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ECLIPSE
SCIENTIFIC
Phased Array Ultrasonic Technology
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.1 Phased Array UT asit Relates to Conventional UT...... .....................1

7.2 Advantages and Limitations of PAUT.......... ..................1
1.2.7 Advantages .................1
7.2.2 Limitations For The Use of Phased Array Instruments Over Conventional UT........2
Chapter (3): The Principles of "Phasing".,.,,.............. .......................7

3.1 Reflection of Waves .................7
3.2 Refraction of Waves..... ............7
3.3 Diffraction of Waves..... ...........7
3.5.1 Constructive Interference ................ ...................8

3.5.2 Destructive Interference .................8
3.6 Coherent Wave Sources................. ..............9
3.7 Huygens'Principle ..................9
3.8 Formation of Wavefronts.................. ...........9
Chapter (4): Probe Performance and Se1ection.............. ................13
4.1 Types of Phased Array Probes......... .........14
4.7.1 Linear......... ................14
4.7.2 Matrix ........................15
4.7.3 Annular .....................16
4.1.4 Rho-Theta.. ................1,6
4.1.5 Other Array Types.......... ..............17
4.2 Probe Selection/Wedge Se1ection..... .........18
4.2.1 Test Material Considerations (Frequency and Bandwidth) ...................18
4.2.2 Delay Lines and Wedge Angles........ ...............19
4.2.3 Array Si2es............ .........................20
4.2.4 Wedges...... ................27
4.2.5 Probes on Wedges ........................22
5.1 Beam Steering and Focusing .....................25
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8.5.9 Dynamic Depth Focusing ..........110

8.6 Scanning Equipment ...........772
8.6.7 Limitations of Mechanised Scanning ............772
8.7 Scanning Displays and Scanning Equipment................... ..............113
8.7.7 A-scans ....................113
8.7 .2 B-scans ....... .............. 113
8.7.3 C-scans ............'........774
8.7.4 Other Scan Presentation Types ......................115
8.8 Memory and Digitisation Aspects ........:.......................118
8.8.1 Bit-depth and Sampling Rates .......................118
8.8.2 RF versus Rectified Digitisation ....................119
8.8.3 File Size Calculations ..................721
Chapter (9): Phased Array Calibration Checks....... .....................123
9.1 Instrument Linearity Calibrations ..........124
9.7.7 Time Base Linearity (Horizontal Linearity) ......................725
9.1.2 Display Height Linearity ...........t27
9.7.3 Amplitude Control Linearity .........................128
9.2 Active Element Assessment ....................131
9.2.7 Manual Element Checks ............131
9.2.2 Preset Pro9rammes................... .......................133
9.3 Determining Beam Angles and Offsets ......................133
9.4 Beam Characterisation (Profile)...... ........135
9.5 Determining Phased Array Beam Steering Limits .........................138
9.6 Calibration Blocks Used In System Verifications................... ........141
Chapter (10): Principles of Inspection Sensitivity............ ..........149
10.1 Establishing Parameters for Fermat Computations................ .......743
10.1.1 Velocity Determinations .............. ...................145
70.7.2 Wedge Delay Determinations.............. ..........146
10.1.3 Compensating for Attenuation ......................148
70.2 Inspection Sensitivity Targets .................151
70.2.7 Subsurface Targets........ ..............151
70.2.2 Surface Targets....... .....................153
10.3 Sensitivity to Misaligned Defects ...........156
70.4 Manual and Auto-Calibrations.. .............158
70.4.7 Constructing a DAC for Scanning Reference Sensitivity .....................159
10.4.2 Constructing a TCG for Scanning Reference Sensitivity.. ....................160
10.5 Calibration 81ocks......... .......162
10.5.1 Selection for Application.............. ..................763
70.5.2 Flat and Curved Surfaces...... .....767
Chapter (11): Phased Array Technique Deve1opment................. ....................727
77.7 Manual or Automated Application of PAUT ............180
77.7.1 Manual PAUT Configurations.............. .........180
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17.7.2 Automated Applications of PAUT.. """""""181

17.2 Component Industrial Sector.......... """"183
Rai1.............
1.7.2.7 ..............183
11.2.2 Aerospace.. .......,...'.'183
17.2.3 Power Generation. """""""""""184
11.3 Component Form........... """184
11.3.1 Castings...... """"""'184
17.3.2 Forgings """"""""" 184
11.3.3 plate ........... ..............195
llt ,$,},Hd;-t............................'..............................................'......................................ii;
77.5.2 Contact ....................188
17.6 Scan-plan and Essential Parameter Details """""""" 188
11.6.7 Volume Coverage and Angle Details........' ..""""""""""" 188
71.6.2 Weld-Volume Considerations.........'.. """""" 191
77.6.3 Instrumentation Settings................... """""""193

Chapter (12): Software options and Principles of Data Collection.. ............L95
72.1 Graphic User Interface....'............ """"""195
12.2 Setup Parameters............ ""'795
72.2.1 UT Settings - Probe, Wedge, Material and Inspection Parameters............... ...........795
72.2.2 Inspection Scan Details - Scan Sequence and Encoder Settings....
......199
12.3 File Structure.................. """200
12.4 Software Options """"""""'203
1.2.4.1 Viewing Displays.".. """""""""'203
72.4.2 Online View Modes of Data Presentation ""205
12.4.3 Analysis Mode .......205
12.4.4 Presentation of Display Views for Analysis .............'........206
72.4.5 Analysis Too1s........... ..................210
72.5 Projection Analysis..... .........219
72.5.1 Voxelisation ............279
72.5.2 Volumetric Image Merge......... .................'.....227
12.6 Reporting Conversions....'.......
and Data File ..........'.'223
Analysis.....
Chapter (13): Principles of Data ...........225
73.7 Image Formats...... ................225
13.1.1 Manual Scanning ................'.......225
73.1.2 Mechanised Scanning..... ............227
73.2 Echo Dynamics of Signals In Encoded Data..'......... .-.---.'...............230
13.3 Tip Echo Techniques ...........232
73.4 RF or Rectified............... .......233
13.4.7 PA TOFD... ..............234
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73.4.2 Pulse Echo.. .............22s

Chapter (14): Procedures for Verification of Flaw Existence and Position.................. .....237
74.1 Ceometric Indications .........2g7
14.2 Flaw Indications............ ..................... .......23g
74.2.7 SAW............ .............247
74.2.2 SMAW .....................247
74.2.3 CTAW and GMAW .........................................244
74.2.4 Electric Resistance We1ding...... ......................245
74.2.5 Friction Stir Welding ..................246
743
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Indications.............
74.3.2 Cap
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..............24g
74.3.3 Mid-wall-Fusion Line or Incomplete Penetration (Double-V) . . ............................250
74.3.4 Mid-wall Volume - Porosity.... .......................251
74.3.5 Mid-wall Volume - Interpass Non-fusion ........................252
Chapter (15): use of Software Tools for Flaw Detection and si2ing......... ........................253
15.1 Tip Echo Sizing by PAUT.... ....................256
15.1.1 Surface Connected ......................256
75.7.2 Embedded.. .............257
75.2 MaxAmp Sizing by PAUT.... ...................260
15.3 Guidance to Tip Echo Assessments.......... ...................267
76.1 Report Topics .......................263

76.1.7 Component Details........ .............263
16.7.2 Equipment ..............264
76.7.3 Equipment Settings ....................264
76.7.4 Results and Personnel ................. ....................264
16.2 Report Software ...................264
Chapter (17): Codes for Phased Array App1ications................... .....................267
77.7 Equipment Control (Instrumentation and probes) ........................26g
77.2 Inspection Control (Scanning) ................270
Chapter (18): Procedures, Techniques, and Written Instructions .......,.,.......273
18.1 Documentation Hierarchy................ .......273
78.2 Main Components of The Documents ........................275
18.3 EN/ISO 9712Style Procedure Outline ........................276
18.3.1 Scope........... .............276
78.3.2 Standards and References............... ................276
18.3.3 Definitions ..............276
78.3.4 Safety .......................276
18.3.5 Personnel... ..............276
18.3.6 Identification and Datum points ...................276
78.3.7 Surface Preparation ....................276
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18.3.8 Extent of Inspection.................. .......................277

18.3.9 Equipment Specification ............277
18.3.10 Equipment Calibration. ..............277
18.3.11 Equipment Checks........ ..............277
78.3.72 Technique Detai1.......... ...............277
18.3.13 Assessment of Test Results........ .....................277
1.8.3.74 Reporting of Test Results........ -.........-.-.'.........2f2
18.3.15 Non-compliance Statement ............... .............278
18.3.16 Attachments................... ..............278
78.4 EN-Style Written Instruction Outline .........................278
78.4.1 Foreword, Status and Authorisation......... .........................278
78.4.2 Personnel... ..............278
78.4.3 Apparatus To Be Used ...............278
78.4.4 Product/Area To Be Tested......... ....................278
18.4.5 Test Conditions............. ..............278
18.4.6 Detailed Instructions for Application of Test ...................279
78.4.7 Recording and Classifying Results. ...............279
18.4.8 Reporting the Results .................279
Questions
Part (A): Multiple Choice ..-..............287
Part (B): Math Questions............. ........................296
Appendix (A): Samples of Inspection Reports .......297
Sample (I): Comprehensive Report Generated Using "ESBeamTool"............... ..........297
Sample (II): Simple Report........ .....302
Appendix (B): Sample of Inspection Procedure .....305
Procedure (PAUT 101-01) ..............307
Technique (PAUT 101-T-01) ..........316
Appendix (C): Sample of Written Instruction ........321.
Appendix (D): Phased Array UT Equations................ .....'...........326
Appendix (E): Exit Point FormuIas............... ............328
Appendix (F): Glossary of Phased Array UT Terms.. .................330
Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing Terms ...........330
Related Ultrasonic Terms......... ......333
Chapter (1): Introduction
CHAPTER (L): INTRODUCTION
Advances in mechanisation capabilities, afforded by the rapid growth of the computer industry, have
been wide spread. NDT is no exception to the variety of industries that have benefitted from these
advances.
This handbook is intended to improve the students' understanding of phased array aspects of
mechanised ultrasonic inspections. As well, some background is supplied with regard to the ancillary
aspects of mechanised ultrasonic inspections, data acquisition and computer imaging.
The book is structured, as are most training handbooks; a history is provided and then we review the
basics to build up the background on phasing. But the principles of wave mechanics and diffraction
are the same for single element probes as well as phased array probes. Therefore the review of
principles for mono-element probes leads to an extrapolation of these principles to the applications of
phased array ultrasonic testing. Phased array UT systems are now nearly always computerised and
often used in configurations that hold the probe (or probes) in a carrier. The carrier is almost always
encoded and is often motorised (although manual operation of encoded carriers is also common). This
makes it necessary for the student to have some background on the apparatus used with the phased
array probe and data acquisition system. Having covered the principles of phasing and data
processing (albeit at a rudimentary level), examples from industry are used to illustrate the
adaptability of phased array techniques and to illustrate some of the post-processing enhancements
that are available with phased array systems.
1..7 PHASED ARRAY UT AS IT RELATES TO CONVENTIONAL UT

Phased Array (PA) transducers can be thought of as multiple small conventional transducers (called
elements) housed in a single unit. Each transducer can be pulsed individually and by varying the time
between pulses from the elements, for example sequentially, along a row such that constructive
interference of the individual waves can occur, the desired angle and focus is achieved. It can be said
that PA beams can be'steered' and'shaped' electronically.
7.2 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF PAUT

1.2.1 ADVANTACES
There are multiple advantages of using Phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) systems over
conventional ultrasonic testing:
. Ability to sweep sound beams through a range of angles without moving the probe enables
PA probe to be used in places where mechanical raster scans are not possible
. Ability of interrogating a defect with different angles increases the probability of detection
(POD) of defects regardless of their orientation
r (1): Introduction
' Ability to dynamically focus at different depths, improves ability for sizing critical defects by
improving the signal to noise ratio
' Ability of plotting return signal data in various standard display formats
' Ability to increase the number of elements used, thus increasing sensitivity by reducing beam
spread and sharpening the focus
' Most modern PA instruments have calibration wizards, which facilitate rapid and accurate
calibration for multiple angles or simultaneous scans
' Ability to individually process returning signals according to arrival time and amplitude
' High inspection speeds over conventional UT employing raster scanning
, Increased signal to noise ratio using focused beams
. Data software is readily available for post-processing capabilities
7.2,2 LIMITATIONS FOR THE USE OF PHASED ARIiAY INSTRUMENTS

OVER CONVENTIONAL UT
There are a few disadvantages of using phased array systems over conventional ultrasonic testing:
' Phased array instruments can be 10-20 times more costly with expensive probes and software
upgrades
' Requires trained operators with computer, spatial visualisation, and ultrasonic skills
. Data Analysis can be time consuming
' PAUT methods have yet to receive widespread acceptance by international standards
' Grating lobes are similar to side lobes which may be interfering in the time base display
' Dead elements in an array may inhibit constructive interference and beamforming
' Sweep angle restrictions must be practiced by the operator while using sectorial scan mode
CHAPTER (2): HISTORY
Phased Array ultrasonic testing has its origins in medical ultrasound. An excellent background on all
aspects of ultrasonic testing history is provided by Dr. Woo on his website at http://www.ob-
ultrasound.net. This small section on history draws liberally from Dr. Woo's information. The concept
of multiple elements in a single housing is not that recent a finding. Tom Brown at Kelvin and Hughes
filed an application for patents for an annular dynamically focused transducer system.as early as 1959.
But this was not based on phasing. Not until the late 1960s did the timing circuits for the phasing of
ultrasonic pulses become published.
Prototypes of phased array systems had all the elements used for each pulse. Variable time delays
were introduced between the elements in both transmission and reception modes so that the beam
was "steered" in a particular direction. As electronics evolved, so too did the timing circuitry. Ln7976,
Thurstone and von Ramm at Duke University published a more advanced version of the electronically
steered arrays. Their array generated ten different receive focal laws. It combined beam steering,
which was previously developed, with dynamic focusing in the receive mode. At the time, this was
considered a significant innovation in design.
2,1 MEDICAL
In for ultrasonic medical diagnosis
1968 Jan C. Somer published a paper on electronic sector scanning
in the journal: "IJltrasonics". Around the same time, parallel work by D.G. Tucker at Birmingham
University in the UK was published.
Until design considerations were better understood, early versions of medical phased array probes
suffered from artefacts: spurious signals that occurred due to portions of the off-axis beam interacting
with off-axis features not intended to be detected in the vicinity of the beam. These were caused due to
"grating lobes", which resulted from the beams that emanated at predictable angles, off-axis to the
main beam. Grating lobes are unique to phased array transducers and are caused by the regular,
periodic spacing of the small array elements. When the energy of these lobes is reflected by off-axis
structures and detected by the transducer, the signals produced are artefactual and they are
considered "ghost images" that interfere with the evaluation of the main image. The origin of these
grating lobes was found to be the inability of the system to obtain the necessary phase interference for
beam steering. It was overcome by ensuring that each individual element had been cut to a half
wavelength width. Smaller element r.t idth ensures that the individual lobes produced at each element
increases the angle of divergence to greater than 90 degrees. In addition to eliminating "ghost
images", eliminating grating lobes also improves the signal-to-noise ratio by ensuring that the main
beam energy can be maintained over a wider range of angles thereby assuring better directivity
relative to the background energy.
:
Chapter (2): History
Early medical systems suffered from electrical noise being introduced into the receiver section. This
noise was associated with the multiplexer or switching network delay. This noise was added when the
system changed delays. To avoid this electrical delay, switching noise required expensive, low noise
delay lines and multiplexers. Another timing consideration was raised to achieve effective dynamic
focusing. This required that the delay resolution on every channel be a small fraction of the ultrasound
carrier period. To construct this required delay lines containing many hundreds of taps, .making
manufacfuring both complex and expensive. Thus, in the "old days", analogue systems with high
bandwidth, and having large numbers of channels (addressing the large numbers of elements) made
manufacturing prohibitive. Not until the improvements in electronics in the latler 1,970s was this
problem overcome. As an example of phased array high resolution imaging Figure 2-1 shows a 3D
rendering of a foetal face imaged using a phased array system with 3D rendering.
Figure 2-'1.3D rendering of a foetal face (t)
Medical ultrasound has several advantages over industrial NDT. The test materials have acoustic
velocities about one quarter of what we are accustomed to in NDT. This has the effect of significantly
shortening the wavelength used. A shorter wavelength has a direct bearing on the resolution possible.
In addition only compression modes are generated in medical applications, as most tissues will not
support a shear wave.
Chapter (2): Hi
2.2 INDUSTRIAL
The history of non-medical sonic testing began many years ago. Perhaps the original form of "sonic
testing" was found in the rail yards of the late 19th century. Freshly cast parts would be struck with a
hammer to produce a ringing in the metal. A change in sound between parts suggested a change in
the material's properties. Even before the beginning of World War 2, a now famous form of sonic
emission testing was under development. SONAR (sound navigation and ranging) was used to detect
the presence of large objects in the relatively uniform acoustic field that is the ocean. It is speculated
that the principle of phased arrays was likely known much earlier than the medical publications, as
they related to submarine warfare. But as a result of the military aspect, the technology was kept
secret.
After the development of medical phased array ultrasonic, industrial ultrasonic became the logical
next step in the application of the technology. Flowever, due to the greater variation in both the
materials tested and the shapes and sizes of the parts, the development of industrial PAUT has tended
to trail the development of its medical counterpart.
The rapid increase in computing speed and data flow has allowed significant refinements to phased
array technology. Today, software programs allow probe optimised desigo beam prediction
calculations, precise beam placement calculations and ultra-fine resolution imaging. Medical
ultrasound still leads the way in R&D advances but NDT is no longer lagging as far behind as in
previous decades. Medical development has made some fascinating advances including Doppler and
high contrast resolution imaging. NDT does not yet have much use for the Doppler features of
medical ultrasonic assessments but high temporal resolution and contrast resolutions are being taken
advantage of. There are limits to the ability of our NDT systems to match the startling imaging
associated with medical systems.
The future of phased array ultrasonic imaging for industrial components is now in the development
stages. Several corporations and researchers are pursuing 3-dimensional representations of signal
responses, in order to improve interpretation and lessen the required skill to understand ultrasonic
results. Some of the earliest papers on the website www.NDT.net had content dealing with phased
array technology. In its first year of publications phased array probe technology was being discussed
(http://www.ndt.net/articlelfleurylfleury.htm); and the first published applications using phased array
technology on NDT.net can be seen in 7997 by Mohr.
Portable, battery-powered phased array instruments for industrial use appeared in the 1990s.
Analogue designs had required power and space to create the multi-channel configurations necessary
for beam steering, but the transition into the digital age and the rapid development of inexpensive
embedded microprocessors enabled more rapid development of the next generation phased array
equipment. In additiorU the availability of low power electronic components, better power-saving
architectures, and industry-wide use of surface mount board design led to miniaturisation of this
advanced technology. This resulted in phased array tools which allowed electronic setuP, data
processing, display and analysis all within a portable device, opening the doors to more widespread
use across the industrial sector. This in turn, drove the ability to specify standard phased array probes
Chapter (2): History
for common applications. Increased availability has had a cost benefit too, with the cost of both PAUT
instruments and probes generally less today than they were when first made available.
Today, phased array systems are available in a variety of models with increasing complexity and
capability. Instruments range from basic models that perform simple sector and linear scans with 16-
element probes to advanced systems that offer multi-channel capability and advanced interpretation
software with probes of up to 256 elements. In addition many hundreds of papers have been
published on phased array technology. The technology is becoming increasingly widespread and the
applications being explored are endless. Ultrasonic testing is now being used on everything from
plastic to glass and concrete. Beam visualisation software and focal law calculators have greatly
increased the speed at which an ultrasonic technique can be developed, tested, and verified. Post-
acquisition signal processing advances allow for a greater and more detailed understanding of the
condition of the components being inspected. The future of UT is one of great possibilities.
6
Chapter (3): The Principles of "Phasing"
CHAPTER (3): THE PRINCIPTES OF "PHASING"
Ultrasonic testing (UT) has its foundations in wave mechanics. There are a number of phenomena
associated with sound waves, when they encounter a change in medium. Sound waves will undergo
certain changes when they encounter the boundary of the medium. Depending on the acoustic
properties of the two media involved, the waves could either reflect off the boundary or get
transmitted through the boundary into the new medium. The waves transmitted across the boundary
can be refracted depending on the velocity of sound in the second medium. Interference refers to the
interaction of two or more waves. Most of these items, with the exception of interference are
addressed in Level 1 UT training.
3.1 REFLECTION OF WAVES

This is the process whereby a wave meeting a boundary between two media is 'bounced back' and
remains in the first medium, e.g. Light striking a mirror. This function of wave mechanics comes in
two forms: total (hard) and partial (soft) reflections. Total reflections reflect all of the amplitude of an
emission back to the source, having undergone a phase change during reflection (from soft to hard
boundary). Soft reflections are the basis of ultrasonic sound transmission. In this case, a portion of the
sound is transmitted across the interface of two acoustically coupled materials, while a portion is
reflected back from the interface, all the while maintaining its phase (from hard to soft boundary).
3.2 REFRACTION OF WAVES

When a wave travels from one medium into another, it is 'bent' or refracted at the boundary. The
wave changes direction and undergoes a slight change in wavelength. The degree to which a wave is
"bent" relates to the relative velocities at which the wave travelled in each of the mediums. The
refraction of waves is a property which directs the design of wedges and influences focal law
calculations in phased array.
3.3 DiFFRACTION OF VVAVES

Diffraction occurs when an obstacle or defect interacts with a wave; e.g. if the wave travels through a
gap it may be diffracted. It is the ability of a wave to spread around corners. Diffraction can occur at
the edge of an obstacle. These spreading waves are the basis of TOFD (time of flight diffraction). See
Figure 3-1 for an example of natural diffraction.
Figure 3-1 Natural diffraction (2)
3.4 POLARISATION
When the vibrations of transverse waves are confined to one plane only, polarisation occurs. In some
materials, transverse waves can only vibrate in one plane, and under some circumstances a probe can
be used to induce a polarised wave form.
3.5 INTERFERENCE
Interference occurs when two or more similar waves meet. When waveforms of either the same or
differing phases are combined, they interfere with each other and their instantaneous amplitudes are
summed to create a new composite wave. There are two types of interferences; constructive and
destructive.
3.5.1 CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

When the amplitudes of the interacting waves add together, it is called constructive interference. For
example, if the waves that are in phase, i.e. their crests and troughs coincide, the resultant wave will
have an amplitude value equal to the addition of the amplitudes of the individual waves producing it.
3.5.2 DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

When the amplitudes of the interacting waves subtract, it is called Destructive interference. For
example, when the waves are 180o out of phase, i.e., if the crest of one wave coincides with the trough
of another, total destructive interference will result and no amplitude displacement occurs, if the
amplitudes of the component waves are equal.
3.6 COHERENT WAVE SOURCES

Coherent wave sources are those which have the same frequency and are in phase with each other.
They interact predictably and regularly; and as they are dependent on phase shift, cafl cause
constructive or destructive interference. Coherent wave sources are the basis of beam formation and
phased array ultrasound.
3.7 HUYGENS' PRINCIPLE

Ultrasonic phased array technology is simply a
special application of traditional single element
ultrasonic testing. Strictly speaking, it may be
thought of as having its principles based on
Huygens' Principle. Defined, the Huygens
Principle states; "Every wavefront may itself be
regarded as being composed of secondary waves
(wavelets), which unify to form a single
wavefront. Therefore, if the position of a
wavefront at any instant is knowry a simple
extrapolation enables its position to be drawn at
any subsequent time." (Christian Huygens 1,629-
1695) (See Figure 3-2)
Figure 3-2 Wave refraction as explained by the

HuYgens PrinciPle {s)
3.8 FORMATION OF WAVEFRONTS

The central concept in phased array ultrasonics is based on the principles of wave interference. Waves
can be added together either constructively or destructively. The process uses vector addition. This
considers both the amplitude and direction of motion at any instant in time. When "adding" two
waves, the result depends on the value of the amplitude and phase of the wave at the point in which
the waves are added. Figure 3-3 illustrates an example of how two waves interfere:
In frame 1, the separate wave pulses are seen as black lines.

In frame 2, the original wave pulses are faint coloured lines (red for the pulse moving from left to right
and green for the pulse moving from right to left) and the resultant pulse-shape of the two waves as
they pass each other is seen as the black line. The main feature in frame 2 shows the positive and
negative peaks of the two pulses, both occurring at the same point. At that time the resultant wave is
flattened.
In frame 3, we see a well-defined location, where the positive and negative peaks of the two pulses
occur together. At this point, the resultant block line is larger than either (actually it is the sum of the
two).
Frame 4 shows the two pulses having passed through each other and their original shape maintained.
The addition of the amplitudes is carried out for the entire waveform at every point in time.
Figure 3-3 Wave interference - different wavelengths
The process where the wave pulses were aligned with their phases exactly opposite (frame 2) is
considered destructive interference. The point where the positive and negative peaks from the two
pulses were in-phase (i.e. either both going positive or both going negative, as in frame 3), produced a
much larger displacement of the amplitude; so this is considered constructive interference.
For our considerations in the ultrasonic phased array situation, the wave pulses are not originating as
pulses opposite each other and moving on collision paths. We have to consider that the pulses are
generated at the phased array probe. Since the pulses from the phased array probe are made by the
same piezoelectric process as is used in the single element probes, and since the displacement of an
element of a piezo material is proportional to the applied voltage, pulses made by adjacent elements in
a phased array probe will all have the same amplitude and frequency. When pulsed together,
elements along a phased array probe are therefore coherent wave sources.
Therefore, the only variable from one element to the next would be the point at which the waves meet
(i.e. the phase delay). The point where the adjacent wave pulse has a maximum displacement that
10
coincides with its neighbour's maximum displacement will provide a constructive interference and if
the maximum displacement of one pulse meets the minimum of its neighbour then the opposite
moving particle displacements would cancel each other and no pulse occurs. This concept is
illustrated using captures from an applet animation of the famous ripple-tank concept: Three
situations are illustrated in Figure 3-4. The differences in the three illustrations are the number and
spacing of the aligned sources using the same frequency.
2 sources
4 sources
6 sources
Figure 3-4 Wave interference, same wavelength and increasingly in-phase source (1)
Brighter green regions are points where constructive interference is occurring for positive peaks.
Brighter red regions are points where constructive interference is occurring for negative troughs. The
area where the colours fade to grey is where the interference is destructive (e.g. a peak and trough
have intersected). By knowing the frequency and spacing of the aligned sources it is possible to
predict where the constructive interferences will occur.
The concept that the wavefront is composed of wavelets (secondary waves) is fundamental to phased
array ultrasonics. But the fact that we still concern ourselves with the main wavefront means that all
the other aspects of ultrasonic treatment apply too; i.e. we can still consider the near zone and focal
spot calculations and divergences, as would be associated with single element systems.
77
In traditional (single element) ultrasonic testing, we normally use a compression mode transducer.
This is poled to cause an expansion when a voltage is applied. Typically we apply a voltage pulse to
the element via the wires attached to either side of the element. The pulse is of a short duration and
causes the element to expand as the maximum voltage is reached, and then return to its resting
position when the voltage is removed (i.e. the voltage drops back to zero). The entire flat surface of the
element moves out and back, making a displacement in the surrounding medium and .a plane
wa vefron t is initiated.
12
Chapter (4): Probe Performance and Selection
CHAPTER (4): PROBE PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION
The performance capabilities of an inspection system have several limiting factors. Perhaps most
important among these, is the hardware that has been selected for use. The forrnat of the probe and
the design of the wedge, control the way in which the sound waves will enter the material, and even
the most capable pulser/receiver will be limited by the probe and wedge design.
When selecting the equipment to be used for an inspection, one first needs to kriow the type of
inspection to be performed and the right type of probe to suit these capabilities. Since there are often
multiple types of probes with the capabilities required for the inspection; it becomes necessary for a
balance between the improved capabilities of specially designed or complex probes, and the cost
effectiveness of common probe designs or multiuse probes. To understand the probe selection criteria
we must first explore the designs of several common probe designs.
Multiple piezoelectric elements arranged in patterns in a common housing are called artays, these are
usually linear, matrix or annular in shape. Piezoelectric probe construction was a topic learned in
Level 1 UT instructions. Figure 4-1 illustrates the traditional single element probe with backing and
electrical contacts.
a
Coaral Cabte e*nnerlor
Srgnsl wt{€
Figure 4-1 Internals of the traditional single element probe (s)
Figure 4-2 illustrates the layout of a linear array version of a phased array probe. This is essentially
identical to the single element except for the electrical contacts, of which there are as many as there are
elements cut along the length of the probe. However, in preparing the probe, the element starts as a
single rectangular unit "potted" in the backing and a diamond dicing saw makes cuts about as deep as
the piezo material is thick. That saw-cut gap is filled with a damping material to stop cross-talk. The
gap and element width are calculated to provide optimum performance based on the frequency of the
element (piezo material thickness). A multi-contact connector, conductively fused to the prepared
13
piezo element sections, provides electrical contact to the outer face of the element. For most
applications the element width is about half a wavelength of the material it is transmitting into. The
element length, perpendicular to the scan-plane, is typically 10 to 15 mm, and thicknesses of the lenses
(used in medical applications) are 5 to 10 mm, depending on the frequency. Arranging the electrodes
on such small elements is problematic, so contacts are made similar to printed circuits and may be on
flexible backings. With many contact points pre-made and aligned along the edge (as in the image on
the right side of Figure 4-2), a matching multi-pin connector can be fitted to the contact pins
protruding from either face of the element structure.
In the simple compression mode, with all
elements fired at the same time, the rise and
fall of the probe face composed of the multi
element array, is for all intents and purposes
seen the same as a single solid element
experiencing the same deformation.
Figure 4-2 Components of the phased array probe
4.7 TYPES OF PHASED ARRAY PROBES

Phased array probes are usually classified by the physical arrangement of the elements in the probe.
In applications for industrial NDI the simplest arrangement is most common. As equipment and
software become more advanced, the more complex options will probably become less expensive and
more accessible. The following describes the main classes of probe element arrangements.
4.1.1 LINEAR
Figure 4-3 Linear array

Figure 4-3 illustrates the simplest form of the phased-array probe, the linear array. Linear arrays are
the most common type; performing scanning control in one plane only. Due to the fact that they have
only a single line of elements and they are all in a single plane, these are also sometimes known as a
1D array. Linear arrays typically minimise the number of elements required, and thereby keep the cost
down. In industrial ultrasonics, linear arrays have the ability to perform either linear or sectorial
scans, or both simultaneously. The result is a versatile probe which will enable most users to complete
many of their scans without the requirement of more expensive equipment. Linear arrays do have
14
some draw backs however. First and foremost is that their steering capability is limited to a single
plane. As a result, oftery some degree of probe movement is required to generate a complete scan.
Secondly, their shape and size means that a variety of linear probes would be required to achieve the
same capabilities of some of the more complex probes. One of the ways to address the shortcoriiings of
this probe design is to create specialised linear array probes. Figure 4-4 and Figure 4-5 are two
examples.
Curved linear arrays are most commonly found

in biomedical applications but exist in industrial
ultrasound as well. These arrays have been
primarily applied to the inspection of bar and
tube stock or for inspecting aircraft components.
Figure 4-4 Curved linear array
Focused linear arrays as illustrated in Figure 4-5

are primarily used when focusing is required
within the near zone of the existing linear phased
array transducer. While focusing in this way can
greatly increase the near zone resolutiory it has
the down side of fixing a scanning depth, and
limiting the probes uses outside of its designed Figure 4-5 Focused linear array
purpose.
4.7.2 MATRIX
Figure 4-61.5D array probe Figure 4-7 2D matrix array probe
Matrix arrays are generally considered to be able to scan in two dimensions. They can offer
considerably more flexibility, albeit at a more expensive price. They allow for 3-dimensional beam
focusing and steering, thereby increasing the applications these probes can have. In addition, defects
at a variety of depths, locations and orientations can be finely focused upon. They offer the ability to
steer the beam from a limited point of access in complex geometries. Currently the most common
applications of matrix probes are in the medical industry and in the inspection of complex and critical
15
components in the nuclear industry. This being said, improvements in computing technology are
leading to a greater number of applications for these probes.
Figure 4-6 illustrates a so-called 1.5D array. These offer a limited steering capability in .a plane
perpendicular to the main axis. Limited steering results when the number of elements is less than 8 in
the secondary plane. True 2D arrays have 8 or more elements in both directions. A true 2D array
design is seen in Figure 4-7.
4.1.3 ANI{ULAR
In the late 1970's, McElroy and Briers fashioned a probe of
concentric rings. Each ring was composed of cylindrical sections to
reduce inter-acoustic coupling (cross-talk). Using standard
equipment to pulse the ring-sections sequentially by means of
multiplexing, a series of focal spots corresponding to the
parameters of each ring were obtained. A more flexible control of
the focusing is possible when the annular probe design is fired
using a phased-array system. The phased-affay version of the
annular array also produces multiple focal spots and can improve Figure 4-8 Annular array probe
resolution over fixed units by permitting beam focusing at various
distances in the material being tested. The annular ring design is
illustrated in Figure 4-8
Circular or annular arrays are specific for normal beam inspections, e.g. billets, forgings. They provide
the ability to resolve smaller defects over a greater variety of depths than their counterparts in mono-
element probe design. However, due to the construction of single element rings, these probes are for
contact or immersion inspection without steering capabilities.
4.1.4 RHO.THETA
Rho-theta probes are so named because they use a combination of
polar coordinates of the radius (rho) and angle (0) to locate a
defect with increased accuracy. They are very similar to annular
probes with one very important exception, they regain the ability
to steer the beam. Figure 4-9 provides an overview of the segments
that make up a Rho-theta probe. Rho-Theta probes are
constructed from a series of rings just like the annular probes.
However, their individual rings are split into multiple equal sized
area elements, not unlike changing a mono-element probe into a Figure 4-9 Rho-theta array probe
linear array.
This style of construction means that at the same time that these probes are focused to a variety of
depths, similar delay laws can be applied in order to steer the beam in the required direction. This
makes these probes extremely versatile, especially on large parts. Figure 4-10 illustrates in more detail,
the element arrangement of the probe in Figure 4-9. Typically, the designed probe attempts to
maintain an equal area in each segment to ensure a uniform contribution from each segment. As a
16
result of the segmentation of the rings, the rho-theta probe design is also called the segmented annular
probe.
Each numbered segment of the illustration represents a

separate element in the array (61 elements are indicated
in Figure 4-10).
Rho-theta arrays offer the maximum resolution of
spherical focusing with beam steering, but their
complexity and size make their construction tedious and
costly.
Figure 4'10 Rho-theta - detailed diagram
4.1,.5 OTHER ARRAY TYPES

A daisy-style array probe, such as illustrated in Figure
4-71, is essentially nothing more complex than a linear
probe which has been bent sideways until the two ends
of the probe meet. As a result, this probe is primarily
used, in combination with a mirror, to inspect the inside
of tubes. It means that the whole of the inside of the
tube's circumference can be inspected simultaneously,
greatly increasing the speed at which the part can be
inspected. However, due to their limited applications
outside of tube inspectiory these are considered very
specialised probes. Figure 4-11 Daisy array probe
Encircling array probes such as seen in Figure 4-72 are

used primarily for inspecting the exterior of pipes/
tubes/ rods. Due to their fixed diameters, and their
limited applications, these arrays are highly specialised
for the individual applications required. A modification
on the encircling probe is the segmented encircling
probe. This would involve making the probe in two
sections, with each formed in a semi-circular shape. In
an automated system, the probes could be moved
together and retracted as sections of pipe were passed
under the two halves. This would reduce the number of
elements in each individual probe and avoid the Figure 4-12 Circular/ encircling array
complexity of trying to mount the elements in a full
circle.
77
Probe Performance and Selection
The shapes seen in the above figures are not the only ones available. Other types of geometry of the
elements that can be associated with shaping the active area are feasible. As more precision is
required, more elements are added. Miniaturisation of the process is becoming a specialty in the
medical field. Figure 4-13 illustrates a phased array probe designed at Duke University. The 'Center
for Emerging Cardiovascular Technologies (CECT)' at Duke University designed a real-time
volumetric scanner for imaging the heart. The team in collaboration with the Volumetric Medical
Imaging Inc. at Durham, North Carolina produced a 40 }lHz,1.2pm chip completed in 1994 that was
the basis for the beam-former in the world's first electronically steered matrix- array 3D ultrasound
imager. This development uses MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical system) technology to achieve a
64x64 (4096 element) array the size of a small coin (about 18mm in diameter).
Figure 4-13 Small scale large affay $)
4.2 PROBESELECTION/WEDGESELECTION
For the most part, the remaining portions of these notes will use the most common form of phased
array probe (the linear array) to describe the various aspects of phased array technology. However,
selecting the shape of array that you wish to use is only the first step in selecting the actual probe to be
used. Several other probe characteristics must first be taken into consideration before the correct probe
can be selected.
4.2.7 TEST MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS (FREQUENCY AND

BANDWIDTH)
The physical structure and properties of the part to be tested plus the wedge material, play a strong
part in probe selection. Depending upon the physical properties and size of the part, the ideal
frequency can be determined.
For example, although rolled mild carbon steel is perfectly fine to be inspected with a 5 MHz probe
unless the part is very thick, when inspecting a stainless steel part, the much larger grain structure
must be taken into consideration. For this reasory quite often a lower frequency probe, such as a 2.25
18
MHz probe will be required. This change in frequency is controlled primarily by the size of the grain
structure as compared to the wavelength of a given frequency in a given material and helps to
minimise the scattering of sound.
In addition, the depth of penetration and resolution required for the inspection are considerations for
probe selection as well. In general, probes with a higher frequency will result in better resolution, but
will lose depth of penetration. Conversely a low frequency probe will penetrate much deeper into a
part, but allow you to resolve only larger defects.
The balance of these primary factors (grain structure, depth of penetration and resolution), as well as
probe availabitity is what helps to determine the probe which is used for the inspectioir.
4,2.2 DELAY LINES AND WEDGE ANCLES

Like with conventional mono-element transducers, additional considerations must be made based on
the angle of inspection and/or the thickness of the part to be inspected. These requirements necessitate
the use of both delay-lines and wedge angles. The determination of these angles and the use of a delay
line are based upon the location of the defects expected to be found.
4.2.2.1 DELAY LII/ES
Delay lines are used in order to avoid the spacing of the back wall interface signal falling at the same
point on the screen, as the body of the part being inspected. This occurs primarily during immersion
or normal incidence inspections. For example, if a part were to be inspected for corrosion using a
normal incidence wedge that is 15mm thick, and the part which was being inspected was 40mm thick;
then the signal responses from the wedge-part interface would fall within the part being inspected (i.e.
before the back wall). If this were to occur, then one could miss a defect which fell at the same distance
as the interface response. To counteract this effect, one would use a wedge which was thick enough to
avoid this, such as a 50mm wedge instead. This would mean that the back wall signal would fall
before the second wedge repetition and allow the inspector to see all of the part unhindered.
The same principle can be applied when inspecting in an immersion environment, where the water
interface can result in repetitions which are similar to contact environments. The solution in this
circumstance is also very similar. The distance from the part to the probe is simply increased such that
the interface repetition falls outside the body of the part to be inspected.
4.2.2.2 WEDGE AI'IGLE

