can generate a current around 0.5A
and a maximum voltage of 200–400V.
The receiver measures the electric potential between two potential electrodes synchronizing
with the electric current transmitted. Too short a period of alternate DC current may distort
measured voltage waveforms due to induced current causing noise and/or polarization. Too
long a period, on the other hand, may reduce the injected current due to polarization. Therefore
a receiver capable of monitoring the transmitted current and measured potential waveforms and
of selecting the optimum measurement time is recommended. The receiver ideally has function
of notch filtering to reduce electric noise from power lines and stacking to reduce random
noise. A commercially available receiver with input impedance 1–10MΩ usually has the
minimum measurable electric potential of 10 microvolts. It is, however, difficult to measure 10
microvolts in real field measurements due to the fluctuations in selfpotential, noise induced by
the instrument and ambient electric noise. A resistivity meter with sufficient transmission
power must be used for deep exploration and for a survey on the ground with low resistivity.
The measured potential in a resistivity tomography survey sometimes shows a negative
potential value. Some resistivity meters only output the absolute potential value. It should be
checked before the survey. If negative potential values are measured by an instrument for an
absolute value measurement, change the electrode arrangement so that the measured potential
values become positive.
Most modern resistivity meters can store the measured data in its builtin memory or transfer
them to an external PC.
2) Switching box for electrode change
This is a switch to select electrodes for measurement. It is usually automatically controlled by a
resistivity meter or a PC by a preinstalled program. This can be manually controlled by a
simple switching box on which electric wires for each electrode combination can be selected.
3) Electrodes
Stainless steel rods (diameter: 10–25 mm, length: 300–700 mm) are used as electrodes. If the
rod is rusted, the rust should be removed. Any oil contaminating the rod should also be
removed. When the contact resistance of an electrode to the ground is too large, a few
electrodes may be bundled. Some spare electrodes should be made available. A non
polarization electrode made of copper sulfate in an unglazed clay container has traditionally
been used as an electrode. As it is not easytouse in a field operation and is environmentally
hazardous if it leaks, it is not often now deployed.
Hard rock of the tunnel wall often makes it difficult to install electrodes. An anchoring bolt
(several centimeters long) installed in a drill hole into the wall can be utilized as an electrode.
Figure 4.1: Examples of measuring instruments.
4) Downhole floating electrode
A downhole floating electrode cable is used as an electrode in a borehole filled with water. It is
a cable with electrodes attached at a constant interval, which can send electric current through
borehole water. A durable cable that does not stretch by its own weight is used. A cable winch
is used for a deep survey.
For a borehole without water, an electrode capable of being clamped against the borehole
wall must be used.
For nearhorizontal or upward boreholes, a PVC pipe with electrodes at a constant interval
may be used so that the electrode can be installed at the correct position.
5) Cable (Electric wire)
The cables are used to connect electrodes to the resistivity meter and/or a switching box. It is
usually a plastic cable with a single or multicore electric wire. It should be a shredresistant
one without damage. The thickness of the electric wire should be small enough so that it does
not influence the measurement due to a voltage drop of the injected current. Any rust should be
removed or the rusted part should be cut off before use. The multicore wire can improve the
efficiency of the field operation and reduces risk of wiring errors. The cable length should be
determined considering the terrain, available routes on the ground surface and tunnels in the
site. Ample length should be prepared with some spare.
If it is used suspended, it should be durable enough not to break by its own weight. A broken
cable should be reinforced by a rope or other material.
5. Field Operation
5.1 Process and Safety Management
1) Instruments and materials required for measurement in resistivity tomography are:
a resistivity survey (transmitter and receiver);
switching box (or scanner) for changing the combination of electrodes used;
electrodes;
downhole floating electrode (cable);
electric cables with single or multiple cores; and
power supply (battery or generator).
2) In selection of the resistivity meter and switching box (or scanner), the following
issues should be examined:
accuracy and resolution required for the purpose of the survey;
the survey area;
surface conditions around the survey line;
geology of the survey area;
the number of electrodes and electrode arrangement used; and
Note
1) Resistivity tomography surveys in boreholes are affected by movement of equipment and
materials for drilling, the temporary monorail for transport and operations in the tunnels
during the field operation. The schedule of these operations should be managed in advance.
Supplementary Notes
1) To avoid the period with high level electric noise, a survey may be carried out at night.
Safety measures for night work should be observed. The night work should be notified to
relevant authorities, local residents and other stakeholders.
2) Resistivity tomography generally takes longer than a 2D electric survey for the same
number of electrodes. Plan a survey procedure with a time margin to spare.
3) It is also necessary to plan a survey in a tunnel with ample time to spare because installation
of the electrodes in a tunnel takes longer than the operation on the ground surface.
Description
Before the field operation, it is necessary to obtain land access permission from the relevant
organizations.
The electric current transmitted into the ground does not cause damage to surrounding
environments. Since a high voltage, however, is generated during the survey, it is necessary to
prevent electric shock at the electrodes, especially at the remote electrodes. Preventive
measures include an alert by warning signs, burying the electrodes completely into the ground
or installing the electrodes far from the places where people pass.
It is necessary to plan the procedure in advance. Schedule the survey avoiding the time of
mine operations or seismic surveys using explosives nearby. Lightning may not only generate
electric noise to measurements, it may also damage the electrodes and cables. It is also
dangerous to operators in the field. When lightning is approaching, stop the field operation and
ensure the safety of the operators and equipment.
If the field operation is conducted at night, it is necessary to notify relevant authorities and
neighbors. Take additional safety procedures to ensure a safe operation in the field.
5.2 Measurement Procedure
3) The field operation should follow the survey plan.
4) The field procedure includes a line arrangement based on the survey plan map,
electrode installation, cable connection, actual measurement and demobilization.
Note
1) Measurement procedures and scheduling should be examined following the survey plan
before the measurements.
Supplementary Notes
1) Most of the measurement procedures in resistivity tomography are similar to those of the
2D electric survey method.
2) For a large survey, a cable connection chart and an electrode/cable operation plan in
addition to the survey plan are useful.
Description
Measurement operation is conducted in the order of line arrangement based on the survey map,
electrode installation, cable connection, measurement and demobilization. Since resistivity
tomography surveys along several lines, it is desirable to prepare the cable connection chart and
electrode/cable operation plan in addition to the survey plan.
5.3 Survey Line and Electrode Arrangements
5) A location survey should be carried out before measurement:
Survey lines are arranged following the survey plan. Survey pegs with a
marker are installed on the ground. The elevation of each peg location is
surveyed.
If necessary, borehole deviation is measured for correction of electrode
location in the borehole.
Notes
1) Where the surveying pile or electrode cannot be installed at the preassigned location on the
survey line due to obstacles, the electrode (peg) should be installed at a point as close to the
planned location as possible in the direction perpendicular to the survey line. If this is also
difficult, the electrode (peg) location should be moved back and forth along the line or
skipped. For such a case, the exact location of the electrode (pile) must be recorded in the
field note.
2) When recording the azimuth of the line, the distinction between true north and magnetic
north must be clearly documented.
3) The deviation of each survey line from the target plane should be recorded to use for
correction in data processing if necessary.
Supplementary Notes
1) The electrode locations must be surveyed before arrangement. Accuracy of their elevation
must be within 10 cm.
2) If the terrain along the survey line is almost flat, simple surveying using a measuring tape is
acceptable.
3) Borehole deviation logging should be planned for deviated or deep boreholes.
Description
The survey lines must be checked prior to their arrangement. The survey line must be cleared
by cutting bushes and trees if they interfere with the operation. In the tunnel, electrode
locations are marked and surveyed. The relative positions between the survey lines and their
deviations from the target plane should be noted. Surveying should not be carried out
concurrently with the measurement because it may cause problems with the measurement.
6) Each electrode must be installed at the location designated by the location survey. At
installation, electrode coupling to the ground must be checked.
7) The downhole floating electrode cable is set up at the preassigned depth.
8) It is desirable to measure the resistivity of the borehole water.
Notes
1) Electrodes are installed on the ground surface in the same way as for the 2D electric survey
method.
2) Avoid installing an electrode at a location near a creek or river where water is running.
3) If the electrode cannot be installed at the preassigned location on the survey line due to
obstacles, the electrode should be installed at a position as close to the original plan as
possible in the direction perpendicular to the survey line. The exact location of the electrode
must be recorded on the field note.
4) When the electrode interval is short, deep electrode installation may influence the
measurement. If the electrode interval is less than 1m, the installation depth should not be
so large.
5) Electrode installation in a tunnel is conducted in the same way as on the ground surface.
Supplementary Notes
1) An electrode should be installed as tightly as possible into the ground without a gap
between the electrode and ground.
2) The contact resistance of the electrode against the ground should be less than a few kΩ
3) If the contact resistance is large, it should be reduced by adding electrodes, by pouring
water around the electrode, or by pouring special materials for reducing resistance like
bentonite mud water.
4) Where leaves are thick on the ground surface, an electrode should be installed directly into
the ground by removing the leaves. Where an electrode is installed into gravel, any
conductive soil such as wet soil, clay, bentonite mud water or special material for reducing
resistance should fill the gaps between the electrode and gravel.
5) A remote electrode can be installed in the same way as on the survey line.
6) A remote electrode is arranged far away from the survey line and thus cannot be watched
during the survey. Therefore it should be arranged far away from where neighbors can
access, or be installed completely into the ground. Warning signs may be placed around the
electrode.
7) The electrodes are kept installed during a monitoring survey.
8) When a borehole is used for measurement, the resistivity of the borehole water should be
measured for further data analysis.
Description
Quality of measurement data in resistivity tomography strongly depends on how well the
electrodes are installed into the ground. The electrodes must be installed tightly into the ground
to reduce the contact resistance as much as possible. The resistance should be small enough
relative to the measured resistivity, ideally less than 10KΩ. The contact resistance can be
reduced by installing the electrodes deeply (better than using a thick electrode), by installing a
bundle of electrodes, by pouring water or salt water around the electrode and by using
bentonite mud water or special resistantreducing liquid around the electrode during
measurement. The measured resistivity values may vary depending on the condition of the
ground when it is wet and some compensation is required during analysis.
It is often difficult to install an electrode into hard rock in a tunnel. In such a case, an anchor
bolt in a drill hole on the wall can be used as an electrode. To increase the contact area between
the anchor bolt and the rock, clay or conductive bentonite should be injected into the gap.
Where the splayed concrete of the tunnel wall is thin, an electrode can be installed directly
into the rock through a drill hole.
The calculation of apparent resistivity assumes an electric source is a point electrode with no
volume. Therefore when the electrode interval is less than 1 meter, the installation depth of
electrodes should be small, because a deep electrode installation violates this assumption and
may cause errors in analysis. An electrode should not be installed near running water, buildings
or other obstacles.
When a borehole is used for measurements, resistivity of the borehole water should be
measured. If the resistivity of the ground is far from borehole water, the inline measurements
may present large errors.
5.3.3 Cable Connection
9) Each electrode is connected to the resistivity meter and the switching box with a cable.
When connecting, pay attention to the following:
each electrode should be tightly connected to the cable to avoid dislodging during
measurement;
the connection parts should not touch the ground; and
the cables should not contact each other to avoid forming a short circuit.
Note
1) The connection parts of the electrodes and cable should be free of rust.
Supplementary Notes
1) The electrodes are connected to the cable in the same way as the 2D electric survey.
2) The connection parts should not be in direct contact with the ground. They should be
covered with a plastic bag during rain to prevent leakage.
3) There are many connections between electrodes and cables for the measurements in
resistivity tomography. Cables should be carefully connected.
4) A multicore cable is recommended because it allows a quicker field operation and prevents
wiring errors.
Description
An electrode should be tightly connected to the cable to avoid dislodgement. The connection
parts should not be in direct contact with the ground to prevent leakage. If the cable is left laid
over night, the cable may be damaged by animals. The cable connection must thus be checked
prior to measurement at the beginning of the daily operation.
5.4 Measurement
5.4.1 Preparation
10) Prior to the measurements, the following should be checked:
all instruments work without any problems;
all electrodes and the resistivity meter and switching boxes are properly
connected; and
test measurements should be performed to determine the data acquisition
parameters including the level of current to transmit, the voltage range for
measurement and the number of stacks.
Notes
1) Contacts between the electrodes and cables should be checked with a circuit tester.
2) Measurements should not be performed in the rain because it may cause problems.
Supplementary Notes
1) The resistivity meter should be calibrated prior to the measurement.
2) The measurement procedure for resistivity tomography is similar to the 2D electric survey.
3) The items above should always be checked daily before the start of the survey.
Description
Prior to the measurement, contacts of electrodes and cables should be checked. The data
acquisition parameters such as the level of current to transmit, the voltage range for
measurement and the number of stacks are determined by test measurements. Especially in the
automatic measurement system (Section 5.4.2), the appropriate current to transmit and the
voltage range for measurement should be set up based on the expected electric potential.
To ensure the continuity of cables and measurement ranges prior to the measurement, a test
VES (Vertical Electric Sounding) survey should be performed at the center of the survey line.
11) For resistivity tomography, many measurements are taken. Therefore, the
measurement method and procedures should be decided prior to the survey for an
efficient field operation.
Supplementary Notes
1) There are two measurement methods: the manual method where the combination of the
electrodes is switched manually and the automatic method where a predesigned program in
the computer switches the selection of electrodes.
2) There is no standard or conventional order of switching electrodes. A fixed electrode array
may be moved scanning the survey line; or a combination of potential electrodes may be
moved along the line for a fixed current electrode combination.
Description
There is no standard or conventional order of measurement. The order should be determined
according to the specifications of the instruments, electrode arrangement, operational efficiency
and the data processing software used.
For example, the measurement of the polepole array method is often carried out in the
following order: a combination of the current electrodes is fixed first and combinations of
potential electrodes are changed scanning the survey line until the predetermined electrode
interval is reached; then the combination of current electrodes is changed for the next scanning
repeating the same procedure of movement of the potential electrodes. The resistivity
tomography survey involves a large number of measurements. It is, therefore, desirable that the
measurement method and procedures be decided prior to starting the field operation for an
efficient survey without omission or duplication.
5.4.3 Quality Control of Data
12) The acquired data are continuously monitored during the measurement for quality
checking purposes. If anomalous data are detected, appropriate remedial actions
should be taken.
13) During and immediately after a measurement, it is important to briefly check the
collected data to evaluate their quality.
Notes
1) The electric potential values are small when the electrode interval (depth of investigation) is
large.
2) It is impossible to correct erroneous data in the data analysis.
3) In resistivity tomography, the negative electric potential may be measured for some
electrode combinations. Measured data should be carefully checked for the resistivity meter
that can record absolute electric potential data.
Supplementary Notes
1) When the measured voltage is low, it is recommended to enhance the data by stacking
and/or filtering for keeping data quality. When the measured voltage fluctuates due to
electric noises, the measurement should be repeated until highquality data are attained.
2) Electric noise is often large in and around urban areas. The electric noise level is generally
lower at night. It is, therefore, recommended to plan the measurements at night if possible.
3) For polepole (or poledipole) array measurements, an attenuation curve of measured
potential data plotted during the measurements helps identifying anomalous data.
4) Anomalous data may occur due to:
unstable electrode installation;
poor contact of cables;
incorrect cable connection;
leak of current at cable connections;
incorrect combination of electrodes;
inappropriate setting of voltage range;
poor contact or degradation of the switch or relay in the switching box; and
influence of buildings or terrain around the electrode station.
5) Ensure that two electric potential data measured by swapping the current and potential
electrode combinations are the same (reciprocity check).
6) For the measurement over several days, measurements at a same location should be
repeated daily to check repeatability and continuity.
7) When a moving electrode pair scans along the survey line, measurements must be repeated
at the same location for two successive spreads to ensure continuity.
8) Quality control of the data is carried out in the same way as the 2D electric survey.
Description
The data quality should be continuously monitored during the measurements. Regardless of the
type of electrode array used, the measured electric potential is small when the electrode interval
is large. If the measured electric potential is unchanged for any electrode interval, or extremely
small or large, there may be some problems in the system e.g., disconnection of cables,
unstable electrode installation, leak or shortcircuited cable connections. When a railway is
running near the measurement locations, or work is in progress in the tunnel during the
measurements, a stray current may be generated causing a large fluctuation in the measured
potential data. If this occurs, measurements should be repeated until highquality data are
acquired. If the waveforms of the injected current and measured potential can be monitored, it
is easy to check data quality. Therefore if the resistivity meter can monitor the waveforms, this
function should be always used for data quality control.
In resistivity tomography, zero or negative electric potentials may be measured. Then, the
electrode arrangement should be examined to detect the cause.
To detect anomalous data early, attenuation curves of measured potential data plotted during
the measurements is good for reference. Apparent resistivity can be easily calculated by
equation (1). It is important that the apparent resistivity calculated from measured potential data
at any location is used for quality check of the data. Suspicious anomalous data should be
examined for the following to find their cause:
measurement procedure;
arrangement of survey lines;
geology and terrain in and around the site;
measuring instruments;
environment around the survey lines; and
electrode arrangement.
5.5 Demobilization
14) Before demobilization, it must be checked that all the planned measurements are
completed.
Note
1) It should be checked that no cables or electrodes are left at the site before demobilization.
Supplementary Note
1) In the case that repeated surveys are planned, electrodes on the survey lines should be left
installed. In this case only the cables are withdrawn.
Description
It should be checked that no cables or electrodes are left at the site before demobilization.
Marked pegs are also withdrawn after checking if all the measurements have been completed.
The electrodes should be collected before cables because some electrodes may be left if cables
are withdrawn first.
6. Data Processing
6.1 General
1) Data processing should ensure traceability throughout the procedure from the onset of
acquisition.
2) Data processing should consider the storage and reuse of the data.
Note
1) The measured data should be organized and stored so as to reuse them if necessary in the
future.
Supplementary Notes
1) Processing of resistivity tomography data is similar, in many aspects, to the 2D electric
survey.
2) If the data are corrected or interpolated in any way, the methods and procedures of the
correction and interpretation should be clearly documented.
3) Data processing in this chapter describes all the procedures required for preparation of data
analysis.
4) An apparent resistivity section is drawn for the survey lines, where possible.
Description
The data are processed in two steps: drawing a station location map (Section 6.2) and editing
the data (Section 6.3). In data processing all the procedures and processes should be clearly
documented. If the data are corrected or interpolated in any way, the methods and procedures
of the correction and interpretation should be clearly documented. The data should be
organized, edited and stored for reuse in the future.
6.2 Drawing a Location Map
3) The site map should include the locations of electrodes and survey lines. Use an
appropriate scale for the size of the survey.
Note
1) Where remote electrodes are used, their locations and the cable routes to the resistivity
meter should also be included on the map.
Supplementary Notes
1) The map scale, orientation mark and survey line number must be drawn on the map.
2) If necessary, maps for the survey lines and remote electrodes are drawn separately at
different scales.
Description
In the electrode location map, the map scale, orientation mark and survey line locations with
their line numbers and names must be included. When remote electrodes are used, their
locations and the cable routes to the resistivity meter should also be drawn on the map.
6.3 Editing the Measured Data
4) Locations of electrodes may deviate from the plane of the survey: the plane defined by
the borehole and survey line on the ground surface. The locations of electrodes in the
boreholes are corrected using deviation logs.
5) Prior to data analysis, the measured raw data are organized and edited based on the
electrode arrangement used. If necessary the raw data are corrected and interpolated:
the electrode number, injected current, measured potential, apparent resistivity
calculated and applied corrections should be summarized in a table; and
the summary table must be included in the report.
Notes
1) All measured raw data should be checked for anomalous data and their causes examined
such as influence of buildings.
2) When the locations of electrodes from the plane of survey are large, electrode locations
must be corrected.
Supplementary Notes
1) As described in Section 5.4.3, plotting the raw data is effective in spotting anomalous data.
2) When quality control of raw data is requested, charts and tables for checking raw data are
made at this stage.
3) Apparent resistivity pseudosections for inline measurements may also be used for quality
control of the data.
