Running Head: EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT

Effective Home Interventions for Literacy Development

Sarah Bruce

EDT 603

Miami University
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 2

Effective Home Interventions for Literacy Development

The investigation of how parent involvement and the home setting affects literacy

development has been a topic of study for teachers, administrators, and researchers alike due to

the necessity of teachers to meet the needs of each student in the classroom. This topic of study

is essential due to the fact that children come to school with a wide range of prior experiences

with language and literacy (Heath, 1983; Gee, 1989). It is commonly known that some children

mature in households with many opportunities to experience rich print, complex vocabulary, oral

reading, and school-like environments that prepare them for the structure of formal education.

Still other students have restricted prior knowledge of print due to limited opportunities to hear

and read language at home. The absence of early literacy exposure creates hurdles for students

entering the print-rich, routine-oriented environment of conventional schooling.

In the past, many educators believed in the concept of Reading Readiness, which is the

notion that students are not experiencing “real” reading and writing instruction and development

prior to preschool (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). However, now it is widely accepted that literacy

development begins well before students reach school age (Teale & Sulzby, 1986; Goodman &

Goodman, 1979). Teale and Sulzy (1986) used the term “emergent literacy” to describe the early

acquisition of literacy knowledge that children develop throughout early childhood and well into

adulthood. Goodman and Goodman (1979) report that primary caregivers such as parents and

close family members act as children’s first teachers. Children are constantly making meaning

from the environment around them. In this manner, language is developed naturally. Teale and

Sulzby (1986) conclude that young children should be exposed to print due to their ability to

understand reading and writing at a young age. Therefore, parents and caregivers are integral
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 3

participants in children’s literacy development and meaning-making processes before and during

formal schooling.

Since meaning-making occurs naturally starting at infancy, families interact using a

Primary Discourse that originates at home and represents their personal “identify kit” (Gee,

1989). Parents teach their children values, beliefs, social norms, and how to communicate both

directly and indirectly through social interaction within the home environment. Each family,

regardless of culture, income level, and educational level, has their own way of embracing

literacy that is unique to them (Wasik, 2004). Culture and ethnicity, parental beliefs,

socioeconomic status, child characteristics, home literacy environment, storybook reading, and

parent-child relationships are all factors that contribute to children’s early literacy development

(Wasik, 2004). With such a wide range of family environments, experiences, and beliefs, it is the

essential that teachers develop methods to bridge the gap between Primary and Secondary

Discourses in a manner that respectfully supports student understanding and growth.

Research has shown that a disproportionate amount of students from lower-income

homes struggle with reading in school and on standardized achievement tests (Perie, Grigg, &

Donahue, 2005). One explanation for this is that students who struggle with reading often

receive more deconstructed intervention techniques, such as phonics instruction, which limits the

amount of authentic text exposure that the student is receiving on a daily basis (Allington, 2000).

This is compounded by evidence that many struggling readers spend less time reading outside of

school, sometimes due to a lack of access to print due to socioeconomic status (Heath, 1983;

Purcell-Gates, 2002). Heath (1983) observed a variance in the way working-class and middle-

class homes use print. He reported that middle-class home create environments that better

prepare children for the demands of formal schooling.

EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 4

As a result of this disparity, family literacy interventions have become popular outlets for

educators and parents alike since the 1980s due to the overwhelming evidence that parents are

essential contributors in children’s literacy development (Wasik, 2004). Teachers are looking for

effective home interventions in order to close the achievement gap, bridge varying discourses,

and create strong home/school partnerships that create a literacy rich learning community for all

students. The purpose of this study is to examine how parent involvement in home literacy

interventions affects student literacy achievement and development.

Home Literacy Interventions

This review draws on research for home interventions for literacy development in

students using a coaching approach. Coaching refers to the technique of actively providing

corrective feedback or guidance to students throughout the reading process. Therefore, only

studies in which parents were active participants in the intervention process at home were

included in this review. This study investigates the varied approaches that educators and parents

can utilize to cultivate a strong connection between home and school in order to advance literacy

development and achievement in elementary students. It explores multiple research-based

interventions that can be utilized at home to increase parent involvement in student learning,

heighten parent awareness of specific literacy needs, and to improve student literacy motivation

and achievement. These successful intervention strategies include read alouds, shared book

reading, and home literacy projects.