As with conventional mono-element ultrasonic testing, phased array often requires a wedge in order
to achieve the required refracted angle in the part to be inspected. Unlike mono-element UT however,
the refracted angle is not a single angle for a single material. Instead, phased array wedges must
provide a range of angles for a specific wedge, with only a single cut angle. This means that wedges
are not only designed to fit specific probes, but also for specific scanning techniques specific to the
part being inspected.
19
Examole:
Calculate the incident angle for a mono-element producing a 60 degree refracted angle in mild steel,
with a cross-linked polystyrene wedge material.
Snell's Law:
vi sin 0,
(4.1)
sin0i =
_
Where;
B.: Refracted Angle = 60' 0;: Incident Angle = unknown??
7r: Velocity in refracted medium us:Velocity in incident medium
(steel) : 3240 m/s (polystyrene) : 2330 m/s
Calculation:
r srr?
2330 sir? 60
ut: --nili- sin0i = 0.623
'
2330(0.866)
, 0i = sin-l 0.623
r Sll? Ai : 0i = 38.54'
ZZ+O '
This means that for a 60 degree refracted angle in steel, a polystyrene wedge will be cut with an angle
of 38.54 degrees.
However, when this technique is applied to phased array, the consideration becomes slightly more
complex. Say that an inspection technique was designed to use a sectorial scan with a 50 to 65 degree
spread on a steel part. Unlike a mono-element transducer, the phased array element has the ability to
increase or decrease the incident angle within the wedge material. This means that the wedge can still
be cut at a single angle. However, additional details must be taken into consideration. Firstly, there are
limits to how much steering a probe can do. The general rule of thumb is 15 to 20 degrees on either
side of the nominal angle of the wedge. In addition, the probe will find it easier to steer a beam
downward, to a lower angle, than it will to steer it upward. This means that for our example of a 50 to
65 degree wedge, the wedge would best be cut to a nominal angle of 60 degrees, with 10 degrees of
downward steering and 5 degrees of upward steering.
Designing the best wedge and delay combination for a given inspection could be a course in and of
itself, but these fairly simple rules of thumb can be applied as guidelines when picking the best
combination for the intended inspection, from available stock.
4.2,3 ARRAY S]ZES

Like in mono-element probe selectiory the size of the probe or the size of the active aperture being
used has a great influence on the characteristics of the emitted beam. As discussed briefly in previous
chapters, the number of elements in the phased array transducer being used in a given aperture
relates directly to the diameter of the mono-element transducer.
The primary influence of the size of a probe, and therefore the size of the aperture, is on beam spread.
The equation listed below should be familiar to all users of conventional UT, calculating beam
divergence angle from centreline to -6dB.
20
v
sin04:0.51, (4.2)
Df
Where;
0a: Beam divergence angle from centreline to point where signal is at half strength.
?: Sound velocity in the material (Inch/sec or cm/sec)
D: Diameter of the transducer (Inch or cm)
f Frequency of the transducer (Cycles/second)
0.51 is a constant for the -6dB envelope for the circular element
As seen from the equatiory the larger the diameter of the probe, the less the beam spreads in the
material. This same principle applies directly to the beam spread on a phased array probe with the
active aperture being equal to the probe diameter. This means that for a given phased array probe, the
greater the number of elements used in probe aperture, the less the beam spread that will be
experienced.
However, with a phased array probe, elements can be cut down to sizes at the nano scale. The size of
the element has an influence on the probe's abilities as well. The ratio between the size of the elements
and the spacing of these elements primarily influences the amplitude and angle of the grating lobes
generated. The general rule is, as the size of the elements nears the size of the spacing between
elements, the amplitude of grating lobes increases and their angle of divergence decreases. This means
that there is a greater chance of ghost echoes, signals returning from grating lobes, being picked up by
the receiver channel. The cause and solution to grating lobes will be discussed in greater detail in
Chapter 5.
4,2.4 WEDCES
In addition to the cut angle of a wedge, the type and material of the wedge design chosen also has a
strong influence on the capabilities of the inspection.
4.2.4,1 WEDGE STYLE

There are several types of wedge styles available from the major manufacturers. Custom wedge
material and designs are available as well. The variations in wedge design can have a strong influence
on the capabilities and techniques of the wedge.
Wedges with integral wear-resistant inserts and irrigation channels are common options today. Such
wedges have holes drilled into the outer edges to allow for both couplant flow and carbide inserts. A
couplant pump can be attached to the couplant channels, which maintains a constant and even flow of
couplant throughout the inspection. The carbide inserts are then adjusted to be flush with the wedge
contact surface at the surface of the part. This results in less wear to the face of the wedge while
maintaining good acoustic coupling. Caution should be exercised when using the wear-pin option as
too much gap between the wedge and the surface has a potential for loss in signal strength.
Additionally, some wedges are cut with a roof angle, or left to right change in height. Often used in
pitch catch environments, this angle changes the direction of the refracted beam off the centre line,
and can provide the ability to steer around restricted access locations.
27
ter (4): Probe Performance and Selection
4.2,4,2 WEDGE MATERIAL

The acoustic properties of different wedge materials can strongly influence the performance of the
wedge. First and foremost, varying the material that the wedge is manufactured from will change the
velocity and therefore the cut angle of the wedge in order to produce the same refracted angle in the
part you are inspecting. Further, the acoustic mismatch of some materials, and the similarity of others,
has an influence on the degree to which a sound wave refracts and attenuates. Cross,linked
polystyrene (Trade name Rexolite) is a common wedge material for three primary reasons: it is
inexpensive to manufacture, has a fairly low level of attenuation as compared to other wedge
materials, and has the ability to refract both shear and compression waves; but does not support a
strong shear wave within the wedge material itself. Not all wedge materials have this property. Some
materials display other ideal properties, such as high heat resistance or the ability to be exposed to
high levels of radiation without breaking down.
4.2.5 PROBES ON VVEDGES

The combination of probe and wedge selection is based on the application. Also, the combination can
be limited because manufacturers of probes usually make their own wedges, so using one
manufacturer's probe with another's wedge is generally not possible.
22
Chapter (5): Beamforming
CHAPTER (5): BEAMFORMING
Once probe and wedge style have been determined, the acquisition must be programmed in order to
work with them, and the instrument calibrated in order to form the desired beam at the desired
location. The science behind the creation of these calibrations is based on beam steering and forming
using constructive interference from coherent sources, as discussed in previous chapters. The
following chapter will deal with changing the timing of individual elements in order to steer and
focus the beam in a variety of ways, the factors which effect and are affected by this capability, the
calculations required to achieve this, and information on the modern changes which have made this
process faster and easier.
When the electronics are arranged to simply pulse individual or groups of elements in some order, the
array is said to be sequenced. A linear sequenced array might simply step through a sequence of
pulsing each element one at a time while the other elements are receiving or the individual elements
are sequenced in pulse-echo mode. This can be used where resolution of a small element is needed,
but there is no room for motion, or the surface cannot be coupled easily, thereby allowing no relative
probe motion.
Figure 5-1 illustrates a version of a sequenced array where groups of 3 sub-elements are linked
together to form the individual "sub-probes" in the array.
Active Electrode Active Electrode piezoelectric

Piezoelectric
Material
Material
lnner
lnner Matching
Malching Layer
[ayer
Outer
0uter Matching
Matching
Layer
Iayer
Ground
Ground
Electrode
Electrode
Linear Sequenced Array Linear Phased (Steered) Array
Figure 5-L Linear sequenced affay (7)

Figure 5-2 Linear phased (steered) array (7)
But sequencing individual elements does not use the phasal-interference effect. When a separate
electrical connection is provided to every element in the array and each element can be addressed
with a timed voltage separate from its adjacent elements, the array can be used as a phased array
23
Chapter (5): Beamfo
probe whereby the interference points of the individual wavefronts from each element are controlled
to direct the beam. The individual elements with separate active elements are illustrated in Figure 5-2
Sequenced arrays may use the same element layout as a phased affay,but it is the electronics that
organises the pulsing and receiving that makes a system a "phased afiay" ultrasonic instrument.
in an array are usually small and flat. The wavefront of an individual element is therefore
Elements
somewhat omni-directional in both transmission and reception. If several elements are pulsed
simultaneously, the wavefront produced, is the result of interference of the various spherical waves
from each element. The effect is a wavefront similar to the one transmitted by a plane element having
the same dimensions as the multi-element array. However, because the wavefront is made by
constructive interference, the amplitude of the particle displacement in the phased array pulse is twice
that of the particle displacement using a mono-element probe of the same aperture for the same
applied voltage. The significance of this cannot be understated. For a phased-array probe with the
same size as a mono-element probe the transmitted pulse can produce more than twice the sound
pressure. This can result in a clearer signal because less amplification is required on the receiver side
thereby reducing electrical noise.
The probe construction which is seen in Figure 5-3 shows smal1 spaces between each element. These
are made by a thin saw, cutting into the piezo material. Making electrical connections on either side of
the element and then adding matching layers of a defined thickness would risk breaking the elements.
To operate at 5 MHz, the plate of PZT material used for the probe is only 300 microns thick (0.3mm).
As this would easily snap during handling, immediately after the saw cuts are made to separate the
individual elements, the gaps between the elements are filled with a damping ePoxy. This provides
both, lateral strength by providing a supporting web between the individual elements, and also a
method of damping the vibrations that could move from one element to the next. The transfer of
vibration between elements is called "cross-talk" and is a very undesirable feature in probe design.
The damping effectiveness can be measured after the probe is fabricated by assessing the received
signal amplitudes of adjacent elements and comparing them to the element being pulsed. An
acceptable level of cross-talk would be a signal at the adjacent element less than -30dB of that at the
driving element.
Figure 5-3 Saw cutting and filling of a piezo-composite (s)
24
5.1 BEAM STEERING AND FOCUSING

Beam steering and focusing represent two of the biggest advantages to using a phased array system.
They allow for a much greater variety of inspections using a single probe and wedge combination
than traditional systems have allowed. These capabilities allow the formation of beams for a variety of
scanning applications. But agairy the process is one of compromise, balancing the requirements of
beam focal size for sensitivity, beam steering for adequate coverage and depth of field for adequate
penetration.
The timing of the Phased Array pulse to each element is a variable. If we were to delay the pulse to
each successive element by some time less than half the period of the emitted signal, the wavefront
resulting from the interference is an incident beam with an angle of incidence controllable by
electronics. Figure 5-4 shows the effect of an aruay pulsed with increasing delay to each element.
Figure 5-4 Beam steering
Using the same principles, focusing can be achieved by delaying the pulse to the inner elements as
compared to the outer elements. This requires non-linear delays as shown in Figure 5-5.
Figure 5-5 Beam focusing
25
:
Arrays using the phase interference resulting from timing of pulses to achieve beam steering or
focusing are called phased arrays. Phased afiays can accomplish two important features through
dynamic changes to the delay times provided to the elements;
. Dynamic beam steering
. Dynamic focusing
Using precise timing and phase interference effects, we can constantly vary both incident angle and
zone of maximum resolution.
It is of course possible to combine the beam steering and focusing. (See Figure 5-6)
Steering
Figure 5-5 Phased array steering and focusing combined
5.2 PHASED ARRAY PROBE TERMINOLOGY

Figure 5-7 illustrates a representation of the linear array with the main dimensions of interest labelled.
Figure 5-7 Fundamental dimensions of a phased array probe
26
5.2.1. ACTIVE APERTURE

The active aperture of a probe is the total length of the probe which is currently being used to create
the beam. For example, when firing a certain set of elements to achieve beam steering at a certain
angle, using a 1D linear probe. Active aperture A is given as:
A=ne+g(n-1) (5.1)
Where;
A: Active aperture
e: Width of the element
g: Gap between two adjacent elements (also called kerf)
n: Number of elements
p: Pitch of the aperture: e + I
An approximate equation can be used to calculate the active aperture:

A x np (5.2)
The active aperture of the probe being used is treated like the probe diameter in conventional
will need to consider the effects of rectangular elements.
ultrasonics. More accurate treatment
5.2.2 PASSIVE APERTURE

The passive aperture, which is considered passive as it refers to the measurement of the secondary
axis of the elements or its width, is a constant, regardless of variation of the active aperture for a given
probe. This parameter of probe design has a few controlling factors, including: size restrictions,
frequency, and focal depth range. Variation of these factors has a few effects on the capabilities of your
probe when in use, including: sensitivity, degree of focusing, and passive axis beam spread. The
determination of the ideal passive aperture is usually left to the probe manufacturer. When it comes to
selecting the correct probe, with a reasonable passive aperfure, or choosing between two similar
probes with different passive apertures, there are formulae which will help to make those
determinations.
.. (A' + w'z)(0.78 -oT*, (5.3)

''o - ,,),
Where;
No: Near field length of the unfocused aperture (approximate)
A: Active aperture length
W: Passive aperture (length of the individual element)
27
Probe designers use a general rule of thumb in determining the correct size for the passive aperture.
Its size can be defined as a function of pitch "p"
,p such tnat Iei::s > 10. Or it may be considered as a
fraction of the active aperture "A" such that Wo"r.iu" : (0.7 to i.0) A
5.2.3 EFFECTIVE APERTURE
The effective active aperture (A"r) is the projected aperture seen along the refracted rays. (See Figure
5-8)
Figure 5-8 Effective active aperture
When a wedge is used the active aperture is distorted by the variation in both wedge velocity and the
refraction of the angles. This usually results in a smaller effective active aperture than if the probe
were in direct contact with the surface of the part to be inspected. The size of the effective active
aperture can be calculated using the following formula:
A cos pp
neff (5.4)
- COS fii
Where;
Aer: Effective active aperture
A: Active aperture length
Bp: Refracted angle
a;: Incident angle
This distortion of the aperture, if not accounted for, can result in distortions of the results.
28
5.2.4 RESOLUTION _ LATERAL, ANCULAR AND AXIAL

The term "resolution" has been used many times in this text so far. But perhaps a more detailed
explanation is required to make its meaning more clear. In ultrasonic terms, we generally consider
resolution to refer to the "quality of detail" and this generally means, being able to discriminate the
sources of signals on a display
But the discrimination of detail in ultrasonic displays depends on the display itself. If we are looking
at a C-scan, then the proximity of two objects in'plan' view will require resolution of the signals based
on their positions in the lateral plane. If the display is a B-scan, then resolution of the.objects detected
will be based, not only on the proximity of objects at the same depth, but also the proximity of the
objects' depths or distance along the beam sound path. S-scan displays are merely a special case of the
B-scan but the relative positions are assessed by angles as opposed to Cartesian coordinates.
These variations merit special definitions. For our purposes in PAUT we can consider three varieties
of resolution;Lateral, axial (or temporal) and angular (See Figure 5-9).
Figure 5-9 Lateral, angular and axial resolution
5,2,4,1 LATERALRESOLUTION
Lateral Resolution is the ability of a PA system to see or distinguish two indications, as distinct or
separate, in a plane perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam. In a C-scan display, the indications can be
at different depths, but in a B-scary the indication depth would be the same and resolution would
require that the objects be sufficiently separated, or the focal spot must be sufficiently small (laterally),
to indicate two separate sources.
Lateral resolution is proportionally affected by the frequency, the higher the frequency, the greater the
lateral resolution. It is inversely proportional to the focal spot size. The smaller (narrower) the focal
spot is, the greater the resolution. There are several calibration blocks in use today which allow the
operator to easily determine the degree of lateral resolution at several depths in the part. Another
factor in lateral resolution capability is the scanning increment. This would involve the beam or probe
moving, when assessing lateral resolution.
29
A 0" E scan over 4 SDHs illustrates lateral resolution in Figure 5-10. With a drop of approximately
6dB between the peak responses of the 2 SDHs on the left, the targets are laterally resolved. However,
the two SDHs on the right have no drop in amplitude between them; in fact there is a maximum
amplitude signal between them, so they are not laterally resolved.
Figure 5-10 Lateral resolution obtained for SDH left pair but not the right pair
5,2,4.2 ANGULARRESOLUTlO}/
In our PAUT applications, a special version of resolution exists in the S-scan. For our purpose, we will
consider this to be "angular resolution" (not the same as angular resolution in astronomy optics).
Angular resolution is the minimum angular separation at which two equal targets can be separated,
when at the same sound path. The angular resolution characteristics of a system are determined by
the beam width at the sound path of interest and the angular increment between focal laws in the S-
scan. For the purpose of defining angular resolution; two identical targets at the same distance are
considered resolved in angle, when they are separated by more than 6 dB. We can apply the same
concept to either the "C-scan" display or S-scan display as described for the lateral resolution. (Note
that in an S-scan we can display a C-scan as a sweep of angles on one axis and the scan increment on
the axis perpendicular to that).
5.2.4.3 AXIAL RESOLUTIOI/

Axial Resolution is the ability of a PA system to see or distinguish two indications, as distinct or
separate, in a plane, parallel to the ultrasonic beam (along the time axis). Axial resolution is directly
proportional to the frequency. A higher frequency gives a higher axial resolution.
A shorter pulse duration
and tightly focused beam
increases both lateral and
axial resolutions. Figure
5-11 illustrates the ability
of the system to separate
the signals axially (right),
compared to lack of axial
resolution (left).
Figure 5-11 Axial resolution for SDH pair (left) but not the pair (right)
30
5.2.5 MAIN LOBE

Ultrasonic probes do not simply emit a "laser beam" of sound as the visualisation software often
suggests. Instead it is closer to a dome of sound expanding outward from the probe face with a
constant velocity but varied areas of sound intensity. In both phased array and conventional
ultrasonics this dome of sound has a primary direction of travel and intensity, which is found directly
in front of the transducer. This main lobe is the one which is used for ultrasonic inspection, but
ultrasound is also emitted in side lobes, with null regions between them. The main lobe does not
travel in a laser line either, but instead expands as discussed in the beam spread section.
5.2.6 SIDE LOBE

Side lobes are produced by the cyclic interference patterns that result due to the ratio of the
wavelength to probe aperture. These form to the sides of the main lobe. This phenomenon is not
limited to phased array systems; unwanted lobes also occur with conventional transducers as element
size increases. These unwanted soundbeam directions can give rise to spurious indications and need
to be controlled and minimised. Side lobes cannot be completely eliminated, but can be controlled by
ensuring that the probe elements are cut to not much more than half a wave length in size.
5.2.7 CRATINC LOBE

In ultrasonics, grating lobes are not unique to phased array transducers, but also exist in other phased
array applications including SONAR and array telescopes. They are caused by the regular, periodic
spacing of the small array elements. For Phased Array probes in which the element spacing is much
greater than a half wavelengttr, the spatial aliasing effect, caused due to the inability of the system to
obtain the necessary phase interference for beam steering, results in some side lobes becoming
substantially larger in amplitude, and approaching the level of the main lobe. These are called grating
lobes, and they are nearly identical or copies of the main lobe. Grating lobes can be considered as a
special case of a side lobe. It is conceptually useful to distinguish between side lobes and grating lobes
because grating lobes have larger amplitudes than most, if not all, of the other side lobes.
Grating lobes occur whenever the size of individual elements in an array is equal to or greater than the
wavelengt[ and there are no grating lobes when element size is smaller than half a wavelength. For
element sizes between one-half and one wavelengttr, the generation of grating lobes depends on the
steering angle. Therefore the simplest way to minimise grating lobes in a given application is to use a
transducer with a small pitch. Specialised transducer design incorporating sub-dicing (cutting
elements into smaller elements) and varying element spacing will also reduce unwanted lobes.
Figure 5-12, Figure 5-13, and Figure 5-14 illustrate the concepts of grating lobes. The amplitude of
grating lobes is significantly affected by pitch size, the number of elements, frequency, and
bandwidth. The beam profiles shown in Figure 5-12 compare two situations where the probe aperture
is approximately the same, but the beam on the left is generated by six elements at 0.5mm pitch and
the beam on the right by three elements at 1mm pitch. The beam on the left is approximately shaped
as a cone, while the beam on the right has two spurious lobes at approximately a 30 degree angle to
the centre axis of the beam.
31
ir {rlerrenl., t) -mm piir.h .l elemrnls, lrnr:r pitch
Figure 5-12 Pitch size reduction effect on grating lobes - similar aperture size
p=9.n=8 [c
I
Figure 5-13 Factors affecting grating lobes: frequency (a), pitch size & number of elements (b) (Same
aPerture of 72 mrrr) te)
6n/= fA.i
6 I't at N
Figure 5-14 Damping influence on grating lobes, 1 MHz probe focusing nt SQ6rn (r)
32
Smaller element width ensures that the individual lobes produced at each element increases the angle
of divergence to greater than 90 degrees. Grating lobes can be reduced by decreasing frequency,
reduced pitch size and reduced sweeping range. In addition to eliminating ghost images, eliminating
grating lobes also improves the signal-to-noise ratio by ensuring that the main beam energy can be
maintained over a wider range of angles thereby assuring better directivity relative to the background
energy
5.2.8 BEAM APODIZATION

Beam apodization is a computer controlled feature that applies lower voltage to the outside elements,
to reduce side lobes. In some instrument features, the apodization is performed during the receiving
stage. The gain applied to each element of the probe can be adjusted individually, but the pulse
voltage is kept the same for each element.
5.3 CALCULATING DELAYS TO CONTROL BEAM SHAPE AND

ANCLE
5.3.1 CALCULATION FOR BEAN4 FOCUSINC
In a phased array system simple focusing is achieved by firing the outer elements in the select€d
aperture first and then making small timing delays to the subsequent inner elements. The concept is
illustrated in Figure 5-15.
ed Arr u- Ic a!f,
1F
\\- \\u+
J/l /\J'*^
---]ZT + +
Figure 5-15 Pulser delays applied for simple focusing (to)
Delays required to accomplish this, are in the order of a few nanoseconds, between the adjacent
elements. Simple geometry and knowledge of the material velocities can be used to estimate the
timing delays.
E.g. given a 16 element 5 MHz probe with ao *ml
[s
elements 10mm long and 0.8mm wide with a
gap between each element of 0.2mm, we will
calculate the delays for the elements to focus the
E
beam at a depth of 25mm directly below the E
o
ll
i; 6
probe in compression mode when the probe is l! N
placed on a steel block. These parameters

provide us with geometry as seen in Figure 5-16.
ll,J
Figure 5-15 16-element probe focused at 25mm
JJ
Chapter (5): Beam forming
The distance from the centre of the probe to the midpoint of the outer element is 7.5mm (we got this
from dividing the outer dimension in 2 and subtracting half the element width).
The path length for a ray to intersect the midpoint at 25mm depth is the hypotenuse of a right.triangle
with sides 7.5mm and 25mm. Therefore the length from the outer element midpoint to the point
25mm down is 26.1mm. At a steel compression velocity of S.9mm/ps it will take the wavelet from this
element 4.424;ts to reach the intended focal location.
We now calculate the times it would require for the other 7 element locations to reach the point 25mm
below the surface. This can easily be tabulated:
Table 5.1 Time-delay calculations
ons tor
for beam travelltns
travelling 25mm below the surface
Element X Y Hypotenuse Time Delays (ps)
1 7.5 25 26.10 4.4238 0.000
2 6.5 25 25.837 4.3781 0.046
J 5.5 25 25.597 4.3386 0.085
4 4.5 25 25.407 4.3053 0.118
5 3.5 25 25.243 4.2786 0.1.45
6 2.5 25 2s.1.24 4.2584 0.165
7 1.5 25 25.044 4.2449 0.179
8 0.5 25 25.005 4.2387 0.186
Since the array is symmetrical, the elements from 9 to 76 would simply mirror the delays applied to
the first 8 elements.
5.3.2 CALCULATION FOR BEAM STEERING

Beam steering for phased array probes includes the capability to modify the refracted angle of the
beam generated by the array probe and allows for multiple angle inspections, using a single probe.
Simple beam steering applies linear delays to the set of elements used. When using 1D (linear) affays,
steering can only be accomplished in the active plane. Steering can be used to generate both L
(compression) and SV (shear vertical) waves, using a single probe. As noted above, steering capability
is related to the width of an individual element of the array with maximum steering angle (at -6 dB),
given by:
o,t = sin-1 (o.nn!1 (5.s)
Where;
0r,: Maximum steering angle
e:Individual element width
0.44is a constant for the -6dB envelope for a rectangular probe
2:Wavelength
34
Chapter (5) : Beamforming
The steering range can be modified using an angled wedge. Use of a wedge also provides a means of
eliminating the compression mode, which is unwanted in many applications.
To illustrate the effect of steering, without focusing we will use the same probe as in the focusing
example. For simplicity we will again place the probe on a steel block with no extra refracting wedge.
For angle steering the time delays are made using the times
required to reach a common line drawn at an angle to the midpoint
of the last element fired. The first element forms a circular arc and
all subsequent elements are timed to have the arc that forms to
meet that line. This is illustrated in Figure 5-17.
Again we can use the simple trigonometry of a right triangle. The

midpoint of the first and last elements forms the hypotenuse of a
right triangle. The interval across the probe surface to the midpoint
of each element increases by the element pitch (1mm) and the Figure 5-L7 16 element probe to
distance from the element midpoint to the line at the desired angle steer a compression mode at 45"
is derived {rom,Y : T sin 9, where r is the hypotenuse distance
along the probe face and 0 is the required refracted angle. The
distance of the Y value is then divided by the velocity of sound
(5.9mm/ps) and the delay differences noted.
able 5.2 Time- calculations for beam travelling at 45" an le

45'Angle L mode in steel
Delays Delays
Element Hypotenuse Y Time Element Hypotenuse Y Time
(ps) (ps)
1 0 0.000 0.000 0.000 9 8 5.657 0.959 0.959
2 1. 0.707 0.120 0.120 10 9 6.364 1.079 1..079
J 2 1..474 0.240 0.240 77 10 7.077 1.198 1.198

a
4 J 2.121 0.360 0.360 72 11 7.778 1.318 1.318
5 4 2.828 0.479 0.479 13 12 8.485 1..438 1.438
6 5 3.536 0.599 0.599 1.4 13 9.192 1.558 1.558
7 6 4.243 0.719 0.719 15 74 9.899 1.678 7.678
8 7 4.950 0.839 0.839 16 15 70.607 7.798 1.798
When the probe is mounted on a wedge and the operator requires that the focal point of interest be at
a specific depth and at a specific angle, the delays can be complicated and not symmetrical. Such an
example is seen in Figure 5-18. The plot of the delays is indicated beside the image of the probe on the
part, with the beam of rays directed at a point with a specified depth and angle using a wedge to aid
in beam steering in transverse mode. The plot of delays on the right of the image uses ps as the
vertical axis.
35
Figure 5-18 Time-delay plot for a focused beam
5.4 FERMAT'S PRINCIPLE

For an ultrasonic operator, the important feature of phased arrays is the ability to direct a beam to a
desired location. This uses Fermat's Principle, illustrated in Figure 5-19.
In 1650, Pierre de Fermat formulated a principle for light paths which we now use for sound paths in
phased array technology. It states that a ray travelling from one point to another will follow a path
such that, compared with nearby paths, the time required is at minimum.
In phased array ultrasonics, the operator must first determine the point where the focal depth is to
occur/ the inspection angle(s) and/or couplant (or wedge material), plus how many and which
elements are to be fired. The operator also must know details of the array and wedge (if used).
The central ray following Snell's Law locates the array with respect to the point of focus and then
calculations are made for each raypath from the elements used to the point of focus (as illustrated in
Figure 5-19). Delay times between elements fired are then calculated for each element to ensure that
the time to the point of focus is the minimum (compensating for velocities in the coupling and test
materials).
Figure 5-19 Fermat's principle as applied to phased array ultrasonics
36
:
5.5 FOCAL LAW

The sequence of operations that decides which elements are fired, at what time delay, at what voltage
in a particular test material and using a particular phased array probe, is called as a focal law. It can be
thought of as an element excitation or firing sequence pattern or a set of instructions to follow,
provided by a phased array system to a probe.
This is typically a simple ASCII file that can be edited, e-mailed, etc., as required. The file is then
typically transferred to the computer programme that controls the pulser-receiver hardware that
drives the phased array probe. The controlling computer is commonly referred' to as the data
acquisition unit.
5.5.1 FOCAL LAW CALCULATOR

To have an operator carry out a collection of elaborate calculations every time they want to change a
firing sequence for an inspection is not practical. Therefore this is done using a computer algorithm.
Calculating the required delays is simplified by some form of graphic user interface (GUI), where a
user simply enters the relevant parameters and then clicks on the "Calculate" button on the screen.
The software program that calculates the number of elements to be fired, time delays between
elements, voltages to each element and beam deflection parameters using the provided wedge
characteristics and test piece properties, for both the transmitter and receiver functions, is known as
the Focal Law Calculator.
The calculator may reside in the data acquisition unit (or it can reside on a laptop or desktop where
the calculations are made separate from the instrumentation). The GUI seen by the data acquisition
unit operator allows control over the pulser and receiver; and the input parameters that configured
the initial Focal Law can be seen displayed numerically and graphically.
A very simple schematic representation of the electronic components used in the phased array
instrument setup is seen in Figure 5-20. This illustrates a set of instructions being sent to the pulsers in
the phased array unit, and the probe being pulsed with the appropriate delays to each pulser. In the
receive mode, the elements also have a set of delays and these are applied to the echo signals as they
return to the probe which are based on the flaw type and location of flaw. The returned and time-
delayed signals from the individual elements are then summed in an amplifier and sent to the display
of the phased array computer.
Figure 5-20 Phased array equipment schematic
37
5.6 SOUND FIELDS

Before moving on to the specifics of how we might address the use of a phased array system it is
helpful to reca11 some of the basics of ultrasonic beam characterisations. As mentioned earlier, the
sound field produced by a phased array probe has the same quantitative treatment as the single
element versions. Figure 5-21 shows the amplitude profile of a beam from a 10mm diameter,.S MHz
flat probe placed over a block of steel.
The pressure map in colour (Figure 5-27, (a)) provides a 2D view of the sound field as it might appear
from a sequence of steps as the beam propagates into the steel in compression mode. The crosshairs
are placed at the maximum pressure locatiory i.e. 22rnm into the block and along the centre of the
beam (which corresponds to the 20mm position on the vertical scale). This corresponds to the end of
the near zone. Crosshairs are at the near zone (a) with pressure profiles along the centre of the beam
axis (b) and perpendicular to the centre of the beam axis (c).
Figure 5-21 Sound field of a5 MHz 10mm diameter probe on steel
38
:
Calculations of the peak and boundary conditions of beams play an important role in ultrasonic
testing in general but they are especiaily important in planning the phase d array beam. Equations for
the determination of the most common parameters are found in most basic ultrasonic testing guides.
Because so much of what can be done with a phased array system in NDT, takes advantage of the
ability to alter some of these parameters, the next portion of this text reviews the main items
calculated for ultrasonic beams. These include:
- Near Zone -FocalZone

- Beam Diameter - Beam Spread and Half Angle
Focusing considerations such as effects of varying the acoustic velocity and gain (seirsitivity) due to
focusing will also be considered.
5.5.1 THE NEAR ZONE
The distance from the face of the transducer to the last maximum sound field pressure point is known
as the near field distance (N or Yo*point) and is the natural focus of the transducer. The far field is the
area beyond N where the sound field pressure gradually drops to zero.
The near field distance is a function of the transducer frequency, element diameter, and the sound
velocity in the test material as shown by Equation (5.6):
D2f
N:"+ (5.6) oR
nn N : D2
41 (5.7)
Where;
-l/: Near FieldDistance D: Element Diameter
f Frequency v: Material Sound Velocity
,l: Wavelens th, )' : I
T
This equation provides a good "approximation" of the theoretical near field.
For the probe modelled in Figure 5-21 with diameter 10mm, frequency 5 MHz and steel sound
velocity 6 x 106 mm/s, the near zone (N) can be calculated as 20.8mm using Equation (5.6).
The semi-analytical model in the plot of Figure 5-21 (c) indicates the peak occurring at22rnrn.
5.6.2 FOCUSINGCONFIGURATIONS
Traditional single element transducers are available in three different focusing configurations:
. ljnfocused (flat)
. Spherically (spot) focused
' Cylindrically (line) focused
For the traditional single element probes, focusing is accomplished by either the addition of a lens or
by curving the element itself.
39
:
5.6.3 FOCAL LENGTH

By definitiory the focal length of a transducer is the distance from the face of the transducer to the
point in the sound field where the signal with the last maximum amplitude is located, prior to a
continuous drop in pressure. In an unfocused transducer, this occurs at a distance from the face of the
transducer, which is equivalent to the length of the transducer's near field. Because, the last signal
maximum, for an unfocused transducer occurs at a distance, equivalent to the near field; a transducer,
by definitiory cannot be acoustically focused at a distance, greater than its near field length.
When focusing a transducer, the type of focus (spherical or cylindrical), focal length and the focal
target (spherical point or flat surface) need to be specified. Based on this informatiory the radius of
curvature of the lens or the transducer can be calculated. When tested, the measured focal length
should be stated as being determined from the target specified.
There are limitations on focal lengths for transducers of particular frequency and element diameter
combinations and target designations. It has been observed that focal lengths less than the near field
(N), but longer than approximately 0.8 times the near field length, have very little focusing effecf in
fact, such weak focusing only serves to reduce the off-axis energy within the sound beam without an
advantage of focusing. Since the transducer produces a range of frequencies, the lower frequency
components tend to lower the near zone length or Yo* point. This leads us to a practical limit to the
maximum focal length of about 0.75 times the near field length. Such transducers are termed, weakly
focused.
In addition to the limitations on maximum focal lengths, there are limitations on the minimum focal
lengths as well. These limitations are typically due to the mechanical limitations of the transducer. The
minimum practical focal length is about 0.1 N.
5.6.3,1 FOCAL LENGTH VARIATIOAJS DUE TO ACOUSTIC VELOCITY DIFFERENCES
The measured focal length of a transducer is
dependent on the medium in which it is being
measured. This is due to the fact that different
materials have different sound velocities. When
specifying a transducer's focal length it is
typically specified for water. Since most materials
have a higher velocity than water, the focal length
is effectively shortened. This effect is caused by
refraction (according to Snell's Law) and is
Figure 5-22 Focal length alteration due to change

in medium
40
Using Snell's Law principles, if the sound travels certain distance (i.e. sound path distance) in medium
"A" at a known velocity (va), an equivalent sound path distance can be predicted when using
alternative medium "8", if the sound velocity (v) is known. The sound path in medium "A" with its
in equivalent medium "8" ate shown in Figure 5-23. Since (ur) is greater than (ua), Peq.ivarent is shorter
thofl Po.iginar, Equation (5.8) highlights the relationship between sound path and velocity in chosen
medium, this relationship is called the refraction index.
Figure 5-23 Equivalent sound path
r*@t=(b)
t
origtnaL vB
(s.8)
When the sound travels from one medium into another and the distance travelled in the first medium
is less than the total focal distance, the total focal length (Fa) is the summation of sound path in both
mediums corrected for the velocity ratio. This focal length (Fa) is affected by sound velocity in both
mediums and could be longer or shorter than the sound path travelling in only one medium (Fr with
no refraction). Figure 5-24 indicates how the near field retreats slightly from where it would be in
solid wedge material. The change in focal location is slight when dealing with this wedge condition
because the velocity difference between the wedge and the shear mode in steel is small compared to
water and the compression mode in steel.
In additioru the curvature of the surface of the test piece can affect focusing. Depending on whether
the entry surface is concave or conve& the sound beam may converge more rapidly than it would in a
flat sample or it may spread and actually defocus.
Figure 5-24 Focal length change due to change in wedge material
47
The total focal distance, assuming the sound travels in a solid wedge material, is given by:
Ft = Pt + Pz equivaLent inwed-ge materiot (5.9)
) Pz equiuatent tnwedge material = Ft - Pt
Where;
Fr: Focal distance when the sound beam travels in the first medium only
Pr: Sound path in the coupling (first) medium
P:: Sound path in the test (second) medium
Merging Equations (5.8) & (5.9):
,Pz equtvalent tn wedge material, lVz\

,-,,r
' Pr. ' - t\vr/I
> Pz equiuarent tnwed.se matertat : O, (?) : Fr - Pr
Pz
" ra)
= (Ft- P,) \u-/ (5.10)
The total fo.ul dirtr.,.e for the sound travelling in two materials is given by:
Fa: P1 * P2
Substituting P, frorn Equation (5.10) yields:

,r,\
Fa = Pr * (F, - ,r)\i) (s.11)
Where;
Fr: Focal distance when the sound beam travels in the first medium only
Fa: Total focal distance when the sound beam travels in two mediums
Pr: Sound path in the coupling (first) medium
P:: Sound path in the test (second) medium
ar: Sound velocity in coupling (first) medium
zr:: Sound velocity in test (second) medium
It must be kept in mind that all these equations are approximations! The formulae are based on
assuming a single (i.e. the central) frequency for the transducer, as we might do for laser-light with
single wavelengths. But ultrasonic probes invariably have bandwidth (i.e. a band of frequencies), so
the locations of the near zone, spot size and working range are more like regions as opposed to
specific dimensions or distances.
42
Examole 1:
A 5 MHz, 10mm diameter probe has a near zone (natural focus) of 83mm (Fr) in water. An immersion
test is performed with the probe, 50mm (Pr) away from the steel block under water; calculate the total
focal distance in both mediums, where velocity of sound in water (Vr) : 1.5 x 106 mm/s and velocity of
sound in steel (V, :5.9 x 106 mm/s.
Fa : 50 + (83 - 50)(1.5/5.9) )Fo : 58.3 mm
Examole 2:
A 5 MHz, 10mm diameter probe has a near zone of 52mm (Fr) in wedge material with a sound
velocity (Vr) of 2300m/s. When the wedge path is machined to 18mm (Pr) and the beam used is in
shear mode in a steel plate with a sound velocity of 3200 m/s, calculate the total focal distance in both
mediums.
Fa : \B + (52 - 1,8)(2300 /3200) >Fd : 42 mm (See Figure 5-24)
5.6.4 FOCUSING GAIN

Focused transducers use an acoustic lens or element curvature to effectively shift the location of the
near zone toward the transducer face. Due to the concentration of soundbeam energy, the sensitivity
of the resultant focused soundbeam and its ability to respond to very small discontinuities (sensitivity)
is therefore dramatically increased. Additionally, focusing has the effect of suppressing or smoothing
the soundwave pressure variations within the near field.
5.6.5 NORMALISED FOCAL LENGTH

Normalised focal length is the ratio of the focal distance of the focused transducer to its natural focal
distance. It is also known as the focusing coefficient which gives an indication as to the degree of
focusing.
F 50
C-:- (5.12)
N (EQ
40
Where; 3En
Sr: Normalised Focal Length sP l
oE
9(,1
l
30
F: Focal Length (focal distance) oO

N: Near Field Distance b:m 20
.c9"
o0)
>E
(E= 10
oo_
0aE
(E
0
0.2 0.4 0.6
rn",""," ink-;;;;;Ao sensitivity

versus Normalised Focal Length
Figure 5-25 Relative increase in signal amplitude vs.

normalised focal length
43
:
Note: The amplitude from a small defect cannot exceed the echo amplitude from a flat plate.
For example, the chart can be used to determine the increase in the on-axis pulse echo sensitivity of a
2.25 MH425mm element diameter transducer that is focused at 100mm. If the near field length of this
transducer is 234mm in water and the normalised focal length is (100/23a) = 0.42. For unfocused
transducer, the focal length is equal to the near field length, hence, the normalised focal length (Sr) = 1.
From the chart it can be seen that this will result in an increase in sensitivity of approximateiy 21dB.
Focusing gain in (dB) for cylindrical focused probes can be estimated as being 3/E of the gain for
spherical focuses.
5.5.6 BEAM SIZE

As noted in the description on normalised focal length, a transducer's sensitivity is influenced by the
beam diameter at the point of interest. There is a greater amount of energy reflected by a flaw for a
smaller beam diameter, than for a larger beam diameter.
The -6dB, pulse echo beam diameter at the focus of a circular probe can be calculated by the following
equations:
1.02Fv
Dn_aas: (5.13)
fD
Where 1.02 is a constant for circular elements
Since 2 : ! , the above equation can be written as:

f
1,.02F1
De-,edl : (5.14)
D
-I
oi",s, : *(f,), tr.,i, yields DSr
Since Sp and r = 4D
F^
Equation (5.14) can be re-written as:
De-uaa : 0'256BDSr (5.15)
Where;
Dn-aan: Beam Diameter (at the 6dB drop boundary)
F: Focal Length
Material Sound Velocity
zr:
f Frequency
D: Element Diameter
Se: Normalised Focal Length
For a flat transducer (unfocused) we use Equation (5.15) with Sr. :1
This equation suggests that the beam size at the natural focal length (i.e. the near zone) is
approximately 25% of the diameter of the probe and is reduced in size as a result of focusing (Sr <1),
and the beam size is proportional to the degree of focusing inside the near field distance. E.g. when a
44
beam is focused at half the near zone length, Sr will be 0.5 and therefore, the spot size will be half of
:
what it was at the near zone.
From Equation (5.15) we see that the beam diameter at the near zone is only dependent on the probe
:
diameter. For our 10mm diameter, 5 MHz probe, the estimated beam diameter at the near zone is
0.2568 x70 : 2.568 mm. Since we are at the focal distance when estimating the beam at the near zone,
the Se term is 1. Therefore the beam size is approximately 2.6mm diameter.
5.6.7 FOCAL ZONE

: Most detection in ultrasonic NDT is done near or just beyond the near field. The range forward or
backward of the near zone is also of interest and this range is termed as the working field or focal
zone.
The focal zone is defined by the points lying on a.