4) Corrections, interpolations and smoothing of raw data are made as necessary. Anomalous
data are excluded as they may make data analysis unstable.
5) The polepole and poledipole array measurements may need a correction for the remote
electrodes.
6) Terrain correction may be necessary where the terrain along the survey line is rough.
7) If the resistivity of borehole water is much different from the ground resistivity, its
influence on data analysis should be examined.
Description
In 2D resistivity tomography, the correction for the electrode location is made by projecting it
onto the plane of the survey. The raw data are also corrected as necessary. The raw data are
corrected by calculating synthetic data for projected electrode locations assuming that the
resistivity is uniform. A correction for the electrode locations is not necessary for 3D resistivity
tomography. Some process such as the generation of a mesh, however, may be performed more
efficiently on the data corrected for electrode locations.
All raw data should be checked for anomalous points and their causes such as influence of
buildings. As described in Section 5.4.3, plotting the raw data is effective in spotting
anomalous data.
Apparent resistivity profiles for inline measurements can also be used for detecting
anomalous data for a specific electrode.
If necessary, the raw data are corrected, interpolated and smoothed and anomalous data are
excluded as they may destabilize data analysis. However such data processing should be kept
minimal by accounting for the anomalous data in the known environment. The electrode
number, injected current, measured potential, apparent resistivity calculated and corrections
applied should be summarized in a table for possible reuse of the data in the future. Data
quality should be assessed at this stage.
7. Data Analysis
7.1 General
1) Data analysis estimates resistivity of the ground. The result is used for characterization
of the ground.
2) Each step of the data analysis should be documented to ensure its traceability.
Note
1) The analysis procedures and results should be recorded for possible reuse and verification.
Supplementary Notes
1) The analysis report should describe the principle, procedures and conditions of the analysis
as well as the name of software used. Parameters and boundary conditions used in the
analysis should also be documented. The charts of the model mesh, inversion cell and
alphacenter should also be included in the report.
2) Many aspects of the data analysis procedure are similar to the 2D electric survey.
Description
Data are analyzed to estimate the distribution of resistivity of the ground. The methods and
procedures used should be clearly defined before the analysis. For this purpose, the principle,
procedures, conditions of the analysis, the parameters and boundary conditions used in the
analysis should be documented with the inversion results. The charts of the model mesh,
inversion cell and alphacenter should also be described in the report. The limit and constraints
of the software used should be considered in the analysis.
7.2 Data Analysis Method and Procedure
7.2.1 Data Analysis Method
3) The principle of data analysis software used should be clearly documented and well
tested.
4) The following issues should be examined for selection of the analysis method,
software, model mesh and parameters in the analysis:
the purpose of the survey and accuracy (resolution) to be required;
survey area;
volume of data;
quality of the raw data;
specification and features of the software used; and
operational efficiency i.e., time and cost of analysis.
Notes
1) The analysis of resistivity tomography data, especially 3D resistivity tomography, generally
requires a large capacity and long computer time. The number of data and the model size
used in the analysis should be determined considering the capability of the available
computer.
2) Specifications, features and limits of the computer software used should be well studied in
advance.
Supplementary Notes
1) The data are analyzed by the nonlinear inversion technique. It consists in forward
modeling of the theoretical distribution of the electric potential and inversion of resistivity.
2) The FDM (Finite Difference Method), FEM (Finite Element Method) and alphacenter
methods are often used in forward modeling.
3) The data analysis result is strongly affected by the quantity and quality of raw data for any
computer software.
4) Many data analysis methods and procedures are similar to the 2D electric survey method.
Description
In the data analysis of resistivity tomography, a theoretical resistivity response is calculated for
a model and compared with the data in a 2D plane or a 3D volume. This model is repeated with
modified parameters so that the measured resistivity data match a theoretical model. The
analysis result is presented as a color section or birdeye view image of resistivity after the
difference between theoretical and measured resistivity are converged to a predetermined
threshold. The methods often used for forward modeling are the finite difference (FDM), finite
element (FEM) and the alphacenter method and the least square method is used for inversion.
Several commercial computer software are available for data analysis of both 2D and 3D
electric surveys and resistivity tomography.
Quantity and quality of raw data are crucial for a good data analysis. If the volume of data is
too large, the analysis takes a long time. On the other hand too few data or too poor quality data
may not lead to a good result. Especially, 3D resistivity tomography needs a large amount of
data for a good result compared with 2D tomography.
7.2.2 Data Analysis Procedure
5) The data analysis procedure depends on the software used. Generally it consists in:
editing the raw data; creating an initial resistivity model; setup of analysis
parameters; running the program; examination of the results and presentation.
Note
1) The data file format and parameters used in data analysis depend on the software used.
Supplementary Note
1) The data analysis procedure is similar to the 2D electric survey.
Description
The data analysis procedure generally proceeds sequentially: editing the raw data; creating an
initial resistivity model; setup of analysis parameters. The procedures are different depending
on the software used. It is essential to know how to use the software.
7.3 Making a Data File for Analysis
7.3.1 Editing Raw Data
6) The raw data are edited so as to input into the analysis software. The data volume may
be adjusted for efficient execution of the analysis. If necessary, erroneous data are
removed and interpolated.
Supplementary Notes
1) Raw data are checked for quality at this stage again as described in Section 6.3 Editing the
Measured Data.
2) Data analysis for 3D resistivity tomography requires long computer time. Therefore the
amount of data and model size used in data analysis should be optimized beforehand.
Description
Since this stage of the procedure determines the quality of the final analysis result, the raw data
to input should be checked again. The amount of raw data and the size of model should be
examined considering the capability of the software and hardware used.
Figure 7.1: Flow chart of the data analysis and items to be checked.
7.3.2 Making a Data File for Analysis
7) The data file for analysis is created according to the specification of the software used.
Input data for the software are usually:
raw data;
survey data;
area and size of model; and
Notes
1) The data file for analysis should be carefully created because data errors in the input file
cannot be detected after the analysis is started.
2) The data items and their format depend on the principle and algorithms of the software.
Supplementary Notes
1) A uniform resistivity model is usually used as an initial resistivity model.
2) The size of data used for analysis of resistivity tomography is much larger than the 2D
electric survey.
Description
In many data analysis software, a data file for analysis is prepared based on the raw data. The
following data items are usually prepared in the data file for analysis:
raw data, measured for each electrode combination;
location survey data, which are the coordinates and elevation of the electrodes;
area and subdivision of the model for analysis, which describes the depth of
investigation and required resolution, determined considering the amount of raw data
and computation time (some software automatically provides this); and
initial resistivity model for iteration.
Some software that uses the FEM for model calculation of the electric potential requires
additional input data to define the boundary condition of the mesh of the analysis model. Figure
7.2 shows an example of a mesh for analysis. The data file must define the boundary condition
outside the mesh, resulting in an input mesh much larger than the diagram shown.
Figure 7.2: Examples of calculation mesh and cell used in data analysis in resistivity tomography.
An initial resistivity model is often a uniform resistivity model. Some software automatically
define this. The volume of data for analysis in resistivity tomography is much larger than for
the 2D electric survey. The data file, therefore, is often prone to incorrect data due to this large
number of items along the survey lines to input. The data file is often made using commercial
spread sheet software or a mesh generator.
7.4 Executing Data Analysis Software
8) Analysis parameters are set up according to the specifications of the software used.
These parameters are set up considering the limits and constraints of the analysis
method, accuracy and analysis time. It is necessary to set up appropriate parameters to
avoid error in the analysis results.
Note
1) It is necessary to understand the physical significance and influence of each parameter used
in the software by referring to their user’s manual.
Supplementary Notes
1) Analysis parameters to input depend on the software used. The main parameters used in
software are:
number of iterations and final threshold of the residual value to stop the iteration;
parameters for the inversion; and
minimum and maximum resistivity values allowed in the inversion.
2) Analysis parameters depend on the software used. Many of the parameters used in data
analysis of resistivity tomography are similar to those in the 2D electric survey.
Description
Analysis parameters are first set up for the data analysis. Analysis parameters and their input
method depend on the software. It is necessary to understand them by referring to their user’s
manual. The name and allowable range of each parameter are different from one software to
another. The main parameters used in data analysis include:
Number of iterations and final threshold of the residual value to stop the iteration.
These define the condition to stop the iteration, to ensure satisfactory convergence of
the model. For example, too small a number of iterations may cause a large residual
between the theoretical and measured electric potential, resulting in an inaccurate
resistivity image. On the other hand, the residual error usually becomes small after a
certain number of iterations and does not improve much by further iterations and the
extra calculations are unwarranted. These parameters should, therefore, be set up based
on the recommended value of the software and experience of the analyst considering
the features of the software used.
Parameters for the inversion: the parameters set up to iteratively alter the model until
the theoretical electric potential calculated for the resistivity model reaches close to the
measured one. These parameters are crucial for the inversion. Different parameters may
create a different final resistivity image. These parameters should be set up based on the
values recommended by the software and the experience of the analyst and quality and
quantity of the raw data.
Minimum and maximum resistivity values allowed in the inversion. These parameters
are for managing the calculation so that extremely small or large values are not
generated. These parameters are usually set up in the range of expected resistivity. The
analysis parameters required are different depending on the software. Many of the
parameters used in data analysis in resistivity tomography are similar to those in the 2D
electric survey.
7.4.2 Execution of Data Analysis
9) Prior to the data analysis, it is necessary to check that the analysis data file and
analysis parameters are properly prepared.
10) Analysis processes should be monitored during the execution by watching the
convergent process and intermediate calculation results to detect erroneous results and
inappropriate parameters.
Note
1) Theoretical potential data should be calculated to check the analysis data file and whether
the software can calculate theoretical potentials.
Supplementary Notes
1) Calculation of theoretical potentials (forward modeling) can be usually performed faster
than the inversion for resistivity.
2) The data analysis of resistivity tomography takes longer time than the 2D electric survey.
Description
It is important to detect the errors in the analysis data file and analysis parameters as soon as
possible. Since calculation of theoretical potentials does not take a long time, it is desirable to
use it for early detection of errors in the data analysis file and the parameters. If the data
analysis cannot be properly performed or erroneous results are reached, the analysis parameters
must be corrected. The analysis processes should be monitored during the execution by
watching the convergent process and intermediate calculation results to detect erroneous results
and inappropriate parameters.
7.4.3 Examination of the Result Analysis
11) It is necessary to examine the analysis result for errors in terms of limitation and
constraints of the analysis method, quality and quantity of the raw data, boundary
conditions and analysis parameters. Ensure that there is no irregular result that may
lead to misinterpretation. If necessary, data from other surveys should be referred to in
order to examine the result.
Notes
1) The accuracy of the data diminishes where the target area is far from the electrodes. It is
desirable to examine the analysis area that can be interpreted.
2) In some cases, the analysis result is strongly influenced by the initial model. Repeat the
analysis by changing the initial model to obtain an appropriate analysis result.
Supplementary Notes
1) It is important to evaluate the analysis result by drawing the following charts:
correlation diagram between measured and calculated results;
frequency diagram of the residual values;
convergence curve of the residual values; and
histogram of resistivity values for the initial and final models.
2) An experienced analyst may find some of the following problems. It is necessary to
examine the causes of these problems and to repeat the analysis again if necessary. Be
aware of:
the possible problem of an equivalent layer: the nonuniqueness of resistivity and
layer thickness; and
the possibility of a problem of an artefact or a false image.
3) The data are examined in the same way as that for the 2D electric survey method.
4) For 3D resistivity tomography, a 2D resistivity image from a 2D analysis should be referred
to during the analysis.
Description
The analysis results should be examined from the following aspects:
Is there any error in the analysis data file?
Are the analysis parameters set up appropriately?
Is the analysis performed properly? and
Is the analysis result plausible?
If there is any question or problems with respect to the items above, repeat the analysis. The
analysis process is generally verified using the convergent curve of the residual difference
between measured and calculated resistivity. The analysis result may also be examined using
the correlation diagram between the measured electric potential and the one calculated from the
final model. The resistivity image is also examined in view of the equivalent layer, processing
artefacts, inferred geology and existing geophysical information. The artefacts are usually
created during data analysis but they may also be created by buildings and buried objects near
the survey line. They can be utilized for interpretation of the analysis result. It is, therefore, not
recommended to ignore artefacts in the analysis without close examination.
7.4.4 Presentation of the Analysis Result
12) Present the analysis result to contribute to an efficient interpretation. The analysis
result should also be organized and presented so that those who did not participate in
the survey can understand easily.
Supplementary Notes
1) The analysis result is displayed as a color resistivity section (Figure 7.5) or a resistivity
contour map. Determine the color or contour scale for an effective interpretation.
2) The resistivity section should have the name of the survey line and the scale as well as a
color scale bar of the resistivity value.
3) For 3D resistivity tomography, display the analysis result in a panel diagram, horizontal and
vertical slices and a block diagram for easy comprehension of the result in three
dimensional space.
Description
The analysis result is displayed as a color section or a contour map of resistivity. Determine the
color scale or contour interval for efficient interpretation of the target ground. The resistivity
section should have the name of the survey line and the scale as well as a color scale bar of the
resistivity value. Make several resistivity sections with different color scales to emphasize the
interpretation of the result.
For 3D resistivity tomography, make several panel diagrams, crosssectional slices and block
diagrams with different perspectives for easy comprehension of the analysis result in three
dimensional space.
Figure 7.3: Example of the analysis result (resistivity section).
7.5 Interpretation of the Result
13) It is important to collect and organize existing data and information for proper
interpretation of the survey result for the condition of the ground.
14) The purpose of the survey and stage of the project should always be kept in
consideration during the interpretation. Consider the accuracy, limitation and
constraints of the measurement and analysis. Use the results from additional survey
lines and existing investigations including other geophysical surveys.
15) First define the area and scope of the interpretation. Clearly describe what the survey
did prove and did not prove. Separate the facts and inference.
16) If necessary, quantitative interpretation of the survey result should be considered by
combining other investigations and laboratory tests.
17) The survey result and its interpretation must meet the specifications and requirements
of the client.
Note
1) In interpretation, first define the area and scope. The rationale of the interpretation should
Supplementary Notes
1) It is generally difficult to uniquely identify geological structures and environments by
interpreting resistivity data alone. The interpretation of a resistivity tomography result is
supplemented by other data including:
geological survey data;
borehole data including insitu tests and well loggings;
seismic data;
other geophysical data; and
laboratory test data.
2) Interpretation of the survey result for resistivity tomography is performed in the same way
as the 2D electric survey method.
3) The result of 3D resistivity tomography should be able to visualize the 3D subsurface
structure and its interpretation.
Description
Collection of existing data of related surveys in the same area helps interpretation of the
tomography survey data. The data used for interpretation include geological survey data,
borehole data (insitu tests and well logs), seismic and other geophysical data. Electric logging
data are especially important for interpretation of the output of the resistivity tomography
survey. Published case histories and papers of research and laboratory tests are also useful to
refer to.
During the interpretation, consider the purpose of the survey appropriate for the stage of the
project and determine the extent of the interpretation area and issues to address. The level of
significance in the interpretation should be consistent with the accuracy and resolution of the
analysis and measurement and the limitation of the method. If secondary lines are surveyed,
interpretation must be consistent between both survey results to be plausible. A numerical
simulation may be used to supplement the interpretation.
Interpretation is generally qualitative and empirical. A derived resistivity distribution can be
interpreted differently depending on the geological and geomorphological conditions. Areal
extent of interpretation should be defined with a reason. Clarify the issues resolved by the
survey and those left unresolved to indicate the reliability of the interpretation.
Attempt a quantitative interpretation using borehole and other geophysical data. In the
quantitative interpretation, describe the area, limit, conditions and rationale of the application.
8. Deliverables
8.1 Deliverables and Report
1) The report of the survey should clearly describe all the procedures from planning to
interpretation.
2) The deliverables should include at least the following:
survey map(s);
survey results; and
survey data lists.
3) The report should describe at least the following:
brief description of the survey;
survey method used;
instrumentation;
raw data;
principle and method of the analysis;
interpretation of the survey result and discussion.
Note
1) The deliverables and reports should be summarized and described so that those who are not
involved in the survey understand them easily.
Supplementary Notes
1) The survey result in the report should consist in (1) raw data, (2) preliminary analysis
results and (3) final analysis and interpretation, all of which are described separately.
2) The size of raw data is usually very large. The report may include a brief description of the
raw data and the entire data set may be attached as an appendix or a separate volume. The
attached data should be in digital format on digital media.
Description
The deliverables and reports should be well summarized and described so that those who are
not involved in the survey can understand. The survey procedures and data analysis may be
described clearly by using a flowchart. If a special technique has been used, it should be
explained in the report, including the reason and reference.
The description of the survey should include the survey information such as the purpose,
dates, contractor, survey team and leader, site, method, instrumentation, location of survey
lines and volume of the data collected. The chapter of the survey method should describe the
method used, survey procedures, electrode arrangement, electrode interval and data processing
procedure. It should be described in the order of actual procedures conducted so that a third
party can understand it easily.
The chapter of instrumentation should describe the name, number of units used, technical
specifications, accuracy and resolution and the manufacturer and model of the instrument in the
survey. The inspection certificate and calibration certificate should be attached if necessary.
The chapter of data analysis should describe details of the software such as the name,
manufacture and distributor, analysis method and specification.
8.2 Archival of Survey Data
4) The survey result should be stored to be ready for reuse and reprocessing in the future.
5) The data stored should be accompanied by the following information:
survey site, survey line name, survey line layout and measuring point
(electrode) coordinates;
electrode arrangement, survey line number, electrode number, raw data
(resistivity, or injected current and electric potential);
software name and method used and specifications;
analysis result.
6) Data stored on digital media should be accompanied by a description of the file and
data format and the method to restore.
7) For data stored in digital format, the following information should be added to the
above:
data format of the analysis data; and
data format of the analysis result.
Notes
1) If commercial data archival software is used, the name, manufacture/distributor and the
version used should be described in text format.
2) Where specific software is needed to restore the data, it should be included in the digital
media together with the data. The operating system and environments necessary to restore
the data should also be documented.
3) The contents of the digital media including the name and structure of the data files should
Supplementary Notes
1) Data stored in text format causes less problems in restoring even though the volume tends
to be large.
2) CD and DVD are the most common media.
Description
The survey result should be stored, ready for reuse and reprocessing in the future. It is
necessary to document the format of the files and data stored because there is no standard
format for storing resistivity tomography data in digital format. Data stored in text format
causes less problems in restoring even though the volume tends to be large.
16 Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP)
1. Introduction
1) Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP) refers to a type of seismic reflection survey in which
the receivers are located in a borehole.
Description
Surface reflection is a method to estimate the depth of a geological boundary (distance from the
surface) from the seismic traveltime by recording the reflected wave from the velocity
boundary. While the usual reflection seismic survey deploys a seismic source and a geophone
array on the ground surface, the VSP places the seismic source or receiver(s) in a borehole.
The reflection seismic survey needs velocity information for timetodepth conversion.
Generally, the velocity estimated for stacking (NMO velocity) is different from the average
velocity for depth conversion, causing some errors in depth estimation. This may result in
difficulty in correlating formation depths at boreholes with seismic sections. A reflection record
from a VSP survey can be directly correlated with the formation at the borehole, which can
provide information to the accurate depth conversion for correct interpretation of the reflection
seismic sections.
A VSP is normally carried out with the seismic source on or near the ground surface and the
receivers down the borehole. There are a number of methods, depending on the position of the
source: ZeroOffset VSP (Figure 1.1), Offset VSP (Figure 1.2) and Walkaway VSP (Figure
