Moral Philosophy

1. Moral philosophy and moral theology are two distinct disciplines. The former may be defined
as a practical and normative science, which studies human acts, provides norms for their
goodness and wrongness and derives its conclusion through reason alone while the latter
considers not only reason but also divine revelation as it deals with the morality of human act.

2. Moral Philosophy offers diverse views regarding right and wrong shown in the two opposing
views about the sources of right and wrong; objective view versus subjective view. These
differences are also evident in the different ethical theories used to justify moral decisions. In
this light, ethical relativism is a manifestation of such diversity.

3. The ethical theories of Hedonism, Stoicism and Epicureanism recognize happiness as goal of
human existence while teaching different attitudes towards desires. Hedonism teaches all-out
satisfaction of desire. Stoicism teaches control of desire. Epicureanism teaches moderate
attitude towards desires.

4. Natural law ethics teaches that morality is based on nature and natural order of things.
Morality is embedded in nature and human act is either intrinsically good or evil. It teaches four
main principles: the principle totality, inviolability, stewardship and sexuality and procreation.

5. Consequentialism is an ethical theory, which holds that morality is based on effects,

outcomes, results and consequences of an action. This may be manifested in the utilitarian and
pragmatic theory. Utilitarianism teaches that act’s moral justifiability is based on the greatest
happiness of the greatest number while pragmatism holds that a human act is morally justifiable
if it is practical, beneficial, workable and useful.

6. Joseph Fletcher’s situationism teaches that act’s moral justifiability depends upon a given
situation. Under his ethical theory, one must act in the light of agapeic love in contrast to erotic
and filial love. Under this view, only agapeic love is intrinsically good. As such, an evil means
does not always nullify a good end.

7. Deontologism considers duties, responsibilities and obligations as norms of morality.

Immanuel Kant’s deontologism distinguishes acts performed in accord with duty and acts
performed from a sense of duty. In his view, duty can be a universal criterion for the act’s moral
justifiability by developing the categorical imperative.

8. Humanistic Ethics considers self-realization as the ultimate standard of morality. It is life-

affirming and death-denying morality, which also considers the social dimension of human
existence. According to Aristotle, the foremost proponent of this ethical theory, self-realization is
the fulfillment of man’s threefold nature: vegetative, sentient and rational.

9. Power ethics claim that might is right. In this context, might is taken as a force, strength or
capacity to rule. This ethical doctrine teaches that actions enhancing one’s strength or capacity
to rule others are morally legitimate, tracing its roots in one’s will to power. Will to power is a
guide in determining the morality of an action.

Existentialism

1. Existentialism is a 20th century philosophical movement that emerged when human

authorities and institutions were gradually losing both their legitimacy and control over the
individual self. This philosophical movement is a protest against the tyranny of universal and it
emphasizes authentic existence vis-à-vis inauthentic existence. Its theme, existence precedes
essence, elucidates importance of freedom and responsibility in achieving authenticity.

2. Soren Kierkegaard is considered as one of the forerunners and the father of existentialism.
According to him, the term existence is reserved to humans while freedom is crucial in one’s
authenticity. In his existential view, one must overcome the objectivities in the society and not to
live crowd existence. According to Kierkegaard, it is the leap of faith that can help man to live an
authentic existence. This may happen in three stages: aesthetic, ethical and religious stage.
3. Friedrich Niezsche is one of the forerunners of existentialism. His existential views are clearly
manifested in his philosophical views such as: a.) God is dead, b.) master and slave morality, c.)
will to power and d.) ubermensch.

4 Jean Paul Sartre’s existence precedes essence elucidates existentialism’s theme. According to
Sartre, there are two regions of being: en soi (being-in-itself) and pour-soi (being-for-itself). An
authentic life is a life not living in bad faith. Man faces the reality that he is condemned to be
free. As such, freedom and responsibility are part of authentic human existence.

Postmodern Culture and Philosophy

5 Understanding modernism and modernity is crucial in understanding postmodernism and

postmodernity. The principles and ideals of postmodernism and distinctive historical events in
postmodernity contextualize postmodern culture and philosophy.

6 Michel Foucault criticized how modernity standardized and controlled the human subject. This
is manifested in how the ruling class and powerful people imposed their will on the marginalized
people. This is possible because of technologies of surveillance which are means of the ruling
class in evaluating the individual. The powerful even manipulates knowledge that for Foucault
the quest for knowledge is motivated by the quest for power.

7 Jean Francois Lyotard criticized how postmodern man treats knowledge. His criticism may be
summarized into the following points: A.) Knowledge is treated like a commodity; B.)
Postmodern world has become tolerant to the proliferation of competing knowledge; there are
metanarratives and micronarratives.

8. Jean Baudrillard criticized postmodern attitude towards consumption, which is intensified by

the mass media. Goods are purchased because of prestige symbol and not because of utility.
Consumption becomes the organizing principle of society and man achieves his identity through
the goods that he/she purchased. Man is brought into hyper-reality, which results to the real to
imitate the image instead of the image imitating the real.

Eastern Philosophy (Buddhist Philosophy)

9. Buddha’s first sermon, Sermon on the Four Noble Truths, discusses the foundational teachings
of Buddhism. These are dukkha, samudaya, nirodha and magga. The teachings say that life is full
of suffering but there are eight-fold path which can lead to enlightenment.