-6dIl t1iAt",t )tA,
-12d8 IIFAM
the central axis of the sound beam at distances
where the maximum pressure drops to half (-6dB INTENSITY
'---*--
in pulse echo) on both sides of the Yo+ point. The LINE
l, polNT oF l,rAxllr,rurrl Ecr'rc FHo$t
working field or focal zone, the beginning and end A FIAT PIAIE TAilGET 1':]: ]
of the focal zone and the Probe diameter are POINT OF rlAXltu!Ulrl ECHC
A PO,NT:ABGET,-1::l
iROh!
shown in Figure 5-26 to extend from 12mm to

43mm. The figure indicates the distance along the ZB = $Fqanning oi lhe F*i:rl Zone
sound path where these drops are located (note Fz = ILrcll Zrine
that in Figure 5-21 (b) and (c) the plot is that of the ZE = lnd oi the Foqt Zlne
D = alenreni D;"lmeter
transmit path only, so the 3dB drop is used which
is equivalent to the 6dB drop in pulse echo). Figure 5-26 Working field of the probe (u)
Equation (5.16) gives the length of the focal zone:
Fz: NSrzt-*"-] (s.16)
The 1+0.5 term provides the basis for the rule of thumb that the working field is one third of the focal
distance behind the focal point and two thirds beyond it.
Where;
Fz:Focal Zone
l/: Near Field
Sr: Normalised Focal Length
For a probe with diameter 10mm, frequency 5 MHz and steel sound velocity 6 x 106 mm/s, the near
zone (N) can be calculated as 20.8mm using Equation (5.6). Since the normalized focal length (Sr) for
an unfocused probe is equal to 1, the calculated focal zone (Fz) in Equation (5.16) estimates a working
length of 27mm.
Now, we compare this calculated focal zone to the one obtained from Figure 5-2L, that was generated
by modelling an identical probe; which displays a working range of 12mm to 43mm, the modelled
45
:
beam therefore has a working focal zone of 31mm. There is a difference of only 4mm from the
approximation made using Equation (5.16) and the value obtained from Figure 5-21.
The modelling also proves a generally accepted positioning of the working range relative to the near
zone location. This is approximated by the so-called - 2/s rule. This implies that one third of the
1/e
Focal zone distance is prior to the calculated near zone peak and two thirds is after'the calculated near
zone peak.
A different normalized focal length (Sr) value is obtained with focusing applied and using the same
probe modelled in Figure 5-21 focused at focal distance F:10.5mm, as follows:
Substituting the value of near zone (N) in Equation (5.12)

F 10.5
s,=_-_-0.c
' N 20.8
Substituting the values of near zone (N) and normalised focal length (Sr) in Equation (5.16)
Fz: NSp2
t--="-] : 20.8(0.52) I,*T=.,]= u.=
^^
Using the one-third/two-thirds rule, the start of the focal zone can be obtained through dividing the
focal zone (Fz) by 3 then subtract from the focal point (10.5-8.3/3 :7.7 rnm). Since the start of the focal
zone extends for the length of the focal zone (i.e. 8.3mm), the end of the focal zone is 7.7+8.3 = 16 mm.
When we combine the effects of radius of curvature (ROC) and the working range, the shortening of
the range is seen graphically. In the plot in Figure 5-27, to get a 10.5 mm focal distance, an ROC of
15mm is used for a probe on a steel surface with a compression velocity of 5.9mm/prs. The near field
(N) is plotted at 21mm for the unfocused probe (ROC=Flat), and using 15mm as the ROC this gives us
the geometric focus (Fg). The 15mm ROC then provides an acoustic focus (F") at the desired 10.5mm.
The one way (transmit) equivalent to the

-6dB pulse-echo pressure assessment uses
-3dB as the drop point and this equates to
the 70"/" level (instead of the 50% Ievel that
is associated with the 6dB pulse-echo
assessment) and we see the working range
is about 8mm to 16mm along the sound
path. The tradifionally accepted
"working range" is the region above
which the transmission pressure is over
70% of the peak (indicated as the
horizontal red line in Figure 5-27). The
unfocused probe has the working range
from 14mm to 42mm. The equation for the Figure 5-27 Effect of radius of curvature on the near field
correction from geometric focal point to of a probe
acoustic focal point comes from Ermolov.
46
Focused elements in the passive plane, in addition to the focusing ability of the time delays in an
active plane in a linear array, provide the extra beam refinement often required to reduce oversizing
of flaw length and height.
It follows that if the unfocused probe has a point that defines a maximum natural focal distance from
the probe, the effect of "focusing" that probe can only occur for points along the sound path that are at
a distance less than the near zone distance.
Immersion probes are often purchased with a specified focal distance in water. These are almost
always provided with spherically (or cylindrically) shaped elements. Some probe manufacturers have
made "contact probes" that are shaped or equipped with lenses to focus the beain. When these
contact probes are shaped, the probe is often defined with a "radius of curvature".
The radius of curvature for a probe will have a geometric focus that is the centre of the radius for the
shaped element. However, this is not the same as the focal distance in water (or other test medium).
The focal length of a radiused probe will be a function of the acoustic velocity of the material it is
radiating into. Ermolov(12) provides an equation that indicates the approximate position along the
beam axis where the diffraction focus occurs. The approximation assumes that the aperture angle
made is less than 30o.
P=Pol:*'^Ho-;)]l (5.77)
Where;
p: Pressure at the point x along the beam axis

po: Initial pressure at the probe surface
N: Calculated near field length from the Equation (5.23)
F: Geometric radius of focus
Figure 5-28 indicates the effect of this 12
diffraction focusing as compared to the

geometric focus. Comparison is made for a I
SMHz probe with 12.5mm diameter, radiating {t 0.8
into water. The Flat condition indicates the

G
Near Field "N" is at 130mm when radiating oE
into water. When the geometric focus $ a u"

(radius of curvature), is half the Near Field !
F
distance, (i.e. 65mm in Figure 5-28), the u
equation indicates an acoustic focus, Fu of 0
,00 15c 200 tu
52mm (i.e. 80% of the geometric focus). The Distan(e ion proha fr(e lem)
traditionally accepted "working range" is the
region above which the transmission pressure Figure 5-28 Acoustic focus shift for specified
is over 70% of the peak (indicated as the geometric focus
horizontal red line in Figure 5-28).
47
Phased array focal laws use Fermat's principle to calculate the delays for a "minimum time" path for
the beam to focus at a defined location. In Fermat's Principle, the central ray following Snell's Law,
locates the array with respect to the point of focus and then calculations are made for each ray path
from the elements used, to the point of focus. This is effectively a variety of geometric focusing.
5.6.8 BEAM SPREAD AND HALF ANGLE
A11 transducers have beam spread. In other words,
all ultrasonic beams diverge. Figure 5-29 gives the
view of a sound beam for a flat transducer. In the
near field, the beam has a complex shape that
narrows. In the far field the beam diverges.
For flat circular transducers like the one used in the
model shown in Figure 5.21., tiite -6dB pulse echo
beam spread angle is given by Equation (5.18): Figure 5-29 Principles of beam spread (sl
sin
0
(-) 0.51v
(5.18)
'2', fD
Where;
e
Angle Spread between -6dB points
;:Half
0.51 is a constant used for the -6dB envelope for a circular probe (for the -20dB envelope the constant
is changed to 0.87)
crlMaterial Sound Velocity
f Frequency
D: Element Diameter
It can be seen from this equation that beam spread from a transducer can be reduced by selecting a
transducer with a higher frequency or a larger element diameter or both.
5.7 PHASED ARRAY ASPECTS OF BEAM CHARACTERISTICS

The previous information should simply be a refresher, covering the basics of ultrasonic sound field
equations. The concepts covered, have equivalents in phased array sound field calculations, but the
Process is more complicated when we use square or rectangular shapes, more commonly associated
with linear arrays.
Dr. I.N. Ermolov 03) developed an approximation for rectangular probes in the 1970s. He
approximated that the near zone calculations for a rectangular probe can use the same equations as a
circular disc transducer if the ratio of length to width does not exceed 2:1.
48
The general rule he uses for the near field length is:
s
N=-;7tA (5.1e)
Where;
S: Surface area of the probe

n:The constant Pi (Value of r:3.747592654)
2: Pulse wavelength
As an example of Ermolov's approximation used for a phased array probe, we will compare the near
zone obtained for a rectangular probe to a round one of equivalent area.
A 5 il/I{z, linear phased array probe is constructed o{ 60 elements, each 10mm long, and cut with a
1mm pitch and a gap of 0.1mm: calculate the near zone for a focal law that forms a pulse into steel at
zero degrees (i.e. direct flat contact) with 10 adjacent elements fired simultaneously.
This is effectively a 10mm x 10mm, 5 MHz probe, in contact with steel (Velocity of sound in steel. =
590Om/s)
Using the Ermolov approximation we get:
7y : (10 * l})/(tt ,, 1.2) ) I'r = (100)/(3.8) tN = 26.55 mm
Consider a 10x10mm area. This is very close to the equivalent area, which a round probe with 11.3mm
diameter would have. For a round, 11.3mm diameter probe, using the equation for a circular element,
indicates a near zone of 27rnrn. We can see that, the near field lengths are similar for probes having
comparable surface areas.
5.7.1, RECTANGULAR PROBE CALCULATIONS

As we depart from the square shape, the Ermolov
approximation departs from the values measured
in the lab. Laboratory values that were measured I
using a point target are closely approximated using
semi-analytical modelling software. This suggests I
that, as the rectangular shape departs farther from
1
the square, the area-equivalent approximatiory
made by Ermolov, is no longer adequate. These /
observations were carried out in some detail in the
1970s by Udo Schlengermann (from Krautkramer),
who then derived a correction curve that predicts
the end of the rrear zone, by a grapfu now c.? 0.4 0.6 0.8
published in "EN 72668 - Non-destructive testing -

Characterisation and verification of ultrasonic Figure s-30 cr;""; ctor "k;' for
examination equipment - Pafi 2: Probes". rectangular elements, "a" aspect ratio:
width/length {t+)
49
ter (5):Beamforming
When a detailed curve of the amplitude is constructed along the centre ray path of a rectangular probe
of dimensions, 10x20 mm, having a frequency of 5 MHz and emitting a comPression mode wave into
steel, we see the beam having an oblong shape and two peaks in amplitude. Since it is the last peak,
prior to a continuous drop in amplitude, that defines the near zone, it is the second dip poiht that
constitutes the near field in a rectangular probe. A beam model of the 10x20mm, 5 MHz probe is
Figure 5-31 Beam profile for 10x20mm 5 MHz probe in steel
The cursor is placed at the last peak prior to the continuous drop and is seen to occur at 85mm from
the entry surface.
The EN 12668 documen! bases the assessment of the near zone measurement, on the measured angles
of divergence. These angles come from the theory based on element size and wavelength of the pulse.
For a circular probe, the half angle of divergence is calculated from:
1
sinT=k, (s.20)
50
Where;
y: Half angle of divergence
k: Constant for the -6dB envelope, k :0.5L for circular element-transducers
2: Wavelength
For the rectangular probe, the half angles are derived from the size of the relevant side and
wavelength as follows:
: PL $'21)
'i'Y
siny: pL $.22)
Where;
L: The long dimension of the rectangular probe
W: The short dimension of the rectangular probe
k: Constant for the -6dB envelope , k : 0.44 for rectangular element-transducers
Using these equations, the concepts in the EN 12668 document can be used to derive the near zone
length by re-arranging the parameters and applying the correction factor in the curve seen in Figure
5-30 for rectangular elements.
Effectively, the larger dimensioned side gradually dominates the near field length; thus the equation
used for a circular probe, with a diameter of the larger dimension on the rectangle, can again be used
for estimating the extent of the near zone. The near zone can now be determined by the equation
Nrectangurar =ry $.23)

Where;
ko is a correction factor obtained from the curve in Figure 5-30,

L: The long dimension of the rectangular probe
f: Probe nominal frequency
v: Velocity of sound in the test piece
The short dimension of the rectangular probe (W) is not used directly in the equation, but is instead
used to determine the aspect ratio required for the determination of the ka value.
To test the validity of the equation, we can use the values from the model in Figure 5-31. This provides
us with an aspect ratio of 0.5 and ka value of 1.005, hence:
1.005 (202) r5')
N=
(4) (s.e)
-=#:BS.Zmm
51
5.7.2 ANCULARRESOLUTIONCALCULATIONS
Angular resolution can be quantified to some extent and its limits estimated, using basic knowledge of
the beam dimensions. The best hope for resolving indications occurs at the focal spot, so the beam
size at that point will be the limiting factor. An indication peaked at the focal spot (or the near field
distance of an unfocused probe) will be considered resolved as separate from another indication,
when the beam drops to at least half the maximum, before rising again to a maximum, when the beam
is moved to another indication.
When beam motion is achieved using an angular sweep, we can estimate the resolution capability by
ascertaining the angular displacement of the spot at the focal point. This estimate can be made by
determining the beam dimension at the focal spot. A displacement of half the beam dimension, off a
maximum reflection would be indicated by a 6dB drop in signal amplitude.
To determine the angular value of the displacement, we need to determine the spot size at the defined
sound path. For an unfocused beam, we determine the near zone distance and we can estimate the
spot size from the aperture.
Angular resolution of the beam can be estimated as half the angle made by the beam diameter at the
sound path distance of the near zone. This is determined as:
tan oo= (o t '-;*)
oa : tqn-l (, t &f*) (5.24)
Where;
Dr oaa: Beam diameter at 6dB drop boundary
F: Focal length
Examole 1:
A 5L64 probe works at 5MHz, with a 0.6mm pitch, 10mm passive aperture uses 16 elements to make
an unfocused beam in steel in a compression mode (contact S-scan with a small -10' to +10' sweep) at
a sound velocity 5.9mm/prs. What is the angular resolution in the scan at the focal point? What will be
the angular resolution if the beam is focused at 14mm?
Step 1. Active aperture is approximately calculated using Equation (5.1)

A: ne t g(n - 1) = np = 1,6 x 0.6:9.6mm
Step 2. The aspect ratio of probe width to length dimensions of is
a: A/W :9.6/1,0: 0.g6mm
Step 3. The correction factor (k,) is obtained from Figure 5-30 and is equal to 1.35
Step 4. Since the probe's effective dimensions are 9.6x10mm, the long dimension (L) is equal to
10mm. Substituting the values obtained above in the Equation (5.23), the near field length:
Nrectansutar :
ry= 1##, .tr*P : # = 2'.6mm
52
Step 5. For unfocused beam the focal length (SE) is equal to 1
Step 6. Focal length is calculated using Equation (5.12)

s.:*)1:irr:N:28.6mm
Step 7. For rectangular array probe, the active aperture (A) is used to represent the active probe
diameter for calculating the beam diameter (spot size) at 6dB drop using Equation (5.15)
Ds_oa, = 0.2568D5e : 0.2568A5e: (0.2568)(9.6)(1) :2.47mrn at focal distance in steel
of 28.6mm
Step 8. Angular resolution of the unfocused beam can be estimated using Equation (5.24)
oo : tan-, (, r &f*) :
tan-, (r = 2.47or'#)
Step 9. If the beam was focused at F: 14mm, then
Sr=F/N =74128.6:0.5
De-oaa : 0.2568A5e: (0.2568)(9.6)(0.5) : 1.23mm
The angular resolution would be:
oa = tqn-, (, r &f*) = tan-7 (, r = z.szo
#)
Unfocused Focused at 1;lmm
elemenl 0.6mrn pitch
Fr*ai sp*t t,25mfi

Focai :one fronr
Focal spo{ 2.5mm f- 12 !o 18mm
rr Ansirls ryoftr!-m zSZ'f
lzn g o
Angular;e;llrlu/rio*Lt*7o ll M2
Focal zone from
tB l* 5{imm
l'', 5 Figure generated using
ESBeamTool
li
lt
Examole 2:
A 5L64 probe, works at 5MHz, with a 0.6mm pitch, 1Omm passive aperture uses 16 elements, is placed
on a refracting wedge with a sound path in the wedge of 10mm and steel velocity 3.2mm/prs and
wedge velocity of 2.3mm/pts. What is the angular resolution at the focal point? What will be the
angular resolution if the beam is focused at a sound path that is 80%?
Step 1. Active aperture is approximately calculated using Equation (5.1)
A : ne + g(,, - 1) = np x L6 x0.6 : 9.6mm
Step 2. The aspect ratio of probe width to length dimensions of is
a: A/W :9.6/1,0: 0.g6mm
Step 3. The correction factor (k,) is obtained from Figure 5-30 and is equal to 1.35
53
Step 4. Probe effective dimensions are 9.6x10mm, therefore, the long dimension (L) is equal to
10mm. Substituting these values in the Equation (5.23) we obtain the near field length:
Nt wedge mclteriat
: ry= 1##. rri# : # = 73.4mm
6::
Nz steetmatertol =k"1.*)r:
+v ''1u,(1ol)u I^10' = L2.8 =
+x3.2x1,06 s2.7mm
Step 5. Since the focal length (Sr) for unfocused beam is equal to 1, the total focal.distance in steel
material is calculated using Equation (5.12)
Sp : F2f Nur"t ) 1= Fz/Nz ) Fr: Nz:52.7mm
Step 6. The sound path distance in wedge material is 10mm; however, we need to calculate the
equivalent value in steel, using Equation (5.8):
efftr) = (rytr) ) Pt,t""t equivatent: t, (#) = T.zmm

Step 7. total
The focal distance in steel is F, : Pt rr"rt equiuatent * Pz
> 52.7 = 7.2 I Pz, Pz = 45.2mm
Step 8. For rectangular array probe, the active aperture (A) is used to represent the active probe
diameter for calculating the beam diameter (spot size) at 6dB drop using Equation (5.15)
Dp_aaa :0.2568D5r : 0.2568A5F = (0.2568)(9.6)(1) :2.47mm at focal distance in steel of
45.2mrn
Step 9. Using the sound path distance in steel (Pz: 45.2mm), the angular resolution at that point is
determined by:
oo: tan-'\ (r r'-nff): ten-l (t t'#) : t.s7o
This is an approximate resolution because the angle made by the beam is not actually
rotating at the Omm depth in the steel but is instead shifted slightly due to the exit point
migration as the beam moves through the wedge at slightly different angles.
Step 10. If the beam was focused at a sound path that is 80% of the natural focus in steel:
Pz= (0.8) (Pz"nt.,nr) : (0.8) (45.2):36mm in steel
The sound path distance in wedge material is 10mm; however, we need to calculate the
equivalent value in steel, using Equation (5.8):
e\#f*) = (+tr) ) Pt,t""t equivarent:'o (#) = 7'2mm

The total focal distance in steel: Fz = Pr srcel equiuatent I Pz = 7.2 + 36 = 43.2mm
Near field length in steel material:
k"(G)f 1.35(100)5 x 106 675
^/ rectansutar
t'2 - 4v 4 x 3.2 x l}b
=-=52.7mm
lz.g
Sp = F2/N2: 43.2/52.7 = 0.82

Du
- uau = 0.2568 AS e = (0.2 5 68) (9.6) (0.82) = 2.02mm
54
Lo(in steet) = tan-7 (r r'-ff) : ten-L (, r : 1.61o

#)
,ls ;**\
i:ri,:
*q !J: r:t,.1
: i/nir
figure geffcrated using

ISBeamTool
5.8 BEAM STEERING LIMITS

There are limits to the extent to which we can carry the comparisons between single elements and
phased array probe elements.
Even then, we should look at the very first approximation made for near zone distance. Equations
(5.6) and (5.7) stated as
pz
N:D'f
4u
oR
't-41
This equation is derived from the more accurate
r - " 41--.1' (5.25)
Equation (5.7) was used, assuming that the dimension of the element was much greater than the
wavelength of the sound pulse so the 22 term was dropped. But when the individual element is in the
order of 1mm, it is very nearly the same size as the wavelength and the off axis effects cannot be
ignored.
Wavelets form individual wavefronts from each element in the phased array probe. These wavelets
are essentially circular. Because of their circular shape, the pressure is approximately uniform in
55
amplitude as we move around the wavefront, off-axis from the front of the element. In fact, some idea
of the degree of this can be determined from the estimation of the near zone of a single element.
By inserting values typical of a phased array probe in Equation (5.25), e.g. 1mm element dimension
radiating into steel at 5900m/s with a 7.5MHz nominal frequency, the wavelength is 0.79mm and the
near zone would be 0.12mm instead of the estimated 0.32mm near zone using the approximate form
of the equation (5.6); the near zone is less than the wavelength of the pulse.
There will be some obliquity factor resulting in a reduction of pressure on the wavefront as we move
towards 90" from the forward direction, so at some point, we will not have very large amplitude on
which to build our constructive interference.
As we use more and more elements to form our beam, the energy is concentrated on the axis of the
beam formed. The rate at which this occurs is greater for large elements than for small elements (at the
same frequency). This limits the amount that a phased array can be steered off-axis. The off-axis
amplitude available from the individual elements decreases at the same rate as the individual
elements making up the array. Therefore, to steer to large angles, small individual elements are
necessary. It is generally recommended that when designing a phased array probe for a specific
applicatiory the designer must determine the maximum angle the beam is to be steered (i.e. 0r_," ).
Then, the individual element width is established so that at that angle, the beam amplitude from the
individual element is reduced by no more than 6dB.
We use the formula for determining the maximum element width (r^or)
0.441
"max (5.26)
sin 9-t max
For phased array transducers, the maximum steering angle (at -6 dB) in a given case is derived from
the beam spread equation. It can easily be seen that small elements have more beam spreading and
hence higher angular energy content, which can be combined to maximise steering.
For an element width "e", the maximum steering angle can be calculated as
sin0rl: 0.44(1) (5.27)
While these transducers would no doubt maximise steering, the small apertures would limit static
coverage area, sensitivity and focusing ability. As element size decreases, more elements must be
pulsed together to maintain sensitivity (aperture size).
The steering range can be further modified, by using an angled wedge to change the incident angle of
the sound beam, independent of electronic steering.
These details are useful to an operator in a general way and the details of the calculations are left to
the probe manufacturer. Typically a manufacturer may provide a recommended steering range. The
operator that fails to follow the manufacturer's advice does so at the risk of poor quality resolution
and annoying signals that result from undesired interference patterns (grating lobes) at the higher
steering angles. Meyer and Anderson illustrated the effect of the ratio of wavelength to element size
using a simple sketch (See Figure 5-32).
56
a- large fuD b- snB[ i./D
Figure 5-32Effect of A/D ratio on sound field diverggn6s (ro)
Using this sort of illustration we can see the importance of selecting the right element width, spacing
and frequency. The elements must be narrow enough to produce a useful divergence and close
enough to allow the adjacent wavelets to interact. However, making the elements very narrow and
spacing between the elements very small, although great for steering, now compromises the size of
the beam, so very large numbers of elements would be needed to construct a beam with capabilities of
focusing at a useful distance from the probe. The maximum number of elements that can be used to
form a beam is a function of the instrumentation available. Typically 8, 16 or 32 elements are available
to be used in a single firing (Focal Law). Therefore if the element is only 0.2mm wide with a space of
only 0.1mm between each, the maximum size "probe" a 16 element group could make is 4.7mm (i.e.
not a very large probe).
The region of useful beam steering can be
illustrated by calculating the beam spread
from the equations above. E.g. an element
1mm wide operating at 5 MHz in contact on
a steel surface would have a half-angle of
divergence of 54. When a group of
elements is located at a particular positiorl Position within
the range of steering is limited by the
spacing and element beam divergence. This
Figure 5-33 Limit of steering due to beam divergence
limitation is illustrated in Figure 5-33
s.8.1 SENSTTTVTTY AND STGNAL TO NOrSE (S/N) RATrO

The sensitivity of proposed inspections is determined by quantifying the defect response in terms of
gairy or by comparison to the reference case; i.e., if the gain required to identify the defect is within the
dynamic range of the phased array controller, then it will be possible to detect the defects in question.
A series of parametric studies is often carried out, for example, to study the dependence between
detectability and the size of the defect, its orientation and/or its geometry.
57
Signals from reflectors of interest can be very weak. Unwanted signals present from other sources
such as electrical sources, cross-talk between elements, material grain strucfure, surface-entry signals,
etc., are considered noise. In order for an operator to identify a relevant signal, the response from the
signal of interest must be significantly higher than the surrounding noise signals. The ratio between
the signal of interest and the noise is called the signal-to-noise ratio and is usually rated in dB. E.g. a
signal from a reference target is set to a specific screen height. Gain is added until the surro.unding
noise reaches the same height to which the signal was set. The dB added is the signal to noise (or S/N)
ratio. Therefore a good inspection setup will provide a high sensitivity (i.e. amplitude response
compared to a reference target); and the response will be higtu compared to the surrounding
background noise (i.e. a high S/N ratio).
58
Chapter (6): Scanning with Phased Array Probes
CHAPTER (6): SCANNING WITH PHASED ARRAY PROBES
Scanning with a single element probe involves moving the beam manually or via some form of
scanning system. Scanning with a phased array probe adds the movement of the beam, via electronic
switching of the elements, to shape or steer the beam to these options. Using the combination of both
mechanical and electronic movement enables phased array probes to scan faster and with a decreased
degree of operator error due to accidental probe skew or steps which are too great in size.
Today, many different scanning systems exist, employing two-axis mechanical motion, as well as
using different focal law configurations, in order to provide rapid and complete coverage of the part
being inspected.
6.1 FOCAL LAW CONFiGURATION

Focal law configuration, using a multiplexing system to very finely control the delay between each of
the elements being pulsed, is the fundamental difference between the phased array and conventional
ultrasonic instruments. With the proper selection of delays and elements selected for firing the focal
law, three basic scans can be accomplished with a linear array;
. Swept Beams (Sectorial, S-scans or Azimuthal Scanning)
. Linear Scans (Electronic Scanning or E-scans)
. Fixed Beam Scans
6.1.1 SECTORIAL SCANNiNC

\zVhen the same group of elements is fired and the
pulse-delays to each element change incrementally in
the firing sequence, the beam can be steered over a
range of angles. The beam steering over a range of
angles is called a sectorial scan or s-scan (sometimes
also called an azimuthal scan). Figure 6-1 illustrates
the effect of sectorial scanning. This pattern is
considered to be similar to the old spinning-head
probes used in the production of medical B-scans,
where a small angular window was left open for the
mono-element probe to transmit and receive through.
The result of this is the ability to inspect large volumes
of the part without having to move the probe. Figure 6-1 Sectorial scanning
The block modelled in Figure 6-1 has a series of side drilled holes that are drilled at decreasing depths
as the beam sweeps from left to right. The fainter (yellow) arcs indicate the signals from the SDHs and
a stronger (red) response is seen off the backwall of the block. The image obtained is also termed an s-
scan. As an aid to interpreting the S-scan, an image can be overlaid on an image of the test part or a
59
model of the test part can be imported and overlaid on the S-scan plot. The image indicates an S-scan
that has been corrected, so that the responses displayed are seen at the appropriate angles, relative to
the part.
6.1..2 ELECTRONIC (LINEAR) SCANNINC

Electronic or linear scanning is the ability to move the acoustic beam along the axis of the array
without any mechanical movement (See Figure 6-2).We sometimes abbreviate this scan motion to "E-
scan" , indicating electronic-scan. Below is a simple image which enables the reader to visualise what
is occurring during an electronic scan.
Fiflng ol First Focal Law
Firing of Second Focal Law
Firing ofThird Focal Law
Figure 6-2 Electronic scanning
The beam movement is performed by multiplexing of the active elements (repeating the focal law,
stepping through one element or more at a time, using the same set of delays moved to the next group
of elements). Using the electronic scanning technique, one can simulate the effect of moving a
conventional probe forward and backward on the index axis.
Scanning extent is limited by:
. Number of elements in array
. Number of "channels" in the acquisition system
. Size of aperfure used
6.I.3 FIXED BEAM SCANNING

Of course, a phased array instrument can provide a phased array probe with a single set of delays,
such that it would operate as if it was a traditional mono-element probe. Such a fixed beam scanning
might be appropriate if an operator wanted to carry out a manual UT inspection as an alternative to
phased array UT or to investigate an indication against a manual UT acceptance criteria where only a
specific probe angle could be used (typically 45", 60o or 70" in weld testing) and the echo dynamics
obtained from pivoting, orbiting and skewing of the probe used to characterise the indications. Figure
6-3 illustrates a single 60' focal law used to inspect a simple 30' V weld configuration.
60
Figure 6-3 Fixed beam scanning pattern
Although this scanning pattern does not take advantage of most of the advanced capabilities of the
phased array system, it still uses the steering capability of the multiplexer. This means that while the
probe may be placed on a 60 degree wedge, it is not restricted to using the 60 degree scan angle. In
addition, a phased array probe has the capability of scanning a part, using multiple fixed angles
simultaneously. This means that one can perform a single pass along the weld, while viewing it at 45,
60, and 70 degrees at the same time (although the operator would be hard-pressed to carry out a
sensible analysis of three simultaneous angles).
6,7.1 COIVIPARISON OF PERFORMANCE

Comparing the performances of beam scanning options is perhaps not strictly feasible. Each scanning
method has advantages and disadvantages. In weld testing, the use of a Sectorial scan has the
advantage of allowing for full volume coverage of the weld with very little space required for probe
movement from the weld cap, but the angles of refraction at the weld bevel may not always be ideal
for the detection of planar flaws on the bevel face. S-Scanning provides good volume coverage but a
poor angle approach for fusion lines. Combining a physical forward and backward motion of the
probe with the S-scan can be used to ensure that the ideal angle of incidence will be achieved by at
least one focal law as the fan of beams is directed at the weld volume (See Figure 6-4).
Phased Array Probe
Figure 5-4 Sectorial scanning
61
The E-scan, with a single refracted angle, when used with the probe at a fixed distance from the weld
can be a convenient way to duplicate the forward and backward motion achieved in manual scanning.
However, the probe footprint may not be large enough to allow the full weld volume to be inspected
without further mechanically displacing the probe away from the weld (See Figure 6-5).
ligure generiled usinF LSBeanrTool
Figure 6-5 Electronic scanning
The true advantage to these steering capabilities is revealed when a combination of the two is used.
When a linear scan is used to inspect the weld prep at the complementary angle, as well as the top and
bottom surfaces, and the sectorial scanning technique is used to inspect the volume of the weld, a
highly detailed inspection of the weld can be performed. This provides excellent coverage of the weld,
decreases the likelihood of under-sizing the indicatiory and can be merged to provide a single scan
with which to size the indication.
6.2 SCANNING PATTERNS

In addition to focal law configurations, multiple scanning patterns exist for the mechanical motion of
the probe. Choosing which scanning pattern will best suit the inspector's need is primarily dependent
upon the size and type of part being inspected, the rate at which the part needs to be scanned, and the
capabilities of the particular instrument.
6.2,7 RASTER SCAN

When the probe is moved relative to
some feature, we can identify the
motion by its direction of travel
relative to the reference. In a typical
manual scan of welds using a mono-
element probe, the probe is moved
back and forth, while travelling along
the weld with the beam approximately
perpendicular to the weld axis. This is
called a raster motion and it is
Figure 6-6 Manual raster scan pattern
62
6.2.2 SKEWED SCANS

Under some conditions the direction of probe travel may be required to be at some angle other than 0'
or 90o relative to the weld axis. This is typically used to detect transverse flaws. Such a. scan is
considered a skewed scan (in standards this pattern may be considered a "transverse scan", but this
also includes scans not skewed to any axis but merely scanning for transversely oriented flaws).
Alternatively, the surface might not be suitable for the scanner to travel perpendicular or peirallel to
the beam to detect the flaws of interest, and so the scanner would move the probe along a skewed
path. These options for skewed scans are seen in Figure 6-7 and Figure 6-8
Figure 6-7 Probe skewed, raster pattern parallel to weld
Figure 5-8 Probe Parallel to Weld, Raster Scan Skewed
63
6.2.3 HELICAL SCANS

For cylindrical or tubular products, a helical scan
is accomplished when the part is simultaneously
spun and advanced past the probe array.
Using a helical scan allows for rapid scanning ..