1.3). Another method similar to VSP is the interborehole reflection method, whereby seismic
sources and receivers are placed in two boreholes to observe reflected waves.
Figure 1.1: Zerooffset VSP.
Figure 1.2: Offset VSP.
Figure 1.3: Walkaway VSP.
Figure 1.4: Reverse VSP.
1) ZeroOffset VSP
The zerooffset VSP uses a seismic source on the ground near the opening of a borehole and
direct and reflected waves are recorded using the receivers placed in the borehole. The
recording system is largely the same as downhole velocity logging, except that the VSP records
and analyzes the full waveform including the reflection rather than the first break.
The VSP allows analyzing a velocity structure near a borehole from the traveltime of the first
arrival, correlating the reflection with the distribution of the geological formation from the
borehole data. Incorporating the zerooffset VSP, the precision of interpretation of the
reflection seismic data is improved. Accordingly, it is used in conjunction with the seismic
reflection in the stages of designing, planning and executing a construction project. A layered
geological structure is most suited for the VSP method.
2) Offset VSP, MultiOffset VSP and Walkaway VSP
The offset VSP sets a seismic source on the ground away from the borehole. This is a method
to survey for a reflection seismic section by placing receivers in a borehole instead of on the
ground (Figure 2.1).
When several source locations with different offset distances are used, it is called multi
offset VSP. An improvement in the S/N ratio is expected by stacking. The walkaway VSP is a
kind of multioffset VSP. In this method, the data are collected by the downhole geophones
while the seismic source is moved from a point to another by a constant distance. High
precision data can be expected as increase of the number of source points as it increases the
stacking.
Like the zerooffset VSP, all these methods are generally used to improve the quality of
interpretation of the reflection seismic survey but they may be used as a standalone survey for
a geological structure. They are well suited for a layered structure but can be applied to more
complex structures like faults. When these methods are adopted, incorporating a zerooffset
VSP survey is recommended in order to construct an accurate velocity model (Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.1: Relationship of CMPs between surface seismic and VSP surveys.
Figure 2.2: Example of the results of zerooffset VSP (a) and multioffset VSP (b).
3) Reverse VSP
The reverse VSP has the same geometry as the offset VSP, except the source and receivers are
placed at opposite locations: the source is placed in a borehole and the geophones are arranged
on the ground. As a multitude of geophones can be arranged easily on the ground, the reverse
VSP can easily collect data equivalent to the multioffset VSP and walkaway VSP. The
geophones can be arranged in several different directions and can be used for the estimation of
a geological structure in 3dimensional space. The disadvantages of the reverse VSP are its low
S/N ratio due to the high surface noise and the low power of the downhole seismic source.
The typical reverse VSP includes a seismicwhiledrilling (SWD) survey, which uses the
drillbit noise as a signal source. Another VSP application uses the signal from explosives in
mine production.
2. Applicability
1) The VSP can provide an accurate image of a reflection structure in the vicinity of a
borehole and hence is often used for calibration of surface reflection data.
2) The Pwave zerooffset VSP and the Swave zerooffset VSP are used for correlating
with the Pwave reflection section and the Swave reflection section, respectively.
3) The hydrophone VSP may be used for permeability assessment by analyzing a tube
wave with its data.
Notes
1) Some literature state that the hydrophone VSP is a method for assessing permeability by
analyzing the tube wave. However, the hydrophone VSP simply means “a VSP using a
hydrophone” and it is no different from the VSP with P and Swaves.
2) The method of permeability assessment by analyzing the tube wave is regarded as an
effective application of the hydrophone VSP.
Description
The VSP is often used to supplement the reflection seismic survey. The offset VSP, the walk
away VSP and the crosshole seismic reflection are, however, sometimes used independently
for a detailed geological structure near a borehole. The VSP may be used to search for a
reflector below the drilling depth.
VSP records contain the tube wave, which travels along the borehole, as well as the elastic
waves through the ground (Figure 2.3). Particularly when a hydrophone is used as a receiver,
the dominance of tube waves may adversely affect the accuracy. On the other hand, tube waves
are known to be generated at a permeable fracture and are analyzed for assessment of the
permeable fractures. This is applied to the designing and construction planning of the structure
that is sensitive to permeability.
Figure 2.3: Tube wave and its generation depth.
3. Planning
3.1 Desk Study and Specification
1) In planning the VSP survey, examine the objectives of the survey and preexisting
information, including surface reflection sections and borehole synthetics, if available.
If the borehole has not already been logged it may be useful to perform logging in
conjunction with the VSP.
2) Plan a survey considering the topographic and geological conditions and productivity.
Description
At planning, select a suitable method considering the issues listed in Table 3.1.
VSP Type Characteristics
Zero Used for identifying reflection events of seismic sections.
Offset Velocity distribution against depth is obtained.
VSP If a hydrophone is used, tube wave data can be collected for assessment of
permeability.
Offset Used for identifying reflection events of seismic sections.
VSP Capable of investigating a geological structure around the borehole as it
outputs a reflection seismic section by itself.
Precision can be improved by adding more source points to make a multi
offset VSP and a walkaway VSP.
Velocity distribution can be estimated by applying the tomographic
analysis of elastic waves to the first break data.
Reverse Applied to similar purposes as the zerooffset VSP and the offset VSP.
VSP Applicable when the surface source is unsuitable.
A simultaneous recording by several radial survey lines centered at the
borehole.
Table 3.1: Items to consider for selection of the method.
Notes
1) When the offset or zerooffset VSP is used with a seismic reflection survey, design the
survey layout to ensure good recording to contribute to the improvement of the accuracy of
the interpretation of the seismic reflection section. Issues to consider include the
relationship between the reflector and the geology and the continuity of the reflectors.
2) The source for the zerooffset VSP is located near the borehole. When a long casing is
used, take an adequate offset to eliminate the effect of the casing.
3) The topography and expected geological dip of the site should be considered in planning an
offset VSP.
4) The fractures of the rocks should be investigated by core data, a borehole televiewer or a
borehole camera before using a hydrophone VSP for permeability. The energy source must
be powerful enough to investigate a large depth.
Supplementary Notes
1) Reference should be made to the synthetic seismogram as well as to the VSP for
interpretation of the seismic reflection section. Sonic and density logs are necessary to
make a synthetic seismogram.
2) For a permeability survey by the hydrophone VSP, a sonic log is recommended to identify
the depth where the tube waves are generated.
3) The first break of the VSP record can be used for velocity logging analysis. It is generally
carried out for the Pwave velocity. If the survey is by the Swave, distribution of the S
wave velocity can be derived.
4) The tube wave is generated not only at the opening of fractures but also at geological
boundaries, by changes of the borehole diameter, the bottom hole and the base of the
casing. To use the tube waves for assessment of permeability, a cross reference to other
tests is desirable such as geological logging, the Legion test and the test for borehole
conditions.
5) The reverse VSP is not often used for engineering purposes, because there is no appropriate
seismic source for repeated use.
3.2 Receiver Interval
1) The receiver interval should be determined considering geological conditions, survey
depth and the accuracy.
Supplementary Notes
1) The VSP for shallow depth is often carried out together with velocity logging (Chapter
17.1). The receiver interval commonly used for velocity logging, 1–2 meters, is also used
for the VSP.
2) To ensure adequate resolution, the receiver interval should be less than a quarter of the
wavelength of the reflected wave to record.
3) The common receiver interval of 1 to 2 meters satisfies the above condition. For example,
the dominant frequency of the Pwave used in the engineering VSP is 40–80Hz and the P
wave velocity of common ground is around 2000 m/s; these lead to the resolution of 6.25–
12.5 meters, which is well below the commonly used 1–2 meters.
4) The receiver interval may be as large as 5 to 10 meters for a deep survey of hundreds of
meters.
5) The receiver interval for deep surveys can be coarser than shallow surveys as the reflected
waves from deep reflectors have low frequencies.
6) In oil exploration where the survey depth is large, the receiver interval used may be as large
as 10–30 meters.
7) For the sake of ease of data processing, the receiver interval for the VSP is kept constant
throughout the depth range of a survey.
3.3 Seismic Source and Position
1) The seismic source should be chosen considering the survey objectives, survey depth
and logistics of the survey site.
2) For a zerooffset VSP (also known as a vertical VSP), the source point(s) should be
close enough to the well head such that the rays to all tool depths can be considered
vertical; typically about 5 meters.
3) For offset VSPs, a source offset of about half the maximum target depth is typical.
Note
1) For offset VSPs, the source offset is typically about half of the measurement depth
(although this depends on the velocity ratio between the formations). This restricts
interference from refracted waves, which become prominent at longer offsets.
Supplementary Notes
1) For a standard Pwave survey, a hammer or a portable weight drop is suitable for very
shallow surveys, while a vibrator, dynamite, or a weight drop are commonly used for
deeper surveys. For offshore surveys, an airgun is commonly used.
2) Explosive sources such as dynamite require more preparation (drilling etc.) than surface
sources such as vibrators. However, the explosive source may sometimes provide a broader
bandwidth and hence better resolution.
3) For offset VSPs, the source offset is typically about half of the measurement depth
(although this depends on the velocity ratio between the formations). This restricts
interference from refracted waves, which become prominent at longer offsets.
3.4 Selection of Downhole Receiver
4) Choose an appropriate downhole receiver considering the survey objectives and field
logistics. Common receivers include a walllock geophone, or an array of
hydrophones.
Note
1) Several hydrophones can be connected easily to improve efficiency in the field operation.
They are sensitive to tube waves and their effect must be taken into consideration. Where
the Pwave velocity of the formation is close to that of the tube wave, up to 1.5 km/s, use
geophones instead of hydrophones.
Supplementary Notes
1) There are two types of borehole receivers, geophones and hydrophones. Unless the tube
wave is the scope of the survey, geophones are preferred. The natural frequency of the
geophone should be similar to the ones used for the seismic survey.
2) The sonde is generally made of three component geophones: one vertical and two
horizontal phones perpendicular to each other. It is fixed to the borehole wall by an arm, a
bow spring or a packer.
3) Multisensor sondes with three to eight geophones are available for efficiency of the
survey.
4) Hydrophones are used for the assessment of permeability by the tube waves. A string of
multiple hydrophones is more easily made than with geophones and its field operation is
more efficient.
3.5 Recording System
5) The data recording system should be a multichannel digital data acquisition unit with a
good dynamic range. This requirement will generally imply that the system incorporates
either a 24bit or an instantaneous floating point analogtodigital conversion.
Supplementary Notes
1) Since the amplitude of the seismic signal can change over a very broad range, the
measuring equipment must be able to handle both weak and strong signals accurately.
Therefore, the data acquisition unit should be of digital type with a wide dynamic range.
2) The systems commonly used incorporate a digital recorder capable of 18 to 24bit AD
conversion or similar.
3) Field data should be recorded in standard data format (SEGY or SEG2) or in a format that
can be subsequently converted to one of these, as these formats are used by seismic
reflection software for processing.
4. Recording Procedure
1) According to the prepared survey plan, collect data with a high S/N ratio.
Notes
The quality control of the record should be managed for each depth measurement. The
1) recording should be repeated at any level if the first arrival is unclear, or if the signalto
noise (S/N) ratio is unacceptable. The factors that reduce the S/N ratio are miscellaneous
vibrations caused in urban or industrial areas, construction sites, vibrations caused by
moving fluid in the borehole, source generated noise and instrument noise.
2) In the case of offset VSPs, long trigger cables can be a source of noise pickup, as well as
being prone to breakage.
Supplementary Notes
1) The procedure of the survey is similar to downhole velocity logging: the signal from the
source point is received by the sensor (receiver) and recorded. The main difference is that
the VSP records all the waves including the reflection while the velocity log is only
concerned about the first breaks. Hence a good S/N ratio throughout the record is required.
2) A survey plan should be prepared beforehand to ensure high quality data and safe and
efficient operation. After the presurvey instrument check, an operation test is carried out
fixing the receiver at an appropriate depth. The purposes of this test include: operation of
the equipment and of the recording, confirmation of the data acquisition parameters and
adjustment of the source energy level.
3) In the field book, document the recording conditions such as offset distance and the
borehole condition. The recording takes place upward from the bottom of the hole.
4) The field book should also document the depth and record number for each measurement,
the noise level and changes, if any, in the parameters such as the filter setting.
2) Take care of the movement of the receiver in the borehole to prevent jamming.
Notes
1) Always pay attention to the winch and cable; up and down.
2) Particular attention is needed when the receiver passes through the fracture and alteration
zones and change of casing. Reduce the winch speed through these zones. It is good to run
calliper logging beforehand to detect these areas.
3) In an unfortunate event of a stuck receiver, quickly detect it and stop the winch before the
cable breaks. Monitoring with a tension gauge is desired even for a shallow survey.
5.1 Data Processing
1) VSP data processing is a specialized discipline. Typically, the main stages are
preprocessing (amplitude equalization, bandpass filtering), separation of upgoing
and downgoing wavefields, deconvolution and corridor stacking. Careful attention to
detail is needed to ensure a product with a good S/N ratio and to avoid processing
artifacts.
Notes
1) VSP data processing involves designing operators and parameters for frequency filters,
separation of wavefields and deconvolution. Quality control is important at each stage of
data processing. If the quality is not satisfactory, reprocessing from an earlier stage may be
necessary.
2) Carefully pick the first breaks. These are the important parameters for correlation between
the reflectors and the geological formations as well as for data processing.
3) Analysis of the hydrophone VSP uses the amplitude ratio. The relative amplitude of the
direct waves and the tube waves should be maintained throughout the processing sequence.
Description
Typical data processing schemes for VSP are shown in Figure 5.1. The main objective of VSP
data processing is to improve the S/N ratio and extract reflected waves. In the raw records, the
desired signals (reflected waves) are mixed with other signals (direct waves, multiple reflection
waves, tube waves) and noise. Therefore, various procedures are carried out in order to extract
the reflected signals. Important steps include amplitude equalization, bandpass filtering,
wavefield separation and deconvolution. It is important to optimize each processing step by
careful quality control. Picking of first arrivals should be carefully done since it provides the
basis for alignment of both the downgoing and upgoing wavefields. As shown in Figure 5.1,
the processing flows for the zerooffset VSP and the offset VSP are the same up to the point of
wavefield separation. Time alignment and corridor stack are then used in the zerooffset.
The zerooffset VSP uses upgoing waves extracted from the record for its analysis. A two
way timeshift is applied to the upgoing waves using the first break time data. By this shift, the
oneway time of the VSP data can be correlated with the twoway time of the seismic section.
Select the area in the data space that only contains upgoing primaries and no multiples and
mute the rest. This area is called the stacking corridor. A zerooffset VSP stack section is
obtained by stacking the upgoing waves in this corridor. Occasionally only multiples are
stacked when multiples are examined.
The reflection section of the offset VSP is made from the upgoing waves separated from the
records.
Figure 5.1: Typical VSP processing flowcharts.
Figure 5.2: Direct waves and reflected waves.
An imaging process of the VSPCDP transform or VSP migration is applied to the upgoing
waves. The VSPCDP transform is an operation to adjust the reflection point by the NMO
correction. The VSP migration algorithm used should be flexible enough to handle irregular
sourcereceiver geometry unlike the surface seismic and an azimuth angle up to 90°. The area
of imaging is up to half the offset distance.
6. Interpretation, Assessment and Deliverables
6.1 Interpretation and Assessment
1) VSP interpretation involves identification of the main reflecting horizons and
integration of the VSP stack with the borehole geology and the surface reflection data.
The interpretation should fully utilize existing information such as geophysical and
geological well log data, borehole synthetics and surface reflection data.
Notes
1) The datum of the seismic section may be different from the level of the surface level at the
borehole. Special attention should be paid to the difference in datum.
2) If borehole logs are available compare the VSP result with a synthetic seismogram to
identify the reflection from multiples.
Description
Zerooffset VSP results should indicate the relation between the geologic column and the
reflection events. This can be easily determined. The depth of a reflector on VSP data
corresponds to the geophone level where the reflection event coincides with the line of the first
arrivals. Once the relationship between the VSP reflectors and the geology has been
established, the VSP corridor stack can be used to calibrate surface reflection data from the
vicinity. Figure 6.1 gives an example of this comparison. For this purpose, it is important that
the datum surface used in the VSP analysis is the same as that used in processing the surface
reflection data.
If an offset VSP is being conducted, it should be done in addition to a standard zerooffset
VSR The continuity of formations can be traced from the continuity of the reflected wave
around the borehole correlating with the geologic column and the zerooffset VSP at the
borehole. The result of the offset VSP is used as information for the interpretation of the
seismic reflection section, since it can derive an accurate reflection section around the borehole.
In hydrophone VSPs, the amplitude ratio of direct waves and tube waves can be used to
estimate the dip angle of permeable cracks and the permeability can be derived. In this analysis,
it is necessary to obtain the exact depth location of occurrence for direct waves and tube waves
using well logging data and geologic information material, or to investigate the errors from the
unclearness of recorded waveforms.
Figure 6.1: Integrated display showing zerooffset VSP and a seismic section.
6.2 Deliverables
1) The deliverables is a report containing the waveform records, result of data
processing, analysis and interpretation.
Description
The survey report should include all the intermediate data following the processing steps and
describe the processing procedure.
The survey report should include the following items:
geographical location of the survey;
number of measurements;
date of survey;
specifications of the equipment used (downhole and recording);
specifications of the survey;
measurement technique;
details of the data processing procedure including a flow chart;
representative output from important test stages;
results of the data analysis;
interpretation and discussion; and
electronic data on CDR or DVD including raw data.
Glossary
Geophone The instrument used to transform seismic energy into an electrical voltage; a
seismometer, seis, detector, receiver, jug, bug, or pickup. Geophones
ordinarily respond to only one component of the ground’s displacement,
velocity, or acceleration that is involved in the passage of a seismic wave.
Three mutually orthogonal phones are used to record all three components.
Most land geophones are of the movingcoil type. A coil is suspended by
springs in a magnetic field (the magnet may be integral with the case of the
instrument). The relative movement of a magnetic field with respect to the
coil generates a voltage across the coil, the voltage being proportional to the
relative velocity of the coil with respect to the magnet
Hydrophone A detector that is sensitive to variations in pressure, as opposed to a geophone
that is sensitive to particle motion. It is used when the detector can be placed
below a few feet of water, as in marine or marsh work or as a well
seismometer. The sensing element is usually a piezoelectric ceramic material
such as barium titanate, lead zirconate, or lead metaniobate. Piezoelectric
hydrophones are highimpedance devices and signals may be passed through
preamplifiers or impedancematching transformers before transmission
through the streamer to the recording instruments.
Tube wave A surface wave in a borehole generated at the boundaries of the borehole and
the water. Its velocity is determined by the Pwave velocity of the water and
the Swave velocity of the formation. It is closer to the Swave velocity in soft
ground and approaches the Pwave velocity of water in hard rock.
Offset The distance from the sourcepoint to the center of a borehole.
S/N Ratio The energy (or sometimes amplitude) of the signal divided by all remaining
energy (noise) at the time. Sometimes the denominator is the total energy, that
is, S/(S+N). The signaltonoise ratio is difficult to determine in practice
because of the difficulty in separating out the signal (the desired portion).
Sometimes S2 is measured by crosscorrelation and (S+N)2 by
autocorrelation.
Frequency An operator to discriminate a particular frequency in a data record. Highcut
Filter filter (= lowpass filter): A filter that transmits frequencies below a given
cutoff frequency and substantially attenuates frequencies above the cutoff.
Lowpass filter (= highpass filter): A filter that transmits frequencies above
a given cutoff frequency and substantially attenuates lower frequencies Band
pass filters are often specified by listing their lowcut and highcut
component filters. Filter characteristics are often specified by the frequencies
at which the amplitude is down by 3 dB (70% or half power) and by the slope
of the cutoff. Thus “14/18–56/36” specifies a bandpass filter with a lowcut
down 3 dB at 14Hz with an 18 dB/octave slope and a highcut down 3 dB at
56Hz with a 36 dB/octave slope. Notch filters sharply reject a very narrow
band of frequencies.
Deconvolution An operator designed to restore a waveshape to the form it had before it
Filter underwent a linear filtering action (convolution); inverse filtering. The
objective of deconvolution is to nullify objectionable effects of an earlier filter
action and thus improve the recognizability and resolution of reflected events.
TimeShift A process peculiar to VSP processing to line up reflectors of the seismic
records sorted by depth by adding twice the first break time.
Corridor A summation of some of the traces in an upgoing vertical seismic profile
Stack (VSP) that has been processed to retain only primary reflection events and
that has been time shifted to their twoway arrival times at the surface.
Summation is over a data window (a corridor) beginning at the firstbreak
time and usually ending 200–300 ms later. This eliminates most multiples.
This is also called an outside corridor and is referred to when no modifying
adjective is used. The portion of the VSP remaining after the outside corridor
has been removed is sometimes stacked to yield an inside corridor stack that
emphasizes multiples.
CDP A process to transform seismic reflection records to a waveform that would be
Transform observed at the commonmidpoint (CMP) by sorting, applying an appropriate
timeshift and stacking.
Synthetic An artificial seismic reflection record manufactured by assuming that a
Seismogram particular waveform travels through an assumed model. See Figures S30 and
D18a. (a) A 1D synthetic seismogram is formed by simply convolving an
embedded waveform with a reflectivity function (also called a stickogram
because it is usually plotted as a series of spikes indicating the sign and
magnitude of the reflectivity at successive interfaces, the variable usually
being twoway traveltime). The embedded waveform is sometimes an
