ALGEBRA

DEFINITIONS

1
1. An expression is a very general name for things written algebraically eg. 3 x 2  2,  x4
x4
2. A polynomial is a special type of expression where the powers of x are positive whole numbers.
1
eg. 3 x 7  4 x 2  8 is a polynomial but 3x 7  is not a polynomial
x
3. An algebraic expression may have several terms. The terms are the various bits that are combined by adding
and multiplying.

eg. 3x 7  4 x 2  8 has 3 terms: 3x 7 , 4x 2 , and 8

( x  2)( x  3) has 2 terms: x  2 and x  3
4. The coefficient of a term is the number part of the term:

eg. The coefficient of 3x 7 is 3

5. The degree of a polynomial is the highest power of x that occurs in the expression:

eg. 3 x 7  4 x 2  8 is of degree 7

DIVIDING A POLYNOMIA L

quotient + rem
divisor dividend

EXAMPLES

(1) Divide x3  3 x 2  2 x  1 by x 1
x2  2 x  4
5
x  1 x3  3x 2  2 x  1 Therefore the solution is x 2  2 x  4 
x 1
x3  x 2
2x 2  2 x
2 x2  2 x
-4x  1
-4x  4
5
(2) Divide 6 x 3  13 x 2  4 by x2
6x 2  x  2
x  2 6 x  13 x 2  0 x  4
3

6 x3  12 x 2
 x2  0 x
 x2  2 x
 2x  4
2 x  4
0
This means that (x-2) is actually a factor as there is no remainder we can therefore write
6𝑥 3 − 13𝑥 2 + 4 𝑎𝑠 (𝑥 − 2)(6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2)
(3) When 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 1 is divided by 𝑥 − 1 the remainder is 5. Find the value of p.

EXERCISE 1A, PAGE 2

REMAINDER THEOREM

IF A POLYNOMIAL P(X) IS DIVIDED BY ANY LINEAR EXPRESSION OF THE FORM AX – B THEN THE
REMAINDER IS GIVEN BY P(B/A).

Ie. If a polynomial is divided by 3x+1 then we can substitute (-1/3) into the polynomial to find the remainder. If it is
divided by x-2 then we can substitute (2) into it.

EXAMPLE

2x  2  1   1   1 
2

(1) 2 x  1 4 x  6 x  3
2
Remainder given by:  2 
p  4   6   3
 2   2 
4 x2  2 x 1
4x  3
4x  2
1 r
This means that the example (3) earlier can also be solved using our understanding of the remainder theorem:
[ (3) When 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 1 is divided by 𝑥 − 1 the remainder is 5. Find the value of p. ]
Substituting (1):
(1)3 + 2(1)2 − 𝑝(1) + 1 = 5
1+2−𝑝+1= 5
−𝑝 + 4 = 5
𝑝 = −1

FACTOR THEOREM

A special case of the remainder theorem.

IF THE REMAINDER OF AX – B IS 0 (IE P(B/A) = 0) THEN AX – B MUST BE A FACTOR OF THE

POLYNOMIAL P(X).

Use the factor theorem to factorise 3x3  8 x 2  7 x  12

Think of all the factors of -12 ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6

p(1) = 3(1)3 + 8(1)2 – 7(1) –12

= -8
p(-1) = 3(-1)3 + 8(-1)2 – 7(-1) –12
=0
Therefore we know that (𝑥 + 1) is a factor of 3𝑥 3 + 8𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 12
You now have a choice – either continue with factor theorem or use long division.

3x 2  5 x  12
x  1 3 x3  8 x 2  7 x  12
3x3  3x 2
5x 2  7 x
5x2  5x
 12 x  12
12 x  12
0
Therefore factors are (𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 12) which becomes (𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 + 3)

EXERCISE 1B, PAGE 14 ALL

UNDERSTAND THE MEANI NG OF |𝒙|

The modulus function
|𝑥| = 𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
The absolute value essentially makes x always positive
We frequently use the modulus|𝑥| when talking about distance as this can never be negative.
Graphs of functions involving the modulus
(Students need graph whiteboards)
Get students to draw the following:
(1) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 3
1
(2) 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 2
2
(3) 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)
And now change them to modulus functions by flipping the negative parts up. Using a suitable graphing programme to
show them the solutiions
Definition of the modulus
To draw more challenging functions we need a better understanding of the definition of a modulus

THE 𝐌𝐎𝐃𝐔𝐋𝐔𝐒 OF 𝑥, DENOTED BY |𝑥|, IS DEFINED BY

|𝑥| = 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = −𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0

You’ll notice from the graphs we have drawn that the parts we have flipped have the exact same equation as the rest of
the graph except they are negative.