Read Alouds

Reading aloud to children is generally acknowledged to have a powerful influence on

children’s language development, emergent literacy and reading achievement (Lawson, 2012).
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 5

Research has shown that students who are frequently exposed to print are more likely to become

proficient readers and effective learners in the future (Cunningham & Stanovich, 1997).

Therefore, it is essential that students are exposed to print from an early age. At home read

alouds are an effective home literacy practice that increases literacy development in children.

Bus, van Ijzendoorn, and Pellegrini (1995) constructed a quantitative meta-analysis

review to examine the effects of parent-preschooler read alouds on language growth, emergent

literacy, and reading achievement. Bus, et al. (1995) examined the frequency of book reading to

preschoolers through the evaluation of 29 studies. They concluded that the data supports the

hypothesis that reading aloud to preschoolers indicates a causal relationship between book

reading and language growth, emergent literacy, and reading achievement, regardless of the

socioeconomic status of the families. However, the study does indicate that the effectiveness of

read alouds weakens as children become more conventional readers. The meta-analysis review

by Bus, et al. supports Cunningham & Stanovich’s (1997) claim that early exposure to print

encourages literacy development in children. However, one limitation of this study is that the

frequency of family book reading within 28 of the studies was determined by parent

questionnaires. Parent questionnaires are problematic due to the possibility that two different

parents could have completed the pre- and post-questionnaires. Parental reports may also be

biased due to the family’s desire to conform to social norms and expectations. Third party

observation data would be a more reliable, less biased option for future studies. Bus, et al.

(1995) suggest that further research needs to be done to determine the conditions that generate

the most beneficial results for parent-preschooler book reading.

Dialogic Reading. One effective research-based technique for maximizing the

effectiveness of reading aloud is dialogic reading. In this method, parents and teachers
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 6

encourage the students to become active learners during the read aloud. Dialogic reading

coaches provide feedback with sophisticated language and challenge the child’s knowledge and

skills through conversation and questioning that is just above their current ability level (Lane,

2007). The dialogic reading method encourages children to engage in activities that support their

present and future literacy development through the cultivation of a positive attitude towards

reading.

Fielding-Barnsley & Purdie (2003) researched the effect of parental dialogical storybook

reading on at-risk students in Australia in the year prior to formal schooling. The experimental

group consisted of 26 children and the control group included 23 children. Participants in this

study were nominated by their parents. However, it was a requirement that one or more

members of their family showed a history of a reading disability to qualify as “at risk.” The

experimental group received training and written information about the dialogic reading process,

but all families were asked to read pre-selected books to their child at least five times during the

eight-week intervention. All students were tested in the first two weeks of the school year before

formal reading instruction had begun (Time 1) and then retested with the same material at the

end of the school year (Time 2). Fielding-Barnsley & Purdie (2003) found that the experimental

group scored significantly higher than the control group on receptive vocabulary, initial

consonant knowledge, rhyme and concepts of print at Time 1. Although data shows that all

students’ scores improved at Time 2, the experimental group maintained higher scores on final

consonant knowledge and concepts of print. This study provides evidence that diagnostic

reading intervention delivered at home can help develop early literacy skills.

However, it should be noted that Fielding-Barnsley & Purdie’s (2003) study was

conducted with a small sample size of children. Future tests should be done with a larger
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 7

population of children to determine the overall effectiveness of diagnostic reading over a diverse

population of students. Another limitation of this study is the parents were self-nominated to

participate in the diagnostic reading program. Furthermore, the students that were selected to

participate were considered at-risk if one or more members of their family had a history of a

reading disability. Family history does not consistently predict students’ potential for literacy

development. Future studies of this nature should consider offering the reading program to all

parents of preschool children in order to eliminate any potential stigma or embarrassment due to

the acknowledgement of family reading difficulties.

Shared Book Reading

Shared book reading refers to an approach to intervention in which a child reads with a

parent who is providing supportive assistance and guidance. The parent coaches their child

throughout the reading process using their Primary Discourse in order to stimulate shared

background knowledge, prior experiences, and cultural perspectives (Gee, 1989; Goodman &

Goodman, 1979; Wasik, 2004). Although there are endless variations of this technique, the ones

that will be addressed in this study include repeated reading and interactive reading.