I
speeds, and smooth transitions along the part,
rather than completing a full rotation and then
stepping forward to the next portion of the pipe.
Figure 5-9 Helical scan configurations
6.7.4 SPIRAL SCANS

For disk-shaped products, time can be saved, by
scanning the ends with the probe being moved
outwards from the centre while the part is
rotated. This produces a spiral pattern of
scanning.
Figure 5-10 Spiral scan configuration
6.3 ENCODINC PATTERNS

Encoders are mechanical systems used for tracking the position of the probe on the part and
conveying that information to the instrument being used. They allow the operator to associate the
position on the scan data with a location on the part being inspected. A time function can be used
instead of an encoder, but this requires constant and well defined rates of probe movement in order to
accurately associate the data collected with location, and in order to accurately size any indications
located.
When scanning, there are two conventional encoding patterns, either bi-directional or unidirectional
in nature. Bi-directional scans have the advantage of constantly collecting data, and unidirectional
scans enable you to minimise the distortion of the acquired signals based upon scan direction.
64
6.3,1 BI-DIRECTIONAL
When the signals are collected to a computer using a
mechanised scanning apparatus (data acquisition
system) the software is usually configured to collect
data in the direction of longest continuous travel.
Figure 6-11 illustrates a long "scan direction" and
the short steps that advance the probe along the
weld are the "raster steps" or "index steps". When
the computer collects data in both the forward and
backward directions of the scary the scan pattern is
said to be "bi-directional".
I Data is collected by system
Figure 6-11 Bi-directional Scan
6.3.2 UNIDIRECTIONAL
When the computer collects data in just one of
either the forward or backward directions of the
scan directions, the scan pattern is said to be
"unidirectional". The advantage of unidirectional
scanning is that any backlash in the mechanics of
the system can be reduced by making sure that the
data is always collected in the same direction.
Figure 6-72 illustrates unidirectional scanning
showing no data collected during the step motion
and scan-return motions and only having data
collected during long pass in the opposite direction
of the "return scan" motion.
I -Data collected by system
I -Probe motion monitored but

no data is collected
Figure 5-12 Unidirectional scan pattern
65
6.3.3 LINE SCANS (SINGLE AXIS SCANNINC PATTERN)

Under the proper conditions, a full volume weld
inspection can be achieved with the probe at a
fixed distance from the weld and the focal laws
arranged to direct the beam coverage at suitable
angles for the inspection. This is the preferred
method for production pipeline girth weld
ffi--"*-
inspections. Such a configuration is seen in Figure Figure 5-13 Line scan
6-73 andFigve 6-1.4.
Scan Oirection
Figure 6-14 Pipeline AUT line scan configuration
6,4 COMBINED BEAM PROCESSING

Together with mechanised carriers the phased array technique allows for almost any combination of
scanning capabilities:
' Focusing + steering

. Line scanning + steering
. Fixed angle E-scan + line scanning
. Multiple fixed-angle + line scanning
. Multiple-sectorial scan groups with separate planes of focusing + line scanning
' E-scan + spiral scanning
. Customised applications are also available
66
Chapter (7): Phased Array Instruments
CHAPTER (7): PHASED ARRAY INSTRUMENTS (15)
Detailed knowledge about the electronics of the instruments used in NDT is not something the
operators require. However, a basic overview of the components is helpful to understand sorne of the
limitations and capabilities of a system.
The phased array UT instrument is still a UT instrument so many of its features are similar to that
found in the traditional units that address mono-element probes. Flowever, the "phasing" functions
required by such systems make them much more complicated than the older single channel
instruments. To provide a better insight of the details of a phased array instrument we have drawn
from a paper by Eberhard Brunner and attempted to simplify the excellent description provided in
that paper.
The paper by Brunner describes the components and functions of a medical phased array system. In
its main functions, there is no significant difference between the medical and industrial phased-array
instrument. Medical units have incorporated "Doppler" imaging to indicate blood flow. This is not a
function currently used by NDT options.
7.7 INTRODUCTION
In this description, reference is made to the "front-end" of the phased array system. As it relates to
these descriptions, it refers to al1 circuitry including the beamformers, even though the primary focus
is on the analogue signal processing components, up to and including the ADCs (analogue to digital
converters).
In ultrasound phased array front-ends, the analogue signal processing components are keys in
determining the overall system performance. Designers are concerned about electrical noise. Once
noise and distortion have been introduced into the signals it is essentially impossible to remove them.
It is interesting to note that ultrasound is very similar to radar or sonar systems - radar works in the
GHz range, sonar in the kHz range, and ultrasound in the MHz range - but the system principals are
essentially the same. In fact the original'phased array' idea of steerable beams was conceived by radar
designers.
Figure 7-1 shows a simplified diagram of an ultrasound system. In all systems there is a transducer at
the end of a relatively long cable (typically 2m). This cable has a minimum of 48 and up to 256 micro-
coaxial cables, and is one of the most expensive parts of the system. The transducer design is a
significant source of signal loss due to the loading of the cable capacitance on the transducer elements.
One can expect a loss on the order of 1-3 dB depending on transducer and operating frequency. In
most systems multiple probes can be connected to the system, allowing the operator to select the
appropriate transducer for optimal imaging. The array elements are selected via High Voltage (HV)
relays; these relays introduce large capacitance in addition to that of the cables'.
67
Hi'
fi.{llPr
{
I
Irrssdw I
t
C.H.
&sr.f6.sr*
esFlasil€ ies!
TCiC - Tiure Ciaut Courpelsaiiott

Dr;:i::'
Only in medical instruments *
\.,-,*- l
:--
:
Figure 7-1 Phased Array instrument components
An HV Mux/Demux (multiplexer/de-multiplexer) is used in some arrays to reduce the complexity of

transmit and receive hardware at the expense of flexibility (most industrial NDT equipment uses the
HV Mux/Demux). The most flexible systems are Phased Array DBF (digital beamforming) systems
where ALL transducer elements can be individually phase and amplitude controlled. These tend to be
the most costly systems due to the need for full electronic control of all channels.
On the transmit side, the Tx (transmitter) beam-former determines the delay pattern and pulse trairy
that set the desired transmit focal point. The outputs of the beam-former are then amplified by high
voltage transmit amplifiers that drive the transducers. These amplifiers might be controlled by Digital
to Analogue Converters (DAC) to shape the transmit pulses for better energy delivery to the
transducer elements (apodization).
On the receive side there is a T/R switch, generally a diode bridge, which blocks the high Tx voltage
pulses, followed by a low noise amplifier and VGA(s) (variable gain amplifier) which implement the
TCG (time corrected gain) and sometimes also apodization (spatial "windowing" to redttce side lobes
in beam) functions. TCG is under operator control and used to maintain image uniformity. After
amplification, beamforming is performed which can be implemented in analogue (ABF) or digital
(DBF) form. In modern systems it is usually digital beamforming (DBF). Some medical systems have
continuous wave (CW) Doppler processing that use analogue beamforming (ABF).
Finally, the receiver (Rx) beams are processed to a grey scale or colour image.
68
7.2 ULTRASOUND ACQUISITION MODES

While industrial systems use only the B-mode (capturing and processing of the A-scans), medical
systems use three main ultrasonic acquisition modes:
. B-mode (Grey Scale Imaging;2D)
. F-mode (Colour Flow or Doppler Imaging; blood flow)
. D-mode (Spectral Doppler)
Operating frequencies for medical ultrasound are in the 1-40 MHz range. Industrial NDT units are
typically equipped to address the 0.5-15 MHz. This is however not an absolute rule.'In research and
special applications, frequencies as high as 60 MHz have been used in industrial ultrasonics, as
increasing probe frequency can be desirable when small feature resolution is required. However, it is
not practical to keep increasing the ultrasound frequency to get finer resolutiory since the signal
experiences an attenuation that increases with frequency. In water, this is about 1dB/crnlMHz, e.g. for
a 10 MHz ultrasound signal in water and a penetration depth of 5 cm, the signal has been attenuated
by 5n2"70: 100dB).
In order to address these significant losses, very low noise and large signal handling capability are
needed simultaneously of the front-end circuitry, in particular the LNA (Low Noise Amplifier). Cable
mismatch and loss, directly add to the noise of the system. For example, if the loss of the cable at a
particular frequency is 2dB, then the noise figure is degraded by 2dB. This means that the first
amplifier after the cable will need a noise figure that is 2dB lower than if one would have a loss-less
cable. One possible way to get around this problem is to have an amplifier in the probe body, but
there are size and power constraints, plus the needed protection from the high voltage transmit pulses
make such a solution difficult to implement. Another challenge is the large acoustic impedance
mismatch between the transducer elements and the test pieces. The acoustic impedance mismatch
requires matching layers to efficiently transmit energy.
A further problem is the high Q factor of the transducer elements. Q factor is a dimensionless
parameter that describes how under-damped a transducer is; or equivalently, characterises a
transducer's bandwidth relative to its central frequency. Transducers with high Q factors have low
damping so that they ring longer. Before they are mounted in the head, they can ring for a long time,
once excited by a high voltage pulse. This necessitates damping, to shorten the pulse duration.
However, the time duration of the transmit pulse determines axial resolution: the longer the pulse, the
lower the resolution. A big drawback of the damping is the loss of energy (amplitude), which
necessitates a higher voltage pulse for a given amount of energy. Typically the damping in a phased
array probe results in a signal having about 1-2 cycles (60-90% bandwidth).
7.3 TRANSMITTER TYPES

1. Pulse
2. Pulse Wave Doppler (PW Doppler)
3. Continuous Wave Doppler (CW Doppler)
69
:
Chapter (7): Phased
NDT uses only the pulse type. Pulse type, i.e. a single'spike', gives the best axial resolution, however,
since the transducers have a bandpass response anyway it doesn't make much sense to transmit an
'impulse'but rather use a transmit pulse that is optimally matched to the transducer element impulse
response; this might simply be a single cycle of the carrier for simplicity and cost reasons.
7.1 IMAGE FORMATION - (B-MODE iN MEDICAL PAUT)

Figure 7-2 shows how the different scan images are generated. In all four scans, the pictures with the
scan lines bounded by a rectangle are an actual representation of the image as it will be seen on the
display monitor. Mechanical motion of a single transducer is shown here to facilitate understanding of
the image generation, but the same images can be generated with a linear array without mechanical
motion. As an example, for the Linear Scan the transducer element is moved in a horizontal direction
and for every scan line (the lines shown in the'Images') a pulse is sent and then the reflected signals
from different depths that have been recorded (A-scan), are converted to be shown on a video display.
How the single transducer is moved during image acquisition determines the shape of the image. This
directly translates into the shape of a linear array transducet, i.e. for the linear scan, the array would
be straight, while for the arc scan, the array would be concave.
<E+=: *
Iteur to be
uuaged
,/ ,f,
*
Linerr Scxtr
* m Iuage as
\ r:1 11.'
\ -rrtr-
a*'* seen on
diiplaJ'
{}LhaF *
-\r'c Scarr ( ompourd
Figure 7-2lrnage formation for B-mode (like industrial B-scans) {ta)
The step that is needed to go from a mechanical single transducer system to an electronic system can
also be explained by examining the Linear Scan in Figure 7-2. If the single transducer element is
divided into many small pieces, and if one element at a time is excited, and the reflections from the
body recorded, one gets the rectangular image as shown; only now one doesn't need to move the
transducer elements. From this it should be fairly obvious that the arc Scan would be made of a linear
array that has a concave shape, while the sector scan would be made of a linear array that has a
convex shape.
The example above explains the basics for B-mode ultrasound image generation, with a single element
being moved, or a linear array of individual elements. But in normal "phased array" operation more
than one element at a time is used to generate a scan line because it allows for the aperture of the
system to be changed. Changing the aperture, just like in optics, changes the location of the focal point
and thereby helps in creating clearer images. Figure 7-3 shows how this is done for a linear scan and a
sectorial scan.
70
Chapter (7): Phased Arra Instruments
The linear scan on the left, in Figure 7-3, will

excite a group of elements, which is then
stepped one element at a time, and each time
one scan line (beam) is formed. In the
sectorial scan phased array, all transducers
are active at the same time. The direction of
the scan line is determined by the delay Irnage
profile of the pulses that are shown Shape
representatively by the 'squiggles' on the

lines that lead to the elements in the array
(blue). As shown in Figure 7-3 and the
darkened lines are the scan lines that are Figure 7-3 Single delay pattem - linear scan (left) and
scanned for the representative pulsing sectorial scan (right) (17)
patterns.
If the pattern would have a linear phase

Litreil'Phrse T{peI for
taper, in addition to the phase curvature, Berln Steelirg
then the scan lines would be at an angle, as
shown on the left half of Figure 7-4. Three
focal points are shown for three different
time delay patterns on the individual 0r os
!-N
\./
elements; the 'flatter' the delay profile, the I
farther the focal point is from the transducer B€rrn oI S(illlilre

----r
I
I
r F(R3) \,/
i ft lustlucer
I
Elelnent
element plane. For simplicity reasons all i
I
rtn:l \trmber'
delay patterns are shown over the full width I
{ rlxr;; BtIr(R2) y
Y
of the array; however, typically the aperture
is narrowed for focal points that are closer to
Figure 7-4 Adjusting focal distance (left) and angle
the array plane, like F (R3) as shown below.
(right) by changing delay laws (ts)
On the left half of Figure 7-4, one can see
how linear phase tapers introduce beam
steering. The curvature on top of the linear
phase taper does the focusing along the
beams.
Timing delay shapes are determined either by an analogue delay line or digital storage (digital delay
line). The shape of the timing delay patterns determines where the focal point will be. To increase the
resolution of the focusing or the angular difference between one beam and the next in a sectodal scary
one needs more taps (connections for signal control) on an analogue delay line, or equivalently more
digital storage resolution in the delay memory. There are two ways to achieve higher resolution: use
higher sampling speeds on the ADCs and increase the digital storage; or increase the number of taps
(connection points) along the delay line. In most systems loday, the ADC sample rate is determined by
the highest frequency to be imaged, and interpolation (up-sampling) or phasing of the channels is
used to provide the necessary resolution for good beamforming.
77
(7): Phased Array Instruments
Figure 7-5,Figure7-6, and Figure 7-7 atternptto

help visualise what has been explained above. Lrrleml Pb:re
Figure 7.5 shows the key terms for a focused
beam. The transducer array apertures determine
the resolution in the lateral and elevation planes;
the elevation aperture is fixed because of element :;::il]:
height for a given 1-D transducer, while the Foca!
Leugtir
lateral aperture can be varied dynamically.
However, a lens in front of the transducer can Figure 7-5 Focused beam from a7D artay Qz)
influence the elevation aperture. Axial resolution,
perpendicular to the transducer face, is set by the
pulse duration - the shorter the pulse, the higher
the axial resolution.
Figure 7-6 and Figure 7-7 show in a more plastic way what has been revealed in Figure 7-3. Note how
the focal plane is parallel to the array in the linear scan, while it is on a curved surface for the sectorial
SCAN.
Figure 7-6 Linear scan focal plane {r0) Figure 7-7 Sectorial scan with arced focal plane (t0)
7.5 APODIZATION
An ultrasound transducer introduces a sampled region in space (aperture). If all the elements in the
transducer are excited simultaneously, with equal pulses, then a spatial rectangular window will be
generated. To reduce the side lobes of this response, the pulses are shaped by a tapering or
apodization function like a Hamming, Hanning, Cosine, etc. The main reason for doing this is to
concentrate all the energy in the central lobe and thereby increase the directivity of the transducer. The
drawback is that the main lobe becomes wider with consequent reduction in lateral resolution.
Effectively apodization reduces side lobes, but at the expense of focusing capability.
72
In Figure 7-8 the three blocks under the lrarr:rlucer

transducer illustrate voltages across the
transducer face. A rectangular window indicates
Pul:; .trnplinrthr
equal voltages applied to each element along the
transducer. A Hamming window indicates a +
Recti:rigrrhr'
reduced voltage pattern applied to the outer l\:ildor
elements. A Spatial Response indicates the echo
H.rruuirs,erc ,
amplitude in front of the probe with a stronger -4..-
central beam and reduced side lobes.
To better illustrate the effect of apodizatior; Spatiei
compare the images in Figure 7-9. These are from Rerpoaie
modelling done at the Technical University of

Denmark (1e), the upper portion shows point Figure 7-8 Apodization principles
function without apodizatiory while the lower
shows the apodized equivalent.
The left graphs in Figure 7-9 show imaging without apodization and the right graphs show when a
Hamming window is used for apodization in both transmit and receive. A 728 element transducer
with a nominal frequency of 3 MHz was used. The element height was 5 mm, the width was a
wavelength and the element spacing (gap or kerf) was 0.1 mm. The excitation of the transducer
consisted of two periods of a 3 MHz sinusoid with a Hamming weighting and the impulse response of
both. The emit and receive aperture, was also a two cycle, Hamming weighted pulse. In the graphs A
- C, 64 of the transducer elements were used for imaging, and the scanning was done by translating
the 64 active elements over the aperture and focusing in the proper points. In graphs D and E, 128
elements were used and the imaging was done solely by moving the focal points.
E
E
E
Eao
!
,E
!
E
{Bo
E
Lateral dislaE Imm]
EiLateral distaffi [Fm]
Figure 7-9 Apodization effect (right images are with apodization) {te)
/J
Graph A uses only a single focal point at 60mm for both emission and reception. B also uses reception,
focusing at every 20 mm starting from 30mm. Graph C further adds emission focusing at L0, 20, 40,
and 80 mm. D applies the same focal zones as C, but uses 128 elements in the active aperture.
The focusing scheme used for E and F applies a new receive profile for each 2 mm. For analogue
beamformers, this is a small zone size. For digital beamformers, it is a large zone size. Digital
beamformers can be programmed for each sample and thus "continuous" beam trackingcan be
obtained. In imaging systems, focusing is used to obtain high detail resolution and high contrast
resolutiory preferably constant for all depths. This is not possible, so compromises must be made. As
an example, Figure F shows the result for multiple transmit zones and receive zones, f,ike E, but now a
restriction is put on the active aperture. The size of the aperture is controlled to have a constant F-
number (depth of focus in tissue or material, in the case of industrial use; divided by width of
aperture), 4 for transmit and 2 for receive, by dynamic apodization. This gives a more homogeneous
point spread function throughout the full depth, especially for the apodized version. One can see that
the composite transmit can be improved in order to avoid the increased width of the point spread
function at e.g. 40 and 60 mm.
7.6 ANALOGUE VERSUS DIGITAL BEAMFORMINC

[ocal Point .IRRIY Yariable
Delavs
Figure 7-10 Block diagram of ABF system (20)
\=ariabl+
Focal Point
Delals
')
5amplirrg ( lock
Figure 7-11 Block diagram of DBF system (FIFO=first in first out buffer) {zo)
74
The Figures above, show basic block diagrams of the ABF and DBF systems respectively. The main
difference between an ABF and DBF system is the way the beamforming is done; both require perfect
channel-to-channel matching. In ABF, an analogue delay line and summation is used, while in DBF,
the signal is sampled as close to the transducer elements as possible and then the signals are delayed
and summed digitally. In ultrasound systems, for both ABF and DBF, the received pulses from a
particular focal point are stored for each channel and then lined up and coherently summe.d. This
provides spatial processing gain, because the noise issues from each of the channels are uncorrelated.
Note that in an ABF imugi.,g system only one very high resolution and high speed ADC is needed
while in a DBF system 'marry'high speed and high Iesolution ADCs are needed.
7.7 GENERAL COMMENTS ON PHASED ARRAY ULTRASOUND

INSTRUMENTS
phased array ultrasound instrumentation has seen rapid development since 2000. Tndustrial units
have taken advantage of many of the developments made in medical instrumentation. Much of the
development has been an effort to miniaturise the instrument to make it portable for ease of use in the
field. io be portable today, means battery operated. In order to reduce Power consumption and
extend the operating time between battery changes, this has meant that portable units are generally
limited to 16 or 32 pulser-receivers being driven in any focal law sequence. With small demands on
the software and hardware features it is even possible to make some units without an internal cooling
fan (further reducing power demands on the battery).
For more demanding capabilities, the number of pulser-
receivers built into a phased affay ultrasound
instrument increases. Larger units can have 64, 728 or
more pulser-receivers. These are often addressed via
communication links with an external computer that
provides the focal law delays to fire the probes and also Tyco
provides the software to collect, display and analyse the
data collected (and processed).
Common to all phased array instruments is the need to

connect the instrument to the probe. Although a phased
array probe can be configured to provide many
different beam shapes, a single probe is rarely adequate IPEX ITT Cannon
and a user will need to have several options in their
toolbox (different frequencies, different size elements,
different number of elements, immersion and contact,
and linear 1D, 1.5D and 2D aruays, etc.). Typically each
probe is hard-wired at the probe end and the connector
to the instrument at the other is a multi-pin rectangular Conec
connector. Typical connectors used in the industry are
seen in FigureT-72 Figure 7-L2Typical multi - pin connectors
(2t)
used with phased arraY Probes
75
Chapter (8): Hardware - Pulsers, Receivers, Motor Control and Encoders
CHAPTER (8): HARDWARE _ PUtSERS, RECEIVERS, MOTOR

CONTROL AND ENCODERS
8.1 BACKGROUND OF THE ELECTRONICS

Ultrasonic inspection technology has come a long way from the early units using single channels and
electron-beam Cathode Ray Tubes (CRTs) like that seen in Figure 8-1.
Figure 8-L Krautkramer USIP1O circa 1950rs G2)
In the early stages, industrial ultrasonic instruments were entirely analogue based. In fact, most
systems still used "vaIves" (called vacuum tubes in North America). As solid-state electronics became
more popular, instruments grew smaller and eventually developed with a two-sided electronic
structure; one side of the electronics being digital and the other, analogue. Primarily, it is the control
section of the instrument that is digital, but now, the out-put data is also in a digital format. The
concept of digital instruments ultimately means that the components are operated in a binary
condition; the item is set, eithet 'on' or 'off'. This has opened the way for computer control of the
ultrasonic instrument. Small programmes on EPROM chips (erasable programmable read only
memory) are now common on portable instruments and by stepping through a variety of
Programmes, the instrument can be made to operate under toggled controls and even display the A-
scary as a digitised representation of the analogue output.
There are still some residual anachronisms brought forward into the 21't century that had their origins
in the analogue days of the mid-2Oth century. For example, although the A-scan display is now
"drawn" on a monitor, complete with graticules and voltage representation of the signal, codes still
require assessment of the display's vertical and horizontal linearity. But these features were monitored
77
in the analogue days, when the old CRT was used and the deflector plates could be knocked out of
alignment.
In-depth knowledge of NDT electronics in an NDT operator training programme is neither required
nor expected as part of the certification programme. However, overview coverage of the main
concepts is expected and will be helpful in understanding some of the component functionality..
Topics addressed in this chapter will include information on how the pulser provides the excitation
voltage, how the receiver processes input voltages, motion controls, data acquisitiory signal processing
and display formats.
Motion control itself is not an NDT topic. It is introduced here because it is now a common aspect of
advanced NDT systems. E.g. although it may be possible to hand operate a phased array probe (as is
done in some medical applications), this is not usually the case in industrial applications. With the
trend to requiring full data recording of ultrasonic scan results, it is becoming more common to mount
probes in some form of a holder and some degree of mechanisation is used to manipulate the probe
and collect the ultrasonic signals during the motion process.
(Note: several manufacturers have introduced portable phased array ultrasonic instruments. These
allow a phased array probe to be used like a fixed wedge single element probe. Some manufacturers
have also incorporated the ability to display a time based B, C or S scan).
Since all phased array instruments now have some aspects related to digitisation of input or output, it
is appropriate to devote some aspect of training to the topic. A generic overview of analogue and
digital concepts are covered in this section.
Definitions of the concepts of analogue and digital are as follows:
Analogue: Measuring or representing data, by means of one or more physical properties that can
express any value along a continuous scale. For example, the position of the hands of a clock is an
analogue representation of time.
Digital: Relating to or being a device that can generate, record, process, receive, transmit, or display
information that is represented in discrete numerical form. For example, a digital clock indicates the
change in time by displaying the sequence of digits from 0-60 (seconds), without considering the
range between the individual units.
The difference being that, analogue is using a "continuous" scale, whereas digital uses discrete
intervals.
Some aspects of UT are not practical or possible to convert to digital; e.g. input power supply,
transmitted and received ultrasound are always analogue. However, many input controls and some
outputs are feasible as digital signals.
78
Digitally controlled ultrasonic instruments have many advantages over the older analogue units:
I Accuracy (time or clock-based, instead of deflector plates)
I Repeatability (exact settings can be recalled)
I
Storage of settings to memory (all parameters stored)
I
Speed of setup (simply recall the stored parameters)
T Signal processing
a Display options, e.g. projection scans (tomographic presentation of data)
t Data recall for reporting
8.2 PULSERS AND RECEIVERS

Almost all phased array units have a number of elements which are a power of two, such as 8,76, 32
or 64. This follows from the design electronics, where an array controller is used to control a set of
similar bits of hardware. In our phased array instrumenf an array controller has a number of
channels, which is a power of two, with each channel behaving like a separate pulser-receiver. Here,
we would like to point out the difference between an array and a conventional probe: by connecting
each element in the array to a separate channel in the array controller, it can be made to transmit, or to
act as a receiver at a slightly different time instant from the other elements. By setting up the array
controller, so that each channel operates at a different time instant, the operator can control the way
the transmitted pulses or received signals are merged together. In this way, the array carr be made to
mimic conventional probes.
An array controller must contain all the electronics for a separate digital pulser-receiver for each
channel. It therefore follows that, it is much more expensive than a conventional single-channel
pulser-receiver. In addition, the system needs software to calculate focal laws and to operate the array
controller. This requires that a computer be built into the controller or connected to externally.
Although 8, 1.6, 32,64 or more pulser-receivers may be built into the phased array unit, these are
wired to a connection block that allows the pulser-receivers to address a greater number of elements.
The number of pulser-receivers available limits the total number that can be used in a single focal law.
For example, a321128 phased array unit, would have 32 pulsers and32 receivers and be capable of
addressing up to 128 channels. Only 32 pulser-receivers would be available to form a beam for a single
focal law, for this example. Of course, the operator must select a probe that is suitable to the
electronics' capabilities. Selecting a phased array probe with 128 elements would not be useable on a
system rated as a L6164, since only 64 of the elements could be addressed.
Flowever, a pair of 60 element probes could be used on a 32:128 system because the total number of
"channels" required in the two probes is only 120. This would leave 8 channels unused. These unused
chamels could be used for single element probes, e.g. TOFD pairs, special tandem or transverse
configurations.
Phased array pulser-receivers are an amazing example of miniaturisation. The pulser-receiver is built
on a printed circuit board, populated by electronic components and usually includes TCG and gating
79
circuitry, A/D converter and time delay circuitry; all in a package that is no bigger than a person's
finger.
The quality of the pulser and the receiver has a great effect on the information obtainable in ultrasonic
testing. The following will consider some of the options and their features.
Whether or not, the parameters of the pulse to the transducer are digitally controlled or not, the pulse
itself is an analogue signal. Similarly, the ultrasonic vibration that a transducer senses from a
reflection generates a voltage across the transducer that is also an analogue signal.
8.2.1 PULSERS
Essentially all that is required to vibrate a Spike pulse
piezoelectric transducer is an alternating voltage.
However, characteristics of the pulse voltage will
dictate, how the element vibrates. This is similar
to pushing a person on a swing. If the pushes are
applied at the natural frequency of the loaded
Tone burst pulse
swing, large amplitudes can be achieved. If not, a
rough, low amplitude ride, results. In ultrasonic
testing, maximum amplitude displacement is not
always desirable. When precise timing is needed
(as would be for thickness tests on thin wall
material), short duration pulses are better. Even a
t/ Square wave pulse
'ringy' probe can be made to dampen its L]

vibration with the correct pulse characteristics. Figure 8-2 Pulse types
Three pulse shapes are commonly used in
ultrasonic flaw detection units: spiked, bipolar
tone burst and square wave. These are illustrated
in Figure 8-2.
8.2.1.1 SPIKE PULSERS

When the capacitor discharges, the rapidly Thyristor
applied voltage across the transducer causes it to (switch)
vibrate. The purpose of the damping resistor
DC power
Transducer
(inductor) is to increase the rate of voltage decay. supply

This is the damping available to the operator and
is used to control the ring-down time. Charging 'Tuned circuit
resistor (rvith damping
resistor)
Figure 8-3 Spike pulser
80
8.2.1,.2 TONE BURST PULSERS
Tone burst pulsers allow maximum energy output from transducers by adjusting the frequency of the
voltage applied. This can be done in several ways. A chopped voltage from a waveform generator
allows the selection of pulses of different shapes, frequencies and durations, as in Figure 8.4.
l! - l\, iilj-
Sine wave
,-,t\/ Saw-tooth wave

il\/!!U,AAAM ill 1l\I ill
[lHL ljlllr 1r t
r]r!r1l Bi-directional square wave
[uL[J -- -11]lII tftru-U- L]i]U ilil1 iltl Negative square wave
r_Ltlt_rj_l tllllil i_1_u_l-l_l_1 JIIL u,t ut flL Positive square wave
Change shape Change frequency Change ring time and

pause time between pulses
Figure 8-4 Tone burst pulser waveforms
Tone burst signals usually consist of several cycles. These are preferred for velocity determination
using interferometry. As well, since very high frequencies can be derived using tone burst pulsing it is
used in acoustic microscopy, where frequencies in the gigahertz rar'ge are used.
8.2.7.s SQUARE WAVE PULSERS

Square wave pulsers have become the preferred laboratory style of pulser. Similar to the spike pulser,
the square wave pulser charges a capacitor, which discharges across the transducer. Holding the
switch closed in the circuit, for a controlled amount of time, then rapidly restoring the pulse voltage to
zero, causes two displacements of the transducer. The displacements at the transducer are opposite in
phase, so by timing the recovery voltage, a constructive interference can be effected between the
original backward moving wave, reflected off the probe backing and the second impulse from the
pulser.
Adjustments of the pulse voltage and the pulse width are possible, thereby making square wave
pulsers a versatile tool to optimise transducer performance. By choosing the best pulse width to obtain
constructive interference, less voltage need be applied to the probe, thereby reducing noise Ievel. By
pulsing at a frequency higher than that for maximum output, bandwidth can be increased and lower
frequency components reduced. Pulsing a transducer at a frequency lower than that for maximum
amplitude, increases mechanical damping and provides a sharper cleaner signal with little ring-on.
These features of the square wave pulser are illustrated in Figure 8-5.
81
In Figure 8-5 the square wave pulse t?.ir0
shape is shown on the left. In the first

-tsr d th
case, the pulse is set to a fairly short r 2. 375
duratiory 12.375 nanoseconds (ns) and

the applied voltage is -498 volts. To the
right of the received pulse shape is the
signal of a co-polymer transducer,
nominally 30 MHz, using a glass target. l7]{Jt
Signal amplitude is relatively low,

implying that the transducer output is -qi dth
25. l5t ns
not maximised. However, an advantage Vrin
to this signal is that none of the low -547.8{3 V
frequency components of the transducer

are excited, and the bandwidth is high.
In the second case in Figure 8-5, the *l lr 500
pulse width has been adjusted to -,,0,n

so,eee ns
provide a maximum output from the I
I urrn
-saa.zoo,
il
transducer at, 25.15 ns. Voltage applied
is -547 volts, up slightly from the first
case (in the first case, voltage was the
maximum possible, for the pulse width
L-
| 1l-
ll
I
Figure 8-5 Pulse width effect on transducer excitation

applied).
Lower frequency components may be added to this signal, compared to the first case, but the
bandwidth is reduced by the greater output near the resonant frequency.
In the third case in Figure 8-5, the pulse has been increased to 51 ns and the voltage is essentially the
same as applied in the second case. Transducer output is reduced and the ring-on is virtually
eliminated. It is therefore possible to increase the damping of the transducer's vibration by increasing
the pulse length beyond the resonant frequency.
The middle example in Figure 8-5 is indicated as having the maximum output using 25ns pulse
duration. This suggests that the natural frequency of the probe is significantly different from the
"nominal" frequency. Maximum amplitude output occurs when the pulse width matches half the
period of the natural frequency. This implies that the natural frequency of the probe used in the
illustration is actually 20MHz instead of 30 MHz. For a true 30 MHz probe, the pulse duration would
be 16.7 ns for maximum amplitude output. At 72.375 ns and 50.699 ns the examples indicate the
effects of pulse durations nearly half and double that for the natural frequency. Adjusting the pulse
duration outside that range usually results in significant reductions in output amplitudes.
Significant output increase can be achieved using a bi-polar square wave pulser. This provides a
voltage that is first negative going (or positive going) and held to a maximum for a time, equivalent to
half the natural period of the piezo-element; and then reversing the voltage, allowing it to swing back
through zero volts, to the same voltage maximum, but opposite sign; and then bringing the voltage
82
back to zero, after holding to the maximum for another half-cycle time. This would be comparable to a
single cycle in the bi-directional square wave pulser in Figure 8-4.
When displayed visually, the effects of pulse width and pulse tuning are more dramatic. Figure 8-6 is
a photoelastic image of a pulse from a 12.5mm diameter 7.5 }r4Hz probe, with a spherical radius
curvature of 150mm. The pulse used to obtain this image was from a Spike pulser (no pulse-length
tuning possible) and the voltage applied to the element to obtain the visible image was 700V. Figure
8-7 however, has a similar intensity at the focal spot (light intensity is proportional to particle
displacement) but uses much less than half the applied voltage (180V). The combination of tuneable
pulse-width and phasing interference can make for increased particle displacement in the test
material; as much as 3-4 times that of a single element pulsed with an un-tuned spike pulser.
Figure 8-6 Single element with spike pulse at 700 Figure 8-7 Phased array (76 elements) with tuned
volts pulse at 180 volts
When considering pulse duration in a phased array system, the operator should select the duration
best suited to the element. For a square wave pulse, the optimum duration is, half the cycle time. For
example, for a SMHz probe, one cycle will have pulse duration of 200 nanoseconds so the pulse
duration of the pulser to excite the SMHz element would be 100 nanoseconds.
For phased array probes, a further aspect of the pulse duration needs to be considered, i.e. the ring-
time. Since phased array pulses are formed by the constructive interference of the adjacent
wavefronts, it is critical that the individual wavelets are matched. It is easiest to time the point of
intersection for constructive interference when there is just a single rise and fall in the pulse. If the
pulse contains several cycles after the main pulse, the subsequent phase changes could deteriorate the
maximum pressure formation of the wave. To achieve effective short pulses, the phased array probe
is typically designed with damping to produce pulses with about 80% bandwidth or more (i.e. 1-2
cycles).
83
8.2.1.4 BAI\IDWIDTH
Reference has been made to bandwidth in previous chapters. The term bandwidth describes a
frequency spectrum of pulses and receivers capable of amplifying them. Although we refer to a
specific frequency for a probe (e.g. its nominal frequency) in fact, unless the probe was being driven in
a continuous mode with a sinusoidal motiory it will not have just one frequency. Instead it wili have a
band of frequencies around the nominal value.
Two general terms are used to describe transducer bandwidth. Broadband transducers have a
relatively wide range of frequencies and narrowband or tuned transducers with a smaller range of
frequencies.
Assessment of the frequency content of a pulse can be done mathematically using a process called the
fast Fourier transformation (FFT). This displays the relative distribution of the frequencies compared
to the energy of each frequency. Analysis of the FFT for bandwidth usually uses assessment of 6dB
drop from maximum amplitude. The selection of bandwidth is essential for achieving certain test
results; narrow bandwidth for highly sensitive testing or broadband for high resolution testing. For
effective phase-interference timing, phased array probes are usually considered to have a bandwidth
of 80% or more. Bandwidth is determined by looking at the frequency content of the pulse. It is
determined by the equation
:
BW lU"- ft)/f,l x 100 (8.1)
Where, f, is the upper frequency at the 6dB drop, fl is the lower frequency at the 6dB drop and f, is
the centre frequency.
Figure 8-8 illustrates the frequency distribution of a narrow band (left image) and broadband (right
image) transducer. The images are also examples of symmetrical curve (left image) and asymmetrical
curve (right image). The term f in the image indicates the peak frequency. Note that the maximum or
peak frequency may not be the same as the centre frequency.
'p, l'c
lb= r"
--f
I
I
-6dlJ
::
I
I
I
f,,
_l_ I I
.,; i r r! !t r:
o
: I i 6 , I
FRtlt;:aCY:&lqrr FngOrraCY(MH.l
Figure 8-8 Transducer bandwidths - narrow band (left), broad band (right)
Figure 8-9 illustrates the relative bandwidth of a probe compared to its signal shape. A nominal
SMHz pulse with about 5 cycles is seen to have a bandwidth of 33%; whereas, a pulse with 1.5 cycles
is seen to have a bandwidth of 80%.
84
Figure 8-9 Bandwidth versus signal shape (ring time)
Hedrick(23) defines broadband transducers as those having a bandwidth over 15%. Therefore, any
NDT work would use broadband transducers and the concepts of broadband and narrowband
transducers in NDT are simply relative terms
8,2.2 RECEIVERS
According to Krautkrapgl (2+) pulsers apply voltages of
100 to 1000 volts to the probe. However, received signals
are three to four orders of magnitude smaller (typically on
the order of a few millivolts e.g. 0.001V to 0.01V). This
causes several problems. One is the shock of the pulse
voltage that is transferred to the receiver in pulse echo
mode of operation. Another problem is the need to
amplify the relatively small signal from flaws, without
amplifying noise. The latter is further complicated
because the frequency of the received signal may not be
the same as the transmitted pulse envelope (accounting
for even smaller signals from the transducer).
Pulse€cho Connfclions
When switched from pulse echo to transmit-receive, there
is no longer a physical electric connection between the Figure 8-10 Pulse-Echo (PE) versus
two components. Figure 8-10 illustrates this switching. Transmit-Receive (TR) connections
85
Chaoter (8): Hardware - Pulsers, Receivers, Motor Control and Encoders
signal caused
To obtain a signal capable of being displayed and subsequently processed, the received
is quite involved and
by the small transducer vibrations must be amplified. The amplification process
also includes filtering and sometimes subsequent attenuation.
The first stage is the circuit protection that protects the preamplifier from the
pulser voltage when in
pulse echo mode. The preamplifier can use transistor type amplifiers that
provide about 20 to 40 dB of
high pass filtering may
gain. The frequency ."rpor1r" of the preamplifier is usually broadband' Some
radial mode components of the
be inco.porated to improrre signal-to-noise ratio by eliminating some
about 1 MHz to 75 }dHz'
probe a^d line interference. Preamplifier bandwidths are usually flat from
and this is not operator adjustable.
This protects
Following the preamplifier, the signal is passed through a broadband attenuator'
adiustment of signal height'
subsequent circuitry from saturation and provides a means of calibrated
portable
Attenuation is usually equipped with coarse (20dB) and fine (1dB) switching' Some
instruments have been made that use very large preamplifiers. As a result, even
with maximum
to belol'r' full screen
attenuation, signals from normal beam inspections of plate could not be reduced
height.
It is important to note that saturation is an undesirable conditiory when it comes to signal analysis!
process collects
Flaw signals are often required to be assessed for amplitude, but when an automated
Usually this means
data at a high gain, the signuls from some flaws may exceed 100% screen height.
that the amplitude
that the actual amplitude is unknown, i.e. the only thing the operator can discern is
relative to the reference is required (e'g'
is greater than99.9% screen height. When absolute amplitude
determine that a signal from a flaw is 740% of reference), it may be necessary
to reduce the
cannot be
amplification to avoii saturating signals. As well, many post-processing analysis techniques
done using saturated signals.
Attenuated signals are passed on to RF amplifiers, which can be linear or logarithmic'

Linear
amplifiers are most commonly found on UT instruments. when using a linear amplifier
for the
,"."ir"r, amplitude of a signal is proportional to receiver voltage. However, receiver gain control is in
This limits the
dB increments; therefo.e slg.ral amplification by 6dB gain doubles the signal height'
range of useful amplification to about 34 dB (34 dB raises a 2% FSIH signal to 100%).
When a
logarithmic amplifiei is used, the scale is dB linear, so each increase of 1dB gain is about 1% of the
screen height. Expressed another way, the dynamic range of this logarithmic amplifier
is 6'3 times
greater than the linear amplifier. Some logarithmic amplifiers can exceed the 100 dB
dynamic range
(i.e. 1dB gain results in something less than 1% FSH)'
8.2.3 FILTERS (BROADBAND AND BANDPASS)

are used to
Frequency filtering can be applied to RF amplified signals. Normally, bandpass filters
and are
eliminate noise from higher and lower frequency sources. These are selectable by the operator
labelled to correspond to the centre frequency of the filter. Normally the bandpass filter is set to
The amplitude
correspond to the nominal frequency of the probe. Wideband filters are also available.
wideband is
of the signal as compared to the best bandpass filter does not significantly change, when
guide, bandpass filters are used in
selected, but the signal will often be noisier (See Figure 8-11). As a
86
pairs, with the low pass filter approximately twice the probe nominal frequency and the high pass
filter set to approximately 0.5 times the probe nominal frequency.
Widetand f;lter
1'5 Mh. Filler

-
**- 3-7 Mhz Fille.
-
Spedrum oic iominai
5l4Eil6nsducer
l-15 Uhz:al!.r
! -
E
E
l!
t
Frequency (MHz)
Figure 8-11 Receiver filters
After a signal has been passed from the main receiver amplifiers it can be further processed.
Subsequent processing includes:
. Video Smoothing
' Gating
. TCG/TVG
8.2.4 VIDEO SMOOTHINC

Video smoothing is a process whereby, a curve is used to replace the rectified A-scan. This tends to
eliminate the "bumps" seen in the simple full wave or half wave rectification displays; and can have
the added benefits of reducing the digitising frequency and also the amplitude error that result from
the digitisation process. Figure 8-12 illustrates the effects of video smoothing.
n
/\
/\
/\
,l
ffi r'=r\*
RF Rectified Vieleo Smo0rhed
Figure 8-12 Video signal smoothing
8.2.5 GATES
Essential to computer imaging of ultrasonic data, is the ability to extract information from regions of
time, which can be selected to monitor for signals in that time. The region being monitored is said to
be " gated" . The time along the gated region, or amplitude within the gate when a signal occursi or
both the time and the amplitude, can be gated by the system. Alarm or recording thresholds can be set
87
for signals occurring in the gate. Gates are an essential component in automating inspection systems.
Gate positions are usually facilitated by auxiliary controls. Gate positions on the screen are noted by
extra traces or markers on the A-scan display. Gate controls include start and end adjustments,
threshold settings (amplitude which a signal must reach, before alarmed or collected) and positive or
negative settings. If positive gating is used, a signal must exceed a set minimum threshold. If negative
gating is used, a signal in the gate must fall below the threshold, before alarming. Signal amplitude
monitoring for flaw detections is typical of positive gating. A coupling monitor using a through
transmission signal, that triggers an alarm (e.g. audio or visual) if the coupling signal has reduced
below a given threshold, is typical of negative gating.
Figure 8-13 shows a digital A-scan
display with 3 gates available.
Data collection options for gated
regions may include time,
amplitude and waveform. When
time or amplitude is selected, a
threshold is set by positioning the
vertical level (amplitude) of the
gate. When waveform information
is selected, there is no amplitude
threshold and the entire waveform
over a specified time interval is
collected.
Figure 8-13 Gating display
8.2.6 TCG/TVG
In order to display the same size defects, occurring at different depths as the same size on the display,
different gain levels are required. Modern phased array systems have the ability to adjust the
amplification with respect to time. When amplification is variable with respect to time, it provides
time corrected gain (TCG). This is also called time variable gain (TVG) or swept gain. By allowing
more amplification to be added as time or distance increases, signals from reflectors of the same
surface area can be adjusted to the same amplitude at any distance. Amplifying the response of more
distant echoes, avoids the inconvenience of distance-amplitude-correction curves, allowing an alarm
threshold at a fixed percentage of the screen height to be set across the entire screen.
Figure 8-14 illustrates the responses of a side drilled hole being set to the same amplitude using TCG.
The TCG amplification points are seen on a trace at the bottom of the A-scan. The green curves
indicate the echo dynamics of the three side drilled holes as they are moved through the beam. The
brown trace in the middle arc is the rectified A-scan signal. It shows the same target at increasing
distances, increased to the same amplitude.
88
60".;.
:
Figure 8-14 Time corrected gain of signals
8.3 DATA ACQUISITION AND AUTOMATED SYSTEMS