Example (1)

y  x2

y
5

1
x

         
-1

-2

EXERCISE 4A, PAGE 23

SOLVING EQUATIONS AN D INEQUATIONS INVOLVING THE MODULUS FUNCTION

There are a number of methods we can use to solve modulus equations and inequations, we will look at two:

METHOD 1: SQUARING B OTH SIDES

Using the following rule

|𝑥| = |𝑎| ⇔ 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2
WHERE ⇔ MEANS ′EQUIVALENT TO′
This is generally the easiest method, however there are some equations which may create false solutions using this
method. The easy way to fix this is to always check your solutions, disregarding any which are incorrect.

 |𝑥 + 𝑎| = 𝑘
 |𝑥 + 𝑎| = |𝑥 + 𝑏|
 |𝑥 + 𝑎| = −|𝑥 + 𝑏| 𝑜𝑟 |𝑥 + 𝑎| + |𝑥 + 𝑏| = 𝑘

EXAMPLE

(1) Solve x  2x 1
𝑥 2 = (2𝑥 + 1)2
𝑥 2 = 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
0 = 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1
0 = (3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1)
1
𝑥 = −1, −
3

METHOD 2: DRAWING THE TWO GRAPHS

If you are confident drawing the graphs, this method will seem easier.

EXAMPLE

(1) Solve |𝑥| > |2𝑥 + 1|

y
4
From your sketch you can see that there are two points of intersection:
−𝑥 = −2𝑥 − 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑥 = 2𝑥 + 1
3

Solving these equations will determine the points of intersection

1
2
𝑥 = −1 and 𝑥 = −
3

1
We can then tell by looking at the graph that the answer will be
1
−1 < 𝑥 < − x
3
-2 -1 1 2
(2) |9 − 2𝑥| < 1
By Squaring: y

(9 − 2𝑥)2 < 1
6
81 − 36𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 < 1
80 − 36𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 < 0
𝑥 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 5 4

Therefore: 4 < 𝑥 < 5

2
By Sketching:
x
0
2 4 6 8

EXERCISE 4B AND 4C PAGE 25-26

CONVERTING RATIONAL FUNCTIONS INTO PARTIAL FRACTIONS

Rational functions are algebraic functions. Converting rational functions into partial fractions essentially reverses the
process of adding or subtracting fractions. This is important when we get to integration.

EXAMPLE

−7𝑥 − 1
(1)Convert into partial fractions
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)
−7𝑥 − 1 𝐴 𝐵
= +
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2
𝐵(2𝑥 − 1)
(× 2𝑥 − 1) =𝐴+
𝑥−2
(× 𝑥 − 2) = 𝐴(𝑥 − 2) + 𝐵(2𝑥 − 1)
= 𝐴𝑥 − 2𝐴 + 2𝐵𝑥 − 𝐵
The next process is called equating coefficients, we compare the coefficients of the 𝑥 and the constant
= (𝐴 + 2𝐵)𝑥 − 2𝐴 − 𝐵
We know that A + 2B = -7 and -2A – B = -1, we can simply solve these equations simultaneously.
𝐴 = −7 − 2𝐵
−2(−7 − 2𝐵) − 𝐵 = −1
14 + 4𝐵 − 𝐵 = −1
3𝐵 = −15
𝐵 = −5

𝐴 = −7 − 2(−5)
𝐴 = −7 + 10
𝐴=3
Therefore:
−7𝑥 − 1 3 5
= −
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 2
 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 15
(𝟐)Convert into partial fractions
(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2)
𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 15 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥 + 1 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 2
We can use the same technique as above, however this would result in three equations with 3 unknowns. We can
instead, use the substitution technique.
To find A we multiply both sides of the equation by the first factor (𝑥 + 1), and then substitute (-1) into the equation.
𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 − 15 𝐵(𝑥 + 1) 𝐶(𝑥 + 1)
=𝐴+ +
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 2) 2𝑥 − 1 𝑥+2
(−1)2 − 8(−1) − 15
𝐴=
(2(−1) − 1)(−1 + 2)
−6
=
−3
=2
1
In the same way we can find B by multiplying both sides by (2𝑥 − 1), and substitute
2
2
𝑥 − 8𝑥 − 15 2(2𝑥 − 1) 𝐶(2𝑥 − 1)
= +𝐵+
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) 𝑥+1 𝑥+2

1 2 1
( ) − 8 ( ) − 15
𝐵= 2 2
1 1
( + 1) ( + 2)
2 2
−18.75
=
3.75
= −5
And in the same way we find C to be 1:
(−2)2 − 8(−2) − 15
𝐶=
(−2 + 1)(2(−2) − 1)
5
=
5
=1

EXERCISE 11A, PAGE 75, ALL

OTHER TYPES OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝐴𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛,
(𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)(𝑟𝑥 2 + 𝑠)
𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 + 2
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝐴𝑛 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
(𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞)(𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠)2
 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 + 2
+
𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 (𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠) 𝑟𝑥 + 𝑠
Both of these cases require a combination of Substitution and Equation coefficients to solve them.