Repeated Readings. One research-based strategy that has been utilized in the classroom

to improve oral reading fluency is repeated readings. During repeated readings, students reread

one story multiple times over the course of a week to ultimately improve reading fluency and,

therefore, comprehension. This strategy is based on the concept that word recognition

automaticity improves comprehension, due to the student’s ability to remember and make

meaning from all parts of the sentence in a timely manner (Adams & Bruck, 1995; LaBerge &

Samuels, 1974). By rereading the text multiple times, the student becomes more familiar with the

vocabulary and can then apply it to unfamiliar content (Hindin & Paratore, 2007). Hindin and
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 8

Paratore (2007) hypothesized that since repeated readings are an effective strategy for reading

fluency in the classroom, that same technique can also be used as a successful home intervention

for struggling readers.

Hindin and Paratore (2007) recruited eight 2nd graders from a small, urban, culturally

diverse school who were considered at-risk by their teachers to participate in the study, along

with their parents. Each week the parents were asked to read with their children and record

themselves during the process four times throughout the week. Parents were told that they could

assist the students by telling them the word, giving them clues, or telling them the sounds in the

words, but no further parent training was provided. At the conclusion of the study, Hindin and

Paratore (2007) found that all students exhibited a decrease in error rates during the intervention

process and substantial gains in fluency from the first reading to the final reading. Additionally,

all the students improved on an independent reading measure that assessed reading fluency,

comprehension, oral reading, and word reading. Through analysis of the tapes, it was found that

the students who received more word-level help from parents outperformed those who did not.

These results are significant because the data indications that repeated readings at home with

parents, regardless of their coaching abilities, yields positive results for reading progression.

One limitation of this study is that the parents did not receive specific coaching or training from

professionals to advance their word-level support during intervention sessions. Future studies of

this kind should consider the importance of parent training in strengthening children’s literacy

skills.

Interactive Reading. One key factor in home literacy interventions is the presence of

parental support. Whereas Hindin and Paratore (2007) determined the effectiveness of repeated

readings at home without the incorporation of a parent training support element, Saint-Laurent
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 9

and Giasson (2005) aimed to determine the value of training parents how to scaffold instruction

during paired reading interventions at home. While repeated reading is a specific intervention

method with specific parent expectations, interactive reading refers to any number of approaches

that can utilize the coaching approach.

One hundred and eight first grade students from 12 different public schools across

Montreal and Quebec City, Quebec, Canada participated in Saint-Laurent and Giasson’s (2005)

study. A workshop group of 53 students and a control group of 55 students were created, which

included a mix of low and high socioeconomic status (SES) families. The parents in the

experimental workshop group participated in nine, ninety minute long bi-monthly workshop

sessions that focused on ways to support their children’s learning when students read at home.

All students were given assessments on phonological awareness, concepts about print, invented

spelling, and attitude toward reading. Parents of the experimental group also completed a

questionnaire regarding program application. All students were given a reading test and a writing

test at the completion of the program. The results of Saint-Laurent and Giasson’s (2005) study

found that the students in the experimental group achieved better results on reading and writing

scores than the students in the control group. Additionally, data indicated that the socioeconomic

status (SES) of the families had little effect on the results of the study. This report is significant

because it provides evidence with objective data that parent involvement in grade one has a

positive influence on children’s reading and writing development. In concurrence with Teale and

Sulzby’s (1986) views on emergent literacy, Saint-Laurent and Giasson (2005) prove that the

family plays an essential role in the development of children’s literacy. One limitation of this

study is that the long term effects on student literacy development and achievement has not been

investigated. Another drawback is that the reading and writing tests were not consistent for the
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 10

pre- and post-assessment. Therefore, a conclusion regarding students’ literacy development

could not be made using a fair comparison. Future studies may want to examine the

experimental and control group students’ literacy achievement throughout the course of their

formal education to evaluate the sustained effects of parent education on scaffolding for shared

reading experiences as home.

Home Literacy Projects

Home literacy projects refer to an intervention approach in which a combination of

numerous literacy activities and assignments are completed with the support of parents. In order

to qualify for this review, the completed assignments must be completed at home and returned to

school for teacher evaluation.