assumed waveform (such as a Ricker wavelet) and sometimes a waveform
resulting from the analysis of actual seismic data (the embedded wavelet, also
called the equivalent wavelet). The reflectivity function sometimes involves
primary reflections only, sometimes selected multiples are added and
sometimes all multiples are added. Sometimes earthfiltering effects
(divergence and other attenuation effects, including frequencydependent
absorption) are also simulated. The reflectivity is usually that calculated for
normal incidence from velocity and density data but often only velocity
changes are considered because density changes are unknown (or else some
relationship between density and velocity is assumed). (b) While a 1D
synthetic seismogram is a singlechannel convolution (in effect involving
vertical travel in the assumed model only and horizontally continuous
layering), often the model is varied and successive 1D traces are displayed
side by side to simulate a seismic section. It is used to compare with an actual
seismogram to aid in identifying events or to predict how variations in the
model might appear on a seismic section.
17 Velocity Logs
1. Introduction
1) Velocity logs are the geophysical logging technique in a single borehole that estimates
the velocity of elastic waves.
Supplementary Notes
1) The velocity log measures the vertical velocity of elastic waves along a borehole.
2) The velocity of an elastic wave is calculated from the traveltime of the firstbreak.
3) The Pwave is generally used for rocks while both P and Swaves are used for soil
investigation.
4) The standard of the Japanese Geotechnical Society specifies “the method of elastic wave
velocity logging” (JGS 11222003).
5) There are three logging methods depending on the geometry of the seismic source and
receiver (Table 17.1): the downhole method (Chapter 17.1); the suspension method
(Chapter 17.2); the uphole method and the sonic log.
6) The methods using multiple holes such as the elastic tomography method (Chapter 15.1) or
crosshole method are not included in this chapter.
7) Some VSP methods (Chapter 15.1) use the same geometry as the downhole method and
they can share the data.
8) The PS logging estimates both P and Swave velocities, while the Pwave logging
estimates just the Pwave velocity.
Description
Body waves in an elastic medium include P and Swaves. Their velocities are specific to the
material and are called the Pwave velocity and Swave velocity, respectively.
The Pwave velocity is important as an indicator to assess the geotechnical property of rocks
and Pwave logging is routinely used in the investigation of tunneling and cutting. It is used to
enhance the accuracy of seismic refraction analysis and also for detailing parts with some
issues.
The Swave velocity information is indispensable in earthquakeproofing of buildings and in
modeling ground properties for predicting ground movement of an earthquake. The Swave
logging has, hence, gained popularity in recent years. It is often combined with Pwave logging
in the investigation of earthquakeproof design and ground property constants, particularly for
the base of bridges and highrise buildings.
2) The main methods used are the downhole and suspension methods.
3) The method is selected considering: For the downhole method:
ability of direct measurement from the ground surface to the bottom hole; and
ability of classifying the layers by velocity. For the suspension method:
the surface source is not needed; and
the velocity over a 1 m interval is accurately measured.
Notes
1) The downhole method is applicable to all boreholes where a seismic source can be set up.
2) The suspension method can be used in an uncased hole with water.
Table 17.1: Variety of velocity logs.
Supplementary Notes
1) With the downhole method, a larger energy source is needed for a greater depth. As a
guide, the limit of the hammer blow source is about 50 meters.
2) The suspension method requires a borehole 2.5–3 meters deeper than the measurement
range required. The suspension method is generally difficult in an unsaturated layer and a
corruptible layer where casing is needed.
Description
The downhole and suspension methods are more often used. The downhole method is used
where a seismic source can be installed near the borehole and the suspension method is used
where it cannot be installed. The places hard to install a seismic source are a steep slope, near a
building and offshore and it is particularly difficult for Swave sources. The suspension method
allows to correlate with Nvalues and the rock quality designator (RQD), as it can precisely
measure the velocity at 1 meter intervals. The downhole method is used where the formation
velocity is needed for earthquakeproof design and site correction of seismic observation, as it
can directly measure the seismic velocity of the bulk of the formations.
1) The downhole method
The seismic signal of the P or Swave is sourced near the ground surface and the receiver in
the borehole detects it. The signal is amplified and recorded. A typical Pwave source is a
hammer blow and the Swave source is a hitting block. The hitting block is made of timber
placed on the ground and it is struck horizontally to generate an Swave. The receiver is a 3
component downhole phone pressed to the borehole wall. Measurements are repeated with
changing depth. These are used at onshore boreholes where the source is easily installed. In
rare cases, it is used offshore by a diver striking a hitting plate at the water bottom (Photo 1.1).
Generally the signal by human force is too weak to probe more than 50 m deep in the P
wave survey, 100 m of soft ground and 50 m in hard rock in the Swave survey. Then
explosives and a weight dropping system (Photo 1.2) are used for a Pwave survey and a
pendulum weight or mechanical source is used for an Swave survey. A 3component
geophone is usually used for recording. For a Pwave survey, multiple 1component geophones
or hydrophones may be used.
2) The suspension method
The suspension method uses a tool with a source and two sets of receivers. The distance
between the source and the receivers is constant, usually 1 meter. The tool is not pressed to the
borehole wall, hence this is called the “suspension” method. The distance between the receiver
is the measurement interval. The tool is shifted by this interval each time to ensure continuous
data. As this method uses highfrequency waves, a more precise interval velocity for the 1
meter interval is attained by the suspension method than the downhole method.
Photo 1.1: Hit block for offshore use.
Photo 1.2: Weight dropping system Pwave source
Photo 1.3: Pendulum system Swave source.
Photo 1.4: Mechanical Swave source.
Photo 1.5: Multiple downhole geophones.
Photo 1.6: Multiple downhole hydrophone.
17.1 Downhole Method (Downhole PS Logging)
1. Introduction
1) The downhole method is a velocity logging method that uses a seismic source on the
ground surface and a receiver in the borehole.
Notes
1) The velocity log measures the vertical velocity of elastic waves along a borehole.
2) The standard of the Japanese Geotechnical Society (JGS 11222003) calls this the
“downhole system”.
Supplementary Notes
1) The elastic wave velocity obtained by this method can be directly compared with the results
of an elastic wave survey (Chapter 2) and elastic wave tomography (Chapter 15.1).
2) When the firstbreak arrival time is plotted against the depth, the gradient of the straight
part of the graph represents the elastic wave velocity of the layer.
1.1 Principle
2) This method measures the velocity of the elastic wave that travels vertically along the
borehole.
Notes
1) The signal generated on the ground surface travels through the ground and is received by a
receiver installed in a borehole.
Description
material and called the Pwave and Swave velocities, respectively. The seismic waves
recorded at various depths are arranged in order of depth and the firstbreak is read out. When
the firstbreak arrival time is plotted against the depth, the gradient of the straight part of the
graph represents the elastic wave velocity of the layer (Figure 1.1). In practice, the ground has
several layers and a few lines are fitted to the points plotted, which are then analyzed as a
multilayer structure.
Notes
1) The seismic source is set up on the ground.
2) The receiver is installed inside a borehole.
Figure 1.1: Principle of velocity logging (downhole method).
Supplementary Notes
1) The velocity logging procedure is:
inspect the borehole, estimate the borehole wall condition and the geological
environment;
set up a seismic source near the borehole;
install a reference geophone near the borehole;
operate the clamping mechanism of the downhole tool on the ground to ensure
correct movement;
connect the recorder, trigger signal, reference geophone and downhole receiver;
test the trigger;
insert the downhole tool near the bottom of the hole and clamp it for testing;
operate the seismic source and check the trigger signal and recorded waveform.
Confirm the desired wave (P or S) is recorded;
read out the firstbreak and check for consistency with the estimated arrival time for
the geological environment;
move the downhole tool to the specified depth and clamp;
operate the seismic source;
check the trigger signal and waveform. Decide whether stacking is necessary. If the
S/N ratio is too low, try repeating procedures 11 and 12;
when an adequate S/N ratio is attained, save the record;
release the downhole tool, move to the next specified depth and clamp;
repeat 11–14; and
when recording at all the specified depths is completed, pull the downhole tool out
of the borehole and store all the equipment.
Description
The downhole method is basically a series of singledepth surveys repeated in the borehole,
moving and clamping the tool at the specified depths. For a Pwave only survey, multiple
receivers may be used. This tool is used suspended in the borehole filled with water without
clamping. First, a test is carried out with the tool near the bottom of the hole and parameters
such as record length, sampling interval and filters are adjusted. Confirming the correct waves
are produced by the seismic source, the record should be compared with the waveform. Then
the average velocity can be calculated.
2. Applicability
1) The downhole method is applied for investigation of tunnels, cuttings, bridges, dams
and others.
2) The Swave survey is used when earthquakeproofing is of interest.
Notes
1) The elastic wave velocity is used as an index of the geotechnical property of the ground.
2) It is used to enhance the accuracy of the analysis of the refraction seismic method.
3) The elastic wave velocity is used in judging the ground strength and geotechnical parameter
in the boring investigation for bases of bridges and highrise buildings.
Supplementary Notes
1) The downhole velocity survey is generally used in the investigation of tunnels, cuttings,
bridges and dams concurrently with a seismic refraction survey or for detailing after a
seismic survey.
2) It is often used for detailed information of a geological structure, weathering, fractures and
kinetic properties at sites where difficulty of construction is expected.
3) For investigation of earthquakeproof design, the Swave velocity is used to classify the
ground. The Swave velocity is also important as a parameter of an earth model in
earthquake proofing.
Description
The downhole velocity survey is generally used for investigation of tunnels, cuttings, bridges
and dams concurrently with a seismic refraction survey or for detailing after a seismic survey.
It is often used for detailed information of a geological structure, weathering, fractures and
kinetic properties at sites where difficulty in construction is expected. The precision of the
velocity estimation by a downhole survey is better than the refraction survey as it directly
measures the seismic traveltime. The Pwave survey is used for rock properties. However the
Pwave velocity is influenced by the presence of underground water and evaluation of the rock
property may be adversely affected. On the other hand, the influence of groundwater to the S
wave velocity is small and it can provide information on dynamic elastic parameters. So
addition of an Swave measurement contributes to practical evaluation of the kinetic properties
of the ground. A sonic log is desired for the investigation of a smallscale velocity structure
such as evaluation of fractures and the detection of thin layers. It provides a continuous
velocity profile.
The downhole survey is particularly desired to accompany the refraction survey in the
following situations where the refraction survey has limitations:
where detailed information on a shear zone is identified by surface geological mapping
and a refraction survey, including its scale, magnitude of fractures, degree of
diagenesis, kinetic properties and orientation;
where detailed information on accurate thickness and other properties is required for
opening of tunnels, batting surface, cutting slope, dam and landslide sites this is
particularly effective in the environment of mild transition of weathering and sharp
local variation of geology, where the refraction survey cannot adequately address these
issues);
where surface geological mapping identified andesitic lava, an intrusion, fracture zone
and diagenetic zone and a lowvelocity layer is expected under a highvelocity layer;
and
where seismic anisotropy, such as crystalline schist, interbedded sandstone and shale, is
expected.
In the investigation of earthquakeproofing, the Swave velocity is used to classify the ground
and bedrocks and it is also important as a geotechnical parameter for ground modeling. The S
wave velocity is a necessary input parameter for the estimation of the shear stress of the ground
and the amplitude and natural frequency of a ground vibration by analyzing an earthquake
response. As well as a designing stage, velocity logging is considered invaluable in the stage of
maintenance and management, in which an investigation for the prediction of and preparation
for damage by earthquakes and reinforcement is required.
For construction, Pwave velocity logging may be used in a horizontal drill hole ahead of the
cutting front of a tunnel to evaluate the formations to come. The Pwave velocity distribution
along the tunneling axis forms an effective piece of information for the tunneling plan.
In maintenance and management, velocity logging is used to evaluate the weathering of the
cutting slope and strength of the fill. Especially, the strength of the ground is judged by
velocity logging where visual inspection finds some issues.
Another application of velocity logging is the estimation of the depth of the piles of an
existing structure. Such surveys are conducted for the shield construction method near existing
buildings and the evaluation of earthquakeproofing. These investigation holes are drilled
adjacent to the existing building and the velocity logging estimates the existence of a structure.
If the piling is made of steel, magnetic logging is often combined.
3.1 Planning an Investigation Considering the Specification of the
Borehole
1) The boreholes should be specified to suit for velocity logging in diameter depth and
casing.
2) Each probe has limits of an applicable hole diameter. A tool appropriate to the size of
the hole should be used.
3) Use of an uncased hole is considered normal.
4) Usually a logging tool has excess length under the sensor. Therefore it cannot log to
the bottom of the hole. The logging depth is about 0.5 m shorter than the total depth of
the borehole.
5) Borehole water does not affect the downhole measurement of velocity.
Note
1) It is possible to measure velocity in a cased hole if the collapsing hole makes casing
absolutely necessary.
Supplementary Notes
1) For measurements in the casing pipe, firm contacts between the casing pipe and the ground
formation are essential.
2) If the signal coming through the casing pipe arrives before the signal through the ground,
move the seismic source away from the opening of the borehole.
3) A PVC pipe inserted after drilling for protection does not ensure a firm contact with the
borehole wall and the velocity of that section cannot be measured.
Description
Common downhole tools are made to use in usual geotechnical boreholes with a diameter 66 to
100 mm. It the diameter of a borehole is vastly different from this, special care must be taken in
the selection of the tool to use.
The problems of casing pipe are that it has faster seismic velocity than the ground and the
ground may not firmly attach to the pipe. In the downhole method, measurements in the casing
pipe are possible by moving the seismic source away from the opening of the hole as long as
the casing has a firm contact with the ground.
As a logging tool has excess length under the sensor, the bottom of the hole cannot be
logged: the logging depth is about 0.5 m shorter than the total depth of the borehole.
Measurements with a downhole multiple hydrophone system are impossible if there is no
water in the hole. Where the groundwater level is low, the attenuation of the Pwave is
significant and larger source energy is required.
Velocity logging is generally applied to vertical holes. In special circumstances, it is
conducted in slanted and horizontal holes. In such an application, the logging tool must be
somehow pushed in to the hole as it may not fall to the depth by its own weight. An insertion
rod is one of the tools for this purpose. Some geophone elements are sensitive only in one
orientation. An omnidirectional geophone is necessary for slanted and horizontal holes;
particularly for a 3component survey.
Measurements in the protective pipe
The Pwave velocity in a steel casing pipe is about 5 km/s. It is easy to imagine that the wave
traveling along the pipe dominates the signal to mask the desired signal through the ground.
However, this is hardly a problem in most cases. When you hit a pipe on the ground with a
hammer, a resounding tone is heard. But you cannot hear this when you hit a pipe in a
borehole. This is because the contact with the earth restricts the vibration of the steel pipe and
attenuates the sound wave considerably. Steel casing pipes are often used in boreholes with
loose ground and the ground material is firmly in contact with the pipe. PVC pipes are inserted
after completing the drilling and contact with the ground material tends to be loose. They are
thicker than steel pipes and the wave traveling along the pipes does not attenuate as much with
dominant lowfrequency components. It is common to mistake the distortion wave along a
PVC pipe for the Swave of soft ground.
Whatever the case, a firm contact between the ground and the casing pipe is key to successful
measurement of velocity logging.
6) Plan the measurement interval considering the purpose of the survey, depths of the
measurements and precision required for the geological setting.
7) The measurement interval is generally 2 m ± 10 cm for rocks and 1 m ± 20 cm for
soil.
Description
The measurement interval is determined to suit the purpose of the survey. A detailed velocity
division requires a short measurement interval. The precision of the velocity depends on the
seismic velocity, frequency contents at the source and the thicknesses of the velocity layers
rather than the measurement interval. Therefore a simple shortening of the measurement
interval may not improve the accuracy of the interpretation.
The measurement interval of the downhole method is generally 2 m ± 10 cm for rocks and 1
m ± 20 cm for soil. Severe variation in the geological condition may be present at the shallow
part of the rock formations, which causes a considerable variation of velocity. A shorter (1 m)
interval is recommended even for a rock formation with shallow boreholes less than 20 m.
For a deeper hole an interval of 2 m is generally used. If the requirements include the
detection of a thin interbedding or shear zone, its precision requires a 1 m interval. In tunnel
surveys and investigation of loose zones, where high resolution is required, a measurement
interval of 0.5 m is required with a highfrequency seismic source.
3.3 Instrumentation
8) Instruments of downhole logging include a receiver, recorder, source, cable and a
trigger signal detector.
Description
Figure 3.1 shows a schematic diagram of the instrumentation of the downhole method.
(1) Receiver
A 3component downhole geophone consists in three elements to detect seismic signals of
vertical and two horizontal motions orthogonal to each other. It is housed in a logging tool case
and pressed to the borehole wall by a clamp for measurement. The clamping mechanism is
provided by an air or water tube (Plate 3.1), motorized arm (Plate 3.2) or bowshaped spring.
The clamping force needs to be much greater than the weight of the tool as poor clamping
results in poor sensitivity to the horizontal movement (mainly the Swave). The phenomenon is
called “rocking” and it is prevented by adding four or six knobs to ensure a tight contact with
the borehole wall. The relative size of the tool to the diameter of the borehole needs
consideration. When the tool is too thin, adding a backing plate on the side with the sensors
may improve the contact to the wall (see Plate 3.3). The backing board material is chosen so as
not to cause a time delay. It is important that the board material is smooth to avoid sticking.
The sensor element used in the receiver generally has a natural frequency around 10–28Hz.
Special care should be taken for the sensitivity property on the offset angle, particularly in use
in slanted holes. A singlecomponent multiple receiver string is used for the Pwave only
survey. The cable is manually drawn into the hole up to 200 m deep, guided by the depth marks
on the cable. For the boreholes deeper than 200 m, a logging cable with a pulse encoder
attached to the guide ring for calibrating to the correct depth is desired.
Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of velocity logging by the downhole method.
Plate 3.1: Clamping mechanism with a rubber tube.
Plate 3.2: Clamping mechanism with a motorized arm.
Plate 3.3: Backing board.
Plate 3.4: Digital seismic recorder.
Plate 3.5: Strike block.
(2) Data recorder
A digital recorder with functions of filtering, amplifying and stacking is suitable (Plate 3.4).
The suggested sampling intervals are less than 0.5 ms for soft soil and less than 0.1 ms for
rocks as a guide. The desired dynamic range of digital instruments is more than 18bit.
However instruments with lower bits may be used by adjusting the amplifier gain and source
energy level. The quality control of the data is on the monitor screen or print. The recorder
should have display/print functionality.
(3) Seismic source
The Pwave seismic source used for boreholes shallower than 50 m is generally a sledge
hammer stricken at the ground surface. A deeper hole needs a weight dropping or explosives.
As an Swave source, a strike block is used (Plate 3.5). This method deploys a wooden block
150–200 cm long about 40 cm wide placed on the ground pressed down with a weight and
stricken from its sides alternately. When greater energy for a greater depth is required, weight
dropping, mechanical source or explosives are used for the Pwave, while a hydraulic or
mechanical side striking device is used as an Swave source. The signal from these sources
may reach a few hundred meters to 2000 meters.
Plate 3.6: Mechanical Swave source.
4. Field Operation
4.1 Preparation
1) The seismic source is installed first.
2) The Pwave is sourced by a hammer strike or weight dropping.
3) The Swave source is a strike block.
Notes
1) The source is placed at 2–5 m away from the borehole opening.
2) If a casing pipe is inserted deep into the borehole, the seismic source is placed 5–10 m
away from the hole to avoid an adverse effect of the casing.
3) Ensure good contact between the strike lock of the Swave source and the ground.
Supplementary Notes
1) The Pwave is produced by striking a steel plate on a saturated firm ground.
2) If there is thick surface soil, particularly in a forest, drive wooden pegs into the soil and
strike on it.
3) The size of the strike block for Swave velocity generation is generally about 0.4 × 1.5 ×
0.15 m, made of natural wood.
4) The strike block is hit horizontally orthogonal to the direction to the borehole.
5) The strike block is firmly placed on the ground: the top soil is stripped, a weight is loaded
on top and spikes are driven into the ground if necessary.
6) Front wheels of a car are suitable as a weight on the strike block. If the site is not accessible
by a car, some carriage, drums or water tanks can be used instead. Two or three men may
stand on the block.
Description
When a wooden peg about 1.5 m long is driven into the soft soil of a forest, a peg with a sharp
point may penetrate unnecessary deep too quickly. A way to avoid this is to pull out the peg
with the sharp point when it is driven about 30 cm, then cut the sharp point off and reinsert and
drive the blunt peg into the ground. The location of the tip of the peg is regarded as the source
location.
The strike block Swave source causes a shear strain to the ground by hitting a rigid body
firmly attached to the ground; ideally its mass is zero. In practice the strike block is made of
wood and the spikes and weight help firm attachment. The top soil has to be removed to ensure
that the block is directly in contact with the ground. A drum tin halffull of water is often used
as a weight. If an old tire is inserted between the block and the weight to make indirect contact,
generation of Pwaves by striking is attenuated, which increases the relative contents of the S
wave generated. If the poor contact with the ground prevents sufficient Swave generation, the
weight may be increased by adding more water or driving spikes through the block into the
ground. Domination of the Pwave is caused when the force from the hammer blow works in
the direction of the weight rather than friction to the ground. This can be avoided by reducing
the weight and spikes.
If the borehole is located on a slope, it is advantageous for the transmission path and energy
of the seismic wave to set the source point lower than the opening of the hole. If no space for
an Swave source is available, a scaffolding pipe about 1.5 m can be substituted by driving it
into the ground and striking it to cause a strain.
In deciding the source point, the condition of the casing pipe should be taken into