Laboratory UT instruments are often part of a complex collection of hardware and software that can
be considered a data acquisition system. These can be used for precise material characterisations in
scientific studies or they may be part of industrial production systems. Many features of laboratory
instruments and data acquisition systems are best detailed by explaining automated inspection
systems. These concepts can be applied to several methods of NDT, so a general outline of concepts
will be covered first.
Collecting information about an object or condition is generally considered data acquisition. This
usually involves collecting information about one parameter with respect to another, e.g. monitoring
temperature against time. Data acquisition can be done simply by an operator recording readings
manually. In the temperature example, the operator would watch a thermometer (analogue or digital)
and record the values of both temperature and time at various time intervals. (Records of a single
parameter would have little meaning unless they can be related to something else).
Scientific and engineering applications today, require very large numbers of readings to be taken with
exacting precision. Several hundreds or thousands of readings over several hours, or even over just a
few seconds, are easily accomplished using computers. When computers are incorporated into data
acquisition, the process becomes automated. Computers can then be used for not only collecting the
readings, but also sorting and subsequently analysing them.
Advantages of automated systems include:

. Accuracy . Repeatability
. Capability . Safety
. Consistency . Speed
. Cost
89
8.3.1 SPEED
Automated systems can be arranged to inspect many thousands of parts per day.
For example: In the automotive industry, eddy current testing on bolts can be performed at 25,000
parts per hour. Manual operations would be no match for such rates.
8.3.2 CONSISTENCY
Automated systems should operate under as controlled a condition as possible. Therefore strict
objective limits can be selected, which would not be possible where the somewhat more "subjective"
human eye is concerned.
E.g.: Amplitude response measurements of many reflectors in a test piece.
8.3.3 ACCURACY
Manual operations are considered good, if an operator can hold tolerances and make position
measurements in the range of 0.5 to 1.0 mm, but automated systems routinely record locations to
micron (10{m) accuracy.
8.3.4 REPEATABILITY
Due to control on the conditions and precision of measurement, inspection results are very repeatable.
E.g.: During periodic in-service ultrasonic inspections, the location of indications is typically within
1mm of the test from the previous 3 years.
8.3.5 SAFETY
One of the biggest advantages in using automated systems comes from a safety point of view. Today
remote inspection systems are used in numerous forms of hostile environments.
E.g.: Inside nuclear reactors and components where testing can't be done manually, if high gamma
fields exist. Other hostile conditions for human operators include: extremely low or high
temperatures, deep water and caustic atmospheres.
8.3.6 COST
Although automated equipment can have some large associated setup costs; the overall inspection
cost can in fact be reduced. E.g.' Increased speed over manual operation saves man hours and
increased speed improves efficiency, meaning that costs can be recovered quickly.
8.3.7 CAPABILITY
Some inspections are only possible using automated equipment; e.g. in-service volumetric inspections
of fuel channels in CANDU nuclear reactors.
Accuracy, consistency and repeatability can avoid unnecessary replacement cost, if a test proves "No
deterioration". Conversely, minor changes, detectable only by the accuracy of an automated system,
could be the reason for concern to condemn a component and thereby save millions of dollars by
90
Chapter (A), Hu.d*u." - Prlt".t, R"."i
avoiding costly and untimely catastrophic failure due to an undetected change resulting from a
manual scan. The case for advanced automated NDT systems is clear.
In general automated NDT systems have the following:
. A central control system (usually a computer)
. A sensor and attached apparatus (the NDT equipment)
. A means of moving the sensor or part
. A means of collecting and displaying the output from the NDT apparatus.
8.3.8 SYSTEM CO\,IPONE\TS

COMPUTER - Central to the whole system is the computer. Computers come in various shapes and
sizes. There are two main types of computers: analogue and digital' Analogue computers are
somewhat archaic now and rarely found in common use. They are hardwired devices using current
flow and switches to address their logic functions. For our purpose, we will be concerned only with
digital computers.
SENSOR - The sensor is part of the NDT equipment. NDT equipment functions are familiar to any
experienced NDT technician. An important feature for an automated system is how to use the signal
generated by the instrument. In some machines it is possible to provide an input to the NDT
instrument, thereby facilitating computer control of some of the instrument functions. This can allow
for "remote" control.
MOTION CONTROL - Motion control can be done in a variety of ways and can be as simple as
switching a drive motor on or off. Or it may involve complex closed loop systems, controlling position
and velocity, based on a feedback monitoring system measuring torques, so as not to break the
inspection tool by over-straining it. For effective data display some form of positional information
must be added to the motion control. This is often accomplished by counting steps on a stepper motor,
simple timing, or most accurately by use of positional encoders'
DATA DISPLAY - The data display output is merely a means of providing a useful record of the test
results. This might be as simple as a voltage output taken from the NDT instrument and displayed as
a line of varying position with increasing time (a strip chart recording) or it can be a complex set of
data points showing waveforms collected and processed for display with positional information.
The information collected by computer can be further processed to:

. Reduce noise (e.g. signal averaging)
. Enhance pertinent signals (amplitude colouring or signal processing)
' Correct for geometric characteristics (e.g. SAFT)
Figure g-15 illustrates the basics of an automated system showing the computer as central to all of the
inspection activity. A PC style computer addresses motion control and collects analogue information
from the NDT inspection instrument. The results are displayed on the computer monitor with the
option to print.
91.
{iomprrtt:r
lnsP1';1!1111
I$otipn contrsl
inttrface iilrt au!r{'nl
S*naor
T33t pie{e
TErn table
Figure 8-15 An automated scanning rig
S.3.9 INSTRUMENT OUTPUTS

pressure, distance' velocity' mass
Physical properties measuled in NDT can include: temperature, pH,
properties to an electrical
or optical, acoustic and electrical energy. The sensors used, convert these
the physical property to an
qru.rtity, voltage, current or resistance. The sensors, as a result of changing
electrical quantity, are also termed transducers (transducing energy
from one form to another)'
a voltage varying with
Electrical data can be considered a "signal" or "waveform". This is usually
continuous and can change an
time. Signals can be either analogue or digital. Analogue signals are
digital signals' These are
arbitrary amount in an arbitrarily small time interval. Computers plefer
discrete values in specified constant time intervals. If the digital
signal amplitude intervals are small
waveform can closely approximate the
and the time intervals are also small, the resultant digital
is demonstrated in
analogue waveform. The difference in signal quality between analogue and digital
Figure 8-16
92
C
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
I
B
7l
6!
5i
4i
3i
2l
1i
0 7 gia,Jl2a 5 77 67 11149 57 7 5 6646S I s4 3 6 4 6104 3 7135 3 7 5 5
Figure 8-15 Analogue to digital shaping
Figure 8-16 shows the steps in converting the continuous analogue signal to a digital signal by a
computer. Frame A, shows the raw input as continuously varying amplitude. Frame B, shows how the
conversion must assign an offset that will ensure the maximum negative displacement is above the
lowest values. The vertical division of the signals shows that there are 1.6 levels, from minimum to
maximum. Vertical divisions are powers of two (e.g.2u,27, 28, 2e) with 256 divisions (i.e. 28) being most
common. Sampling along the horizontal axis is time based and a single sample is taken at each time
interval. This value is the peak or average. The closest whole value that the interval corresponds to, in
the given time interval, is the value assigned to that point. Frame C, shows the converted digital
representation of the analogue signal. The amplitude axis is left for reference and the amplitude of
each sample is indicated at the bottom of each bar. The number of bits that each bar indicates is easily
converted to binary code and read by the computer, e.g. the bar indicating 3 vertical bits would be
read as 0071., 4 bits is 0700,7 bits is 0111.
The process of changing an analogue signal to the computer friendly digital signal is called
digitisation. The electronic device that accomplishes this is called an analogue-to-digital converter
(ADC). The associated electronics to accomplish this conversion are usually incorporated on a printed
93
circuit board inserted as a "card" in the computer, so the hardware is often called, an A to D card. The
digital signal that results from this conversion is composed of digital values of a known range termed
the scale factor. These values are separated by a fixed time interval known as the sampling interval.
The reverse process is also used, i.e. converting digital signals to analogue signals. The device that
accomplishes this is called Digital to Analogue Converter (DAC). Most people are aware of the reverse
process in entertainment devices whereby music information on a CD or DVD diskette is played back
on a set of speakers (the sound wave output of the speakers is always analogue).
Test setups may include both digital and analogue

equipment. Where several analogue input or output
channels are used in a test system, they are often added
to an ADC or DAC through a multiplexer (MUX). A
MUX is used to select which of the analogue signals will
be converted at any given time. Figure 8-17 shows a block
diagram of how a variety of analogue and digital inputs
and outputs might be arranged on a computer.
Computers used in data acquisition, come in a variety of

sizes, formats and price ranges. At one time, three groups
applied: microcomputers, minicomputers and
mainframes. These were based roughly on size of
memory. Today, the differences are not so clearly
defined. Except for situations where the amount of data Figure 8-17 Multiplexed inputs and
to be collected is large and must be processed quickly, in outputs via ADCs and DACs
addition to performing many other functions
(multitasking), most inspection systems can be
automated with some form of a personal computer.
Integral to any automated data acquisition system, is the data acquisition software. Data acquisition
software is used to collect data, analyse the data and display the results. Without the ability to analyse
and display the results of data collectiory the millions of bits of data that can be collected would be
unintelligible to the average operator. Processed data can be output to monitors or printers in the form
of tables, graphs or even be made to duplicate strip chart or oscilloscope (A-scan) presentations.
Several varieties of specialised software exist in NDT inspection systems. These are often used in
conjunction with specialised instruments. The data acquisition software collects all aspects of the
signals and records all instrument parameters. Some software also addresses motion control and
positional information.
94
(8): Hardware - Pulsers, Receivers, Motor Control and Encoders
8.4 MOTION (AUTOMATED AND SEMI-AUTOI/IATED SYSTEMS)
8.4.1 MOTOR CONTROL

Traditional ultrasonic systems have been primarily manual in function. While they do not always
require the operator to physically hold the probe, they still require the operator to physically advance
the system along the part. Without a fixed guide mechanism, such as a magnetic or mechanically fixed
guide-strip, these systems are inherently error prone, and require that the operator has a greater
degree of skill than is required with motorised systems'
Figure 8-18 is an example of a manually operated scanner

incorporating a position encoder. The "ESlinkScanner" is
comprised of a probe-holder (holding 4 probes, PA and
TOFD) and a springJoaded split-ring clamp that
incorporates pairs of wheels that straddle the weld' The
ring of paired wheels holds the probes in a fixed position
relative to the weld centreline'
Today, motor control is an increasingly common means of
moving the probes along the part' This is the case for
several reasons. First and foremost, motor control systems
make inspections significantly more rePeatable. The part is
simply set up the same way, positioned in the same place
and driven at the same speed. The only variable remaining
ought to be the condition of the part' Secondly, they
significantly reduce the opportunities for operator error,
because the operator is physically, "hands off", while the Figure 8-18 Manually operated scanner
inspection is underway. - Eclipse Scientific ESlinkScanner(2s)
Further, most motor controlled systems use a built-in encoding system to track the position of the
inspection system in real time, which allows the operator to control the set position, with often much
greater precision than they could achieve manually. In addition they allow the operator to spend the
minimum amount of time within dangerous environments, such as near moving parts or in irradiated
areas. Finally, they provide constant pressure and orientation of the probe, to maintain consistency
throughout the scan. Systems dedicated to pipeline girth weld inspection are an example of the
specialised application where a motorised inspection platform is developed for phased-array
ultrasonic inspections.
95
Figure 8-19 is an image of a scanner mounted on a

guide-band clamped to the pipe. The same guide
band that was used to position the welding heads can
often be used by the UT system. Multiple probes and
a couplant irrigation system are also incorporated in
these systems.
Figure 8-20 illustrates a remotely operated scanner

used to translate instruments, cameras, or inspection
devices along ferrous metal surfaces. Using three
rare-earth magnets, the crawler can climb vertical,
horizontal, and inverted surfaces. The three wheeled Figure 8-19 Motorised system - Eclipse
computerized drive system allows the unit to rotate Scientific TDPipe-Rumerizs)
360' on its own axis.
The world of ultrasonic inspection is constantly
changing. Today, research is being conducted in
order to create systems for inspecting complex
geometries. Robotics and multi-axis articulation will
once again revolutionise the future of ultrasonic
w
motorisation and provide unparalleled scanning
capability, while keeping the operator safer, and
maintaining the most accurate and repeatable scan
data possible.
Figure 8-20 Motorised remote operated

scanner - ]ireh Tri-Pod (26)
8.4.2 ENCODERS
Although some equipment can be made to collect and display signals based solely on time (i.e. the
operator selects how many A-scans will be collected and displayed each second), such a display is
generally limited to static evaluations. As such, using this system to collect data for a full-part scan,
requires either very smooth and constant speeds for scanning, at a set rate; or the assumption that
defect sizing will not be required, and therefore it will be used to locate defects only. With a phased
array S-scar1 or E-scan, the operator could get repeated updates of the cross section; however, the
location and length of the indication being assessed would need to be determined by the old fashioned
ruler and pencil method.
In order for it to be possible to measure the length and location from the data collected, instead of
from the marks made by pencil on the test piece, a means of coordinating the travel of the probe to the
96
test surface is used. Such tools are called positional encoders. These can be obtained in several forms,
but their operation essentially does the same thing.
Forms of encoding have been used for yearst though
not always as a form of positional encoding. The
earliest forms of encoders were extremely simple
systems for determining such basic things as speed. The
most well-known system is the basis for nautical speed
rates, the knot. The basis of a knot is that a line, with
knots tied every seven feet, and with a standard weight
and shape of float attached to the end, was thrown over
the side of a boat. The number of knots which passed
through the operator's fingers in 30 seconds was
counted. This was then applied to a table, and a speed
in nautical miles per hour could be calculated. In this
circumstance the knotted rope acted as an encoder Figure 8-2L Chip log with knot spool and
which related directly to time (See Figure 8-21). timing device(27)
The original positional encoders were simple ratcheted

gears which were used for raising and lowering early
crane booms. The ratchet was attached to a simple
numerical counter which related to the length of rope
spooled out of the crane.
Modern technology has made these systems extremely

accurate and extremely small. In additioru they are
rarely entirely mechanical in nature, but instead have
become primarily non-contact systems. They are
fundamentally grouped into two types: optical and
magnetic encoders.
Figure 8-22 Ratcheted gear (zsl
8.4,2,1 OPTICALENCODERS
A rotary optical encoder is a sensor that uses light to sense the speed, angle and direction of a rotary
shaft. A linear encoder reads a linear strip instead of a disk, to provide the same information for linear
motion. Optical encoders use light instead of contacts to detect position, so they are inherently free
from contact wear and the digital outputs are bounceless (no contact bounce). Accuracy of an optical
encoder is as good as the code wheel. The code wheel patterns are created using precision digital
plotters and cut using either a punching system or a laser, each guided by closed loop precision vision
systems.
97
The light source used for optical encoders is usually a

point source LED, rather than a conventional LED or
filament. Most optical encoders are the transmissive
type, meaning that the light is collimated into parallel
light rays that pass through the disk (or strip) pattern.
The image of the pattern is detected using a phased
monolithic sensor and converted to TTL (transistor to
transistor logic) digital quadrature outputs. Reflective
type encoders, bounce collimated light, off a patterned
reflective code wheel. Fitting all of the electronics of a
reflective encoder onto one side of the code wheel
makes it a more compact design than transmissive
types. Figure 8-23 illustrates a 3 axis slide with linear Figure 8-23 Optical encoder system(2e)
optical encoders providing positional information for
theX-Y-Z axes to within 1 micron.
Figure 8-24 and Figure 8-25 illustrate the components in an encoder using photodiodes to produce a
quadrature encoder output which enables this encoder to display both distance and direction. In this
case, direction is determined via phase difference between pulses.
The key components of an incremental encoder are a glass disk, LED (light emitting diode), and a
photo detector. The transparent disk contains opaque sections which are equally spaced to deflect
light while the transparent sections allow light to be passed through (see Figure 8-25). An optical
encoder uses a light emitting diode which shines light through the transparent portions of the disk.
The light that shines through is received by the photo detector which produces an electrical signal
output.
Electronics
Figure 8-24 Optical encoder circuit (30)
Figure 8-25 Optical Encoder components(st)
98
ter (8): Flardware - Pulsers, Receivers, Motor Control and Encoders
Most incremental encoders have a second

set of pulses that is offset (out of phase) Channel A
from the first set of pulses, and a single
pulse that indicates each time the encoder
wheel has made one complete revolution. Channel B
If A pulse occurs before B pulse, the shaft is
turning clockwise, and if B pulse occurs
before the A pulse, the shaft is turning Channel C
counter clockwise. C pulse occurs once Per
revolution. Figure 8-26 illustrates the pulse Figure 8-26 Optical encoder - quadrature pulse patterns
pattern of a quadrature encoder that
provides the direction information (with
channel C being the'reference' pulse).
Automated scanning systems incorporating optical encoders require calibration. This involves moving
the scanner over a specific distance and counting the number of pulses. Then a calibration factor is
used (number of pulses per millimetre).
Other positional indicating devices include potentiometers and resolvers.

8.4.2.2 MAGNETIC EI/CODERS
A magnetic encoder uses the same principle to determine a position as an optical encoder, but does it
using magnetic fields rather than light. With a magnetic encoder, a large magnetised wheel spins over
a plate of magneto-resistive sensors. |ust as the disk spins over the mask to 1et light through in the
predictable patterns of an optical encoder, the wheel causes predictable responses in the sensor, based
on the strength of the magnetic field.
The magnetic response is fed through a signal conditioning electrical circuit. The number of
magnetised pole pairs on the wheel pole, the number of sensors, and the type of electrical circuit all
work together to determine the resolution of the magnetic encoder.
The key advantage to using magnetism as the element to produce a signal is that it is unaffected by
very demanding environments - including dust, moisture, extreme temperatures and shock. Figure
8-27 and Figure 8-28 illustrate the components and assembly of a magnetic encoder.
Figure 8-27 Magnetic Encoder Components(:z) Figure 8-28 Magnetic encoder (33)
99
8,4,2,3 OPTICAL VERSUS MAGNETIC ENCODERS

Both formats are obtainable as rotary shaft units. However, there are general aspects that may be
considered when deciding which type to use.
Optical encoders are generally considered to be more accurate, as they can usually produce more
pulses per revolution than magnetic encoders.
But optical encoders are also generally considered more delicate and are vulnerable to three kinds of
damage, vibration or impact, bearings failure due to stresses and oil, dirt, or water ingress due to seal
failu re.
Cost has usually been higher for magnetic encoders but costs are dropping so there may be a case to
rationalise the use of magnetic encoders instead of optical ones, especially if the application
environment is likely to be considered harsh. As magnetic encoders have significantly more robust
parts, they usually have a longer life span in field operation conditions.
8.4,2.4 NEW DEVELOPMENTS

Recently, other alternatives for encoding have been
developed. In some orientations it is now possible to use
laser encoders to record distance. Laser rotary encoders
use the light-diffraction interference method, with a
semiconductor laser as the light emitter element. They
are generally much smaller than the traditional optical
encoder. An example is shown in Figure 8-29.
Figure 8-29 Canon laser encoder (3a)
Ultrasonic or infrared detectors have been designed to gage distances. With three such sensors and a
transmitter on the probe, it is possible to produce appositional map of the probe during scanning
without mechanical attachment between the probe and sensors. An example of the ultrasonic sensor
is illustrated in Figure 8-30.
Figure 8-30 Ultrasonic distance sensor (35)
100
8,5 SCANNING AND DATA ACQUISITION

8.5.1 ASYNCHRONOUSVERSUSSYNCHRONOUSSYSTEMS
Most ultrasonic technicians, having used a Encoder Pulse
traditional mono-element probe in pulse echo UT PRF

mode, are familiar with the concept of PRF
UTCh I
(pulse repetition frequency). This is the rate
UTCh2
that the ultrasonic instrument pulses the
probe. In a multi-channel system, where UTCh3
several probes may be used, or in a phased

UTCh4
array system, where the focal law repetition is
PRF Controlled
controlled, PRF controlled systems require
high clock speeds to ensure that a1l the Encoder Pulse
channels are fired in the allowed sample
UT PRF
interval. When the encoder position pulses are
UTCh I
interlaced with the ultrasonic pulses in such a
system, the ultrasonic PRF and position UTCh2
pulses are said to be asynchronous. This is urunJ Tt flII

Il
illustrated in the upper portion of Figure 8-31.
UTCh4
Synchronising the UT pulsing, with encoder
position pulses, ensures that all channels are
fired in the sample interval. The only limit Figure 8-31 Multi element scanning system -
using this system is computer through-put Asynchronous (upper), Synchronous (lower)
rate. A synchronous, multi-channel timing
sequence is illustrated in the lower portion of
Figure 8-31
When using a phased array system for the ultrasonic pulses, it is essential that the system be
synchronous. If we consider a phased array system, we might think of each UT Channel as a focal law.
Then, the encoder-pulse triggering the events, must fire all the focal laws prior to the next encoder
pulse.
Data acquisition by the asynchronous systems often uses computer algorithms to select the maximum,
minimum or average values of the gated information received by the ultrasonic instrument between
encoder pulses. That value is then transferred to the computer for data display (and to memory).
Synchronous systems have only a single firing for each channel (unless averaging is used), so the
single gated value (per channel or focal law) is transferred to memory for display.
101
8.5.2 COMPUTER PROCESSING THROUGHPUT

If large gated times are required for B-scans, the ability of the computer to process the information
may present a speed limitation. If the computer has not had enough time between sample intervals,
blank lines on the B-scan result, indicating missed data points. Similarly, missed data points can result
when generating C-scans at too high a travel speed.
8.5.3 SCANNING SPEED

However, the computer is not the ordy limiting factor. Even if computers are not used for data
acquisition, another limiting factor is the pulse repetition frequency. Response times of the recording
devices, such as strip-chart recorders, might require several pulse signals to ensure the true maximum
amplitude is indicated. Therefore, a probe must be in the vicinity of a reflector, for a time sufficient for
the recording equipment to respond. This will be determined, in part, by the size of the beam and by
the size of the calibration or minimum target. Static calibration may indicate a gain setting to achieve
the required signal amplitude, but when a dynamic run is made over the calibration at too high a
speed, the amplitude recorded will be something less than that for the static calibration. Empirically
established scanning speeds may be found, or specification or code can stipulate maximum speeds
that can be set, based on probe or beam size and PRF.
Scanning speed is the maximum speed at which a system can operate, which therefore controls the
minimum time it will take to scan a part. A rule of thumb is often used in ultrasonic data acquisition
systems. It requires that at least three firings of the ultrasonic pulse occur for each channel over a
distance equal to the 6dB dimension of the beam. In fact, some Codes or Standards actually state this
in an equation format:
V_ Wxprf (8.2)
Where;
V: Scanning speed
Narrowest -6dB width at the appropriate operating distance of the transducer determined by
Izll.:
design requirements
prf : Effective pulse repetition frequency for each transducer
This example requires three firings within the 6dB beam width.
In a system where many probes are sequenced via a multiplexer, the PRF is divided among the total
number of probes. Although many units have PRF's of 2 kHz, when 20 probes are used in the system,
the effective PRF at each probe is only 700 Hz.If the -6dB beam width is 3mm and the effective PRF is
700Hzthe maximum scanning speed should not exceed ry =100 mm/second.

-1
This equation addresses scanning speeds for asynchronous systems. The equivalent is maintained for
synchronous systems, by having three samples within the 6dB beam width. Therefore, for
"synchronous" or "fire on position" systems, 1 sample every 1mm will achieve this, if the beam width
is 3mm or greater.
702
Improved technology makes PRF considerations irrelevant. With the digital control of data acquisition
systems, the entire process from firing the element(s) to collecting, displaying and saving the received
signals is all computer controlled. There is still a master clock and the computer sequences all
activities off this clock. For example, in pipeline girth weld inspections using a pair of phased array
probes, many functions are carried out during the scan. The weld is divided vertically into zones with
a beam directed at each zone (coverage is symmetrig either side of the weld). A simple strip-chart
style of data displays amplitude and time in a gate for each zone as well as several channels dedicated
to collecting the full pulse echo waveforms and TOFD full waveforms. There is no independent
pulser, firing away, oblivious to the data acquisition system. Instead, the sequence of all events for the
scu., is queued off the pulse from the encoder indicating each 1mm (usually) of scanner advance. As
the scanner is advanced by the motor (controlled via a motor control unit and a communication link
via the motor control card on the controlling computer) it causes the encoder to turn and the pulses
generated indicate a specified number of pulses per unit distance.
As the encoder indicates the start of the 1 mm interval, all functions in the sequence commence: the
computer is indicated to record the encoded position (calibrated in millimetres, or perhaps inches, as
referenced from a specified origin); the computer is told to load the first phased array focal law and
fire the transmitter elements in the correct order and delay; the computer is then told to arrange the
receivers to receive the pulse from the transmitted signal and apply the correct receiver gains to the
applicable channels. In additioru the computer will: collect the time information from the time gate;
collect the amplitude information from the amplitude gate; and store the amplitude and time to
memory. The computer ther! repeats the above steps for all channels (changing to store waveforms
instead of amplitude and time, for the applicable channels); stores the amplitude, time and waveform
and coupling data to memory, prints one line of displayed data to the monitor, waits for the next 1mm
increment pulse from the encoder and then begins again.
Ma.y more small checks and functions are carried out, but the overall effect conveyed, is that many
functions are occurring based on the initiating pulse from the encoder. Some systems have scan
speeds around 100mm/sec. This means that the sequence of events required to carry out all the steps
in a single millimetre are repeated 100 times each second. There is still a limit to what a computer can
do in a short period of time and if the scanning speed is too fast to complete all the functions required
in that 1mm interval then all the information for that step is lost. This is seen as a black line on the
display. On the C-scan the same effect (missing data seen as black lines or spots) can be seen when
scanning speed is too high as shown in Figure 8-32.
* :C $l iiil ;0 1r$ l;{r 12,
'l
Figure 8-32 Missing data points
103
Cha r (8): Hardware - Pulsers, Receivers, Motor Control and Encoders
8.5.4 ACQUISITION I{ATE

The ability to scan without missing data points can be assessed by the acquisition rate. This is
generally the number of A-scans per second that can be collected. When simple amplitude or time
data is collected the concept breaks down. A sample of the amplitude in a gate at a single location
requires only 2 bytes of memory (one for the position and one for the amplitude data). But in general
the maximum acquisition rate is determined by;
. Length of A-scan being collected
. Digitising frequency
. Data compression if used
. Instrument PRF setting
. Averaging if used
8.5.5 DATA PROCESSING

One of the added features of data acquisition systems is the ability to perform subsequent processing
of the stored signals. Since the advent of digital storage, several techniques have been derived to
enhance the information collected. This process is generally termed digital signal processing (DSp).
Effectiveness of DSP relies on the quality of the captured signal. Quality determining factors include:
' F{ow well the transducer and data acquisition system are matched
. Sampling period
. Signal quantisation level
. Calibration
. Material attenuation
Any unwanted disturbance in the useful frequency band that is introduced to the signal is considered
noise. Noise may have several sources: the transducer itself, instrumentatiory spurious waves from
scatter, geometry and mode conversions, as well as surrounding electrical noise.
Defects may originate in areas where geometric configurations form stress raisers or entrapments
for
chemicals, that can lead to corrosiory cracking or both. The defect occurring in this area may be
corrupted or completely masked by the surrounding conditions. Conversely, geometries may be
misinterpreted as defects. B-scans, C-scans or other imaging displays allow defect detection by
illustrating "the big picture", where subtle trends are noticeable that might not be evident in the static
A-scan display.
In spite of the improved detectability afforded by imaging, spurious signals from noise sources may
still mask defects. Various techniques have been developed to enhance pertinent information to
suPpress the masking effects of noise. Digital signal processing can generally be grouped into
two
categories: one dimensional and two dimensional. One dimensional processing is applied
to the
captured waveform and can be either filtering or spectrum analysis. Two dimensional processing
is
concerned with enhancing spatial structures of the image (see Figure g-33).
104
Chaoter (8): Hardware - Pulsers, Receivers, Motor Control and Encoders
One dimensional DSP deals with

individual waveform signals. Examples
of one dimensional DSP include:
. Amplitude analysis
. Fast Fourier transforms
. Signal averaging
. Filtering Figure 8-33 Digital signal processing options
' Signal averaging for increased
signal to noise ratio
8.5.6 ONE DIMENSIONAL SIGNAL PROCESSINC

8.5.6.7 SOFT GAll/
Ml rbn
l-
1J
l"l o
GI
aElrm
hiFh@I r9-o
Figure 8-34 Echo - dynamic disPlaY
105
One of the simplest processes that can be

applied to a waveform signal is "soft gain".
This simply applies an amplification multiplier
to every point along the A-scan. In Figure 8-34
we illustrate an S-scan with an A-scarL selected
from the sweep that contains a maximised
signal of 76% at reference sensitivity. The
slider-bar on the left of each image in Figure
8.31 indicates the "soft gain" added in the first
box under the slider bar. In the upper image
the box indicates 0dB. In the lower left, it is
+10dB and the signal is seen to saturate (exceed
100%). In the lower right image the soft gain is
indicated as -6dB and we see that the
amplitude of the maximised signal has reduced
to 38%. Any signal that is 100% at reference
will not be reduced by soft gain (i.e. removing
6dB soft gain from a saturating signal would
still have the signal at100%). Figure 8-35 Phased array echo dynamic scan display
By extracting limited information from the scans containing full waveforms, other presentations of
scans can be had. One such scan is the echo dynamic scan display. By plotting the maximum
amplitude of the A-scan signal in a scan path, the amplitude versus the scan position can be plotted
indicating the "echo dynamic" of the scan. This is seen in Figure 8-35 using the data collected from the
B-scan. We see how the signal amplitude for each side drilled hole rises, then falls, as the beam moves
over the targets. This display is, in fact, used in the pipeline AUT technique called Zonal
Discrimination and the echo dynamic display is referred to as the "stripchart display".
8.5.6.2 FAST FOURIER TRA}/SFORMS
A so-called "F-scan" can be presented by
narrowing a gated region to a signal of interest
and analysing for its frequency content. This
process is shown in Figure 8-36. The centre
hole of the scan in Figure 8-36 is used again.
The blue line on the B-scan (upper left) selected
the desired A-scan (upper right) and a gate was
placed to encompass just the SDH signal (green
vertical lines indicate the gated region).
Software then calculates the frequency content
of the A-scan. Here it is seen that the centre
frequency is 4.33 MHz (even though the
/
transmitted spectrum was centred on 5 MHz).
Figure 8-36 Fast Fourier transform (F-Scan)
106
8.5.5.3 S1G}/AL FlLTERING

When a transducer is rung, it will produce -.--.-- Indication
a fundamental (nominal) frequency. There torrg*"ll
will be a bandwidth of frequencies, all of
which will be produced by the probe
simultaneously. Flowever, due to the
-r-
| ,lrt, I
Raw data
material properties of the part being IFrtt"il;l

inspected, some of these frequencies may Inspl Filter process
be far more attenuative than the

fundamental frequency and will primarily
produce noise. When noise is known to
J.
til;;Jl
Indication
originate at a higher or lower frequency [0,"1 Enhanced signal
than the pertinent UT signal, a bandpass

filtering process can be applied. This
Figure 8-37 Filtering by DSP
selectively removes spurious components
from the A-scan. Figure 8-37 illustrates
such a process.
8.5.6.4 SIGNAL AVERAGIIIG

A somewhat simpler form of processing is
signal averaging. Signal averaging allows a 'lst Average
flaw signal to be drawn out of the background
noise by the principle that a flaw signal is
coherent, but noise is not. A coherent
repetitive signal added to itself "n" times will 1Oth Average
increase by a factor of "n", whereas noise

added to itself 'n' times will increase by the
square root of "n" . After "n" iterations, the
L00th Average
signal to noise ratio of the averaged waveform
is improved by !n. The effect of such simple
averaging is seen in Figure 8-38. Figure 8-38 Signal averaging (:6)
8.5.7 TWO DIMENSIONAL FILTERINC PROCESSES

Two dimensional Digital Signal Processing (DSP) techniques are used to enhance spatial information.
As such, two dimensional DSP is applied to B-scan and C-scan images. It may be noted that B-scans
and C-scans contain no more information than the A-scans used to generate them. However, they
provide spatial relationships, which are not possible to determine from isolated A-scans.
707
Amplitude averaging is sometimes used

on C-scan displays. This tends to
smooth edges and eliminate isolated
peaks. The average of a grid (3x3, 5x5,
7x7, etc.) is placed at the centre of the
grid. The average value may be linear or
weighted. An example of image filtering
is shown in Figure 8-39. A tandem
configuration was used to scan three flat
bottom holes. Amplitude samples in the
gated region were taken every 0.5mm,
on a 0.5mm grid pattern raster scan. The
upper image in Figure 8-39 shows the
raw image. Below that an image is
formed by a 5x5 non-weighted
averaging showing the scan backlash Figure 8-39 Dimensional digital signal processing (matrix
offsets being corrected. averaging)
A 9x9 convolution filter further smoothens the image, more closely representing the round shapes that
form the FBH targets.
8.5.7.7 SYNTHETTC APERTURE FOCUSTNG TECHNTQUE (SAFT)
B-scan DSP enhancements are also performed. Of the processing methods used with B-scans, synthetic
aperture focusing technique (SAFT) is the best known. Transit-time for the ultrasonic beam to travel to
and from a point is a hyperbolic function of the probe position and target depth. When the equation of
this hyperbola is known, A-scan signals can be shifted in time and added together. When a defect is
present constructive interference of the waveforms will form a large signal. When no defect is
present, the interference is destructive and the signal is small. This SAFT processing may be
performed in either two dimensions or three dimensions; however, three-dimensional SAFT requires
considerable processing time.
An example of the improved signal-to-

noise ratio and lateral resolution of
SAFT processing is shown in Figure
8-40 in which three 1 mm notches were
scanned. The image on the left is the
raw data as it would appear in a B-scan
and the image on the right is the result
of SAFT corrections to improve lateral
resolution. Arrows indicate the
notches. The large amplitude signals at Before SAFT processing After SAFT processing
the top and bottom of the images are
Figure 8-40 DSP by SAFT
the edges of the plate.
108
8.5.8 OTHER DSP

8.5.8.1 DATA COMPRESS/ON
Data compression is a post-processing function that
eliminates some of the amplitude data points along the
time base of each waveform. Software attempts to
identify the "highlights" of the signal so that it can be
reconstructed from a smaller number of points without
losing the main features including position along the
time-base and amplitude. The before and after, of such a
process is illustrated in Figure 8-41.
Figure 8-41 Data compression with 4:1

reduction of data in an A-scan
8,5.8.2 ANGLE CORRECTION
Images already seen, using the sectorial scan, have used a presentation that presents the scan as a fan
of angles. F{owever, this too is a post-processing function. The data collected is generally in a linear
format with the angle plotted against time along the sound path (effectively like a B-scan). Figure 8-42
illustrates a before and after condition where an S-scan was used to collect the raw data. DSP
algorithms are used to correct for the angular displacement that would occur. Data would be collected
over a linear "time" based display (uncorrected image) and then the fact that the probe was not
moved is used to calculate the flaw locations on the arc generated by the S-scan focal laws. The
correction places the sound origin at a single point and displays the signals in their angular and
depth-corrected positions relative to the probe position.
Fan of angles
Figure 8-42 Uncorrected S-scan (left) and angle-corrected S-scan (right)
709
8.5.8.3 SPLIT SPECTRUM

Split spectrum DSP is a method of noise reduction that can be used in coarse-grain structures.
Electrical noise is random, so reasonably filtered with simple averaging. Grain-structure .noise is
patterned so not removed by averaging. In split spectrum DSP, the signals are collected and then
converted into their frequency spectrum via the Fast Fourier process noted above.
The spectrum is then "filtered" in the frequency domain by selecting regions of the frequency content
to suppress. The process is illustrated in Figure 8-43.
Multiplied by an array
of bandpass filters
Figure 8-43 Split spectrum filtering process (s)
8.5.9 DYNAMIC DEPTH FOCUSING

Of special consideration to phased array operation is the DSP called Dynamic Depth Focusing (DDF).
DDF is a computer algorithm used for focusing at different depths in reception mode, along the axis
defined by the transmission law.
After defining the transmission focal law, the operator of the phased array system then needs to define
the minimum and maximum depths over which the receiver focal laws will make corrections for
focusing, as well as the number of steps in which the process will be made.
Two options for the receiver focusing can be used: optimal resolution and homogeneous resolution.
The latter allows the receive aperture to automatically adjust the active aperture of the transducer in
reception mode, so as to ensure that the beam width is kept constant with depth.
If the user has selected the option, optimal resolution, the maximum aperture authorised in reception
mode reduces for all depths inferior to the depth of the transmission focusing point.
If
the user has selected the homogeneous resolutiory the maximal aperture authorised in reception
mode reduces for all depths inferior to maximum depth. The option, constant aperture, preserves the
maximum aperture of the transducer in reception mode for all depths. Figure 8-44 shows the
difference between the options: optimal resolution and homogeneous resolution.
110
Variable Aperture
,
Constant Aperturq
Figure 8-44 DDF: Optimal resolution (left). Homogenous resolution (right)
The result of DDF is to significantly

reduce the effects of beam spread
on signal responses without
compromising the speed of
inspection. For each delay law used
in transmission, the signal is
fv*;
reconstructed on the fly, using all
the focal laws in reception. The full
reconstructed signal provides
optimised resolution throughout
the thickness of the specimen
undergoing inspection. The
advantage of the DDF technique is
that all of the depth measurements
are performed in the same amount
of time necessary to send and -_l----
%
receive a single signal. DDF can be

used in conjunction with electronic -}--|-
e.o#
scanning to produce a high jt5l
I
resolution image. >t