EXAMPLE 1

3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= +
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 3) 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 2 + 3)
Finding A, Substituting x = -1
3(−1)2 + 2(−1) + 3
=𝐴
((−1)2 + 3)
𝐴=1
Equating coefficients
3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 2 + 3 + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)(𝑥 + 1)
= 𝑥 2 + 3 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐶
(1 + 𝐵)𝑥 2 + (𝐶 + 𝐵)𝑥 + 3 + 𝐶
Therefore
𝐵 = 2, 𝐶=0
1 2𝑥
+ 2
𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 3)

EXAMPLE 2

5𝑥 + 15 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2
= + +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 4) 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 4 (𝑥 + 4)2
𝐶
If I multiplied both sides by 𝑥 + 4 and substituted -4 in then the fraction (𝑥+4)2 would have 0 in the denominator which
is not possible. Therefore we can only work out A and C using the substitution method and then finish off using
equating coefficients.
Finding A, Substituting x = 1
5(1) + 15
=𝐴
(1 + 4)2
20 4
𝐴= =
25 5
Finding C, Substituting x = -4
5(−4) + 15
=𝐶
(−4 − 1)
𝐶=1
Therefore
5𝑥 + 15 4 𝐵 1
= + +
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 4)2 5(𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 + 4 (𝑥 + 4)2
Equating Coefficients:
4
5𝑥 + 15 = (𝑥 + 4)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 4) + 1(𝑥 − 1)
5
Looking at the 𝑥 2
 4 2
𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 2 = 0
5
Therefore
4
𝐵=−
5
Final answer:
4 4 1
− +
5(𝑥 − 1) 5(𝑥 + 4) (𝑥 + 4)2

EXERCISE 11B, PAGE 77

IMPROPER FRACTIONS

Ration functions are considered improper if the numerator has the same power of x or higher.
5𝑥 3 + 15
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)
Firstly we need to carry out the division:

So we end up with
35𝑥 − 15
5𝑥 − 5 +
(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)
Which we can then split into partial fractions the normal way.

EXERCISE 11C, PAGE 78

EXERCISE 11D, MIXED EXERCISE, PAGE 78-79

THE BINOMIAL EXPANSION

On your formula sheets you will have already used the first binomial expansion formula:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎 (𝑛−1) 𝑏 + ( ) 𝑎 (𝑛−2) 𝑏 2 + ( ) 𝑎(𝑛−3) 𝑏 3 +. . . +𝑏 𝑛
1 2 3
This formula is used when n is a positive integer.

REVISION: EXERCISE 27.4, Q1 – 4, PAGE 252, DELTA MATHEMATICS

We are now going to look at the other version of this formula which is used for fractional values of n and |𝑥| < 1.
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 + …
2! 3!
EXAMPLE
4
Find the expansion of (1 − 6𝑥)3 in ascending powers of 𝑥 up to and including the term 𝑥 2 . For what values of 𝑥 is the
expansion valid?
4 4
4 4 ( − 1)
(1 − 6𝑥)3 = 1 + (−6𝑥) + 3 3 (−6𝑥)2 …
3 2!
2
= 1 − 8𝑥 + × 36𝑥 2
9
= 1 − 8𝑥 + 8𝑥 2 …
 1
Therefore the required expansion is 1 − 8𝑥 + 8𝑥 2 , which is valid for |−6𝑥| < 1 which is |𝑥| <
6

A slight variation is required if the expression is not in the (1+..) format

EXAMPLE
1
Find the binomial expansion of (4 − 3𝑥 2 )2 up to and including the term in 𝑥 4
1
1 3 2
42 (1 − 𝑥 2 )
4
1
3 2
2 (1 − 𝑥 2 )
4
2
1 3 1 3
2(1 + ( ) (− 𝑥 2 ) + (− ) (− 𝑥 2 ) + ⋯ ..
2 4 8 4
3 9 4
2 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 ….
4 64

EXERCISE 11E, PAGE 82, Q1-10

USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS WITH THE BINOMIAL EXPANSION

Example
1. (a) Given that:
1
𝑓(𝑥) =
(3 + 𝑥)(1 − 𝑥)
Express 𝑓(𝑥) in partial fractions
1 2𝑥 7𝑥 2
(b) Show that 𝑓(𝑥) = + + +⋯
3 9 27

(a)
𝐴 𝐵
= +
3+𝑥 1−𝑥
1 1
𝐴= 𝐵=
4 4

Therefore
1 1
+
4(3 + 𝑥) 4(1 − 𝑥)

(b)
1 1
(3 + 𝑥)−1 + (1 − 𝑥)−1
4 4
Sometimes it is easier to work out each component separately:
𝑥 −1
(3 + 𝑥)−1 = 3−1 (1 + )
3
1 𝑥 (−1)(−2) 𝑥 2
= (1 + (−1) ( ) + ( ) )
3 3 2 3
 1 𝑥 𝑥2
= (1 − + )
3 3 9
1 𝑥 𝑥2
= − +
3 9 27

(1 − 𝑥)−1
(−1)(−2)
= (1 + (−1)(−𝑥) + (−𝑥)2 )
2
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
Substituting the components back in gives:
1 1 𝑥 𝑥2 1
( − + ) + (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )
4 3 9 27 4
1 𝑥 𝑥2 1 1 1
= − + + + 𝑥 + 𝑥2
12 36 108 4 4 4
1 2 7 2
= + 𝑥+ 𝑥
3 9 27

EXERCISE 11E, FINISH EXERCISE