consideration. Dominance of the guided wave along the casing pipe may be avoided by setting
the seismic source away from the opening of the hole.
A receiver is placed near the seismic source in addition to the trigger signal received. The
data from this receiver are used as the starting time to check the trigger delay. With this
information the trigger delay can be corrected.
4.2 Measurement
4) Stacking and filtering may be applied as required to improve the S/N ratio.
5) When the record is good, move the receiver to the next depth for subsequent
measurement.
6) The waveform is recorded in digital form.
7) The field condition is recorded in a field note.
Notes
1) A standard work flow is: installing the receiver at the specified depth; transmitting signal;
then observation of the wave and recording.
2) The measurement starts from the bottom of the borehole and works upward.
3) P and Swave recordings are carried out separately and repeated at each depth.
4) Amplitudes of P and Swaves, traveltime and noise are examined at every recording.
5) The offset distance and level difference from the opening of the borehole must be recorded.
These data will be used in data correction in the downhole method.
Supplementary Notes
1) The firstbreak time is later for a deeper time. Therefore a longer record length is required
for a deeper depth. It has to be adjusted around 0.5 second as a guide.
2) The sampling interval should be less than 0.5 ms for soil and less than 0.1 ms for rocks.
This also has to be adjusted to suit the ground.
3) A clear firstbreak is desired for Pwave records.
4) Phase reversal for right and left strikes should be confirmed in Swave records.
5) When the S/N ratio is below 20, repeat recording with adjusting the stacking, filtering and
source energy to reduce noise.
6) Field notes should include the geometrical relationship of the borehole and seismic source,
source type, striking direction, sampling interval, data length, gain, filter setting, water level
in the borehole, casing pipe and its depth and other borehole conditions.
7) Available information on the seismic source energy should be included in the note.
Description
At the start of velocity logging, the receiver is placed and fixed near the bottom of the borehole,
yet not buried in the cutting material of the borehole and recording parameters are adjusted
including data length, sampling interval and filter if required. Check whether the intended wave
is produced at the source and if necessary try to improve the source by removing top soil or
driving pegs for the Pwave survey and adjusting weight and spikes of the strike block of the S
wave source. For the Swave survey, phase reversal for right and left strikes must be checked to
confirm the Pwave is not affecting the record. When measuring in the casing pipe, ensure the
firstbreak signal is indeed coming from the ground.
To prevent dropping the logging tool in the hole when the clamp is released, the cable for the
tool should be lightly tied to a fixture on the ground such as a drill.
If the bore diameter is much greater than the tool, a backing board may be installed on the
tool. Light metal, such as aluminum and duralumin, is suitable. If the local decay of the
borehole increases in diameter in parts making measurement impossible, the measurement
should be taken in the vicinity where it is possible.
In deciding the record length, start experiments with a long record length as the Swave may
arrive unexpectedly late particularly in a soft soil environment.
A sandpebble layer may scatter both P and Swaves disturbing the firstbreak of the S
wave. By modifying the seismic source to reduce the Pwave component, the scatter may be
diminished. Recognition of the firstbreak of the Swave is facilitated by comparing several
records at different depths.
When measuring in the deep casing pipe, it is best to set the source away from the opening of
the borehole so that direct striking on the pipe is avoided; the energy by a direct strike on the
pipe does not attenuate quickly. There are two paths of prominent guided waves that travel
along the pipe: strikesurface wave – opening of casing – guided wave; and strikesound wave
exposed pipeguided wave. These can be sitetested and prevented by:
moving the seismic source away from the borehole;
reducing the striking noise; and
insulating the pipe by wrapping in cloth.
The measurement generally starts from the bottom upwards but downwards from the top of the
hole may be considered when the collapsing hole prevents the tool dropping to the bottom
quickly. If the tool is stuck in the hole, pulling with brute force may not always work; inserting
a thin pipe and pushing may release the jam.
Floatingtype receiver
Where the borehole diameter becomes excessively large by collapsing the wall, the tool may be
wrapped with some packing material to make the total density close to the borehole water.
Then the tool will move with the water and the vibration of the ground can be directly
measured by a velocitytype geophone.
5.1 Processing Waveform Data
1) A filtering process may be applied to a recorded waveform as necessary.
2) Display the recorded waveform for P and Swaves separately, sorted by depth.
3) Edit the vertical component for Pwave analysis.
4) For the Swave, combine the two horizontal components for each of the right and left
strikes.
Notes
1) The Pwave is recorded by the vertical component, while the Swave by the two horizontal
components of waveform records.
2) When the waveform record is noisy, filtering processing may be applied. This includes low
cut, highcut and notch filters.
3) The Swave record is composed of the two horizontal components and the waveform in the
direction of its maximum amplitude.
Supplementary Notes
1) When the receiver is not accompanied by an orientation sensor, the data in the direction of
the maximum amplitude are used as an Swave record.
2) The composed Swave waveforms from right and left record strikes have polarities opposite
to each other. They are often displayed side by side.
3) These can be added together by flipping the polarity of one of them. Then the Pwave
component cancels out and the Swave is enhanced.
Description
The filtering process can be applied at the time of data acquisition and in the analysis later. In
the field the wave component distinctively different from the source signal is filtered and the
noise in the same frequency as the signal is treated at the time of data analysis. In some cases,
filtering may obscure the firstbreak signal and then the filter is not used even on a noisy
record.
Even with an orientation sensor attached to the tool, the direction of the vibration of the S
wave is hard to determine. Rather than relying on the orientation sensors, the direction of
maximum amplitude can be found from a trace of ground movement simply drawn from the
two horizontal components. The Swave record may be synthesized in this direction. If the
ground is soft, one of the horizontal components with greater amplitude may be used without
synthesizing from two components.
5.2 Drawing the Traveltime Curve
5) Pick the firstbreak time from the P and Swave records at each depth.
6) Draw a traveltime curve with the depth on the vertical axis and the time on the
horizontal axis.
Note
1) The traveltime curve is drawn after applying the correction for the offset between the
borehole and the seismic source to the time read from the record.
Supplementary Note
1) The location of the source point on the traveltime curve is expressed at the zerocrossing of
the time.
Description
The traveltime of the Pwave is determined by the firstbreak time. It is the same for the S
wave but it has right and leftblows and the traveltime is determined by the phase reversal.
When the firstbreak is hard to recognize, a second peak or trough may be picked and adjusted
by subtracting the period.
The passage of the seismic wave (raypath) is not necessarily a straight line. However the
offset correction assumes it is approximately straight. When the offset is a few meters the
raypath is close to straight and the assumption of a straight raypath does not cause a practical
problem. In some cases where the offset is very large or the geological dip is significant, the
offset correction may be calculated accounting for the raypath.
In the analysis, the traveltime curve is drawn plotting the corrected firstbreak time on the
horizontal axis against the depth on the vertical axis. The offsetcorrected firstbreak value
T(ms) from the opening (O) from the receiver (R) is calculated by:
Figure 5.1: Relationship between source and receiver.
(1)
where t (ms) is the measured firstbreak time, l (m) is the offset and d (m) is the depth.
7) Velocities are calculated as gradients of straight line segments fitted to the traveltime
curve.
Notes
1) The depths of the intercepts of the straight line segments correspond to the velocity
boundaries.
2) The velocity is calculated from the gradients of the line segments.
3) The velocity layers and their velocities are determined by the traveltimes to at least three
points.
Supplementary Note
1) Thin layers may not allow to use three depth points to calculate velocities. If geological
information assures existence of such layers, velocities may be calculated from two data
points. In such a case, a note should indicate that the velocities are only estimates.
Description
The elastic velocities are estimated by the gradients of the segments. When the layers are
estimated, make sure that more than three data points are present within each layer. The
velocity V (m/s) is calculated by:
(2)
where ΔX is the thickness of the layer (m) and ΔT is the difference of the traveltimes to the
layer boundaries.
8) Poisson’s ratio (σ), shear modulus (G) and Young’s modulus (E) are calculated from
P and Swave velocities.
9) The result is incorporated into the composite column of boreholes with other
geotechnical parameters.
Note
1) Calculation of Poisson’s ratio (σ), shear modulus (G) and Young’s modulus (E) needs
density value (ρ).
Description
Poisson’s ratio (σ), shear modulus (G) and Young’s modulus (E) are calculated from P and S
wave velocities by:
(3)
(4)
(5)
The density is best obtained from density logging. If a density log is not available, the
weightper volume value from geotechnical testing is generally used.
These parameters are posted in a composite borehole column together with lithology and N
values.
1) The deliverable must include at least:
the composite logging column; and
table of the measured values.
2) The report must describe the following items:
logging method and instrumentation;
method of data processing;
result of log; and
interpretation and discussion.
Notes
1) The entire procedure taken from planning to interpretation of the velocity log should be
explained in the deliverables and reports.
2) The original records and field notes should be attached as an appendix.
Description
1) The description of each item should include:
Outline of the survey:
Location, purpose, duration, details of logging and numerical data.
Logging method and instrumentation:
A simple description of the principle and method using figures and tables;
specification of the instruments and logging condition.
Method of data processing:
Stepbystep description of the flow of data processing. If an unusual correction is
applied, the reason and method should be explained.
Result of log:
Waveform records, traveltime curve (Figure 7.1) and composite borehole column
(Figure 7.2).
Interpretation and discussion:
The result describes the distribution of elastic wave velocity and its characteristics
with consideration on other physical parameters and geological environment.
Where other logs are carried out, the result should be integrated into the
interpretation and description. If a refraction seismic survey or other investigation
was performed in the past, incorporate them and interpret the velocity
characteristics of the site. Other logging data should be used as well.
Figure 7.3 shows an example of the measurement method and its result.
Figure 7.1: Waveform record and traveltime curves.
In recent years, construction in the close vicinity of an existing building is unavoidable in
densely populated cities. A demand for surveying the depth of the root of an existing piling is
increasing. This survey utilizes the difference of the Pwave velocity between the piling and the
ground. This is possible because the concrete, “H” steel and seat piles have a higher Pwave
velocity than the ground. However, piles made of pine wood makes analysis difficult as its P
wave velocity is similar to the ground. Figure 7.3 shows an example of the measurement
method and its result.
Figure 7.2: An example of a composite borehole log.
Figure 7.3: An example of a survey for the root of piling by the downhole logging method.
17.2 The Suspension Method
1. Introduction
1) The suspension method is a logging method that measures seismic velocity in the
ground with a tool inserted into a borehole. Both the seismic source and receivers are
installed in the tool.
Notes
1) The velocity log by the suspension method measures the velocity of elastic waves
transmitted from a source from its traveltimes to two receivers.
2) The ‘logging method of elastic wave velocity in the ground’ of Rock Mechanics Society
(JIS11222003) calls this the ‘downhole sourcereceiver system’.
Supplementary Notes
1) This method measures the elastic wave velocity of the borehole wall over the 1 m interval
embedded in the tool.
1.1 Principle
2) This measures the elastic wave velocity along the axis of a borehole.
Notes
The vibration signal generated in the borehole is received by two sets of receivers in the same
borehole.
Description
material and are called the P and Swave velocities, respectively. The source generates P and
Swaves separately for measurement. The velocity is calculated from the firstbreak of the
records collected by the two receivers installed at constant distances from the source. As the
distance is fixed to a known constant (usually 1 meter), the traveltime gives the velocity by
(distance)/(time) (see Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: Principle of velocity logging – the suspension method.
1.2 Field Operation
3) The transmission and reception of a signal take place in the borehole by a single tool.
Notes
1) A single downhole source transmits and receives the signal.
2) The tool is stationary during the measurements.
Supplementary Notes
1) The procedure of velocity logging is:
(1) evaluate the geology and condition of the borehole wall from the borehole core;
(2) set the lower receiver at the reference depth;
(3) connect the tool and the recorder;
(4) operate the tool and the recorder on the ground to ensure their functions;
(5) insert the tool into the borehole to a depth where the conditions are stable for testing;
(6) operate the tool and check the records to ensure the target waveform, P or Swave, is
recorded;
(7) read out the traveltime of the firstbreak and check if the velocity calculated is within
the expected range for the site;
(8) drop the tool to the deepest measurement depth of the borehole;
(9) start recording;
(10) judge for the necessity of stacking and repeat recording to ensure a sufficient S/N ratio;
(11) when a sufficient S/N ratio is reached, the record is saved;
(12) move up to the next measurement depth;
(13) repeat (8)–(12) above;
(14) when recording at all the depths is completed, pull out the tool and pack up all the
equipment.
Description
During the recording, the tool is kept stationary. Repeat measurements are carried out at every
1 meter interval. Both P and Swaves are usually measured. The recording parameters, such as
sampling interval, record length and filtering, are adjusted at the deepest measurement depth.
Ensure the record contains the target waveform and the velocity calculated is reasonable.
2. Area of Application
1) The Swave velocity is surveyed for earthquake proofing.
2) Other applications include tunneling, banks, bridges and dams.
Notes
1) The elastic velocities are used as geomechanical parameters for earthquake engineering in
bridge foundations and highrise buildings.
2) The elastic velocities are used as parameters of the ground for geomechanical evaluation.
3) It may be used for improving the accuracy of the result of a refraction seismic survey.
Supplementary Notes
1) It is often used for detailed information of a geological structure, weathering, fractures and
kinetic properties at sites where difficulty of construction is expected.
2) For investigation of an earthquakeproof design, the Swave velocity is used to classify the
ground. The Swave velocity is also important as a parameter of an earth model in
earthquake proofing.
3) A downhole velocity survey is generally used for the investigation of tunnels, cuttings,
bridges and dams concurrently with a seismic refraction survey or for detailing after a
seismic survey.
Description
The suspension velocity survey is generally used for the investigation of tunnels, cuttings,
bridges and dams concurrently with a seismic refraction survey or for detailing after a seismic
survey. It is often used for detailed information of a geological structure, weathering, fractures
and kinetic properties at sites where difficulty in construction is expected. The precision of the
velocity estimation by the suspension survey is better than the refraction survey as it directly
measures the seismic traveltime. The Pwave survey is used for rock properties. However, the
Pwave velocity is influenced by the presence of underground water and evaluation of the rock
property may be adversely affected. On the other hand the influence of groundwater on the S
wave velocity is small and it can provide information on dynamic elastic parameters. So the
addition of the Swave measurement contributes to a practical evaluation of the kinetic
properties of the ground. A sonic log is desired for the investigation of a smallscale velocity
structure such as the evaluation of fractures and the detection of thin layers. It provides a
continuous velocity profile.
The suspension survey is particularly desired to accompany the refraction survey in the
following situations where the refraction survey has limitations:
Where detailed information is required on a shear zone identified by surface
geological mapping and a refraction survey, including its scale, magnitude of
fractures, degree of diagenesis, kinetic properties and orientation.
Where detailed information on accurate thickness and other properties are required
in the opening of tunnels, batting surface, cutting slope, dam and landslide sites.
(This is particularly effective in the environment of mild transition of weathering
and sharp local variation of geology that the refraction survey cannot adequately
address).
Where surface geological mapping identified andesitic lava, intrusion, fracture and
diagenetic zones and a lowvelocity layer is expected under a highvelocity layer.
In the investigation of earthquakeproofing, the Swave velocity is used to classify the ground
and bedrocks and it is also important as a geotechnical parameter for ground modeling. The S
wave velocity is a necessary input parameter for the estimation of shear stress of the ground
and the amplitude and natural frequency of ground vibration by analyzing the earthquake
response. As well as the designing stage, velocity logging is considered invaluable in the stage
of maintenance and management, in which an investigation for the prediction of and
preparation for damage by earthquakes and reinforcement is required. The Kobe Earthquake
(1995) emphasized the necessity of these surveys.
3.1 Planning the Investigation Considering the Specification of the
Borehole
1) The boreholes should be specified to suit for velocity logging in its diameter depth and
casing.
2) Each probe has limits of applicable hole diameter. A tool appropriate to the size of the
hole should be used.
3) The suspension method is applied in an uncased hole with water.
4) Usually a logging tool has excess length under the sensor. Therefore it cannot log to
the bottom of the hole. The logging depth is about 0.5 m shorter than the total depth of
the borehole.
Description
The suspension method is applicable in a borehole with a 6–120 mm diameter commonly used
in geotechnical surveys. A larger energy is required for boreholes with a larger diameter.
Generally, this method cannot be used in a casing pipe. However, when the signal source at
the bottom of the tool is out of the casing range, measurement is often possible. You can judge
this from the records. Records in a soft ground through a PVC pipe may show clean
appearance. This may be recording the velocity through the PVC pipe, because the velocity of
the distortion wave through a PVC pipe is close to the Swave velocity of the ground.
In the suspension method, the measurement interval is between two receivers. The source is
usually at the bottom of the tool and the source and circuitry are therefore lower than the
measurement interval. The survey range is shallower than the total depth of the borehole.
Depending on the geological condition and the nature of the source, the distance between the
source and receivers may be extended. The survey range is then even shorter. It is necessary to
drill the borehole deeper than the required survey depth.
The suspension method is not applicable in a PVC pipe. An experiment with a PVC pipe filled
with water will show a clean record and its Pwave velocity is about 1650 m/s and the Swave
velocity is about 210 m/s.
5) The measure ment interval is generally 1 m, embedded in the construction of the tool.
Notes
1) The measurement interval is fixed to 1 m throughout. The survey should not skip even in
the ground made of soil.
Description
To ensure continuity of the data of formation velocities, moving the tool should be planned to
secure an overlap between the upper and lower receivers. No section should be skipped.
3.3 Instrumentation
6) Instruments of the suspension method include the downhole tool with source and
receivers, data recorder, cable, winch and a system to measure the depth.
Description
Figure 3.1 shows a schematic diagram of the instrumentation of the downhole method.
(1) Downhole tool
The downhole tool for the suspension method is made of one signal source and two receivers.
The element of the source is a solenoid hammer or an electric distortion board and the receiver
element is a geophone, hydrophone or electric torsion element. The two receivers are spaced at
1 m. The distance between the source and the nearest receiver is usually made variable within
1–5 m.
(2) Above ground instruments
A data recorder, winch and depth recorder are operated on the ground. These are often
packaged together with the downhole tool. The digital recorder has filtering, amplifying and
stacking functions. The sampling interval for the Swave survey in the soft ground is about 20
μs, while less than 0.5 μs is recommended for the Pwave survey.
Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram of velocity logging by the suspension method.
Filter Tube
A soft tube filled with air connects the signal source and receivers. This air layer attenuates the
tube wave and the noise to Swave recording. The soft tube also prevents the direct arrival from
the source to the receivers along the downhole tool.
4. Data Acquisition
4.1 Recording
1) Stacking and filtering may be applied as required to improve the S/N ratio.
2) When the record is sufficient, move the receiver to the next depth for subsequent
measurement.
3) The waveform is recorded in digital form.
4) The field condition is recorded in a field note.
Notes
1) The reference depth is set up for the lower receiver, tied to the borehole datum.
2) A standard work flow is: installing the receiver at the specified depth; transmitting the
signal; observation of the wave and recording.
3) The measurement starts from the bottom of the borehole and works upward.
4) Pwave and Swave recordings are carried out separately and repeated at each depth.
5) Amplitudes of P and Swaves, traveltime and noise are examined at every recording.
Supplementary Notes
1) The record length is set up to cover all the waveforms around the firstbreak.
2) The sampling interval is set up using about 10 μs for the velocity 2 km/s; 50 μs for 200 m/s
as a guide. A clear firstbreak of the Pwave is desired.
3) Phase reversal for right and left strikes should be confirmed in Swave records.
4) When the S/N ratio is below 20, repeat the recording with adjusting the stacking and
filtering to reduce noise.
5) Field notes should include the geometrical relationship of the borehole and seismic source,
source type, striking direction, sampling interval, data length, gain, filter setting, water level
in the borehole, casing pipe and its depth and other borehole conditions.
Description
In the suspension method, like the downhole method, there is a risk of losing the probe near the
bottom of the borehole. Tests are carried out about 10 m above the bottom hole.
Where the ground is very soft, a constant record length may not capture both P and S
waves. Then the record length may need adjustment or some delay factor may be applied to
change the start of the recording.
It is rare to process the data from a measurement by the suspension method in the laboratory
afterwards. Extra care has to be exercised in the field data acquisition.
It is important to suspend the downhole tool in the middle of the borehole, to avoid recording
the surface wave (guided tube wave) along the borehole wall.
The frequency used for the suspension method is very high. Therefore the noise from nearby
traffic or a commercial electric current is minimal. Rather, more noise is from wind shaking the
downhole wire or the effect of coupling with the ground. Optimum data acquisition parameters
are desired to battle these noises: reducing the shake of the wire, finding the best source
receiver interval, source frequency, pulse width and source energy.
The measurement generally starts from the bottom upwards but downwards from the top of
the hole may be considered when the collapsing hole prevents the tool dropping to the bottom
quickly. If the tool is stuck in the hole, pulling with brute force may not always work; inserting
a thin pipe and pushing may release the jam.
When the seismic velocity is 2 km/s, its traveltime for 1 m is 500 μs. If the sampling interval is
10 μs, its estimated error for a 1 sample interval corresponds to 1.96 km/s–2.04 km/s. If the
sampling interval is 20 μs, it is 1.92 km/s–2.08 km/s. These estimates are based on a 1 sample