An example of unprocessed and
{l
DDF processed scanning is
presented in Figure 8-45.
Figure 8-45 DDF improvement of scan (e)
777
8.6 SCANNING EQUIPMENT

Scanning apparatus is required for positional information. Knowing that a reflector exists in a test
piece is of little use unless its position can be determined. Position will be crucial in ascertaining if the
reflector is a flaw or geometry; if the reflector is determined to be a flaw and it occurs in a weld,
position will assist in evaluation and characterisation. Although simple ruler measurements from
surface references are often used for manual scanning, indexing devices are usually used in
mechanised scanning.
When parts are moved past a probe, the relative position is rarely recorded precisely. Tube inspection
stations are often equipped with strip-chart recorders (or the computer display equivalent). Feed-
speed and position of the indication on the chart can be used to locate the indication. In pipe mills,
audio alarms and paint spray markers alert the operator to when and where an echo breaks threshold.
The spray marker is located downstream of the probes and its operation is delayed from the time of
the alarm and the delay, based on the travel speed of the pipe past the probes.
When probe movement is made over a fixed object, several options exist for mechanisation. In order to
fix some sort of reference position, a probe holder and associated framework is required. Position may
be provided by some form of encoder and the probe moved by hand. Alternatively, movement may be
facilitated by motors on the framework and again, encoders may provide positional information.
8.6.1 LIMITATIONS OF MECHANISED SCANNING

Not all aspects of inspection need be mechanised. There will always be cases where manual
techniques are more cost effective (although given unlimited funding, all manual scanning could be
mechanised to some degree).
It should be noted that some mechanical limitations might apply to mechanised systems. The most
common of the limitations would be scanning speed. Even when a computer and ultrasonic systems
can produce and collect the data at high rates of travel speed there may be mechanical impediments to
moving the probe(s) at the maximum speed that can be computer-collected. On long scan gantries, the
gantry support may set up vibrations and shake the probe so that the coupling path or coupling
quality is reduced. The risk of damage, by something as simple as a sma11 speck of weld spatter, may
be greater at higher scan speeds than at lower speeds. An example of technology advances may be
seen in the pipeline girth weld inspections. Older systems in the 1980s were based on the pulser PRF
and were hard pressed to scan a weld having 6 weld zones at more than 40mm/s. Today, the phased
array systems can scan a 72 zone weld and collect full waveform scans for TOFD, 6 thickness channels,
through transmission coupling channels and 8 full waveform B-scans. This can now be done at more
than double the speed of the older systems (now about 80-100mm/s). This is all the more impressive
when the file size is considered. File sizes of the older systems were on the order of 100KB providing
only amplitude and time information. Any projection scans (B-scans) were only "images", so were
given the term mappings as they did not preserve the waveform and no TOFD was being provided.
Phased array systems typically collect over 1000 times more data (10-15MB), at twice the speed.
712
:
Phased array systems still preserve the flexibility of the manual operation. With the ability of a phased
array probe to be configured with a fixed angle for a specific aperture, the operator can remove the
probe from the scanner mechanics and use the traditional manual echo dynamic characterisation
motions. These include orbiting and pivoting a fl.aw, so as to provide a more detailed look at the facet
characteristics traditionally used to identify the nature of a flaw.
8.7 SCANNING DISPLAYS AND SCANNINC EQUIPMENT

8.7,1 A-SCANS
Scan terminology has become slightly more complicated since Robert McMaster's NDT Handbook
was published in 1959. The instantaneous display of echo amplitude along a time base is still called an
A-scan. This is the image afforded by all UT scope instruments. Vertical displacements may be bi-
directional (RF display) or mono-directional (rectified). The horizontal trace represents elapsed time or
distance of propagation. (See Figure 8-46)
RF
OIB.t ri6rC
Rectified
Figure 8-45 A-scan display types
8.7,2 B-SCANS
When motion is added to the display, several options exist. When time is displayed along one axis and
probe position, as moved over the test surface, along the other, a B-scan is generated. The amount of
time displayed is determined by the length of gate used to collect information. Intensity or colour may
be used to indicate amplitude (and phase, if RF signals are collected).
These concepts are shown in Figure 8-47. When a hard copy is made it may be visualised as a series of
A-scans stood on end and stacked one beside the other.
113
Note: The traditional definition of a B-scan referred to a cross-sectional representation of a test

specimen and was independent of probe motion with respect to beam direction; although most B-
scans were made using a zero degree compression mode and a "lop" and "bottom" of the part could
be represented by the entry signal and the backwall signal. This traditional concept is more difficult to
imagine when the beam is angulated. But if we maintain the principles of time or distance on one axis
and probe displacement on the other, it is still a reasonable treatment of the term B-scan.
Figure 8-47 Formation of an amplitude B-scan (uncorrected)
6./.J C-SCANS
When maximum amplitude is collected in the gated region and a raster scan performed, a C-scan is
generated. In this case, the probe position is plotted along both axes. This is effectively in a plan view
(See Figure 8-48). In a PAUT setup we can use electronic scanning in one direction and mechanical
displacement in the other.
PAUT probe and scan path C-scan overlaid on part
Figure 8-48 Formation of an amplitude C-scan over 4 targets
71.4
ter (8): Hardware - Pulsers, Receivers, Motor Control and Encoders
Amplitude may be indicated by intensity (as with shades of grey) or colour, where the screen height is
divided into ranges, each assigned a different colour, e.g. 0-20% blue, 21-50"/" green, 51-80% orange/
81-100% red. Alternatively, for a C-scan it is also possible to monitor the position of a signal in time
and assign a colour or grayscale to sound path distances (or depths)'
8.7.1 OTHER SCAN PRESENTATION TYPES

The above are the traditional A, B, and C-scans. However variations have been added to the basics
and some of these have resulted in increased use of the alphabet'
When the reference co-ordinates are the surface of the test piece, and a normal beam is used for
inspection, nomenclature is straightforward. When angle beam inspections are used, the loss of
orthogonal relationship between beam and test surface can cause some confusion.
8.7.4.1 D-SCAI'/S
When two probes are used in the T-R mode, it is still possible to collect signals over a period of time
and plot the results against probe movement. This is the principle of TOFD presentations. Building a
display by assigning a grey-scale palette to the A-scan amplitudes and stacking them side by side for
each position of scanning is a form of B-scan. But for some TOFD users the term D-scan is the
preferred terminology when the scan direction moves parallel to the weld axis (note such terminology
.equires a weld axis as a reference). The same users of the D-scan terminology then reserve the term B-
scan for the scan made with the TOFD probes moving perpendicular to the weld axis (i.e. parallel to
the beam direction).
8.7.4.2 DEPTH ENCODED C-SCAI{

If a plan view was plotted with indications exceeding a threshold, typically 5"/, FSH, and represented
as a different colour for each 20% increment of depth, we could have a depth distribution of flaws.
This has been termed a "depth-encoded C-scan". (See Figure 8-49)
Figure 8-49 Depth encoded C-scan
115
Figure 8-49 is a depth encoded C-scan of a ceramic disc. A 0.1prs gate was used to monitor the position
of small reflectors in a grid pattern. Lighter shades of grey indicate targets farther away and darker
shades indicate targets that are closer. The gate start is set to occur below the entry surface, so the light
grey circle is the back of the disk. The darker region at the top of the circle indicates a general
thinning. A vertical slice was taken through the position at 9.1mm and a horizontal slice was taken at
8.9 mm. These cross sections are displayed to the left and above the C-scan image. The distances to the
lower four targets in the vertical line are clearly seen to vary in the vertical cross sectiorl while they
are fairly consistent in the horizontal.
8,7.4.3 E A P-SCA}'/S (MERGII/G SCAI/ DATA)
In the B-scans and C-scans just described, we collected amplitude information in a single plane. If we
were to combine the raster scan used for the C-scan with the point by point A-scan capfure used in the
B-scan, we can obtain all the possible information for the volume inspected. We have amplitude
information for the gated time for each point on a grid; and since time is equivalent to distance we
have amplitude information for every point in the volume inspected. Although this is very memory
intensive (as we will soon see), it provides sufficient information that tomographic visualisation
techniques can be applied.
For example, when sufficient data is collected, using full waveform capture of all A-scans of a
component inspected from two sides, with one or more angles, such that one or more centre-of-beam
rays Pass through every volumetric unit (called a voxel), the software can essentially reconstruct the
comPonent in 3D. Such detail provides opportunity to slice the component volume orthogonally. This
effectively provides a traditional "Top-Side-End view". For some, this rationalises other terminology
for these displays. Depending on the view and sometimes depending on the software manufacturer,
these have also been called E-scans (for End view) and P-scans (for projection view). Figure 8-50
illustrates how the software might "extract" data to make a projection from top, side or end positions.
To reconstruct the volume in 3D requires that all the beam paths from each direction be drawn
through each voxel and the maximum amplitude from any of the rays in that voxel be assigned to the
mesh point.
_ X-Y Prolection (C-Scm)
-
t i\.:
, i .'i ::>
jF
-l ---- ---=i,i.
I i
;'&--
X-Z Ploiection (D-Scan)
Figure 8-50 Projection scans nomenclature
1.76
8.7.4.4 PHASED ARRAY S-SCANS AND E-SCANS

Phased array provides a new opportunity for scan presentations due to the potential for a dynamic
nature of the beam. In addition to the standard presentations, the variable angle afforded by the
phased array provides us with the Sectorial or S-scan. A typical S-scan presentation is illustrated in
Figure 8-51 where the beam is swept from 40' to75" and the amplitude responses are colour-coded for
the three side drilled holes. Figure 8-52 the same three holes are scanned with a sequence of 45" beams
made up of 12 elements starting from element 1 and stepping 1 element at a time, until all 64 elements
are used. The resultant display is corrected for the refracted angle and a True B-scan (or True-Depth
display) is provided.
Figure 8-51 Phased Array S-scan Figure 8-52 Phased Array E-scan (True B-scan)
8.7.4,5 DATA DISPLAY PERSPECTIVE

Orientating one's perspective when so much data collected is critical for proper analysis, therefore; the
old R/D tech cube was developed as a handy tool for this purpose. The various scan presentation
types discussed above are illustrated by the fold out diagram and the completed cube. The image to
the left of Figure 8-53 illustrates the three sides of the cube, and to the right, the isometric view of the
cube illustrates the link between ultrasonic data, internal defects and probe scanning pattern.
Figure 8-53 R/D tech cube and its Isometric visv/ (32)
777
8.8 MEMORY AND DIGITISATION ASPECTS

8.8.1 BIT-DEPTH AND SAMPLINC RATES
In the description of analogue to digital conversion, it was noted that typically the vertical increment
scale uses an ADC of 28 or 256 levels of vertical (resolution). This is considered to be an 8 bit
digitisation. Separate from the vertical sampling is the "sampling rate" of the ADC. This wifl dictate
the time interval along the A-scan that is captured and digitised. Flash converter boards, A to D, are
available in a variety of speeds, typically 20 to 100 MHz, but slower and faster varieties are also
available. If a 100 MHz ADC is used, sampling occurs, every 0.01prs. This is determined by dividing 1
by the digitising rate (e.g. for 100 MHz it is 1/100,000,000). In pulse echo this provides a resolution in
steel of 0.016mm (shear) and 0.03mm (long). Temporal (time) resolution also dictates the quality of
signal reproduced from the analogue. Figure 8-22 shows an analogue signal from a 10 MHz probe.
Digitising at 100 MHz allows reasonable reproduction, but at 20 MHz the original analogue trace is
just barely recognizable (the dashed line of the analogue trace is provided as reference, only the dots
would appear on the scope).
10 MHz analogue signal 10 MHz digital signal 10 MHz digital signal

0.1 lrs per division ADC at 100 MHz ADC at 20 lvlHz
.10
i.e. samples per div i,e. 2 samples per div
0.1 1rs per division 0.1 frs per division
Figure 8-54 Digitising effects on oscilloscope waveform quality
A minimum sampling rate, of four times the nominal frequency of the probe used, is recommended.
This will ensure the digitised amplitude will be within 3dB of the analogue value. Five times the
nominal probe frequency is required if the digitised sample is to be within less than 1dB of the
analogue signal amplitude. E.g. for a 10 MHz probe, an ADC rate of at least 50 MHz is recommended
for amplitude critical work. As well, it will be seen by operators that the quality of the recorded signal
at a higher ADC rate is much closer to the original (analogue), and makes for improved signal
characterisation.
Whereas, temporal or distance resolution is solely a function of ADC rate, amplitude resolution is a
function of both ADC rate and number of levels of sampling e.g. number of bits. For UT data
acquisition systems, 8 bit sampling is presently the most common. .
An important aspect of digitised amplitude is the effect on dynamic range. As noted, the most
common bit sample has been 8 bit digitisation. Accuracy of amplitude assessment is based on the
number of divisions of sampling in the vertical direction. The term "bit" is derived from binary
118
:
treatment of data, whereby there are 8 Bits to a Byte in computer terminology. Here a "bit" is one of
two options, i.e. the values '0' or'1'. When the binary value (or 2) is raised to the power of eight (8) it
is considered 8-Bit. If it is raised to the power of 10, it is 10-Bit. Computer-based ultrasonic systems
have been increasing the Bit-sampling used and the higher-end units are sometimes usin$ 12-bit
digitisation. The product of the bit-size is the number of samples that the vertical (amplitude) range
can be divided into, e.g.:
8 bit : 28 = 256 intervals of vertical sampling

10 bit : 210 :1024 intervals of vertical sampling
72bit = 212: 4096 intervals of vertical sampling
8.8.2 RF VERSUS RECTIFIED DIGITISATION

This can be illustrated graphically. Figure 8-55 shows an RF waveform and a rectified waveform
presented on a graph with a colour code for amplitude on either side.
/ \
I \
I \
I
I
\
0-
256 \
/ \
8 Bit ItF Signal (T'OFD) 8 Bit Rectified Signal (VoLuletric)
Figure 8-55 8 Bit digitising effects on dynamic range
Signal amplitudes are usually stated in dB and the concept of dB is simply a ratio from:
h.
dB :20logro(i)
lLt
Where, hr and hz are the relative amplitudes of two signals.
For a rectified signal in an 8 Bit ADC unit the voltage bias places the zero point at the bottom and
shifts all points positive so the dynamic range is (1,/256) or 20logro(fi) : - BdB
The smallest % interval on the screen is (1,/256) x 100 = 0.39o/o
1.79
For the RF signal, the same 8 Bit ADC has no bias and signals are positive and negative. The dynamic
range is determined from the zero point to the maximum displacement (i.e.128).
Therefore the dynamic range will be (\/128) or 20logrs -nrOU

*:
NOTE: half the amplitude is -6dB so reducing the number of points by a factor of 2 reduces the dB
dynamic range by 6dB (i.e. 48 - 6 : 42) and the smallest vertical screen interval is 0.8% for. the RF
display. When we use higher Bit-sizes there is an interesting bi-productl
Large amplitude signals that are 700o/o or greater can, of course, not be assigned a real value. They are
simply considered "saturating". This applies to analogue or digital displays. When'amplitude is an
important factor and its absolute value is required, this means that a re-scan is required to assess the
actua1 amplitude with respect to the reference level. In an S-Bit digitised rectified signal, once the
signal has reached the 256 level, it is saturated. A signal greater than 256levels may be 707% or it may
be >500% with respect to the full scale display. There is no way to determine how much saturation has
occurred.
With a 10-bit digitisation rate, we would have the vertical range of any signal divided into 1024 equal
intervals. This allows us to collect signals at a lower receiver gain and electronically "add gain" after
the data has been collected. With 1024 amplitude levels, there is four times the resolution of the 8-Bit
systems. That means we can calibrate at a reference level of 20"/. (instead of the typical 80% on an 8-Bit
system) and collect all the A-scans at lower amplitude. Signals on our new 10-Bit display, reaching
25% screen height, would have been 100% on the 8-Bit display. Therefore, the likelihood of getting
troublesome saturating signals when using the 1O-Bit digitisation would be greatly reduced. Using the
same assessment of dynamic range as for the S-bit system, the 10-bit system is seen to have a dynamic
range of 60dB for rectified signals.
There are two methods that this extra dynamic range

Ay 200.0 A^ 10.00 mm B"/.
i16.1 | ,^ zo.os mm
can use. One uses the standard display, whereby the
100% level on the display is the maximum displacement
of the signal amplitude. Thery setting the reference level
.
to a lower point on the amplitude scale, allows a direct

reading off the scale for the amplitude. Another method :
is shown in Figure 8-56 where the gates are used to

measure the amplitude and even though the display no
r",
longer shows an increase in signal level, the operator
can read the measured amplitude as a digital numeric ::1.
output. In the example, the digitisation is 9-bit and the

gate output of amplitude shows that the signal on the
extreme left is indicated as having 200% amplitude and
Figure 8-56 9 Bit digitising gate display to
occurs at 10.00mm. The next signal has a separate gate
increase dynamic range
(green) and the signal also saturates the "display" but
not the gate level. That signal is indicated as having
amplitude of 776.7% and occurring at 20.03mm.
720
8.8.3 FiLE SIZE CALCULATIONS

Digitising an A-scan is the first step in constructing a B-scan. But each sample must be saved to
computer memory, therefore larger scan lengths and larger time of the gated period, require more
memory than small scans and gated times.
File size (FS) is given by the equation:
FS=rxf,xBxlxS (8.3)
Where;
t: Time required for the sound wave to traverse the desired material distance and back'
/!: Digitising rate or sampling frequency
B: Number of bytes of amplitude information per sample point on each A-scan
l: Length of scan distance travelled
S: Number of A-scans collected per mm of travelled distance
We will solve an example. For a simple B-scan using a 4MHz contact normal beam probe, on a 50mm
thick plate, we would like to gate the entire thickness for display. We would use the recommended
minimum ADC rate of 76MHz. We must also consider that 100mm time equivalent is traversed by the
longitudinal wave to cover just the 50mm thickness; hence, the time required for the wave to traverse
100mm is:
(50 x 2)
t: --S-: l6.9ps
At 16 MHz ADC, the digitisation rate or sampling frequency f,(samples per prs) would be:
samnLes samnles
lts
So, for the gated time of 16.9tl-s (r as calculated above), the number of samples recorded for each A-
scan would be 16 x 1-6.9 = 270.4 sampLes.
At each point, the number of bytes (symbol B in Equation (8.3) ) of amplitude information, i.e. bytes
per sample point on each A-scan collected, is 1 byte (8 bits).
If our 0o B-scan is to be collected across a weld and includes heat affected zones, a sufficient scan
distance travelled would be 50mm either side to the weld centreline (i.e. l=100mm). If an A-scan is
collected at every 0.5mm interval, the number of S scans per 1 mm is 2.
By substituting in Equation (8.3), the size of data generated or file size would be:
FS=txfsxBxlxS
='1.6.9x16x1x100x2
: 54080 bytes (-54k8)
To generate full volume scans for depth encoded C-scans and D, E, and/or P scans, would require
several such scans to be made in a single process. Even if a small square 100x100mm was scanned
1,21
with a 1mm raster step with the above conditions, 5.4 Megabytes would be generated. Caution should
therefore be taken to collect only that amount of information that is absolutely necessary.
In a multi-channel system where several B-scans (or D-scans) and a TOFD scan are collected,.the file
size of even a simple linear scan, parallel to the weld axis (with no rastering), could quickly result in
file sizes of several tens of Megabytes (MB).
1.22
Chapter (9): Phased A
CHAPTER (9): PHASED ARRAY CALIBRATION CHECKS
Phased array UT inspections are not new in the NDT industry but they are increasingly widespread.
When they first came onto the market, it was obvious that some of the rules regulating the older,
manual, single element instruments would not be suitable for phased array UT equipment. Even the
simplest requirements of the regulating Codes are often not possible to conform to, when using the
phased array technology.
Parameters evaluated in manual UT include:

. Probe dimensions
. Exit point accuracy
. Refracted angle
. Instrument linearity
These do not have the same meaning when using PAUT. A probe may be configured to have several
dimensions (apertures). With the use of E-scans and S-scans from a single probe, the exit point is
moved for every different focal law. Since the beam angle can be changed, there is no specific marking
on the probe wedge to compare the refracted angle to the indicated refracted angle on the wedge.
Instrument linearity is another challenge. Linearity checks in a manual UT instrument apply to the
instrument. In a phased array unit, there is a bank of amplifiers, plus the summation amplifier that
must be checked for linearity.
This chapter will consider the main items of a phased array system that can be evaluated for
conformance to expectation and monitored for change. A specific Standard has been written to
identify the steps that can be used to evaluate some of the parameters of a phased array system. ASTM
E 2491. (Standard Guide for Evaluating Performance Characteristics of Phased array Ultrasonic Testing
Instruments and Systems) provides methodology that can be used without special electronic
instruments. An EN document (EN-12668-1 Non-destructive Testing - Characterisation and
Verification of Ultrasonic Examination Equipment Part 1: Instruments) provides more assessment
methods. These are often general and applicable to all UT systems. Many aspects are to be followed by
manufacturers of UT equipment, so some of the tests will demand the use of electronic assessment
instrumentation. Coverage in this chapter will be limited to assessments that operators can perform
with simple blocks and targets to monitor instrument resPonses.
Topics for phased array calibration and checks in this chapter will be organised into three main
activities: Instrument checks, probe checks and combined instrument and probe checks (beam
profiles).
Note that the process of evaluating performance to a standard is usually considered calibration. This
would require that the standard to which we are making comparisons has some traceable accuracy.
E.g. the calibration block has its velocity, alloy, dimensions and attenuation parameters verified by
comparison to a national standard.
1.23
Chapter (9): Phased Array Calibration Checks
However, we also perform another function that is often called calibration. This is done when the
sensitivity (amplifier adjustment) is set for a specific inspection on a project. Sensitivity setting willbe
covered in a separate chapter.
9,7 INSTRUMENTLINEARITYCALIBRATiONS
Instrument linearity checks are carried
out on the components of the
instrument that provide output of the
Anode
A-scan coordinates. A-scan coordinates
can be seen as a simple X-Y plot where,
X is the horizontal axis (time) and Y is
the vertical axis (amplitude). Concerns u
for "display linearity" are now "i?35'
somewhat anachronistic because the ---
=:==:":i''-
demands originated as a result of the Fluorescent screen
mechanical nature of display
generation in the original analogue,
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) instruments.
These used an electron gun (cathode
emitter) to direct a beam towards a Figure 9-1 Cathode ray tube (CRT)
screen with a phosphor coating that
would allow for a line to be imaged
when the electrons hit the screen. The
basics are seen in Figure 9-1.
The delicate component in the CRT was the deflector plates. These had to be aligned perfectly to
ensure that the beam was moving in a linear and proportional displacement with respect to the grid
pattern on the CRT screen. Periodic checks were made to determine the display linearity. Modern
ultrasonic instrumentation now uses digital electronics. A computer clock is used to establish the time
intervals and the computer bit-depth is used to divide the amplitude scale into vertical intervals (e.g.
8-bit or 256 levels of amplitude). The display used on the digital instrument is no longer reliant on the
alignment of deflector plates. Instead, the display is "constructed" by the computer from the analogue
to digital convertor (ADC) and essentially "painted" on the computer (instrument) monitor.
Real concern for display linearity is therefore not valid in modem instrumentation. However, the
steps to assess it are still standardised and there are requirements to check these on a regular basis.
The other instrument linearity check assesses the amplifier accuracy. Amplifiers are often built in
stages with large amplifiers in steps of 20dB and then signals are moved to variable amplifiers.
Amplifiers are known to fail periodically so periodic checks are useful to identify how well they are
functioning.
124
9.1..1 TrME BASE LINEARITY (HORIZONTAL LINEARITY)

Time base assessment of the "display" is an anachronistic throwback to analogue Cathode Ray Tubes
where the magnetic deflector plates used to display the time base, were often unstable or easily
knocked out of alignment with a bump. In spite of this anachronism, the function is still carried out on
digital displays. The same function can be checked on a phased array instrument and the display need
only be checked using a single channel (since the "display" applies to all channels equally).
To assess the time base, configure the phased array instrument to display an A-scan presentation.
Select any compression wave probe or 0" compression wave focal law and configure the phased array
instrument to display a range suitable to obtain at least 10 multiple back reflections from a block of a
known thickness. The 25mm wall thickness of the IIW block is a convenient option for this test.
1. Set the phased array instrument analogue-to-digital conversion rate to at least 80 MHz.
2. With the probe coupled to the block and 200.0
A" 10.00 mm B"/. 176.1 ,^ 20.03 mm
the A-scan displaying 10 clearly defined
multiples as illustrated in Figure 9-2, the
display software is used to assess the
interval between adjacent backwall
signals. Ensure that the first multiple is at
the first indicated point on the distance iC'\'
scale and the tenth multiple at the far

right edge of the distance scale. (Note: the
scale displayed need not be a simple 10
graticule series, so the operator has to
spread the multiples across the entire
horizontal range of the display).
Figure 9-2 A-scan display for horizontal linearity
J. If accurate "distance" is to be expected on the time base (i.e. the operator is using distance
instead of time increments for the time base), then the acoustic velocity of the test block
should be predetermined using the methods similar to those described in ASTM E-494. These
are entered into the display software and the display configured to read out in distance
(thickness or half-path or true depth).
4. Using the software cursors, determine the interval between each multiple and record the
interval of the first 10 multiples. Acceptable linearity may be established by an error tolerance,
based on the analogue-to-digital conversion rate converted to a distance equivalent. E.g. at 100
MHz, each sample of the time base is 10ns. For steel at 5900m/s each sample along the time
base (10ns) in pulse echo mode represents approximately 30pm. A tolerance of t 3 timing
samples should be achievable by most analogue-to-digital systems (that is approximately +l-
0.1mm in compression mode at 100 MHz ADC rate). Some allowance should be made for
velocity determination error (-1%).Typically the errors on the multiples should not exceed +
0.5mm for a steel plate. A sample recording table for the linearity checks is indicated in Table
9.1 which is adapted from ASTM 82497.
1.25
Table
a 9.L Linearitv verification
verification reportt form
f,
Location: Date:
Operator: Signature:
Instrument: Couplant:
Pulser voltage (V): Pulse duration (ns): Receiver (band): Receiver smoothing: Digitisation frequenry
(MHz):
Display Height Linearity Amplitude Control Linearity

Allowed
Large (%) Small allowed range Small actual (%) Ind. height dB
range
100 47-53 40 +1 44-46
90 42-48 40 +2 48-52
80 40 40 40 +4 62-66
70 32-38 40 +6 77-83
60 Z/ -JJ 100 -6 47-53
50 22-28
40 77-23
30 72-78
20 7-73
10 2-73
Mark (,. ) any channel that falls in the allowed range.
Mark (x) any channel that does not fall in the allowed range.
Expand the number of channels if required for 64 pulser-receiver units.
1 2 J 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 76
77 18 19 20 27 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 lgr 32
Time-Base Linearity (for 25mm IIW blocks)

Multiple 1 2 J 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Thickness 25 50 75 100 725 150 775 200 225 250
Measured
interval
Allowed r0.5 10.5 r0.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 10.5 r0.5 10.5 r0.5
deviation mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm
1.26
:
9.1,,2 DISPLAY HEIGHT LINEARITY

As with the horizontal linearity, the assessment of vertical linearity of the display is also a throwback
to analogue CRT displays. The process is still required, so for a phased array instrumen! even though
the instrument is being addressed by a communication line from a laptop computer, with the
computer providing the display, the requirement still exists in some codes (the 2010 ASME Section V
Article 4 Mandatory Appendix I required assessment of screen height linearity).
To assess the display linearity the technique used for the old analogue displays is used. This compares
the ratio of amplitude between any two signals at slightly different times along the time base.
1. With the phased array instrument connected to a probe (shear or longitudinal) and coupled to
any block that will produce two signals as shown in Figure 9-3, adjust the probe such that the
amplitudes of the two signals are at 80% and 40'/" of the display screen height. If the phased
array instrument has provision to address a single element probe in pulse echo mode, then the
two flat bottom holes with adjustable acoustic impedance inserts in the custom linearity block
shown in Figure 9-4 provide such signals.
it'j
Figure 9-3 Display height linearity verification
2. Increase the gain using the receiver gain adjustment to obtain 7000/" of full screen height of the
larger response. The height of the lower response is recorded at this gain setting as a
percentage of full screen height. Note: for 8 bit digitisation systems this value should be 99"/o,
as 100% would provide a saturation signal (in that case, assessment of true amplitude would
be impossible, as signal amplitude beyond the 100% height would also display a700% height).
3. The height of the higher response is then reduced in 1.0o/" steps to 1,0% of full screen height
and the height of the second response is recorded for each step.
127
4. Return the larger signal to 80% to ensure that the smaller signal has not drifted from its
original 40% level due to coupling variation. Repeat the test if variation of the second signal
results in a response that is greater than 47"/" or less than 39% FSH
5. For an acceptable tolerance, the responses from the two reflectors should bear a 2 to 1
relationship, to within +l-3% of full screen height, throughout the range 10"/" to 1.00% (99% if
100% is saturation)of full screen height. The results are recorded on an Instrument Linearity
Form.
Figure 9-4 Phased array linearity blocks
Some of the display software can make recording of the data easier by indicating amplitudes in the
gated regions along the time base.
9.1.3 AMPLITUDE CONTROL LINEARITY

Phased array instruments are rated by the number of pulser-receivers and total elements possible to
address. A 76164 phased array instrument has 16 pulsers and receivers that are used to address up to
64 elements. A 321128 has 32 pulsers and receivers and can address up to 128 elements. Codes and
standards now dictate that each of the pulser-receiver components be checked to determine the
linearity of the instrument amplification capabilities.
To check the receiver amplifiers:
1. Select a flat (normal incidence) linear array phased array probe having at least as many
elements as the phased array ultrasonic instrument has pulsers. E.g. for a 321128 instrument
the minimum number of elements in the probe must be 32.
2. Adjust the instrumenf so the pulser parameters are selected for the frequency and bandpass
filter to optimise the response from the probe used (e.9. for a 5 MHz probe frequency, tuning
and bandpass filtering for the 5 MHz probe should be used).
3. Using this probe, configure the phased array ultrasonic instrument to have an electronic raster
scan (E-scan). Each focal law will consist of one element and the scan will start at element
128
number 1 and end at the element number that corresponds to the number of pulsers in the
phased array instrument.
Couple the probe to a suitable surface to obtain a pulse echo response from each focal law.
The backwall echo from the 25mm thickness of the IIW block or the backwall from the 20mm
thickness of the custom linearity block, as illustrated in Figure 9.4 provides a suitable target
option. Alternatively, immersion testing can be used. Immersion configurations tend to be less
susceptible to coupling problems from one end of the probe to the other
Select Channel 1 of the pulser-receivers of the phased array instrument. Using the A-scan
display, monitor the response from the selected target. Adjust the gain to biing the signal to
40% screen height. This is illustrated in Figure 9-5.
Figure 9-5 Channel l backwall echo set to 40'/"
Add gain to the receiver in the increments of 1dB, then 2dB, then 4dB and then 6dB. Remove
the gain added after each increment to ensure that the signal has returned to 40% display
height. Record the actual height of the signal as a percentage of the display height (using the
amplitude control linearity portion of Table 9.1 as a guide to the acceptable limits).
7. Next, adjust the signal to 100% display heighf remove 6dB gain and record the actual height
of the signal as a percentage of the display height. Signa1 amplitudes should fall within a
range of x3"/" of the display height required in the allowed height range of Table 9.1.
Repeat the sequence of gain adjustments from the 40Y" starttng level for all other pulser-
receiver channels. For instruments having 70 or 12 bit amplitude digitisation and configured
to read amplitudes in a gated region to amplitudes greater than can be seen on the display, a
larger range of check points can be used. For these instruments the gated output instead of
the A-scan display, would be verified for linearity. (Note: an example of amplitudes greater
than 100% display height is seen in Figure 9-6 where gate A"/" indicates a 198.9% signal and
gate Bo/" indicates 77 8.3%).
729
Figure 9-6 Gated numeric output for amplitudes over 100 % in a9bit instrument
The rationale for using channels, 1 through to the maximum number in the instrument pulser-receiver
set, is perhaps not clear to operators. \iVhat prevents a system from deciding that the one-element
focal laws in an E-scan using elements 1-16 in a1.6164 instrumenf do not simply fire pulser-receiver #1
on element 1 and then switch pulser-receiver #1 to element 2 and so on? Such a condition would leave
pulser-receiv er s 2-16 unassessed.
However, the standard setup of a phased array instrument is generally such that a multiplexer (MUX)
unit is used to address several elements from a single pulser-receiver. A 16164 instrument connects
pulser-1 to four separate elements (typically 7,77,33 and 49). Each pulser-receiver is then multiplexed
to the next elements in the series. This is illustrated in Figure 9-7 for the first four channels (pulser-
receivers).
Ec
a
t
Figure 9-7 Multi - element multiplex switching from a series of pulser receivers
130
9.2 ACTIVE ELEMENT ASSESSMENT

This assessment is used to determine that all elements of the phased array probe are active and of
uniform acoustic energy.
During normal operation of a phased array probe, each of the elements is addressed by a separate
pulser and receiver. Phasing principles assume that each element contributes identically to its adjacent
element. To ensure that a uniform beam is constructed, a method must be used that ensures that the
electronic performance of the phased array probe is identical from element to element and any
differences are attributable to the pulser-receiver settings in the focal law. To ensure that any variation
of element performance is due only to probe construction, a single pulser-receiver channel is selected
to address each element.
9,2.1 MANUAL ELEMENT CHECKS

To assess each element individually, the phased array probe to be tested is connected to the phased
array ultrasonic instrument and any delay line or refracting wedge is removed from the probe.
The probe is then acoustically coupled to a suitable block such as the 25mm thickness of an IIW block.
Coupling should be via a uniform layer of couplant. This may be accomplished by a contact-gap
technique such that the probe-to-block interface is under water (to ensure uniform coupling).
Altemativel/, an immersion method using a fixed water path may be used and the water-steel
interface signal monitored instead of the steel wall thickness.
Con{igure an electronic scan consisting of one element, stepped along one element at a time, for the
total number of elements in the array. As seen from Figure 9-7, this should ensure that the pulser-
receiver dedicated to the individual elements, fires and processes, just the received signal from a
single element. Set the pulser parameters to optimise the response for the nominal frequency of the
probe array and establish a pulse echo response from the block backwall or water path to 80% display
height, for each element in the probe.
Observe the A-scan display for each element in the array and record the receiver gain required to
achieve the 80% signal amplitude for each element. Results may be recorded on a table similar to that
in Table 9.2 where a table is made for a76 element probe.
Table 9.2 Probe element chart: enter receiver for 80% FSH
Active (r/)
Inactive (x)
Note and record any elements that do not provide a backwall or water path signal (inactive elements).
Data collected is used to assess probe uniformity and functionality. Comparison to previous
assessments is made using the same instrument settings (including gain) that were saved to file. The
receiver gain to provide an 80% response should be within a range of t2dB of any previous
1.31.
assessments and within x2dB of each other. Ideally, the amplifiers are all closely matched, but some
variation may be expected from one channel's amplifier to another.
The total number, of inactive elements and number of adjacent inactive elements in a probe, should be
agreed upon and identified in a written procedure. This number may be different for baseline and in-
service verifications. Some phased array probes may have several hundred elements and even new
phased array probes might have inactive elements, as a result of manufacturers' difficulties ehsuring
the electrical connections to elements with dimensions on the order of a fraction of a millimetre.
The number of inactive elements allowed should be based on the performance of other capabilities
such as focusing and steering limits of the focal laws being used. No simple rule for the number of
inactive elements can be made for all phased array probes. Typically, if more than2l% of the elements
in a probe are inactive, sensitivity and steering capabilities may be compromised. Similarly, the
number of adjacent elements allowed to be inactive should be determined by the steering and
electronic raster resolution required by the application.
Stability of coupling is essential for the comparison assessment. If using a contact method and the
assessment of elements produces signals outside the t2dB range, the coupling should be checked, and
the test run again. If still outside the acceptable range, the probe should be removed from service and
corrected prior to further use. The test using a fixed water path to a water/steel interface will reduce
coupling variations.
Prior to removing the probe from service, the cable used for the test should be exchanged with
another cable, when possible, to verify that the inactive elements are not due to a bad cable. Cable
continuity adapters can be made that allow the multi-strand connectors to be tested independently.
These adaptors can be connected to the phased array instrument directly (i.e. without a probe
cornected to the system) to verify that all output channels are active.
Another source, of lack of continuity, can be the connections at the multi-pin connectors. In pin-to-
socket connections there can be one or more pins bent or recessed causing lack of continuity (See
Figure 9-8). Sometimes, a "blade" style connection does not have the contacts in the receptacle closing
tightly on the blade and the contact is weak or intermittent.
Figure 9-8 Bent pin causing lack of signal in phased array channel
132
ter (9): Phased Array Calibration Checks
9.2.2 PRESET PROGRAMMES
.E;*- lfr"* ,;;;--

I Elementveriflcarlon If a pre-packaged programme is available for checking
element activity, it can be used as an alternative to
Giin 42i0 _t-
Fit.r:2to10MHz ':
manually reading each channel output. This can
involve saving an E-scan setup for a specific probe
type with the probe mounted on the test platform
(block or immersion configuration). Gates can be
preset to monitor amplitude values and a display
arranged that clearly indicates the initial pulse near
zero time on the A-scan displays. These would be
converted to a B-scan of all the elements, so the
operator could then also watch for inactive elements.
Figure 9-9 illustrates an example of a display used to
identify inactive channels in a phased affay
Figure 9-9 B-scan display element activity instrument or cable.
9.3 DETERMINING BEAM ANGLES AND OFFSETS

As described in the previous section, range and wedge delay adjustments can be made to compensate
for the variations of distance travelled in a wedge. All that is required is a radius such as is available
on the V1 or V2 block. The configurations are shown in Figure 9-10. In all cases in Figure 9-10, the
probe is moved back and forth and one of the Focal Laws is seen to peak when its beam makes a
perpendicular incidence on the rad.ius. Since the material velocity and the radius are assumed known
,alues, this provides a time in steel that can be calculated and subtracted from the total time of the
clock start. The remainder is the wedge time and is subtracted from the total time to provide the
"zero" depth or entry surface.
Delay adjushent movement for E scan wiih reiracdng wedge