Realizing that not all households have access to quality literacy materials (Heath, 1983)

and that every family holds different cultural beliefs regarding education (Wasik, 2004), Dever

and Burts (2013) created Family Literacy Bags (FLB). Each FLB was developed to educate

parents on effective ways to read and discuss books with their children in an effort to increase

parental and children’s involvement with literacy activities at home. Dever and Burts’s (2013)

FLBs were given to 2,340 kindergarten families in one city school district and three rural school

districts in the western United States. The FLBs contained 3 high-quality, developmentally

appropriate children’s books, varying reading and writing extension activities, and a parent

guidebook with information regarding effective reading techniques. Each child received an FLB

every third week over the course of the school year. Through the analysis of qualitative and

quantitative data including a pre- and post-reading questionnaire, parent FLB evaluation forms,

teacher’s qualitative surveys, and teacher’s anecdotes, Dever and Burts (2013) concluded that

Family Literacy Bags were a valuable family literacy intervention. A majority of the families
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 11

reported an increase in student engagement and interest, as well as an increase in awareness of

how to help support their children’s literacy development.

Similarly, Downing and Grande (2004) developed a home-literacy bag for first, second

and third grade students in a suburban elementary school in New York. The bags, called

Ladybug Luggage and Bluebird Baggage, were designed to educate parents on grade-level

reading and writing expectations and to help students meet the current literacy standards. Before

the interactive bags were sent home, parents were encouraged to complete a survey of their

knowledge of grade-level expectations and activities that can be done at home to promote

literacy development. The same survey was sent home at the completion of the project. The

literacy bags included a variety of developmentally appropriate picture books, collaborative

games, journals, graphic organizers, and literacy activities. Through the evaluation of the initial

and final surveys, parent feedback journals, and student writing samples, Downing and Grande

(2004) concluded that the Ladybug Luggage and Bluebird Baggage projects were successful.

The parents demonstrated an increased understanding of content knowledge and the students

showed an improvement in their writing samples.

The studies by Dever and Burts (2013) and Downing and Grande (2004) provide

evidence that home literacy projects nurture literacy development in students and improve family

literacy practices. However, both studies were limited by a lack of diversity in student

population. Dever and Burt’s Family Literacy Bags (FLB) were provided to kindergarten

families who were primarily white, middle-class, and members of the same church

denomination. The pre-questionnaire indicated that most of the families already read with their

children on a regular basis. Future studies should investigate the effectiveness of the home

literacy projects among diverse family populations and families with limited literacy skills. Both
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 12

studies based their conclusions on information gathered through qualitative data collection such

at parent questionnaires and surveys. Third party observation data would be a more reliable, less

biased option for future studies. Further quantitative research is needed to determine a potential

causal relationship between home literacy projects and children’s reading achievement.

Comparing Home Interventions

Sénéchal and Young (2008) constructed a quantitative meta-analysis review to examine

the effects of family literacy interventions on children’s acquisition of reading from kindergarten

to grade three. Sénéchal and Young (2008) examined 16 experimental and quasi-experimental

studies regarding interventions involving a total of 1,340 families. The 16 studies were divided

among three broad categories: 3 studies regarding parents reading to their child (read alouds), 6

studies involving children reading to their parents (shared reading), and 7 studies concerning

parents tutoring specific literacy skills with related activities. A combination of studies in which

parents received training and did not receive training were included within each category.

Sénéchal and Young’s (2008) meta-analysis revealed a strong, positive relationship between

parent involvement and literacy development in two categories. Data shows that parents tutoring

specific literacy skills with activities showed the best results, with children reading to parents

following closely in second. The third category, parents reading to their child, did not indicate a

strong, positive relationship for literacy acquisition in children. The review concluded that

training parents is an effective home intervention tool, especially when they are tutored in

specific activities to improve children’s literacy skills in specific areas.

Sénéchal and Young (2008) argue that there is discrepancy between the results of their

review and the meta-analysis of Bus, et al. (1995) regarding read alouds due to their inclusion of
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 13

studies containing oral language measures. Sénéchal and Young (2008) believe that the review

by Bus, et al. (1995) demonstrates a correlational relationship between parent read alouds and

children’s acquisition of reading skills since early literacy and oral language are fundamentally

developed in different manners. However, it should be noted that Sénéchal and Young’s (2008)

conclusion regarding read alouds has limitations due to the small number of studies within the

review category. Furthermore, all of the studies used in this meta-analysis were published in

peer-reviewed journals, which can lead to selection bias due to their inclination to include only

statistically significant results. Although there are limitations, this review demonstrates the

importance of parent involvement in children’s literacy development. Since parents tutoring

specific literacy skills with activities showed the best results, further research must be done to

determine the best method for parent instruction. Future studies must also be done to determine

the effectiveness of home interventions on at-risk students since only 4 studies out of the 16 in

this review included children that were struggling readers or considered at-risk for reading and

writing achievement.