interval and the error in the real survey tends to be greater than these.
5.1 Processing the Waveform Data
1) Filter processing may be applied to the recorded waveform as necessary.
2) Display seismic records of P and Swaves separately.
Notes
1) The Pwave is recorded by the vertical component, while the Swave by the two horizontal
components of the waveform records.
2) Filtering processing may be applied. They include lowcut, highcut and notch filters.
Description
The noise outside of the signal frequency range should have been removed at the time of data
acquisition and the application of filtering processing should be kept to a minimum. In some
cases, filtering may obscure the firstbreak signal of the Pwave, then the filter is not used even
on a noisy record.
When the attenuation of the Pwave is severe, a Pcomponent may appear in the record of
horizontal (2 directions) or Swave components.
3) Pick the firstbreak time or corresponding phase (a peak or a trough) from the upper
and lower receivers and calculate the difference.
Notes
1) When the peak or trough is selected, use ones near the firstbreak.
Description
The time of the firstbreaks, or troughs or peaks near the firstbreak, of the record are picked at
each level and the interval velocity is calculated from the difference. The picks do not have
necessarily at the firstbreaks but they should be a consistent peak or trough near the first
break: in the first or second cycle. Provided that the distance between the source and receiver is
one meter, the interval velocity of the formation (V in m/s) is calculated by:
where T is the difference in traveltime of the upper and lower receivers in seconds.
4) Poisson’s ratio (σ), shear modulus (G) and Young’s modulus (E) are calculated from
Pand Swave velocities.
5) The result is incorporated into the composite column of boreholes with other
geotechnical parameters.
Notes
1) Calculation of Poisson’s ratio (σ), shear modulus (G) and Young’s modulus (E) needs
density value (ρ).
Description
Poisson’s ratio (σ), shear modulus (G) and Young’s modulus (E) are calculated from P and S
wave velocities by:
(3)
(4)
(5)
The density is best obtained from density logging. If a density log is not available, the weight
per volume value from geotechnical testing is generally used.
result of log; and
result of log; and
Notes
1) The entire procedure taken from planning to interpretation of the velocity log should be
2) The original records and field notes should be attached as an appendix.
Description
Location, purpose, duration, details of logging and numerical data.
Stepbystep description of flow of data processing. If an unusual correction is
applied, the reason and method should be explained.
Result of log:
Waveform records, traveltime curve (Figure 6.1) and composite borehole column
(Figure 6.2).
The result describes the distribution of the elastic wave velocity and its
characteristics with consideration to other physical parameters and geological
environment. Where other logs are carried out, the result should be integrated into
the interpretation and description. If a refraction seismic survey or other
investigation was performed in the past, incorporate them and interpret the velocity
characteristics of the site. Other logging data should be used as well.
Figure 6.1: An example of a waveform record.
Figure 6.2: An example of an arrangement of logging result: Composite log.
18 Electric Logs
1. Introduction
1) The electric log is a downhole logging method that measures the electric resistivity of
a formation using electrodes on the ground and downhole.
1.1 Principle
2) In a borehole, current electrode A and potential electrode M are set up with a specified
distance apart.
3) Direct electric current (DC) is applied through electrode A to induce an electric
potential by the stationary electric current field and the potential difference is
measured by the potential electrode M.
4) The apparent resistivity is calculated from the current applied I and the measured
potential difference E.
5) The apparent resistivity is calculated for each depth and recorded, changing the depth
in the borehole.
6) A logging column is made by drawing a graph of apparent resistivity against depth.
7) Based on the log column, the formations are interpreted along the depth of the
borehole.
Notes
1) Figure 1.1 shows the principle of electric logging.
2) The resistivity obtained from electric logging is an average resistivity around the electrodes
in the borehole influenced by the resistivity of the formation water and diameter of the
borehole. Therefore this is called ‘apparent resistivity’, as opposed to true resistivity of the
formation.
3) The apparent resistivity ρa is calculated by:
where a is the distance between the electrodes.
Description
The electric log is a downhole logging method that measures electric resistivity. It is the most
frequently used among geophysical logging methods and it has the longest history. Electric
logging resembles the electric resistivity method (Chapter 6) but the electrodes are in the
borehole to measure the apparent resistivity of the ground around the borehole wall.
Figure 1.1: Principle of electric logging.
1.2 Logging Method
8) There are two kinds of electric logging: ‘normal log’ and ‘micro log’.
Supplementary Notes
1) Spontaneous potential (SP) logging does not use current electrodes but uses the potential
electrodes alone. The N electrode is placed on the ground surface while electrode M is in
the downhole tool.
Description
In the normal log, current electrode A and potential electrode M are placed in the borehole and
another current electrode B and potential electrode N are on the ground surface. The distance
between the electrodes A and M is called the ‘electrode interval’. The electrode interval of the
normal log is either 25, 50 or 100 cm.
The micro log is a variation of the normal log with a small electrode interval: 2.5 cm or 5
cm. The electrodes are pressed against the borehole wall.
Figure 1.2 shows the concept of the electric logs.
Figure 1.2: Electric logging methods.
2. Areas of Application
1) Electric logging is applicable to all types of geology below the water table depth in the
borehole.
2) The objects of the electric logging include:
formation thickness;
thin layer;
watersaturated layer;
impermeable layer;
estimating the lithology where core loss occurs; and
assessment of weak ground including shear zone, anomalous zone and
weathered zone.
Notes
1) The electric logs are used in the surveys of:
assessment of weak points of the foundation rocks of a dam and mountain tunnel
alignment;
assessment of weak points of slopes;
detection of watersaturated layers in urban tunnel alignment;
detection of watersaturated layers in an alluvial plain; and
detection of soil and water contamination.
Supplementary Notes
1) A special use of the electric log is grouting monitoring: assessing the improvement by
comparing before and after the operation.
2) It may be used with the ground survey with 2D and 3D resistivity surveys: providing
conditions for model constraints to improve interpretation.
Description
Electric logging is one of the most used geophysical techniques and it is widely applied to
various uses. It is used for the assessment of the rock foundation of dams, faults and shear
zones, hydrothermal alteration zones and weathered zones of tunnel alignment and the clay
layer of a landslide surface in a slope survey, which can be identified by the resistivity contrast
as the weathered and weak rocks have an electric resistivity lower than fresh rock.
The electric resistivity varies by soil type and the water contents of unconsolidated ground.
This variation is detected by the electric log and used for assessment of sandy and clayey soil
and their permeability. Soil and water contamination surveys use it to detect lowresistivity
zones as the water leaked from fill sites often has a high salt content.
3. Planning
3.1 Applicability of the Electric Logs
1) A borehole for the electric log needs to satisfy the conditions below:
not cased;
the depths of interest are under the water table level; and
no electric generation plant or substations are in the vicinity (generally over
500 m).
Notes
1) The basic way to carry out the electric logs is in an uncased hole. In the cased interval, the
casing pipe is removed during the logging, or replaced with a PVC strainer pipe with an
opening more than 5%.
2) If there is no water in the borehole, the contact between the wall and electrodes becomes
unstable. When the borehole water level is low, pour additional water to recover the level.
3) There is a risk of the effect of an artificial electric current near electric generation plants,
substations and factories. It especially influences the spontaneous potential component.
3.2 Logging Plan
2) Select between normal and micro logs according to the purpose of the survey.
Notes
1) Depending on the purpose of the survey, a temperature log, groundwater log and velocity
log may be considered to accompany the electric log.
2) The temperature of the borehole water may affect the electric resistivity, particularly in
groundwater and hot spring surveys. For assessment of the watersaturated layer and
assessment of the properties of groundwater, the temperature log and groundwater log may
be planned together.
3.3 Field Operation Plan
3) In organizing the boring procedure, the following issues must be considered:
where a borehole collapse is expected, the electric log needs to be carried out
before setting the casing pipe or after removing it; and
this should be planned before an insitu testing, which may affect the borehole
wall and groundwater.
Supplementary Notes
1) Special care should be taken with the insitu loading test and Lugeon test as they alter the
form of the borehole wall. The tracer test affects the nature of the formation water and
borehole water. The electric log should take place prior to these tests.
2) Mud with polymers should be avoided during boring as they influence the electric logs.
Description
When the ground is soft and weak, the electric log should be carried out before inserting the
casing pipe. Generally borehole logging requires preparation of the borehole including
removing the casing. An efficient borehole operation is achieved by planning the drilling,
logging and testing all together.
4. Field Operation
4.1 Location and Site Surveys
1) The location and elevation of the borehole are surveyed.
Note
1) The elevation data used for the drilling can be used as the datum for the logging. Then the
reference point should be checked and the difference between the borehole and logging data
confirmed.
4.2 Instrumentation
2) The electric log requires the following equipment:
downhole tool;
cable;
winch;
pulley;
tripod;
recorder;
power source;
power and data cables; and
surface electrodes.
Notes
1) Figure 4.1 shows a diagram of the electric log instrumentation.
2) The instruments must be correctly calibrated.
3) The power and data cables should be hard to break, well insulated and free of rust.
4) For actual field work, additional tools may be required:
hand tools (a hammer to drive the electrodes, pliers, etc.);
survey equipment for location and elevation;
a multimeter for testing circuitry; and
consumables including insulation tape.
Figure 4.1: Instrumentation of the electric log.
Description
The current electrode and the potential electrode are installed in the downhole tool: electrode A
at the bottom and electrode M on the top. Three potential electrodes are used for the normal log
and two for the micro log. Figure 4.2 show a structure of the downhole tool for the normal log.
The downhole tool and the recorder are electrically connected by the cable. It conducts
electricity from the recorder to the tool and the potential data (signals) are returned. It requires
hightension strength, waterproofed and resistant to friction.
Other tools include:
a winch with a cable of sufficient length for the logging depth;
the pulley incorporates a pulse encoder to measure the depth of the downhole tool;
the tripod fixes the pulley directly above the center of the borehole;
the recorder consists in a current transmission circuit, potential measurement circuit and
recording device. Recent models operate digitally;
a car battery or small generator can be used as a power source; and
the ground electrodes are for current electrode B and potential electrode N. They are
usually made of stainless steel or cupper rods.
Figure 4.2: Schematic diagram of the structure of the downhole tool for the electric log.
4.3 Preparation for Logging
3) The distance between current electrodes B and potential electrode N on the ground
should be greater than 20 m.
4) The potential electrode N should be placed close to the opening of the borehole.
5) Fix the pulley directly above the borehole with the tripod.
6) Connect wires to the recorder and insert the downhole tool.
Notes
1) The distance between electrodes B and N should be greater than 20 m.
2) To reduce the contact resistance, the electrodes on the ground should be in wet ground.
They should avoid streaming water, which flows an electric potential and under a high
voltage transmission line which causes stray current.
3) The pulley bears the entire weight of the downhole and wires. It should be securely
installed on the tripod.
4) The connection between the downhole and cable should be sealed with silicon grease for
waterproofing.
5) After suspending the downhole tool, the depth datum should be defined by lining up the
tool at the point of the depth reference.
4.4 Logging Operation
7) The data acquisition parameters including force current and recording gain are
determined while the downhole tool is moving down.
8) The measurement is taken on the way up.
Notes
1) While the downhole tool is moving down, confirm all the equipment is functioning
correctly and determine the data acquisition parameters including force current and
recording gain.
2) The measurement is taken on the way up.
3) The data record should record:
depth of the downhole;
force current; and
apparent resistivity (or potential difference and force current).
4) The ancillary data to record are:
logging condition: Borehole name, logging date, water level, location of the
electrode on the ground and moving speed; and
specification of the borehole: diameter, total depth and depth of casing pipe.
Supplementary Notes
1) The repeatability of the data can be checked by comparing the records from downward and
upward measurements.
2) It the instrument has an analog output function, it is good to print the records so that the
repeatability can be checked in the field by placing one over the other. The printed charts
should have notes including:
name of the borehole;
date of logging;
depth range of the measurement; and
depth scale.
3) Where there is a large resistivity contrast, such as the interface between the alluvial
sediment and granitic basement, two runs of measurements are recommended: first for the
highresistance of the granite and then for the lowresistivity of the alluvium. The second
run may record the subtle difference within the lowresistivity layer such as variation
between sandy and clayey layers.
4) Where drilling mud is used, record the following items to assist later analysis.
type of mud;
time after circulation; and
resistivity and temperature of the mud.
5. Data Processing
5.1 Calculation of Apparent Resistivity
1) Calculate the apparent resistivity and organize the data against the depth.
Notes
1) The electric logging instrument automatically converts the measurement data to apparent
resistivity. If the output is the measurement of the force current and potential difference, the
apparent resistivity ρa can be calculated by:
(1)
where:
(2)
AM: the distance between electrode A and electrode M (electrode interval);
BM: the distance between electrode B and electrode M
AN: the distance between electrode A and electrode N
BN: the distance between electrode B and electrode N
2) For spontaneous potential (SP) logs, the SP curve is generated against depth.
5.2 Organizing a Composite Log
2) Make a composite log by the curves of the apparent resistivity and spontaneous
potential with geology.
Note
1) The vertical scale of the composite log is usually 1/100. The log description should include
depth range, electrode interval, resistivity and temperature of the mud used, depth of casing,
water level, bore diameter and display scale.
Supplementary Notes
1) A composite log including the boring column, other log data and results of laboratory tests
contributes to efficient interpretation.
6. Data Analysis and Interpretation
1) Interpret qualitatively from the apparent resistivity curve and spontaneous potential
curve.
2) Draw a consistent interpretation integrating other logs, insitu testing and laboratory
tests.
Notes
1) The general characteristics of apparent resistivity and spontaneous potential are:
clayey soil has lower resistivity than sandy soil;
the resistivity of an unsaturated formation is higher than a saturated one;
the resistivity of rocks decreases with fractures and weathering;
the salinity of borehole water severely reduces apparent resistivity;
the measured resistivity is very low where metal casing is inserted;
the variation of resistivity by an electrode interval is greater in sandy soil than in
clay;
the spontaneous potential (SP) in clayey soil is often different from sand; and
2) Refer to the condition of change in the water level, spring and loss during the drilling.
Description
In geotechnical engineering application, curves of apparent resistivity and spontaneous
potential are used in qualitative interpretation in correlating formations and assessing water
layer. It is rare to quantitatively interpret these curves.
For the assessment of ground improvement by injecting chemicals, saturation of chemicals a
is evaluated by:
(3)
where:
ρsw: resistivity of the ground before injection (Ωm)
ρsg : resistivity of the ground after injection (Ωm)
ρw : resistivity of the formation water (Ωm)
ρg : resistivity of the chemicals (Ωm).
In the petroleum industry, apparent resistivity is converted to the true resistivity to
quantitatively analyze for porosity and saturation. The true resistivity can be obtained by
matching Schlumberger’s standard curve with the data. The porosity and saturation are
calculated by Archie’s formula:
(4)
where:
Rt : true resistivity of the rock (Ωm);
Sw : water saturation;
n : saturation index of the formation factor (usually about 2).
(5)
R0 : resistivity of the watersaturated rock (Ωm);
Rw : resistivity of formation water (Ωm);
F : formation factor (a factor related to the porosity and connectivity of the pores).
(6)
a : a constant related to the formation (usually 1);
φ : porosity;
m : solidity factor (between 1 and 2; 1 for crushed rocks, 2 for solid rock).
7. Deliverables
result of log; and
Description
The entire procedure taken from planning to interpretation of the electric log should be
explained in the deliverables and reports. The description of each item should include:
Location, purpose, duration, details of logging and number of measurements.
All the steps of the data processing and analysis are described. If any special
treatment is applied to the data, it should be explained in detail.
Result of log:
A composite borehole column (Figure 7.1).
The description includes the result and interpretation. Other logging data should be
used as well.
Figure 7.1: An example of an arrangement of a logging result: Composite log.
19 Temperature Log
1. Introduction
1) Temperature logging measures temperature distribution in boreholes.
Notes
1) Temperature logging measures the temperature (borehole water) continuously along the
depth axis of boreholes.
2) The temperature underground is influenced by the nearsurface temperature and deeper
geothermal sources.
3) The temperature near the ground surface diurnally and annually fluctuates by the influence
of solar radiation.
4) The depth where the water temperature becomes constant is called the ‘homoiothermal
layer depth’.
5) The homoiothermal layer depth varies from place to place. It is generally between 7 and 20
meters in Japan.
6) The temperature increases with depth below the ‘homoiothermal layer depth’. Its
temperature gradient is generally from 2.5 to 3.5°C/100 m (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1: Schematic diagram of the underground temperature gradient.
Description
Temperature logging is considered a vital tool for the survey of geothermal resources and hot
springs. In civil engineering it is often used for an underground water survey. Information of
temperature distribution is used for the analysis and assessment of springs and leaks . It is often
used with electric and density logging.
There are several types of temperature logging: the temperature survey measures the
temperature along the depth with one sensor, while the thermal gradient survey uses two
sensors to record the difference; the differential temperature log displays the difference of the
temperature at two locations and assesses the temperature change in the depth direction.
2.1 Survey Planning
1) Temperature logging is generally carried out in an uncased hole or in a pipe with
strainers or slits.
2) Temperature logging should be planned at a sufficient time after completion of the
borehole.
Note
1) Temperature logging should be after a sufficient time after completion of the borehole.
Description
As this method of logging measures temperature, it can be carried out regardless of the
existence of a casing pipe and borehole water or size of the borehole. In petroleum exploration,
temperature logging data are used for assessing the condition of the casing and the fluid behind
the casing.
The main purpose of the temperature survey in civil engineering is to evaluate the movement
of the underground water that springs into the borehole. Therefore the measurement interval
should be uncased. If the borehole wall is unstable and decaying, a PVC pipe with strainer or
slits is inserted before extracting the casing.
The survey should be planned after a sufficiently long time after the completion of the
drilling. This is to avoid disturbance in temperature by friction of the bit and circulation of the
mud. The protective pipe needs some time to assimilate the temperature. This duration is
generally 1–2 weeks.
2.2 Instrumentation
3) Instruments of temperature logging include a downhole tool, data recorder, cable,
winch and winch with a system to measure the depth.
Description
Instruments of temperature logging include the downhole tool to insert into the borehole, data
recorder with an electric power source and recording circuitry, cable to transmit the power and
signal, winch and winch with a system to measure the depth (Figure 2.1).
Figure 2.1: Principle of temperature logging.
Figure 2.2: Relationship between temperature logging and differential temperature logging.
The thermistortype is commonly used as the temperature sensor in the downhole tool. This
sensor utilizes the property of the thermistor semiconductor that its electric resistance
diminishes antiproportionally to the temperature.
The downhole tool for differential temperature logging has two thermal sensors at a constant
distance (usually 1 m) apart. This survey attempts to find the inflection point of the temperature
gradient, which is not easy to determine by ordinary temperature logging, by continuously
measuring the temperature difference between two sensors (Figure 2.2).
3. Field Operation
3.1 Measurement
1) When several runs of logging are planned, temperature logging should be run first.
2) The measurement is carried out on the way down into the borehole, to avoid
disturbance of the water.
3) The description of recording conditions includes speed of logging, water level in the
borehole, bore diameter, strainer and slits on the pipe and others.
Supplementary Notes
If the system needs calibration, it should be completed prior to the survey.
Usual temperature logging is carried out after leaving the borehole for a long time to stabilize
the temperature. Other types of temperature logging include:
survey of a water leak from change of temperature by pouring muddy water into the
borehole; and
survey of a spring from change of temperature by pouring warm or cold water into the
borehole.
Description
If other loggings, such as electric and density logs, are planned at the same time, the
temperature logging tool should be placed at the bottom to avoid disturbing the bore water. For
the same reason, the measurement is carried out on the way down into the borehole. The speed
of inserting the tool is generally about 5–10 meters per minutes. If the temperature log is run
after other logs, the hole should be undisturbed for at least 6–12 hours.
The field note should include a description of recording conditions that includes speed of
logging, water level in the borehole, bore diameter, strainer and slits on the pipe and others.
This information is used at the time of analysis.
1) The result is arranged as a borehole logging column plotted against the depth.
Description
The result of the temperature log is arranged as a borehole logging column plotted against the
depth and geology. The result of the differential temperature log should show correspondence
with the temperature curve, temperature gradient curve and geological column.
Figure 4.1 shows an example of a temperature log display. This shows that, immediately
below the water level (∇), the temperature varies slightly and then increases gradually with
depth. In this borehole, another survey found that the groundwater flows into a hole through an
opening at 15 m deep, then flows up and then exits at 5 m deep.
Where other logs are carried out at the same time, the result may be incorporated in parallel
to show a correlation with the geological column.
Figure 4.1: An example of a display of a temperature logging result
result of log; and
Note
The entire procedure taken from planning to interpretation of the velocity log should be
Description
Location, purpose, duration, details of logging and number of measurements.
A simple description of the principle and method using figures and tables; specification of
the instruments and logging condition.
Result of log:
A composite borehole column (Figure 7.2).
The description includes the result and interpretation. Other logging data should be used as
well.
20 Radiometric Logs
1. Introduction
1) Radiometric log is the geophysical log technique which utilizes radiation. There are
two modes:
(1) Passive
Natural radiometric log