Delay adjusheni movctrteni for $scan frth reftachng \Yedge
Delay adjushenl
Figure 9-L0Identifying the exit point of a beam for a specific focal law
133
The maximum amplitude from the radius corresponds to Focal Law that aligns with the centre of
100mm radius. This alignment with the line on the IIW block indicates the "exit point" from the
wedge of the beam for that focal law.
This process of moving the phased array probe back and forth on the V1 block is identical to the
process used for a single element probe, when determining the "exit point" of the probe/wedge. Since
all phased array systems can allow the user to monitor the responses of a single focal law using a
single A-scan, this process can also be used to illustrate the migration of the exit point series of focal
laws being used.
Since there is no single "exit point" on a phased array probe, none is marked on the phased array
wedge so "verification" of probe exit point is one of the items that do not fit with the old technology.
Similarly, confirmation of a single angle of refraction is also not a useful function for phased arrays.
Most phase d aruay analyses are made using the display software. With the old manual methods the
operator relied. on knowing the exact angle and exact distance travelled, so as to manually "plot" on
paper, the position of any indications. Any errors in actual angle could result in errors of flaw
placement. With phase d aruay systems, the plotting is done using the computing capability of the
software. Its accuracy is confirmed using the targets in a known calibration/reference block.
However, a means of checking or confirming the "traditional" angle and exit point can be performed;
and would in fact use the methods used in manual single element Probe assessments.
The first step must be to identify the exit point. The operator selects the focal law of interest and
displays its A-scan on the monitor. The beam is directed at the radius of the selected block and
maximised. The operator then uses a pen or pencil to mark a line on the wedge that lines up with the
centre of the radius (i.e. the point on the test surface directly above the point on the radius that the
beam is striking when maximised). Some software provides a read-out of the offset distance of the exit
point from the nose of the wedge (sometimes called the offset index). The operator could physically
measure this distance (i.e. the distance from the wedge nose to the offset marked in pen on the wedge)
and compare it to the software value. Some software provides the distance from the "calculated" exist
point so it might be possible to use that distance to mark the exit point.
The angle of refraction for the focal law, whose
exit point was just marked, can then be assessed
using a side drilled hole. With the phased array
probe positioned on the block and the beam
directed at the SDH, the signal is peaked and the
exit point marked on the wedge is used to mark
the point on the block that it corresponds to. This
Figure 9-ll Marking the block with the exit point
134
Chapter (9): Phased A Calibration Checks
where the SDH signal is peaked

Physical measurements on the block can then be made to determine the refracted angle. In the
example in Figure 9-11, the refracted angle can be determined from the measured distance, from the
exit point marked on the block to the point exactly over the SDH and divided by the depth to the
centre of the hole, i.e. tan-1(f,). For the values indicated in Figure 9-11., the angle is assessed as 59.8o
and the focal law was programmed to produce a 60o beam.
The physical values can also be compared to the display values for depth and offset on the monitor as
a confirmation of the accuracy of the display relative to the physical conditions. For more information
on how to locate the exit point mathematically, see Appendix (E): Exit Point Formulas.'
9.4 BEAMCHARACTERISATION(PROFILE)
Beam profiling is a common procedure with most ultrasonic applications. The size of the beam as it
moves along its axis is a critical part of detection capabilities and sizing methods. Either immersion or
contact probe applications can be addressed using this procedure. Assessments of contact probes may
suffer from variability if proper precautions are not taken to ensure constant coupling conditions.
For a single focal law, where the beam is fixed and the probe is used in an immersion setup, the ball-
target or hydrophone options described in the single element characterisation methods such as ASTM
E-1065 may be used. For phased array probes used where several focal laws are generated to produce
sectorial or electronic scanning, it might be possible to make beam-profile assessments with little or no
mechanical motion. \Atrhere mechanical motion is used it should be encoded to more accurately relate
signal time and amplitude to distance moved.
Linear-array probes have an active plane and an inactive or passive plane. Assessment of the beam in
the active plane should be made by use of an electronic scan sequence for probes with a sufficient
number of elements to electronically advance the beam past the targets of interest. For phased array
probes using focal laws, with a large portion of the available elements to form the beam, the number
of remaining elements for the electronic raster may be too small to allow the beam to pass over the
target. In this case it will be necessary to have encoded, mechanical motion and assess each focal law
along the active plane separately.
Profile assessments for contact probes can be made
using SDHs. The side drilled holes are arranged at
various depths in a flaw-free sample of the same
material in which focal laws have been
programmed for. Using the linear scan feature of
the phased array system, the beam is passed over
the targets at the various depths of interest. The
electronic scan is illustrated schematically as in
Figwe9-72.
135
Figure 9-12 Profiling E-scan of side drilled holes
The profile is accomplished by data collection of the entire waveform over the range of interest. A
display with amplitude as a colour or grayscale is constructed. Time or equivalent distance in the test
material is presented along one axis and distance displaced along the other axis; i.e. a typical B-scan is
used as illustrated in Figure 9-13.
rAE
- _i,
Figure 9-13 B-scan display for beam profiling of side drilled holes
Figure 9-13 is a B-scan display of the electronic scan represented in Figure 9-12. Depth is in the vertical
axis and electronic-scan distance is represented along the horizontal axis.
A similar data display can be made for an electronic scan using a phased array probe mounted on a
wedge' This would use a simple orthogonal representation of time versus displacement, or it can be
angle-corrected as illustrated in Figure 9-14.
lobe effects
1.36
Figure 9-14 Angle-corrected B-scan display of beam profile of SDH
Resolution along the displacement axis will be a function of the step size of the electronic scan or, if
the scan uses an encoded mechanical fixture, the resolution will be dependent on the encoder step size
used for sampling.
Resolution along the beam axis will be a function of the digitisation rate and the intervals between the
target paths. For highly focused beams, it may be desirable to have small differences between the
sound paths to the target paths (e.g. 1mm or 2mm).
Beam profiling in the passive plane can also be done. The passive plane in a linear-array probe is
perpendicular to the active plane and refers to the plane in which no beam steering is possible by
phasing effects. Beam profiling in the passive direction will always require mechanical scanning.
The waveform collection of signals, using a combination of electronic scanning in the active plane and
encoded mechanical motion in the passive plane, provides data that can be projection-corrected to
provide beam dimensions in the passive plane. Figure 9-15 illustrates a method for beam assessment
in the passive plane. This technique uses a comer reflection from an end drilled hole at depths
established by a series of steps.
Figure 9-15 Passive axis beam profiling
Figure 9-16 illustrates an alternative to the stepped intervals shown in Figure 9-15. In this case, a
through hole is arranged perpendicular to the required refracted angle so as to provide a continuous
transition of path length to the target.
1.37
Figure 9-15 Combined active and passive axis beam profiling
By presenting the acquired data as a projected C-scar; the beam size can be assessed based on either
colour or greyscale indicating amplitude drop. The projected C-scan option is schematically
represented in Figure 9-17.
Figure 9-17 Projected C-scan for active and passive axis beam profiling
9.5 DETERMININC PHASE,D ARRA}'BEAM STEERING LIN,IITS

It has been noted that, in the design of a phased array probe, there are factors that limit the extent to
which the beam can be steered away from the perpendicular. Generally it is considered that steering
capability is related to the width of an individual element of the array:
Maximum steering angle (at -6 dB), given by:
1
0rt = 0'44- (e.1)
e
\zVhere;
2: Wavelength
e:Individual element width
0.44 is the constant for the rectangular shape element)
Manufacturers will normally provide guidance on the limitsbased on this principle and incorporate
some conservatism. It is therefore possible to calculate a theoretical limit based on nominal frequency
and manufacturer-provided information on the element dimensions. However, several parameters can
affect the theoretical calculations. These are primarily related to the nominal frequency of the probe.
138
:
Chapter (9): Phased Calibration Checks
Some of the parameters affecting actual frequency include: pulse lengttr, damping,
use of a delay-line
or refracting wedge and variations in manufacturing processes on thickness lapping and matching
Iayers.
For specific cases and when required to demonstrate the system limits, users may want to determine
the limits for a particular combination of probe and wedge. Limits on steering are not simply
d.etermined by seeing how many degrees can be "detected" using the IIW block
inserts. Steering
capability will usuaiy be based on a comparison of signal to noise ratios at varying angular
displacements. Beam steering capability will also be affected by project requirements
of the beam'
limits applications where the
Applications where focusing is necessary, may not achieve the same as
path distance,
beam is not focused as well as steered. Steering capability may be specific to a sound
aperture and material.
The following recommended method uses a series of SDHs and a phased array system configured
for
its intended use; i.e. with or without a refracting wedge or delay-line, unfocused or a defined focal
distance and the specific test material to be tested'
A block is prepared with a series of side drilled holes in the material to be used for the application, at
the distance or distances to be used in the application. The side drilled hole pattern should be as
illustrated in Figure 9-18 or Figure 9-19. These patterns with holes provide options for variation in the
is at a
focal plane that can be configured in the focal laws. When no focusing is used, or when focusing
fixed sound path distance, the holes would be as indicated in Figure 9-18. These are at 5" intervals at a
25mm and 50mm distance from the centre where the probe is located.
Api:::011
I
1mm diameter sDHs
along 25mm radius
.-t.c
::t:ir;i.: I ii',ii.Jit':j :r':r : ::; l.,i:ri: :
Figure 9-18 Beam steering assessment block - constant sound path
1.39
Chapter (9): Phased Aray Calibration Checks
Vertical plane 50mm from exit poinl

oEo
80"
70"'
65':
60"
Horizontal plane 25mm from exit
55"
30';
Block dirnensions 150mm x 100mm x 25mm
Figure 9-19 Beam steering assessment block - fixed plane sound path
Similar assessments are possible for different applications. \zVhen a set of focal laws is arranged to
provide resolution in a plane instead of a sound path distance, the plane of interest may be used to
assess the steering limits of the beam. The block used for assessment would be arranged with side
drilled holes in the plane of interest. Such a plane-specific block is illustrated in Figure 9-19 where a
series of holes is made in a vertical and horizontal plane at a specified distance from the nominal exit
point. Side drilled holes may be arranged in other planes (angles) of interest.
For assessments using the block in Figure 9-18, place the probe such that the centre of beam ray enters
the block at the indicated centreline. \Alhen the probe is used without a delay line or refracting wedge,
the midpoint of the focal law element array is aligned with the centreline. For focal laws using only a
portion of the total available elements the midpoint of the element aperture shall be aligned with the
centreline. \zVhen delay lines, refracting wedges or immersion methods are used corrections will be
required to compensate for movement of the "apparent" exit point along the block entry surface.
\rVhen a probe is used in direct contact with a verification block, such as illustrated in Figure 9-18, the
lack of symmetry, either side of the centreline, prevents both positive and negative sweep angles from
being assessed simultaneously. To assess the sweep limit, in the two directions when using this style
of block, requires that the probe be assessed in one direction first and then rotated 180" and the
opposite sweep assessed.
Angular steps between A-scan samples will have an effect on the measured sweep limits. A maximum
of 1o between S-scan samples is recommended for steering assessmen! however, angular steps are
limited by the system timing-delay capabilities between pulses and element pitch characteristics. Most
of the targets illustrated in Figure 9-18 and Figure 9-79 are separated by 5'; however, greater or lesser
intervals may be used depending on the required resolution. This will of course mean that these
blocks need to be custom-made based on the tolerances to be achieved.
Evaluation of steering limits is made using the dB difference between the maximum and minimum
signal amplitudes of two adjacent side drilled holes. For example, when a phased array probe is
configured to sweep + l- 45" on a block, such as illustrated in Figure 9-18, the highest of the pair of the
140
SDH's which achieves a 6dB separation could be considered the maximum steering capability of the
probe configuration.
But the 6dB separation might not always be adequate. Acceptable limits of steering may be indicated
by the maximum and minimum angles that can achieve a pre-specified separation between adjacent
holes. Depending on the application, a 6dB or 20dB (or some other value), may be specified as the
required separation.
Steering capabilities could be part of a system specification: e.g. a phased array system is required to
achieve a minimum steering capability for 5" resolutiory of 2mm diameter side drilled holes of plus
and minus 20", from a nominal mid-angle. Conversely, we could identify that a system may be limited
to S-scans not exceeding the angles
assessed, to achieve a specified signal separation: e.g. -20dB
between 2mm diameter SDHs separated by 5".
An alternative assessment may use a single SDH at a specified depth or sound path distance.
Displaying the A-scan for the maximum and minimum angles used would assess the steering
capability by observing the S/N ratio at the peaked response. This method could have the steering
limit pre-defined as the S/N ratio being achieved.
In all cases, when assessing steeringlimits, caution must be taken to observe grating lobe signals.
Grating lobe signals may be present at significant angular separation from the main or "intended"
signal. In addition to strong grating lobes that may be present 20"-30" off axis from the main
(intended) signal, the grating lobes may also be present in a separate mode. For example; an intended
focal law is to form a 55o shear-wave pulse, but it also produces a strong compression mode at 80o.
This could produce misleading signals from geometric sources when performing the actual inspection
and the operator might call for repairs where no defects are present.
9,6 CALIBRATION BLOCKS USED IN SYSTEM VERIFICATIONS

Several illustrations of calibration blocks used for phased array system verifications and checks have
been identified in this chapter. Standard blocks such as V1 and V2 (also called ISO calibration blocks
No. 1 and No. 2), and the semi-rylindrical block (also called the DC block by the American Welding
Society), provide useful tools for several of the assessments that can be carried out. However, with the
flexibility and variability of phased array probes/ many assessments require custom blocks. The
variable impedance targets used for screen height linearity checks can be purchased from some
manufacturers or made in-house. Beam profiling assessments can make use of some of the standard
blocks but in most cases, targets are arranged in custom-made blocks, such as those illustrated here for
passive axis profiling and angular resolution assessment.
Although it has been more than 20 years since the first phased array systems were introduced to NDT,
there is still no standard calibration block specific to phased array assessment.
1.41.
:
Chapter (10): Principles of Inspection Sensitivity
CHAPTER (1.0): PRINCIPLES OF INSPECTION SENSITIVITY
The process of establishing a gain setting or amplitude level at which an inspection will be made is
often called calibration. This can be a bit confusing as we have also called the process of checking
instrument linearity, "calibration". To add to the confusiorL some manufacturers have identified the
process of adjusting the gain to compensate for wedge path and echo transmittance effects, as
sensitivity calibration and wedge delay.
To ensure that the sensitivity to flaws is consistent from one operator to the next or from one periodic
inspection of a component to the next, standards were established. To a large extent, these standards
dictate how we approach some aspects of the sensitivity calibration Process.
With phased, array instruments, the fact that it is possible to generate multiple beams for any
inspection application, each beam must be calibrated with its own set of parameters. Any alteration of
a parameter that would be used in the Fermat computation of the element delays or voltage settings
would constitute a change in the response (sensitivity) to the reference. It is therefore necessary to
identify the essential parameters and ensure that the phased array system correctly makes the changes
to re-adjust the sensitivity to the required level.
This chapter addressed steps to establishing a sensitivity level that would be used to carry out an
inspection. The specific sequence may vary from one manufacturer to another, but the considerations
for the process are the same.
10.1 ESTABLISHING PARAMETERS FOR FERMAT COMPUTATIONS

Having assessed the instrument and probe as suitable fot use, the next step in preparation for
inspection is to obtain the necessary material parameters to allow the phased array system to calculate
the time delays that are to be used. Restating the Fermat Principle, it postulates that rays of sound (or
light) follow the path that takes the least time. Therefore, given sufficient information about the
starting and desired end points of the sound as well as the velocities of the media between them, the
solution to the minimum time can be calculated.
\zVhen a phased array probe is used on a delay line or refracting wedge, calculations for beam steering
and projection displays rely on the Fermat principle. This requires that the operator identify (in 3-
dimensional space) the position 3Dof the probe elements. This ensures that the path lengths to the
wedge-metal interface are accurately known. Verification that the coordinates used by the operator
provide correct depth calculations is usually necessary. This ensures that the display software
correctly positions indications detected.
Parameter settings for the probe and wedge are usually set using a Graphic User Interface (GUI)
where the operator enters values in a menu field. Items entered, would include items such as
indicated in Table 10.1.
743
able 10.1 Typical Parameter Entry Data for a probe to configure Focal Laws
Parameter Typical values
Probe type Linear array,
matrix array
annular array
Number of Elements 1.6,32,60,64
Element width 6, 10,12, 1.8mm
(passive dimension)
Kerf 0.5, 0.1,0.2mm
Pitch 0.3,0.6, 1mm
Element heieht 0.25,0.4,0.9mm
Focusing Flat or defined radius of curvafure in passive direction
Wedse Velocitv 2340rnls
Wedse Ansle (various depending on mode to be used)
Wedge length, widttu height Various
Reference Element location Could be element t height and offset from front or back of
wedge, Could be midpoint of array at the intersection of the
natural reftacting angle exit point or any other reference that
gives height above the test piece and incident ansle
Test piece velocities Longitudinal and transverse velocities are input and then the
appropriate value selected
The coordinates entered will

depend on the reference points used and this can be dependent on the
software provided by the manufacturer. Figure 10-1 illustrates two options, one using the wedge
edges and the other using the midpoint of the array.
GUE. l'.,
Active axis offset
ililililtr
Figure 10-1 Example coordinate references for element positions in 3D space
For some phased array systems, the data entry items, such as those in Table 10.1, are all that is needed
to set up the delay laws. But sometimes it can be observed that the target in a calibration block does
not display on the image in the correct location. This is probably not a fault of the calculations, as
much as an accumulation of errors in the parameters entered by the operator.
1.44
:
Chapter (L0): Principles of Inspection Sensitivity
Figure 10-2 shows the effect of a small error in

data entry. The operator is given a nominal
value for the wedge and material velocities. In
this illustration, the sound is nominally
identified as having a velocity of 2770rnls in the
wedge and in steel as 3230m1s. But if the plastics
batch was cured a bit differently and the
temperature a bit more than 20oC, it is possible
that the actual velocity is closer to 2670m1s.
Variations in steel velocities also occur and
instead of 3230m/s the steel might be 3280m/s. Figure 10-2 Misplacement of plotted target due to
velocity errors
Not only does the software now calculate the incorrect angles for the beams, it also plots the responses
on the display incorrectly. The 2mm diameter SDH target in Figure 10-2 is physically centred at 36mm
depth; however, the errors in velocity result in placing the target at 34mm depth on the display.
To avoid these sorts of errors, tools are available to determine the wedge velocity and, to some extent,
the material velocity.
10.1.1 VELOCITY DETERMINATIONS

Ideally, a calibration block is made from the same material that is to be inspected. Un-fortunately, most
of the standard blocks are only fabricated from a Standards-specified material (e.9. the basic ISO
Calibration Block Nr. 1, also known as the IIW block, is made of grade S355JO steel). But not all steels
tested in NDT are of grade S355JO. So even using the Standard calibration block, the velocity used for
the focal laws may not match the actual material tested. Making a custom block from the actual test
material can be costly, but it will improve accuracy. Velocity determination using a phased array
instrument can be accomplished by measuring the time difference between two radius surfaces or two
thicknesses depending upon the angles or modes used.
Such a calibration block with two radii is available. The Type-2IIW block is easily obtained (See
Figure 10-3). This provides a 50mm and 100mm radius over the angles from about 40o to 90'. Similar
two radii configurations can be had using 180' (semi-cylinders) as seen in Figure 10-4.
Figure 10-3 Type 2 IIW block (38)

Figure 10-4 25mm and 50mm radii in semi cylinder block
145
An S-scan or even an E-scan applied to such a block, allows the operator to obtain two signals that
peak for each angle or focal law, as the probe is moved past the midpoint of the block and each focal
law beam finds its path to perpendicular incidence on the radii. An S-scan setup is shown in Figure
10-5 for a simple compression mode probe-wedge setup. By reading the time difference betwben the
two signals from the radii for any of the maximised beams, the operator can deduce the acoustic
velocity of the test material. For example the operator peaks the 50mm signal at 36.9489s 4nd the
25mm signal at 28.4721ts. The difference is 8.4761ts. This is the time required for the round trip in the
25mm steel interval. Therefore the velocity is determined by dividing the time difference into the total
path, or 5018.476 = 5900m/s.
Figure 10-5 Two-radii test block
Software can be configured to gate the time difference of the maximised signals and the velocity
determined for the material over the range of angles used.
When it is a 0o compression wave that is being assessed for velocity the same blocks can be used. The
semi-cylindrical block has a single point where the path of a 0o beam occurs (i.e. straight down). The
IIW block has a point directly below the radius centre where three steps occur (100, 91 and 85mm).
Standard step-wedge blocks can be used for the 0' orientations as well.
10,1.2 WEDGE DELAY DETERMINATIONS

As with the material velocity, the wedge velocity also plays an important role in focal law calculations
and display of the image of flaws in a test piece. The total time in the wedge is required, so that the
display of the image can correctly determine the entry point of the beam (i.e. zero depth in the tested
material).
Assuming the wedge velocity is known (it is often supplied by the manufacturer and sometimes
written on the wedge) and the test piece velocity has been accurately determined, the time in the
wedge for a beam can be calculated from simple trigonometry. By drawing a probe over a calibration
block with an SDH target at a specific depth, software can be used to make the calculations for the
changes in the sound path in the wedge. The 1.5mm diameter SDH at 15mm depth in the IIW block is
commonly used to assess the wedge delay time. This technique assumes that the focal law angles have
been correctly constructed (based on input velocities) and that the maximum response to the SDH
1,46
ter (10): Princi
from each angle or focal law is the hypotenuse of a right triangle with the adjacent side equal to the
SDH depth.
This is illustrated in Figure 10-6 using a 60o E-scan. As the probe is moved across the block such that
the response from the SDH peaks under each focal law, the instrument will be noting'a signal at
increasing times, as the probe is moved from right to left. This is because, when moving from the right
to the left, the first beam interacting with the SDH is the one made with the lowest element as the start
elemenf so it has the shortest travel in the wedge. The wedge path distance increases as the beams
farther up the probe interact with the beam. If the calculated velocity of the steel was 5900m/s and the
nominal refracted angle is 60o for each of the beams, the distance from the block surface to the SDH is
30mm (Sp : cos 60" f x, where SP is steel path and x is the depth to the SDH). Having calculated the
transverse velocity in steel to be 3200m/s, the travel time in the steel portions of the sound paths for
each focal law would be 18.75prs for the round trip in pulse echo. This value can be subtracted from
the total time seen by the instrument at each focal law. For the seven wedge path distances, the wedge
path (WP) increases from WP1 to WP7. We can use the centre ray path for each focal law to calculate
the average time in the wedge for each focal law. For a wedge with an acoustic velocity of 2340m/s the
angle that the array must generate as the incident angle for a 60" refracted beam in the steel is 38.5'.
Figure 1"0-6 Determining wedge delay
Wedge paths can be determined from the wedge geometry parameters and the element placements
relative to the references used by the manufacturer. For this example we will simply provide the
wedge paths in tabular form in Figure 10-2.
Table 10.2 for the seven 6U' focal laws
60" iocal I
Distance Time in wedge at2340mls
Wedge Path # Total time to SDH signal (prs)
(mm) (us) (pulse echo)
7 23.35 79.95 38.77
2 24.25 20.72 39.47
J 25.15 21.49 40.24
4 26.05 22.26 47.07
5 26.95 23.03 47.78
6 27.85 23.80 42.55
7 28.75 24.57 43.32
747
A phased array system could be set up to provide the assumed delays by simply making calculations
from the design drawings of the wedge. But some wedges are custom-made and some wedges that are
off-the-shelf may have some wear so that the original dimensions are no longer accurate. By having a
built-in programme that determines the delays based on the sound path to a target of a knornm'depth,
the phased array system does not have to rely on physical size measurements being input.
10.1.3 COMPENSATINGFORATTENUATION
Setting sensitivity is a standard function used in many NDT systems. Its main purpose is to ensure a
minimum or agreed-upon level of gain or "detection" and provide the means for a repeatable
inspection.
It is perhaps risky, referring to a "minimum detection" level, which implies that we will always find a
certain sized flaw. However, when using ultrasonic methods, the amplifier gain is not the only
parameter that determines if a particular flaw is detected or not. Flaw orientation with respect to
beam, [Iaw size, beam area at the flaw, frequency response of the flaw with respect to the frequenry
content of the pulse, and several other parameters can play a part in the detection of a flaw.
To overcome some of the issues involved in these uncertainties, it is normal to set sensitivity on a fixed
simple target. These targets are invariably symmetrical and easily machined shapes when inspecting
welds. Flat bottom holes (FBHs), and side drilled holes (SDHs) are easiest to manufacture and most
adaptable to general conditions. Surface notches are also used but are very angle-dependent. The
notches, FBHs and SDHs all provide options to assess the sensitivity of the beam at various sound
paths. The Distance-Gain-Amplitude (DGS, or in German AVG) method is another option and was
designed to avoid the need for costly calibration blocks. Use of these targets will be addressed later.
\rVhen dealing with the single element probes used in manual UT, the corrections for absorption and
divergence (attenuation) are easily addressed using Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) curves or
Time Corrected Gain (TCG) in the amplifiers.
However, when dealing with phased array techniques there are two main features to consider in
addition to the material attenuation effects. Specifically, these are the effect of variation in wedge path
with varying focal laws and the effect of echo transmittance (i.e. the change in signal pressure on the
two-way path of a plane wave).
The TCG feature of a phased array instrument may accomplish the required compensations
automatically, depending on the software provided. We consider here the origins of the causes of
these variable attenuations with different focal laws.
A phased array probe mounted on a refracting wedge has the ability to change both the angle and the
group of elements fired. \zVhen sweeping through a series of angles (in an S-scan) or multiplexing the
start element (in an E-scan), it results in the beam path distance in the wedge changing as seen in
Figure 10-7.
148
Figure 10-7 Yarying wedge path in S-scans and E-scans
Fundamental in UT is the reduction of sound pressure with increasing distance travelled in a medium
(attenuation). This is sometimes quantified with a value called the attenuation coefficient and given in
dB/mm or dB/cm for a specified frequenry. For Plexiglas, one study indicated the values seen in Table
10.3.
Table 10.3 Acoustic Attenuation Coefficients for Pl (3e)
Attenuation Coefficient (db/cm)

Probe Nominal
Medium to thin Thick to thin Average of the two
Frequency
samples samples sample intervals
2.25 2.85 2.57 2.71
3.5 3.82 3.38 3.6
5.0 5.98 s.80 5.89
From Figure 70-7 Varying wedge path in S-scans and E-scans, we can see the degree of change that
might result with path length variations. For the E-scans there is a 17mm path difference from the
lowest to highest start element focal laws. With a 5 MHz probe on a wedge made of Plexiglas that
could be 17 x 0.589 = 10d8. The effect on the S-scan illustrated is less, but not zero (i.e.6 x 0.589 =
3.sdB).
Wedge-eittenuation compensation for E-scans, where 1D linear array probes are used, could use the
same setup as was used for calculating wedge delays, i.e. using a side drilled hole at a known depth.
But unlike the delay compensations, wedge attenuation considerations assume that the target in the
test material is at the same sound path for all beams. This is required so that the signal amplitude is
not further deteriorated by the effects of divergence and absorption in the test material. By holding the
sound path constant in the test material and comparing the responses to the same target shape, only
the effects of the wedge are causing the change in amplitude.
A radiused block can provide a target of uniform shape and metal-path regardless of the angle used,
and so provides the ideal shape for this function. A recommended target, especially for S-scans, is a
radius similar to that of the 100mm radius of the V1 block or the 25mm or 50mm radius in the V2
block. Use of the radius for S-scan configurations also provides correction for echo transmittance
effects intrinsic in angle variation.
1.49
Echo transmittance effects were noted as the other form of amplitude reduction. This is not considered
with single element systems because the system is only comparing amplitude responses from a single
angle. In an S-scary the operator will want to compare the responses of all angles used, to the
reference. But a single adjustment using a single angle in an S-scan does not provide such a
comparison. This is due to the fact that as the incident beam is increased, there is less pressure
transferred into the test material. At the same time, any returned pulses moving along the path
toward a receiving focal law, provide less pressure at higher angles compared to lower angles.
Krautkramer provided a graph of the effect (Ultrasonic Testing of Materials, Krautkramer &
Krautkramer, Springer Verlag, 1983). The curves are reproduced here in Figure 10-8.
E. i:a,:t:i.if.:.: i:r::.i:, rit-.-j:::iit.:,:!: :j,:. : :..ji,:_,ij:-r1...:1,,r.
Pr:iSi-:e;r: .t ::: ,l',: {,I S: .:..1.,1;j tr:: ,-'l :ali-j {r't,tl
Si;:el it, .i:lll iiar i ,:l .l:al i:.:r'a ,,.,r'ii,la iia:,'!:l
0r(Steel) +
Figure 10-8 Echo transmittance curves for Perspex steel interface (24)
This shows the product of the transmission coefficient in one direction times the transmission
coefficient in the opposite directiory for each angle; and covers both the longitudinal and transverse
modes. E.g. for a transverse mode beam at 40o the echo transmittance indicates that about 28"/" of the
sound pressure emitted is received but this value continues to drop as pulse echo refracted angles are
increased. By the time we get to 70", orly 78% of the pressure returns. This accounts for another 4dB of
loss that the phased array system must compensate for, in order to make the system provide an equal
amplitude response to targets of the same shape and size, at the same metal path.
It may be possible to establish the compensation for wedge and echo transmittance attenuations, one
focal law at a time, but it would not be practical.
Usually, this process can be computerised so that a dynamic assessment of sensitivity adjustment is
calculated by the computer. A dynamic assessment would simply require the operator to move the
probe back and forth over the radius, ensuring that each beam used, peaks on the radius. Wedge
attenuation corrections would then be calculated by the phased array system to ensure that the
amplitude from each target would be adjusted the same amount.
150
Optimising the response from each focal law is best accomplished using a "wizard" that automatically
adjusts the gain to each focal law so the same amplitude is achieved from the same target at the same
sound path. \A/hen the range of angles selected is small, the variation can be kept low and it may be
feasible for the software to interpolate a "best fit" adjustment.
If appropriate compensation cannot be achieved, e.g. if the angular range is so large, that the signal
amplitude cannot effectively be compensated, then the range must be reduced until it is possible to
compensate. This is only likely to occur if the operator elects to make a set of focal laws that attempts
to steer the beam by more than the probe designer has recommended.
The functions of wedge delay determinations, compensations in gain for wedge path length variations
and echo transmittance effects are typically done just prior to the setup for specific focal laws. Having
determined the correct velocities of the wedge and test material and identified the correct delays
required to determine the "zero depth" of the display, it is a simple matter to then enter the required
time base range. Time base range will be based on the cornponent tested and usually identified in the
technique (written instructions) after assessing the best angles to use. There is of course a sweep range
which identifies the range of angles used in an S-scan and that too is identified in the written
instructions, (more on technique development in the next chapter).
Time base range defines the amount of data displayed along each sound path and it will be that region
of time that we must then adjust the sensitivity of the instrument to.
1.0.2 INSPECTION SENSITIVITYTARGETS

As noted earlier in the section addressing compensation for attenuatiory targets used in phased array
(and UT in general) sensitivity determination setups are usually based on simple shapes, such as flat
bottom holes (FBHs), side drilled holes (SDHs) surface notches and infinite reflectors (plate backwall
or a large curved surface such as the 100mm radius of the IIW block).
The notches, FBHs and SDHs all provide options to assess the sensitivity of the beam at various sound
paths. However, the directional reflectivity characteristics of flat surfaces make them poor options for
phased array applications using S-scans. This directivity has two issues of concem:
. Specular reflection
. Echo transmittance
Any flat-surfaced target relies on a beam impinging on it at right angles to the beam axis. If the beam
is not perpendicular to the flat surface of the target, in addition to the losses caused by angle
difference, the reflected beam axis is directed away from the incident beam path.
70,2J, SUBSURFACE TARGETS

Flat bottom holes, subsurface rectangular recesses (made by electro-discharge machining), angled
surface notches and even cylindrical surface notches all suffer from the redirection of the beam by
reflection. The effect of reflectivity on the amplitude response is that a very large amplitude occurs,
but for only a very small band of angles. Figure 10-9 illustrates the effect by modelling an S-scan to
pass over 3 targets in a row. From left to righf the targets are a 3mm high rectangle tilted 45", a 3mm
151
diameter flat bottom hole, tilted at 45" and a 2mm diameter side drilled hole. These are placed in a
block 100mm thick at the 50mm depth point. A 16 elementT.SMHz probe was used with a 16 element
unfocused S-scan sweeping from 45' to 70" in 1" increments. In addition to the single sweep of beams,
the probe was moved in 1mm steps starting with the 45'beam just about to interact with the SDH and
then moving (Ieft) until the 70o beam has just cleared the rectangular target.
A single S-scan frozen in

space does not represent the situation of the limited response that a flat
reflector provides. Figure 10-10 is a so-called C-scan of the entire scan.
2rnrr SDH
Figure L0-9 Series of S-scans over 3 targets
Figure 10-10 C-scan representation
This form of C-scan plots the maximum amplitude from each scan position (horizontal scale) at each
angle (vertical scale). We can see the arcs made by each target. The 3mm rectangle and FBH each have
large amplitude signals (red-blue colours) but that large response is limited to the extent of 5-6' of
angular sweep and 5-6mm of scan position. For the response on the SDH, we see a long uniform
coloured arc. In facf the amplitude from angle to angle for the SDH is within about 1.5d8 of the
average, across all of the angles from 45"-68". This is the concept of the "ideal reflector", i.e. one that
provides a uniform response regardless of the angle of beam incidence.
152
1,0.2.2 SURFACE TARGETS

A favourite target for manual UT inspections (especially on pipe) is the surface notch. Surface notches
are seen in various Codes and Standards as having ay-, square or U-shape. Clearly the V-shape will
suffer the same problems as the rectangular target in that the maximum response will be limited to a
relatively small range of refracted angles in the S-scan and all others will be much smaller. The square
and U-notches have another feature of concern. This relates to the echo transmittance effect. Even the
U-notch relies on the corner effect, so we consider them to be equivalent.
The effect of the surface notch, on the beam angle used to detect if is significant. Using just the 45'
and 60'beams we can plot the difference in amplitudes. Figure 10-11 illustrates a 45o beam and a 60'
beam directed to maximise at a corner. The amplitudes are noted on the A-scaru below the probe
images showing the beam directions.
The A-scan trace for the 45" response is seen at 52ps and is the reference at OdB. The A-scan trace for
the 60" response is seen at 69ps and is 19dB lower! There is a small decrease to be expected with the
extra2Tmrn of sound travel, but this would amount to less t}:.an1dB, if accounting for just attenuation.
Use of notches for phased array sensitivity settings is therefore not recommended when the scan used
is an S-scan.
Figure 10-11 Comparing amplitude responses for 45 and 60 degrees on corner reflectors
Another ideal reflector used as a common target in phased array UT is the radius. This provides a
constant path to the target from the entry point of the beam. The standard blocks for range calibrations
use radii (e.g. the V1, V2 and DC blocks). These can also be used to set sensitivity, in that after
153
:
equalising the responses for wedge path increases and echo transmittance, the response to the radius
is indicating that the amplification is uniform for all the angles at a given range.
Figure 10-12 shows a simple 100mm diameter semi-cylinder block with the 45"-70" angles directed at
the outside surface of the block. The probe is moved backwards, allowing each of the beams to locate
the perpendicular incidence on the outer surface of 50mm radius.
Figure 10-12 Moving an S-scan past the centre of a semi-cylinder block
The maximum resPonse from the radius at each angle can be plotted and we find a slight drop in
amplitude as seen in Figure 10-13. There the horizontal scale represents each angle (45. to 7Oo are
"shots" 1 through 26). The vertical scale is the maximum amplitude of each angle. The amplitude drop
from 45' to 70" of 6dB, is the combination of the echo transmittance and wedge path increase, and is
effectively as predicted, in the discussions on the compensation for attenuation section above.
Figure 10-13 Amplitude plot for a constant steel path from 45o through 20.
Of course the gain required to get a signal to 80% screen height from a 2mm SDH at 50mm depth is
much more than for a 25mm wide radius at a 50mm sound path. But if uniform sensitivity was
L54
r (10): Principles of In r Sensitivit
desired then a series of radii could be used and the responses equalised. To obtain sensitivity that is
comparable to a 2mm SDH, the user of a 50mm radius (focusing cylinder) would need to add
significant gain. Ermoley (ao) gqunfions of target equivalence can be used to indicate the magnitude of
the gain difference.
The calculations can be done using freeware and the output is imaged as Figure 10-14'
- MaleriEl ProFerties-'- r Trensducet f hataleilslics-
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In this calculatiory a 2mm SDH has a response that is 15.3d8 lower than that from a focusing radius
when both are at a distance of 50mm.
Ideal reflectors are not always the sensitivity targets used in a phased array UT inspection. In fact, the
flat bottom hole (FBH) is the primary target in the technique known as "zorral discrimination". Zonal
discrimination is a technique used in mechanised pipeline girth weld inspection. The weld is divided
into vertical intervals and a target is located in a calibration block for each of the zones, on each side of
the we1d. The primary targets are flat bottom holes for all the subsurface zones and small (1mm higtu
5mm long) notches for the surfaces (inside and outside). This requires the phased array probes to be
configured to generate just a single beam for each zone. A phased array probe is placed on either side
of the weld and the beams optimised on their specific zonal target.
Figure 10-15 illustrates the beam paths required to address one side of a 19.5mm ]-bevel weld with 6
subsurface zones (using FBH targets) and two surface zones (root and cap) using notches as targets.
This technique is ideal for high production rates and the phased array apProach is also ideal, in that it
provides the most convenient approach for small bevel angle welds. With bevel angles between 1o and
5o there is no refracted angle that can provide a perpendicular incidence on the bevel (an 89o refracted
shear wave angle is effectively producing only Rayleigh waves). To address this problem, the tandem
technique is used. This has one set of elements being used to transmit the beam while a separate set of
elements is used as the receiving aperture.
155
(10): Princi
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Figure generated using ESBeamTool
Figure 10-L5 Beam paths - one side of a 19.5mm j-bevel weld with 6 subsurface zones
The tandem element approach can also be used for the vertical land that is used in some double
submerged arc welding (DSAW) geometries, where the root is located near the middle of the weld
and the vertical face presents a planar reflector that redirects the traditional pulse echo beam. Figure
10-16 illustrates a DSAW bevel with a pair of S-scans directed at the angled portions and a pair of
tandem beams directed at the root land.
Figure 10-16 Tandem paths for vertical IP in DSAW
10.3 SENSITIVITY TO MISALIG\JED DEFECTS
Discussions of the preferential angles required to produce larger responses from angled beams should
be well known to all UT technicians. Maximising response by orbiting, pivoting and rastering a probe
is normal practice in manual UT using a single element. The operator makes all effort to direct the
beam axis so that it is perpendicular to the largest face of the flaw.
156
If the phased arcay UT operator operated the probe by a similar manual motion, they would have an
even better chance of getting a maximised signal using an S-scar; because, in addition to the manual
movements to optimise the response, the probe is providing a range of angles, from which the
operator can peak the response by moving the probe toward and away from the flaw (effectively
locating the peak in the same way it is done on the semi-cylinder).
In mechanised scanning with phased array probes the probe is fixed in a holder at a specific angle
with respect to the weld and no orbiting and pivoting is possible. This limits the ability to optimise
signal response by locating the best angle for the largest retumed signal.
It might seem that manual scanning is a better option, because the operator can place the probe at a
location and orientation that will get the maximum signal. But many trials have demonstrated that
mechanised scanning is more reliable. Mechanised scanning produces a consistent, repeatable and
recorded inspection. These factors make for a much more reliable test than manual PAUT with
reliance on the operator to record and report results.
Because there is a known dependence on the beam angle relative to the flaw orientatiory the operator
designing the inspection must consider what flaws are most likely to form and design the inspection
pattern accordingly. This usually means that the primary area of concern is the bevel face of a weld. It
is there, that lack of fusion, slag entrapments and even several forms of cracking can occur. To this
end, the operator attempts to direct beams that make a perpendicular incidence on the bevel. When
the material is relatively thin, it may be possible to address the inspection with a single refracted angle
(E-scan), from a single standoff position. As the test material gets thicker, a single standoff may not be
possible and multiple probes or multiple passes of a single probe are required to provide full
coverage. But in many caset there is not sufficient room on the plate to simply increase standoff.
Attempts to provide the coverage needed resort to the S-scan. But with an S-scan there is only one
angle that will produce perpendicular incidence on a single bevel angle. Some tolerance needs to be
allowed since even the welding procedure indicates that a bevel will have a specified angle with
tolerance. A tolerance of +l- 5'is typical of the machining tolerance on many weld bevels. If the same
tolerance is applied to the angles impinging on a bevel there is a reasonable option to provide the
necessary coverage with the allowance for misoriented flaws that are running along the weld axis.
Figure 10-17 illustrates how a simple 30" weld bevel can be inspected with 2 S-scans such that the
incident beams on the bevel are within about +/-5o of perpendicular.
In the upper frame of Figure 70-77, we see that although the S-scan sweeping fuom 45-70" addresses
the fulI volume of the weld, only the lower 213 of the weld have the beams within 5" of the ideal
perpendicular incidence. By adding a second beam-set, with the same angular range but with a
slightly greater standoff of the exit points, the upper region of the weld is also addressed with more
ideal incident angles. The second beam-set is illustrated in the lower frame of Figure 10-17. The weld
has a nominal 30o bevel so the ideal refracted angle is 50o. Markers indicate the range from 55" to 65o
that would be best suited to detect the planar flaws within 5" of the ideal bevel angle.
We have also included other angles in the scanning that are both higher and lower than the ideal. This
not only adds to the volume coverage, but it also addresses the possibility that some of the flaws may
not be aligned with the bevel angle (such as slag and inter-run non fusion).
757
65r
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Iigure generated using ESBeamTool
Figure 10-L7 Addition of a second beam-set
10.4 MANUAL AND AUTO-CALIBRATIONS