Conclusion

All of the studies included in this review illustrate effective home literacy interventions

that increase literacy development, achievement, and reading interest in children. Read alouds,

shared book readings, and home literacy projects positively affect student literacy achievement

and development. It is notable that many studies investigated the effects of parent education

programs that instructed parents on effective intervention techniques. Many parents are uncertain

of how to nurture their developing readers and writers. From these studies, it can be concluded

that parent training increases the effectiveness of home literacy interventions. However, all
EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 14

studies showed that regardless of parent training, students’ literacy skills improved with the

increased involvement of families through various home interventions.

EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 15

References

Adams, M., & Bruck, M. (1995). Resolving the ‘great debate.’ American Educator, 19 (2), 9-20.

Allington, R.L. (2000). What really matters for struggling readers: Designing research -based

programs. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Bus, A. G., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Pellegrini, A. D. (1995). Joint book reading makes for

success in learning to read: A meta-analysis on intergenerational transmission of

literacy. Review of educational research, 65(1), 1-21.

Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to

reading experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental psychology, 33(6), 934.

Dever, M., & Burts, D. (2002). An evaluation of family literacy bags as a vehicle for parent

involvement. Early Child Development and Care, 172(4), 359-370.

Downing, J. A., & Grande, M. (2004). Increasing parent participation and knowledge using

home literacy bags. Intervention in School and Clinic, 40(2), 120-126.

Fielding-Barnsley, R., & Purdie, N. (2003). Early intervention in the home for children at risk of

reading failure. Support For Learning, 18(2), 77-82.

Gee, P. (1989). Literacy, discourse, and linguistics: Introduction. Journal of Education, 171 (1),

5-17.

Goodman, S., & Goodman, Y. (1979). Learning to read is natural. In A. Flurkey & J. Xu (Eds.),

On the Revolution of Reading (352-371). Portsmouth, NH : Heinemann.

EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 16

Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life and work in communities and classrooms.

Cambridge University Press.

Hindin, A., & Paratore, J. R. (2007). Supporting young children's literacy learning through

home-school partnerships: The effectiveness of a home repeated-reading

intervention. Journal of Literacy Research, 39(3), 307-333.

LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information processing in

reading. Cognitive psychology, 6(2), 293-323.

Lane, H. B., & Wright, T. L. (2007). Maximizing the effectiveness of reading aloud. The

Reading Teacher, 60(7), 668-675.

Lawson, K. (2012). The real power of parental reading aloud: Exploring the affective and

attentional dimensions. Australian Journal of Education (ACER Press), 56(3), 257-272.

Perie, M., Grigg, W., & Donahue, P. (2005). The nation’s report card. Reading,4.

Purcell-Gates, V. (2002). “...As soon as she opened her mouth!”: Issues of language, literacy,

and power. In L. Delpit & J.K. Dowdy (Eds.), The skin that we speak: An anthology of

essays on language, culture and power. (121-141). New York: The News Press.

Saint-Laurent, L., & Giasson, J. (2005). Effects of a family literacy program adapting parental

intervention to first graders’ evolution of reading and writing abilities. Journal of Early

Childhood Literacy, 5(3), 253-278.

Sénéchal, M., & Young, L. (2008). The effect of family literacy interventions on children’s

acquisition of reading from kindergarten to grade 3: A meta-analytic review. Review of

Educational Research, 78(4), 880-907.

EFFECTIVE HOME INTERVENTIONS FOR LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 17

Teale, W.H., & Sulzby, E. (1986). Emergent literacy as a perspective for examining how young

children become writers and readers. In W.H. Teale & E. Sulzby (Eds.), Emergent

literacy: Writing and reading. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Wasik, B. H., & Hendrickson, J. S. (2004). Family literacy practices. Handbook of Language

and Literacy, 154-174.