(2) Active
Density log
Neutron log
Notes
1) The principle of the natural radiometric log (Chapter 20.1) is the same as the ground
radiometric survey (Chapter 12).
2) The density log (Chapter 20.2) follows the principle of “Density test of soil using the RI
instrument” (JGS 16142003) the standard set by Geotechnical Engineering Society.
3) Neutron log follows the principle of water content measurement in “Density test of soil
using the RI instrument” (JGS 16142003) the standard set by Geotechnical Engineering
Society.
Description
The natural radiometric log measures the natural radiation which is used for background
correction for the density log. In addition, with the sedimentary rock, it is used to distinguish
between the sandstone and the mudstone as in the color mineral contains radioactive elements,
which is used for stratigraphic classification. Density log is the method of measuring formation
density utilizing the antiproportional relationship between formation density and Compton
scatter of the gammaray The neutron log is the method to estimate the water content in the
formation from the relationship between the quantity of the hydrogen atoms and the thermal
neutron radiation. Among these the neutron log is hardly used in the engineering geophysics.
The radioactive logging include the neutrongamma log, which measures energy spectra of the
gammaray emitted from the elements activated by neutron the neutron radiation source. As the
energy spectrum is unique to the radioactive element, this identifies the elements in the
formation.
20.1 Natural Radiometric Log
1. Introduction
1) The natural radiometric log measures the natural gammaray emitted from the
radioisotopes in the formation in a borehole.
Description
Natural radiometric log continuously measures the insitu natural gammaray distribution along
depth in the borehole. It measures the total count or the spectrum of gammaray emitted from
the radioisotope in the formation.
The natural radiometric log is a statistical log of radiation counts per unit time, and logging
speed influences the quality. The logging speed is a time constant specified as a measurement
parameter, but it also depends on the type of scintillator and diameter of the borehole.
2. Planning
2.1 Plan for Site Investigation
1) The radiometric log is hardly affected by variation in diameter of the borehole, depth,
condition of casing pipe or presence of the water in the borehole.
Description
The natural radiometric log can be run regardless of the diameter of the boring hole, depth, the
presence of the casing pipe or the water. But, enlarger diameter, casing pipe, and the borehole
water may shield or attenuate the gammaray from in the formation. It is necessary to obtain
these information in advance.
2.2 Instrumentation
1) The logging instrument of the natural radiometric log consists of the data log device,
the radiation sensor, a cable and a winch with a guide pulley (to record the depth).
Supplementary Note
The natural radiometric log is often carried out by a density log tool without the radiation
source.
Description
A configuration for the natural radiometric logging is shown in Figure 2.1. The detector with a
NaI or BGO scintillator is built in the sonde. The cable provides electric power from the source
and transmits the data from the downhole tool. The winch winds the cable, the length of which
corresponds to the depth. The same cable should be used for compilation of calibration curve
because attenuation of the signal by the cable resistance may affect the measurement in some
device. The guide pulley also called the sheave is a device for guiding and indicating depth of
the cable. In addition, as for the onground instruments include the various power sources,
control circuits and rate meter to measure counting rate and the recorder.
Figure 2.1: Configuration of the natural radiometric log.
3. Field Operation
3.1 Measurement
1) The measurement while the sonde is moving upward.
2) The field notebook should record the borehole condition and logging speed.
3) The field notebook should also record the logging speed, time constant, water level,
depth and diameter of the casing pipe, and other measurement conditions.
Description
In the natural radiation log, take measurement while inserting the sonde to the bottom of the
borehole to check borehole condition, then measure upward after the final adjustment of the
parameters such as time constant to ensure normal operation. At that time, the records from
downward and upward measurements are compared to verify the repeatability. The speed of the
sonde is usually two meters per second.
Features of the natural radiometric log record are as follows:
granite and mudstone present higher counts;
an open holes presents higher count than a cased hole; and
borehole water lowers the count number.
The field notebook should also record the logging speed, time constant, water level, depth and
diameter of the casing pipe, and other measurement conditions to aid the later analysis
1) Data are arranged into a log column with corresponding depth.
2) Digitize the data against depth.
Supplementary Notes
1) The log curve of total gammaray should be compared with the stratigraphic column.
2) The spectrum gammaray data should be arranged to compare the log curves of the energy
levels of the isotopes.
3) Cross plot of the gammaray spectrum of the energy level may characterize formations.
Description
The measurement data of the natural radiometric log (depth distribution of counts) may be
directly drawn on the chart as an analog record or may be recorded digitally. A point
measurement by the operator may be directly entered in the data sheet. This count data should
be checked against depth, and displayed in the log column with geological features. The data
sheet should also include hole number, the measurement range, borehole condition (hole
diameter, casing, water, etc.) and the calibration result To use the natural radiometric log as a
correction value for the density log, sampling interval of the count should be about 0.5∼1.0m.
The count should be averaged over a depth range, as it generally fluctuates with depth.
1) As a logging result the deliverables must at least include:
a comprehensive log column; and
a table of measured values.
1) The report must at least describe:
survey summary;
logging method and equipment used;
log result; and
interpretation and consideration.
Note
1) The deliverable and the report should include clear description of all the processes from
planning to interpretation of the natural radiometric log.
Description
Contents of the report are as follows:
Survey summary
Include the location, object, survey period, measurement contents, number of measurements.
Logging method and equipment used Use the diagram for the principle and
measurement method. Describe measuring method concisely. Device specification and
measurement condition should be described.
Data processing method
The data processing method and flow of analysis at each stage should be described. If an
unusual method is applied, describe it precisely.
Log result
The waveform record, the timedistance curve and the comprehensive log column should be
drawn.
Interpretation and consideration Describe the logging result considering the relation
with the rocks test result, geological features and other physical properties. If other
logging methods are jointly used, integrate them and describe the result and
interpretation. Where the elastic wave velocity survey is carried out, compare the result
with the existing data and integrate them and describe the result and interpretation.
Figure 5.1 shows an example of presentation of the natural radiometric log and density log with
geological column. It shows tendency that the natural radiation (curve in the left in the graph)
count is greater in mudstone and smaller in chart.
Figure 5.1: An example of the natural radiometric log.
20.2 Density Log
1. Introduction
1) The density log measures the Compton scattering of the gamma ray which is emitted
from radioisotope, and estimates the density distribution around the borehole wall.
Note
The density log is a method to continuously measure the density distribution of the ground
along the depth direction.
Description
The density log measures the insitu Compton scattering of the gamma ray which is emitted
from radioisotope, and estimates the density distribution around the borehole wall. It is
sometimes called γγ (gammagamma) log as it measures scatter of the gammaray initially
transmitted from the radiation source. The Compton scattering is a phenomenon of gammaray
scatter losing part of its energy by colliding with electrons while it passes through some
substance. The gammaray emitted from a radioactive isotope is scattered and absorbed through
the media by the Compton effect. The intensity of the gammaray after losing the peak
photoelectric energy is a function of the density of the medium it passes through. Therefore, the
density of ground can be estimated by measuring the intensity of the Compton scatter. The
relationship between the scattered gammaray by the Compton effect and the density of the
material is given by the following formula:
where I is measured intensity of gammaray measured at the detector, I0 is intensity of the
gammaray emitted from the radiation source, d is distance between source and detector, γ is
mass absorption coefficient which is unique to the ground, and ρ is density of ground material.
2. Planning
2.1 The Planning with Consideration of the Specification of Borehole
1) Obtain the information in advance of diameter and depth, the casing pipe and the
presence of the borehole water for the borehole for a density log.
2) Each sonde has a range of applicable diameter. It may need to adjustment to suit the
diameter of the borehole.
Note
1) The density log can be applied regardless of diameter of the borehole, depth, presence of the
casing pipe and the borehole water.
Description
The density log can be applied regardless of diameter of the borehole, depth, presence of the
casing pipe and the borehole water. However these conditions dictate the calibration factor.
Therefore, it is necessary to know these information in advance.
2.2 Instrumentation
3) The measurement equipment of the density log consists of, the data log device, the
radiation source and the cable winch, the guide pulley with the depth indicator
attached.
4) Cesium 137 (137Cs) and cobalt 60 (60Co) are often used for the radiation source.
Supplementary Note
1) Radiation sources passed halflife time is not to be used as its energy level decreases. The
halflife time of cesium 137 (137Cs) is 30.0 years, and cobalt 60 (60Co) 5.27 years.
Description
The detector with of NaI or BGO scintillator is built into the sonde. Many detectors are
polarized with lead, and they are pressed to the borehole wall by a backspring to orientate the
detector towards the wall. There are types with two detectors fixed at a constant interval, which
reduce the influence of diameter change, but it is not commonly used in engineering survey.
The winding system is made of a cable to supply the power and the electric information from
the detector and a winch to wind it up. The depth is measured as the cable is wound. In some
logging instruments, the signal is attenuated by the resistance of the cable, so the survey and
the calibration curves should be recorded using the same cable. The guide pulley, sometimes
called “the sheave”, guides the cable and indicates depth of the sonde. The onground device
includes the power source supply, control circuit, rate meter and the recorder. An example of
the density log device is shown in Figure 2.1.
Noise from slip ring
The slip ring is a terminal which transmits the input/output signals from the winch. The slip
ring consists of a disk and a brush, and conveys the signal from a rotating disk to a stationary
electric wire. As it ages, contact noise may occur, which may be counted as a signal of
radiation count. This noise can be identified when the counts are equal for rotating and
stationary disk. It can be confirmed by rotating the winch without moving the cable. A similar
noise may be introduced from the brush of the motor. It should be checked in the same manner.
Figure 2.1: An example of density logging system.
2.3 Safety Issue
The emission radiation 1×104Bq(Becquerel) or above from cesium 137 (137Cs) source
1) and 1×105Bq or above from cobalt 60 (60Co) are subject to the legal regulations.
Notes
1) The old regulation controlled the radiation above 3.7×106Bq regardless of the type of
nuclides. The amendment of June 1st, 2005, is in force as above.
2) The measurement equipment manufactured before end of March 2007 are subject to the old
regulation.
2) These regulations must be observed and the radiation source must be treated carefully.
2) Under the new regulation, permission is needed to use a radiation source which exceeds
1000 times of the regulatory minimum, and a notification is necessary below that level.
2) Immediate disposal of the radiation source on conclusion of its use is required. The Japan
Radioisotope Association accepts used radiation source.
Description
Under the Radiation Injury Prevention Act 2005 adopted the exemption level of the
“international basic safely level” of the international standard to proposed by the international
organizations including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as the lower limit.
Hence, those purchased before from 2007 March 31st with radiation exceeding 3.7 MBq are
subject to the regulation, and use and transport of these radiation source need reporting to the
relevant authority. For those purchased after this date, different levels apply to different type of
isotope. It is radiation source 1×104Bq and radiation source density 1×101Bq/g for cesium 137
(137Cs) and 1×105Bq and 1×101Bq/g for cobalt 60 (60Co).
The radiation source used in the density log is sealed and is subject to the regulation on the
“sealed radiation source” of the Radiation Injury Prevention Act.
3. Fieldwork
3.1 Preparation
1) A natural radiometric log should be run before the density logging.
2) When the borehole wall is unstable and feared to lose the sonde with a radiation
source in the borehole, plan to insert a casing and log in it, albeit this may adversely
affect the precision of the measurement.
Note
1) The values of the natural radiation log represent the background radiation. It is subtracted
from the value of density log.
Description
In the density log, the backgound radiation data of the formations are collected first by the
sonde without radiation source. This initial survey also checks the condition of the borehole
before the real density logging, and prevents accidental loss of the instruments.
The emission radiation of the formation mainly originates from colored minerals. Therefore
the initial radiation logging for the background data is particularly important at the sites where
granites and mudstone and their derivatives occur.
3.2 Measurement
1) The log measurement is taken as the sonde is raised in the borehole.
1) The borehole condition and logging speed during logging should be recorded in the
field note.
Notes
1) The description in the field note should include logging speed, water level, time constant,
diameter, and presence and condition of the casing pipe.
2) Logging speed (the speed of the movement of the sonde) must be constant.
Description
For the density log, a preliminary logging is taken downwards checking the condition of the
borehole. At the bottom of the hole, the logging parameters including time constant and
amplifier gain are fine tuned. The “real measurement” is taken upwards as the sonde is raised.
At the time of real measurement, reproducibility of record is verified by comparing the data
from downward and upward measurements. The movement of the sonde must be sufficiently
slow to match the energy of the radiation source, as the logging speed is closely related to the
time constant of the measurement. The logging speed must be constant.
The quality control of density log record should pay particular attention to following
properties: the denser ground presents the lower counts:
an uncased hole presents a higher count than a cased hole;
the larger borehole diameter presents the greater count;
borehole water reduces counting rate.
The field notebook should record the borehole diameter, the water level, the borehole
conditions including depth of the casing pipe, logging speed, time constant, bottom hole depth.
This information will be useful for later analysis.
4.1 Data Reduction
1) Data are arranged in a log column by combining the record with the depth.
2) The records are digitized.
Description
On the log column, digitize the count rate at depths, then subtract the natural radiation
intensity. Record the values and sort them by borehole conditions such as diameter. Reading
interval is chosen every 0.5∼1.0 m of depth as a base. The density log data are usually recorded
in digital form. The count rate data measured, are recorded in a log column with geological
features information. The depth can be checked against the casing pipe position. The document
should include borehole number, the measurement range, time constant and borehole condition
(hole diameter, casing, ground water, etc.), and the calibration result. The natural results of
radiometric log and caliper log are included in the composite log. The interval of digitizing the
counting rate is 0.5∼1.0 m as a base. Generally the count fluctuates with depth, the counting
rate should be averaged over a depth range. Reading the natural radiation in the same way,
subtract it from the density log data to correct for the influence of the natural radiation. Where a
caliper log is available, the diameter should be recorded on the same record sheet. The record
sheet should document the change points of borehole condition in casing pipe and the borehole
water.
4.2 Density Conversions
3) Convert the counting rate to the density of the formation at every of depth using the
calibration curve. The conversion should account for the hole condition including
diameter casing and water.
4) The converted value should be examined by comparing with common values.
Note
1) Calibration curve must be made for various conditions: borehole diameters, casing and
borehole water.
Description
Calibration curves are needed to convert the count rate in the record sheet to density. The
calibration curve is necessary for each borehole condition: borehole diameters, casing and
water, and an appropriate curve has to be selected for each borehole. The conversion is carried
out by plotting the count rate and borehole diameter on the conversion curve and reading the
density value. There is an automatic method of conversion, whereby density is found from
various conversion curves are stored.
The converted density values should be compared with the general values (Figure 4.1) to
verify the analysis. Causes of errors in density conversion include insufficient correction for
intense natural radiation, sudden change of diameter due to collapse of the borehole wall and
insufficient contact with the wall. Density of the mud may increase towards the bottom of the
hole. This may cause the formation density to appear higher.
Figure 4.1: Schematics of calibration test.
The intensity of radiation measured by the density log is the counts per unit time (count rate).
To convert it to density, a calibration curve is necessary to relate it with density. The accuracy
of this curve is the key to the good conversion.
The calibration curve of the density log is the most important part of the system. Usually a
readymade general curves are used, but a new curve is necessary when the logging parameters
are changed. These parameters include size and kind of the radiation source, specification of
the detector, diameter of borehole and casing. The calibration curves are generally made by a
series of laboratory experiments. A test sample is made by willing a drum can with sand and
soil. The density of the sample is calculated from the weight of the soil and sand and the
volume of the drum. The sonde is inserted into the sample and measure the count rate. By
changing the filling with the material of different density, and repeating the measurement, a
curve can be plotted. Usually, this experiment is repeated with various borehole diameter and
casing, and water contents. The laboratory test is planned considering the formation density and
the borehole condition of the actual survey. It is especially important to replicate the borehole
condition of the actual survey. The casing conditions must be the same as the one used in the
borehole to survey.
Figure 4.2: Example of calibration curves.
[page 661]
1) The deliverable should include at least:
comprehensive composite log column;
table of measured values.
2) The deliverable should include at least:
survey summary;
logging method, equipment used;
logging result; and
Note
The deliverables and the report should contain all the steps from planning to interpretation of
the density logging.
Description
Contents of the report include:
Survey summary
Location, object, survey period, all the log types and scale of the survey are described.
Logging method and equipment used
The principle and method of measurements are concisely described using the diagrams
and tables. The specification and logging conditions are also described.
Data processing method
The flow of data processing and analysis is described step by step. When a special
method is used describe it in detail.
Logging result
The wave record drawing and the timedistance curve figure, the composite log column
are drawn.
Interpretation and discussion
The log result is described with consideration of the relationship of the rocks test
results, geological features and other physical properties value. If other log methods are
used, integrate those results, and describe in interpretation. When the elastic wave
velocity is logged, describe the elastic property of the ground comparing other existing
data. When logs of other types are is jointly run, integrate them in the result and
describe in the interpretation.
Further Reading
Tittman, J. and Wahl, J.S. 1965 The Physical Foundations of Formation Density Loging
(gammagamma). Geophysics, 30(2), 284294.
Preface
How to use this book
This manual has been prepared for young geophysicists and geotechnical engineers with some
experience or interest in geophysical surveys and clients who use the result of geophysical
surveys. This book neither introduces new methods nor attempts to explain the latest
technological advances in geophysics. Instead, it is a manual aimed at fostering a common
understanding of geophysical surveys between geophysicists and their clients. The main
chapters describe procedures for planning, data acquisition, analysis and reporting for twenty
geophysical survey methods that are widely used.
Although some techniques explained in this book were developed for local applications in
Japan, the information is also expected to be useful in neighboring Asian nations and other
countries where there are complicated geological structures. We believe this will be useful to
all geophysicists and engineers worldwide. We decided to publish this English edition to
commemorate the 65th anniversary of SEGJ with the cooperation of EAGE.
This book describes the basic procedures common in geophysical surveys in Japan. Only the
basics are presented for new methods and applications. Other methods may also be applicable,
depending on the stage, objective, or purpose of the exploration. Readers are advised of the
importance of understanding the concepts behind the procedures rather than simply following
the procedure described, particularly when the techniques are used under different conditions.
Major methods, such as groundpenetrating radar and seismic surveys, are classed in
chapters. For some survey methods, different approaches in measurement are summarized in
subchapters. For example, a summary and an overview of common electrical prospecting
methods are given at the beginning of Chapter 6 and three different measurements (self
potential, resistivity sounding and two and threedimensional resistivity) are summarized in
subchapters 6.1,6.2 and 6.3, respectively. Thus, each chapter or subchapter helps the reader to
understand the procedure of planning and implementing the survey method.
Chapter 1 outlines the general procedures of geophysical surveys. This is an important
chapter that describes the guidelines that are common to all the geophysical techniques. We
strongly recommend the readers to read this chapter before proceeding to the subsequent
chapters of specific survey methods. In each chapter, the first section outlines the procedures
and presents an overview of the method. In the second part of the chapter, the applicability of
the method appropriate to the purpose and target is introduced. The general procedure from
planning and preparation, onsite measurement, data reduction, analysis to interpretation is
explained.
Depending on the importance, the notes are classified into three ranks: boxes containing
items, notes and supplementary notes:
1) Boxes containing items: basics and most important items.
2) Notes: Notes on practice and points to notice.
3) Supplementary Notes: Matters that should be considered and practiced in some cases.
The terms are expressed in bulleted lists with brief statements. Some of the notes and items in
the boxes can also be used in a particular specification. The theory, background and detailed
methods for these items are described after the terms. Apart from the commentary and items,
knowledge regarding each technique is provided in a “coffeebreak” column.
The deliverables of each method are described in the last part of the chapters. The
deliverables usually include a report with attached documents and electronic files. For example,
in Japan, image files of the final report of a geophysical survey for civil engineering designs
must be delivered electronically to the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport.
Electronic delivery allows tracing back the survey procedure, reevaluating the data quality and
reanalyzing the survey data.
This is a practical book in geophysical surveys and only minimal descriptions of the
theoretical background are included. Readers who wish to learn more about the theoretical
aspects of the methods should refer to textbooks of the method.
Finally, we thank all those who contributed to this English edition.
Takao Aizawa (Chief Editor)
Contributors

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Depth of probe ∼20 m 10 m∼200 m 100m∼

4) Tomographic inversion does not impose geometrical restrictions. The analysis

General Detailed Petrological General conditions of rock Elastic

Vibrator Mini Vibrator Horizontal swept Frequency

Receiver interval Array size Depth of Probe Source Interval

A verticalcomponent seismometer does not need orientation adjustment. Horizontal

1) The geoelectrical method measures naturally occurring or artificially generated

method style outputs application comments

The data are analyzed on the basis of a horizontal twolayer model. In the horizontal two

Install a loop and receiver coil according to the loop configuration (Figure 3.1) chosen in the

4) Qualitatively estimate resistivity distribution from the apparent resistivity profiles or

Depth of probe Equipment Separation of loops Separation of stations

GPR Dielectric Electrical Transmitting Remarks

Materials Density (g/cm3) Materials Density (g/cm3)

2) A twodimensional quantitative interpretation estimates the subsurface structure

where, ρi,j,k is the density of each prism and ρ0 assumed density for the terrain and Bouguer

1) Geotomography is a technique that images subsurface physical properties with

Item Medical Xray CT Geotomography

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Application Manual of Geophysical Methods To Engineering and Environmental Problems PDF

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Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Application Manual of

Depth of probe ∼20 m 10 m∼200 m 100m∼

4) Tomographic inversion does not impose geometrical restrictions. The analysis

General Detailed Petrological General conditions of rock Elastic

Vibrator Mini Vibrator Horizontal swept Frequency

Receiver interval Array size Depth of Probe Source Interval

A vertical­component seismometer does not need orientation adjustment. Horizontal

1) The geoelectrical method measures naturally occurring or artificially generated

method style outputs application comments

The data are analyzed on the basis of a horizontal two­layer model. In the horizontal two­

Install a loop and receiver coil according to the loop configuration (Figure 3.1) chosen in the

4) Qualitatively estimate resistivity distribution from the apparent resistivity profiles or

Depth of probe Equipment Separation of loops Separation of stations

GPR Dielectric Electrical Transmitting Remarks

Materials Density (g/cm3) Materials Density (g/cm3)

2) A two­dimensional quantitative interpretation estimates the subsurface structure

where, ρi,j,k is the density of each prism and ρ0 assumed density for the terrain and Bouguer

1) Geotomography is a technique that images subsurface physical properties with

Item Medical X­ray CT Geotomography

S-ar putea să vă placă și

A verticalcomponent seismometer does not need orientation adjustment. Horizontal

The data are analyzed on the basis of a horizontal twolayer model. In the horizontal two

2) A twodimensional quantitative interpretation estimates the subsurface structure

Item Medical Xray CT Geotomography