With very few exceptions, sensitivity calibrations are made by adjusting the response of a specified
target reflector to "reference amplitude" and then observing and "rnarkir:.g" the amplitude of the same
target at several distances along the time base, over the range that the beam will be used to inspect the
component.
Exceptions include the AVG (DGS) system, the AWS D1.1 system and the Zonal Discrimination
system. The AVG system is based on a series of curves, that are made due to the response that the
ideal "disc-shaped reflector" (DSR) would have compared to the infinite plane reflector. Generating
these curves as overlays on a computer screen is perhaps possible, but to do so for a large collection of
focal laws would make analysis very difficult and time consuming.
The AWS (American Welding Society) has a Code that is used for structural steel fabrication, D1.1.
This Code provides instructions for setting sensitivity using the response from the 1.5mm diameter
hole in the IIW block at the 15mm depth position. After it is set to a specified screen height the
reference gain setting is noted and gain is added over that for scanning. Any flaws that appear are
then peaked and the gain adjusted to bring the indication to the reference level (screen heighQ. The
operator then notes the gain setting and the distance along the time base. The distance along the time
base is then used to calculate an attenuation factor (1 inch is subtracted from the sound path and the
remainder is multiplied by 2). Using a simple subtraction formula an "indication rating" is derived. To
assess 20-30 beams at a time using this method would again be tedious and time consuming.
158
In the zonal discrimination technique, the zones are usually applied to a narrow region in the weld.
The FBH target is located in a calibration block that is used to simulate the geometry of the weld. With
the fixed position of the probe relative to the weld centreline there is only a short distance along the
time base that is being monitored. Typically this would be 3-4mm prior to the fusion line, to about
1mm past the weld centreline. The total distance being monitored is only about 10-12mm in steel. This
makes the point of compensating for attenuation due to distance moot, because the total amplitude
difference over the region monitored will be less than 1dB.
For virtually all other applications, the operator uses a series of targets at increasing distances and
actually marks a line or curve on the screen (or more accurately the software generates a curve). For a
single focal law (beam angle) the A-scan display is used to identifz the amplitudes of the reference
target at increasing distances. The resultant curve is called the Distance Amplifude Correction curve
(DAC). This can be enhanced by a process known as "swept gairr" or "time-corrected-gain" (TCG).
1,0,4,1, CONSTRUCTING A DAC FOR SCANNING REFERENCE SENSITIVITY

The DAC construction is easily represented by indicating the sound path to a series of SDHs and the
associated amplitudes they provide. Figure 10-18 indicates the probe position for four sound paths to
three SDHs. A representation of the relative amplitudes is indicated on the A-scan display showing
how the amplitude from the reference target decreases with increasing distance travelled.
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In spite of the issues with reflectivity changing with angle for surface notches, many codes and
standards still require amplitude corrections using notches. The same approach is used on notches as
is used on SDHs as the operator makes a DAC, usually using, 3 points: the half-skip, full skip and 1.5
skip locations. Figure 10-19 illustrates the three points. Arrows indicate the skip nodes that, as they
pass over the notch at that point account for the points that make up the DAC.
759
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Figure 10-19 DAC using surface notches
1,0.4.2 CONSTRUCTING A TCC FOR SCANNING REFERENCE SENSITIVITY

For most phased array applications, analysis is made using projected scans (B-scans, C-scans, S-scans)
and the A-scan; although the A-scan is used to a lesser extent than in traditional ultrasonics. The
projection scans are assembled using colour palettes, with colour indicating amplitude, therefore a
DAC on an A-scan is not useful for analysis. In order that the operator is able to apply the analysis
techniques to the projection scans, all the signals of a specific colour should relate to amplitudes that
are already corrected for the sound paths travelled. This is accomplished by TCG, whereby, later in
time, the signals are amplified with increasing gain as travel time increases.
TCGs are set by locating the same size target at increasing distances and bringing the signal response
to a constant level. \zVhen completed, a series of SDHs of the same diameter have the same amplitude,
regardless of the distance to the SDH. We can imagine the same starting process as used for the DAC,
but then gain is added to each step along the sound path corresponding to the relative positions of the
SDHs. This is illustrated in Figure 10-20
Figure 10-20 Four points (SDH responses) displayed as DAC (lefQ and TCG (right)
\z\rhenusing a phased array system, the TCG must be applied to every focal law. Although we can
only monitor one A-scan (beam or focal law) at a time, all the focal laws used in a scan must be
adjusted to the same level of sensitivity. Figure 10-21 illustrates a single focal law A-scan (the angle is
indicated in the upper right as 45"). To step through each A-scan for every focal law and build the
760
TCG in each A-scan could perhaps be done; but the process would take a long time. Plus, if any
parameter had to be changed, all the focal laws would need to be recalculated and the TCGs remade.
Figure 10-21 TCG for a phased array focal law
Only for a simple case where the phased array probe is operated with a single focal law, at a single
angle (as might be the case when using the probe as a manual scanning tool), might manual sensitivity
calibration be used for phased array applications.
In nearly all other cases, the preferred option is to generate the TCG using an automatic sensitivity
calibration function. Most phased array systems have this incorporated into the software and specific
steps for each instrument are supplied in the manufacturer's user manual.
One way that the auto-TCG can be constructed, is to configure a gate in a small region of depth that
corresponds to the target being used. Drawing the probe over the block containing the target the
operator adjusts the gain so that no signals safurate and the maximum amplifude responses are
collected from each focal law and plotted. After collection, the software is instructed to equalise the
responses (by amplifier adjustments) to the reference level. Reference level for a TCG construction is
usually between 40% to 80% full screen height. The first point of the TCG is then saved. The gate can
then be moved to the second target (deeper); and the process of scanning over the target, so that all the
focal laws see the target maximum response, is repeated and the responses again equalised and the
TCG point saved.
Probe movements for each point added are indicated in Figure 10-22. For an S-scan using a series of
SDHs, we can see that the displacement of the probe needs to be greater, for greater depths of the
target. Two probe positions are indicated for each TCG target (SDH): where the lowest angle in the S-
scan is just about to interact with the SDH; and the point where the highest angle of the S-scan has
passed that SDH.
767
Any amplitude equalisation must be done over a time base range, that exceeds the longest point in the
sound path required to provide the volume coverage of the tested component. This means that a
sufficient number of targets over the required depths are required to construct the TCG.
iJialldcEr.erl |]rsrraltcmenl Eisptacexrenf
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Figure 10-22 Three point TCG with probe displacements for S-scan
With some software, it is also possible to do this in a single step; where the gate used to identify the
targets at different depths is allowed to jump to the next depth automatically. This useful feature is
mostly limited, to direct paths, to targets that are well spaced along the block. When attempting to do
a fully automatic TCG, if there is a requirement for a skip to obtain deeper TCG points, the automated
system may fail because the sound path to the deeper target, via the skip for a smaller angle, is a
shorter path than the target to the shallower target for the larger angle.
10.5 CALIBRATIONBLOCKS
Sensitivity calibration targets are machined into a wide variety of blocks. Generally targets are
machined into the material to be tested. Ideally it is from the same heat as the component tested, but
sometimes ;'ust the same alloy is adequate. Generally the block is designated by the code or standard
that is used on the project. Except for the AVG and AWS D1.1 approaches, where off-the-shelf
calibration blocks are used, most codes define the size and shape of the target and the user is expected
to insert the target in the material appropriate to the project.
No significant efforts have been made to design or regulate special sensitivity calibration blocks for
phased array applications. Instead, the requirements are still based on the manual UT standards.
Some of the common sensitivity block designs, used on phased array UT projects are identified in the
next section.
162
10.5.1 SELECTION FOR APPLICATION

Table 10.4 Calibration blocks selection
Code Target Comment
EN 1712 3mm SDH For method 1 using amplitude and length
acceptance curves
EN 1712 1mm rectangular notch For method 3 for angles >70" and wall
ttrickness 8-15mm
DNV OF F101 (App D) 2.4mm SDH T<20mm For all UT on forgings material thickness T
3mmn SDH T=20-75mm
6mm SDHT>75mm
ASME Sec. V Art. 4 2.5mm SDH T <25mm For plate welds
3mmnSDHT=25-50mm
5mm SDH T >50 throush 100mm
ASME Sec. V Art. 4 Rectangular notch (8-11% T) For pipe welds of thickness T
DNV oS F101 (App E) FBH and rectangular notches Sizes to be determined by demonstration of
detection probabilitv
The designs of calibration blocks, used for PAUT TCG constructiory are sometimes considerations
made by the user. For some applications, the small 1.2mm diameter SDHs in the NAVSHIPS block
have provided an effective means of a series of holes and increasing depths so the auto-calibrate
function can be used. The NAVSHIPS block is illustrated in Figure 10-23.
Figure 10-23 NAVSHIPS calibration block (38)
ASME blocks are made with a generic layout and although only the SDH is required for TCG
constructiory ASME basic blocks require that the surface notches are also included. Figure \0-24 is a
schematic of the ASME basic calibration block and the SDH diameters will change, based on the
thickness the block is designed for.
763
Chapter (10): Principles of Lrspection Sensitivity
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Figure L0-24 ASME Basic calibration block design
The ASME block design notes that as a minimum, the length is 3 times the thickness. With the use of
phased array probes the comer signals that would be ignored in a manual calibration, could result in
annoying interference signals, during any automated or semi-automated calibration functions.
Pipe weld inspections for ASME (and thin wall 8-15mm in EN 1712) use the rectangular notch as the
target. As with the plate welds (non-piping) there is a suggested generic layout, as indicated by the
schematic in Figure 10-25.
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Figure 10-25 ASME basic piping calibration block
764
:
The note in ASME indicates that the notch depth should be between 8% and 77% of the nominal wall
thickness. With a minimum required length of 25mm, this provides a target that is generally much
wider than the beam. But as with the basic plate calibration block, the targets may be too close to the
edges to allow for a convenient tool for the auto TCG functions.
Pipeline zonal discrimination calibration blocks are produced for each pro;'ect, as "project-specific"
blocks are required. Targets are made in a section of project pipe and laid out symmetrically on either
side of a theoretical weld-axis centreline.
Because the alignment of the flat bottom to the weld bevel is critical, the machining process must be
done with precision. Two options exist to fabricate the targets. Electro-discharge mbchining (EDM)
uses a copper electrode of the appropriate shape and diameter to " spark" the pipe metal to ensure the
flat face of the electrode gets to the theoretical bevel position. The electrode has the advantage that its
path is not significantly deflected, even when required to cut through long distances in the metal. The
other option is to use a flat end-mill cutter. This is essentially a drill that is made to stop at the correct
positiory such that the flat end is aligned with the bevel. But end-mill cutter bits have flat ends, so
must be angled to ensure that the axis of the bit is perpendicular to the bevel face. To avoid long
cutting paths that risk deflection (or worse yet, breaking) of the bit, the calibration block is often made
in aZed shape to provide flat surfaces within 20mm of the weld centreline.
Examples of the design for the targets are seen in Figure 1.0-26. The upper drawing is the EDM
versiorL where we target for Fill 1 and Fill 3. The Fill 1 target has a length of 23.4mm from the surface
to the bevel and although the bevel is at 5o, the axis of the electrode is seen to be 30o off the surface.
This implies that the electrode was prepared with a bevelled shape to ensure that the target face is at
the 5o ang1e. The lower drawing in Figure 1,0-26 is designed for an end-mill cutter. The plate ends
20mm from the theoretical weld centreline and the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the weld bevel
angle. The cut is 24.2rnrn from the touch-point on the side of the plate, but without that section of plate
being removed, the cut would need to travel 35mm from the top surface of the pipe to the bevel.
The zonal discrimination calibration block has a series of targets for each side of the weld and is
mounted in a section of pipe (called the dummy) so that the phased array scanner can move the
probes past each of the targets for static and dynamic calibrations. Figure 10-27 shows a calibration
block mounted in the section of pipe. The outline of the block is highlighted with a white line.
1.65
3*rsO
Ugslr:en Fitl Targets 1 and !
. t5.t' I{.r,4 ffinl
Figure L0-25 FBH fabrication for zonal discrimination sensitivity
Figure 10-27 Calibration block for zonal discrimination sensitivity
166
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Figure 10-26 FBH fabrication for zonal discrimination sensitivity
Figure 10-27 Calibration block for zonal discrimination sensitivity
1.66
The mounting of the block requires that the centreline of the calibration block is aligned with the girth
of the pipe, so that the scanner moves the probes with a constant distance to the centreline for the
entire length of the scan. Further precautions are taken to ensure that the edges of the calibration block
are well matched to the edges of the section of pipe that it is mounted in. This helps to prevent the
probes being caught and torn from the scanner.
10.5.2 FLAT AND CURVED SURFACES

With the exception of the zonal discrimination technique, it can be seen that all of the calibration
blocks identified, had flat surfaces. For many butt welds, the use of standard calibration blocks with
flat surfaces and flat wedges is adequate. However, there are conditions where it is not practical to do
so. As well, some codes actually regulate the amount of surface curvature that may be tolerated,
before the wedge must be adapted to the curvafure of the surface on which the test is occurring.
Pipe girth welds are nothing more than butt welds joining cylinders. But as the diameter of the
cylinder gets smaller, the simple weld inspection takes on added dimensions of complexity. Most
obvious of the changes to occur, is the contact area between the pipe and probe. A standard phased
array wedge is about 30mm wide. On a large diameter pipe or vessel, the gap formed is small and
negligible. As the diameter decreases, the gap between the wedge and test surface increases. The
conditions for a surface 1000mm, 500mm and 250mm diameter are illustrated in Figure 10-28. DOC
denotes diameter of curvature.
Figure 10-28 Comparing gaps under a 30mm wide wedge
767
ter (10): Principles of Inspection Sensitivity
Figure 10-28 indicates a barely perceptible gap of 0.2mm for a 30mm wide wedge on a 1m diameter
test surface. That is about the same as 2 pieces of paper pressed together. The same wedge on a
500mm diameter surface sees a 0.45mm gap; 500mm is about equal to 20 inches. It is at that minimum
diameter, that the ASME code allows a flat calibration block to be used to set sensitivity."At the
250mm diameter (approximately 10 inches), the gap approaches 1mm (0.9mm) and for a 2" NPS pipe
(diameter 60.3mm) the gap would be 3.5mm.
A gap under the wedge is problematic, in that the couplant becomes more difficult to maintain as the
gap increases.
The EN/ISO 17640 instructs tha! for gaps greater than 0.5mm, the probe wedge is to be contoured.
Sadly, ASME makes no rules for contoured wedges.
Maintaining couplant under the wedge is just one of the issues that can occur with curvature. Further
complications result when trying to carry out standard probe parameter checks. UT codes around the
world have a common list of required assessments and also stipulate the calibration blocks that are to
be used for these assessments. All these measurements seem to be based on the assumption that the
probe will be used on a flat surface. Verification of beam angle, exit poin! assessments of beam spread
and even temporal resolutiory are described in the codes with the associated calibration blocks,
including the IIW block, the V2 block and the IOW block: all have flat surfaces. But upon inspecting a
pipe girth weld, none of the required measurements can be made when the probes used are fitted with
contoured wedges.
\rVhen the weld inspection is to be made with a phased array probe, some of the "traditional"
assessments cannot be made. E.g. there is no exit point marked on the phased array wedge against
which to compare a measurement. Checking the refracted angle against the "indicated angle" marked
on the wedge is also without meaning, since almost any angle can be generated. \zVhy there is concern
for accurate angle and exit point determination is not explained in the Codes. Inferred is the need to
ensure accurate plotting of flaws in three-dimensional space. Techniques used with phased array
probes tend to overcome the absence of exit point and beam angle assessmenf by use of the S-scan (or
angle-corrected B-scan or End-View) display. The coordinates (depth and offset from a probe
reference) can be displayed on the monitor and these values compared to the targets' known depths
and physical offset relative to the probe.
To overcome any plotting inaccuracies, software can be included in the system to correct for velocity
and wedge path variations. Typically a side drilled hole (SDH) is used. Having calibrated for the
velocity of the component on a separate target (usually the radius of the IIW block or V2 block), the
SDH provides a known distance in the material, so the delays can be calculated based on the
maximum response from each focal law (angle).
Standard calibration blocks with curved surfaces are rare (but can be made). Therefore, setting up the
display (calibrating for velocity, wedge delay and sensitivity) is problematic when using a curved
phased array wedge for pipe weld inspections. Some operators have decided it would be a good idea
to simply set the wedge-delays and TCG (sensitivity compensation) using a flat wedge and then
remove the flat wedge and replace it with the wedge, curved to match the test surface of the pipe that
1,68
is to be inspected. The process is rationalised by using a wedge having the same material and wedge
path as the centre of the beam for the flat wedge.
Maintaining the wedge path along the centre ray is deemed the only criteria necessary to rationalise
this practice. The equal wedge paths are indicated in Figure 10-29.
Figure L0-29 Maintaining wedge path for curved wedges.
Essentially, the curved wedge is made by using a thicker section of wedge material and milling the
curvature back to where the apex has the same distance to the artay, as if the probe had been flat.
Comparing the ray paths to an SDH for a flat and curved wedge (with the same wedge path for the
centre ray), we see that the arrival time to the targets should be the same. But this applies to the centre
ray only! The two conditions are illustrated in Figure 10-30
Figure 10-30 Centre rays arriving at the SDH at the same time
In Figure 10-30, note the lateral refraction of the beams as they enter the curved surface and scatter
away from the return path to the probe, after they strike the SDH. The end result is the same arrival
time for a target of the same depth, but reduced amplitude is expected.
As noted, use of the notch as a sensitivity calibration target is a poor practice in UT, but for phased
array S-scans it is obviously inappropriate. EN/ISO 77640 uses a rectangular notch only for thicknesses
in the range from 8mm to <15mm and then only for the 70' probe angle. In nearly all cases where a
DAC is used, the normal target is an SDH (e.g. EN/ISO 17640, DNV OS F101, Norsok M-601 and even
ASME Sec. V for plate). Only in ASME Sec. V when the calibration is made for pipe welds, are the ID
769
and OD notch used in a section of pipe. Perhaps this was simply a convenient means of fabrication
and to accommodate the curvature of the pipe. A demonstration of the differences can be modelled.
To compare the sensitivities achieved from SDHs and notches, we model a simple scan across"2 SDHs
and 2 notches. The holes are 3mm in diameter and the notches 10% of wall (a 25mm thick plate is
used, so the notches are 2.5mm high). The targets and scan path are illustrated in Figure 10-31. A
12mm diameter 5 MHz probe on a 45" refracting wedge is modelled
Scan pnth
Figure 10-3L Comparing notch response to SDH's for a 45o mono-element probe
for
Scan results provide a series of peaks as each target is passed. These are used to construct a DAC
the SDHs and notch targets. The 10dB difference between maximum responses from the SDH and
notch is perhaps the first and most noticeable difference between these two common sensitivity
setting methods. Converting the dB responses to percentage of screen heights, we can construct an
approximation of what the DAC might look like. This is done in Figure 10-32 where the SDH DAC is
normalised to the notch response.
DAC for Notch and SDH
100
80
40
20
Figure 10-32 DAC curves for notch and SDH
In phased array setups using S-scans, the effect of angle dependence and target type for setting
sensitivity is perhaps more obvious than when mono-element probes are used. To illustrate how
extreme the effect is, a series of S-scans is modelled using a scan over a 2rnm notch and a 3mm
diameter SDH. The probe is a 5 MHz, 16-element linear-array with an active aperture of 9.5mm and a
passive aperture of 10mm. All elements are used to make an S-scan from 45' to 65o in 2o increments.
170
:
The scan is configured to pass over the notch and then the SDH, in scan increments of 2mm steps,
from left to right.
Figure 10-33 illustrates the probe positions for the direct interaction points of the beam at the edges of
the angular sweeps for the two targets. The first point of interaction with the notch is obtained for the
65'beam at 8mm into the scan; and the last direct interaction with the notch occurs at scan position
32mm, where the 45" beam detects the notch. As the scan continues towards the SDH, the 65" beam
makes the direct path at scan position62rrlr-rr; and the last beam to make a direct path to the SDH is the
45o at scan position 90mm. The echo dynamic curves are placed above the S-scan images. Vertical
cursors on the curves are used to indicate the scan positions, where the target interactions with the
beams start and end. Horizontal cursors indicate the maximum and minimum amplitudes associated
with the responses from the targets. Echo dynamic curves are made from the maximum response at
each position without regard for the angle that accounts for that peak amplitude.
In this example using a phased array S-scan, we illustrate that when we use a range of angles instead
of just a fixed angle, there is a small steady increase in sensitivity for the SDH as the angles get lower
(i.e. moving from 65' to 45'). However, for the notch, the 65" beam is a point from which the
amplitude actually drops to a low point around 60", then rises sharply to a maximum at 55o and drops
only slightly from that maximum to 45o.
Whereas for the SDH, the main contributing factor to the gradual loss of amplitude in an S-scan is
attenuation due to distance and echo transmittance effects (i.e. reduction of coupled pressure with
increasing angle), the notch suffers from both of these losses plus mode conversion losses and a
redirection of the beam away from the receiver.
The two-step method for calibrating a phased array S-scan for curved surface (pipe) inspections has
some merif but requires a systematic approach. The two steps involve:
7. Wedge-delay and sensitivity compensation (TCG and Angle-Corrected Gain) are made using
a flat wedge on suitable targets in a standard flat surface calibration block.
2. The flat wedge is then removed and replaced with a curved wedge having the same centre ray
sound path in the wedge materiaf as was made in the flat wedge.
171
;--,
7
t
Figure 10-33 S-scan responses from 2mm notch (upper) and 3mm SDH (lower)
172
At this point it can be demonstrated that the sensitivity to the SDH is significantly lower in the curved
wedge than it was for the flat. Figure 10-34 compares the composite responses of an S-scan, scanned
over a 1.6mm diameter SDH in a "f7at" setup to the response on the same diameter and same depth
SDH in a block with a curved surface (60.3mm diameter equal to a 2 inch NPS pipe). In the example a
5-6dB difference exists between the flat and curved conditions.
Figure 10-34 Composite end-views of SDH: flat (left) and curved (right) entry surfaces
The blocks used to make the scans for Figure 10-34 were made for a quick and simple check on
sensitivity for a specific project. But the principles behind the design are useful to examine the effects
of surface curvature. Figure 10-35 shows blocks as "transparent solids" with 1.6mm SDH highlighted
in red.
Figure L0-35 Calibration blocks - flat surface (left), 60.3mm curved surface (right)
1,73
Responses from the SDH were compared in a CIVA simulated model for the 2 blocks, using an S-scan
sweeping from 45"-70o. The amplitude drop, relative to the maximum, was plotted for each angle for
both the flat and curved blocks. The plot of the relative amplitudes is seen in Figure 10-36.
Amplitude change per angle
-4
!_o
-8
10
-72
ancle (")
Figure 10-35 Comparing amplitude drops for the same SDH for flat and curved surfaces
The response for the 1.6mm diameter SDH drops 10.5d8 from its peak at 45o to the minimum at 70o.
This is comparable to the TCG and ACG gain added to the scan used to generate Figure 10-34. The dB
difference between the same set of angles, for the same diameter target and at the same depth is
within 1dB for nearly all angles. This modelled observation validates the observed uniformity seen in
Figure 10-34 where the amplitude of the SDH, when compensated with TCG and ACG, resulted in a
uniform reduction at all angles (i.e. 5-6dB were added to the image on the right side of Figure 10-34 to
bring the responses to the same uniform level seen from the flat surface on the left).
Having modelled and verified by scanning, that a close relationship exists between the amplitude
responses, from angle to angle over the S-scan angular rarrge, further modelling was run, comparing
the absolute values of amplitude for the flat plate and 60.3mm diameter surfaces and extending the
model to examine what would happen if the surface diameter was increased. Figure 10-37 compares
the curves for four conditions.
G Flat
I 20" NPS (508mm diameter)
I 6'NPS (168mm diffieter)
I 2" NPS (60.3mm diameter)
Figure 10-37 Comparing Echo dyrramic C-scans for SDH in plate and curved surfaces
774
For the angles from about 45"-50" where little or no extra gain is added in the ACG and TCG process,
the graph shows good correlation between the amplitudes observed for the responses from the flat
and 60.3mm diameter surfaces.
This modelled experiment suggests that calibrating on a flat surface, then replacing a flat wedge with
a curved one (with matching centre path length) is a feasible option to use for contoured wedges on
contoured calibration blocks. However, a means of adding the appropriate extra gain due to the lateral
refraction upon entry is necessary.
By compensating for all of the variables of a phased array probe (velocity, wedge delay, as well as
angular and time of flight sensitivity) the system can be operated in a far more user iriendly manner.
As a result, the operator will be able to use and interpret the system far more easily than without these
compensations. This reduces the probability of operator error, increases the speed of operation and
analysis, and improves the visual rendering capabilities of the phased array system.
1.75
Chapter (11): Phased Array Technique Development
CHAPTER (11): PHASED ARRAY TECHNIQUE

DEVETOPMENT
Having addressed the fundamentals of PAUT and considered the basics of setup (for equipment and
sensitivity), the student should now feel comfortable preparing the equipment for inspection. At this
time, the student should now be ready to consider how PAUT is applied to various products.
Document aspects of PAUT are a separate topig but one of the items documented is the technique
used. Essentialty, the technique development involves assembling all the parameters of the
instrument/system and test piece that are required to inspect the specific component (e.g. the steeples
in a turbine rotor disc) or generic configuration (e.9. a butt weld in any 25mm thick plate). \rVhen
confronted by an inspection problem, the operator usually tries to consider the most likely flaw types
to occur in the test piece. Or there may be a specific failure mechanism, so a very narrow scope of
inspection is required.
Weld inspection is perhaps the most common application of PAUT and a generic inspection would be
looking for flaws oriented parallel to the weld centreline. Flaws oriented transverse to the weld axis
can occur, but are generally considered to be less common. In fact, some Codes indicate that the use of
a transverse scan is not normally a necessity, but something arranged, if deemed a risk. Wording, such
as in the Code DNV OS F101 for automated UT on girth welds, is used to identify the special
condition if required (from Appendix E of OS F101) L06 "The ultrasonic system shall incorporate facilities
for detection of transaerse defects, when it is clearly identified that the weld process, parent material, application
and enoironmental condition may increase the risk for transaersal type flaws".
For most weld inspections this means that efforts are concentrated on providing effective beam
coverage of the weld volume and heat affected zone (HAZ) for flaws such as lack of fusion,
incomplete penetratiory slag, porosity and centreline cracking. Transverse flaws are generally rare in
most welding processes; however, if there is a requirement for their detectiory then options such as
matrix arrays with beam skewing capabilities and multiple probe configurations or multiple pass
techniques, with probes skewed to direct the beams essentially parallel to the weld axis, can be added.
An operator, preparing for an inspection using phased atay equipment, considers the essential
parameters in much the same way as for a single element manual scan. Each of the parameters has an
equivalent in manual UT scanning (see Table 11.1).
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:
'able 11.1 Essential parameters to consider in t

Parameter Phased Array Sinqle Element
Angles Single or a range of angles is Only one angle per probe
available
Apertures Variable in Active direction A single probe size is selected
fixed in passive
Frequencies A single frequenry per A single frequenry per probe
probe
Display S-scan/E-scan (others) Only A-scan unless mechanised (but never S-scan)
Manual or May be either May be either
Mechanised
Part Limitations and Limitations and obstructions to consider
geometry and obstructions to consider
material Grain structure effects Grain structure effects
Surfaces Surface conditions and Surface conditions and surface access
surface access
Couplant Brand or type (immersion?) Brand or type (immersion?)
Instrument Simple or complex (just Single channel, but may require special features if
make linear arrays or is a 2D addressing a custom probe (e.g. very high or low
matrix required) frequency pulser and receiver aspects)
Any timing or voltage
limitations?
Scan-plan Direction and extent of Direction and extent of scanning
scanning and scan patterns
that can be used
Focusing Plane, and distance of focal A single point or line is possible
reqion
Data Generally require full Generally rely on operator recording
recording waveform storage
Note that when designing a PAUT technique the ability to focus a beam should be something used for
only very limited applications. Except for the zonal discrimination technique, welds are rarely
inspected using focused beams. For most weld inspection techniques the menu option for focus
distance should be entered using a relatively large value (e.g. 500mm) to ensure that the calculated
"focal point" is well into the far field.
When a special scan is made requiring the ability of a PAUT system to focus on a region of interest
several options of focusing are available. These can be defined based on the plane the focusing is
arranged. For narrow-gap welds a vertical projection plane might be considered. For concerns for
flaws on the opposite surface focusing might be arranged along a plane at the true depth. A beam that
focuses at a constant sound path would be considered to be focused at a specified "half-path"
distance. This is the sort of focusing that a mono-element probe would provide (i.e. a single distance
178
ter (11): Phased Array T,
along the sound beam). Or it may be possible to configure a plane of focusing at some specific angle.
These various options for focusing in a plane are illustrated in the Figure 11-1.
Figure 11-L Types of focal configurations for linear array probes
179
11.1 MANUAL OR AUTOMATED APPLICATION OF PAUT

1,1,.1,.1 MANUAL PAUTCONFIGURATIONS
A phased array probe can be configured to have a single focal law (one angle), and then it is easily
used, as might be any single-element probe used in manual UT, where the operator simply watches
the A-scan display. This may be useful in some cases when a project requires a "traditional"'inanual
IJT assessment.
Scanning techniques can be developed to use the phased array probe in a hand-held, manually
operated raster fashion with a sectorial scan. Therl of course, the operator would monitor the S-scan
and use a display that has a top and bottom of test surface indicated on the screen, so as to assist in
locating the origins of signals. Although E-scans could be used with manual raster scanning, it would
seem to be redundant. It is more likely that the S-scan would be used with manual raster operation of
the phased array probe.
Figure 11-2 illustrates an S-scan display with adjustable markers that can be used to indicate the
bottom and top of the test piece. With a scale in mm that indicates a distance from the probe, the
operator can estimate the depth and approximate position of the source of the signal to make a
judgement as to its origin.
Figure Ll-2Manual scanning using an S-scan to locate indications
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1,1,.1,.2 AUTOMATED APPLICATIONS OF PAUT

Although it is possible to perform phased array weld inspections using the manual raster motion
typical of single element techniques, the greatest advantages of phased array weld inspection"are had
when using various degrees of mechanisation.
Mechanisation of weld inspections need not be as complex as two or three axes of motion. control
using motorised actuation. The simplest form of mechanisation would involve connecting an encoder
to the phased array probe and moving it along the weld by hand. This simple "line scan" as it is
called, has proven to be the most popular option for phased array weld inspections. Even this simple
option of a line scan has its degrees of enhancement. Standoff control from a weld wlien the weld cap
is not removed, is sometimes adequate with just the operator sliding the probe as close to the weld as
possible. The variations in standoff that result could be relatively small, of the order of 2-3mm. But
this can be improved upon, using a straight-edge guide. Magnetic strips work well when inspecting
steel components.
Most Standards require that inspection be carried out from both sides of the weld (when possible).
\Alhen using a single phased array probe, this requires two scans. However, some phased array
systems can be arranged to address two phased array probes simultaneously. The phased array
instrument must then be configured to collect the data with suitable parameter inputs to ensure that
the flaws located are rotated correctly (i.e. skew is 180' different between the two probes). Single and
dual phased array mounting with encoders is illustrated in Figure 11-3.
Single probe
Carriage
Figure 11-3 Single and dual probe mountings with encoders attached
\rVhen used with a guide strip (as in Figure

11-4) the operator has good control on the standoff; and
flaw positioning accuracy is significantly improved. Having a solid guide strip to move against also
tends to improve the coupling, prevent stuttering motion (which can cause missing data due to
excessive speed) and generally speeds up the entire data collection process by avoiding re-scans due
to missed data and poor coupling.
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:
Guide str p helc ln

place wdh a magnel
Figure 1L-4 Mechanised scanning with a guide strip held in place with a magnet
Motorised motion control with solid mountings can add a further degree of mechanisation to the
process. Where high production inspection of a uniformly shaped part is required, (such as pipe girth
welds), positioning rings can be used to facilitate rapid mounting and dismounting of the scanning
apparatus. The scanning apparatus can be a simple, single or double probe holder, or may be
equipped to hold several phased array probes in a single fixture for more complex scanning. (See
Figure 11-5)
Small diameter 2 PA probes Large diameter multi-probe pipe scanner
Figure 11-5 Motorised phased array scanners
In Figure 11-5, the image on the left has a quick-connect clam fixture, that the carriage with probes,
motor and encoder attach to, for small diameter pipe (typically <12" diameter). On the right in Figure
11-5 is the underside of a system designed for high production pipeline inspections. The drive wheels
seen at the bottom of the image connect to a steel band that is clamped in place at the weld. It is often
the same band that is used by the automatic welding system to make the weld being inspected. The
image shows 2 phased array probes and 4 single element probes (used in T-R mode for transverse
flaw detection) plus a thermal sensor (top left) designed to monitor wedge temperature.
782
11.2 COVIPONENT INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
Phased array ultrasonic systems have a wide variety of applications in NDT. Inspection categories can
be divided into form or industrial sectors. For example, PAUT has found niches in the railroad,
aerospace and power generation industrial sectors. So too, we can discuss how PAUT is used on
castings, forgings and welds. Some examples of component form varying the approach. can be
considered.
11.2.1 RAIL
Railroad components inspected by UT include the track on which the rolling stock moves, and also
includes components of the rolling stock such as the wheels and axles. (See Figure 11-6)
pDsitiDn transmitEr DE-Rad
phased army-^
pmhes
brake dist(
Figure 1,L-6 PAUT on railroad rolling stock axles (az)
11.2.2 AEROSPACE
Aircraft components (especially
military) are subjected to high
stresses duringflight and landings.
Rivet joints can be subjected to
corrosive attack as well as high
stresses. Phased array UT has been
used to assess these components
for wear. Figure 11-7 illustrates a
carbon fibre composite spar being
inspected with a phased affay
probe with integrated beam-
former electronics.
Figure ll-7 PAUT inspection of a carbon fibre composite spar (+s)
183
1.7,2,3 POWER GENERATION

Fossil fuel, nuclear and even wind-driven generation of electricity all have components that are tested
using PAUT, both prior to assembly and as a matter of periodic inspections to assess fer wear.
Generator components (rotor shafts, turbine disks and turbine blades), boiler tubes and pressure
vessel welds are commonly tested in the power generation field. Inspection of the steeple section on a
turbine disc is illustrated in Figure 11-8.
Figure 1L-8 PAUT on steeple of turbine di5s (:t)
11.3 COMPONENT FORM

Another way of considering PAUT applications is to look at the form of the product.
11.3.1 CASTINGS
Casting is a primary process. It may be used in many cases as the final shape, if dimensional control is
not strict. Generally, the surface is poor and ultrasonic inspections in general are not useful to detect
the sort of flaws that occur (flaws like shrinkage and small pores provide weak signals that are
difficult to interpret). There is a notable exception in the casting process called the "lost-wax method"
or investment casting. This leaves a surface finish that requires little or no added processing. It can be
used for a variety of components in several industrial sectors; inlet-outlet valves on nuclear
components, rotors on automobile turbochargers, turbine blades that have complex shapes, or
airplane parts that have to withstand high temperatures.
11.3.2 FORGINGS
Forgings and extruding parts usually start with a raw form that was cast. A billet or cylindrical casting
is then pounded or extruded into a shape. Flaws that existed in the casting will then be flattened and
elongated and new flaws can be introduced due to problems in the forging or extruding process. At
this stage in the process, detection of relatively large defects is an essentially simple matter for
ultrasonic inspections. Checking castings ultrasonically at this stage reduces breakage during further
processing, reduces the probability of inherent defects in smaller parts made from forgings, and limits
the amount of down time caused by these failures.
1.84
:
(11): Phased Arcay Technique Develo
11.3.3 PLATE
plate is a special form of forging. The raw form starts as a billet or bloom (square or rectangular slabs
anywhere from 50 to 00mm per side). The raw form is pressed between
rollers to reduce the
directions increase (like rolling out
dimension in one direction. As a result, the dimensions in the other
a pizzacrust). As with forgings, flaws that existed in the casting
will then be flattened and elongated
However, as the part
and new flaws can be introduced due to problems in the rolling Plocess.
d.ecreases in size (in one dimension), it becomes increasingly straightforward to detect the defects
contained within the plate using ultrasonics'
\7.3.4 WELDING
Plates, forgings and castings may require joining to complete the
final form' Fusion welding melts the
to join the sections of
parent meial and *ay udJ *orl *"tul, in the form of consumable electrodes,
and some (like cracking)
castings, forgings and plates. Flaws are introduced from the welding Process
can occur well away from the weld. The nature and position of flaws in
welding is as varied as are the
numbers of welding processes. However, weld inspection is usually the most
well-known form of
defects caused by the
ultrasonic inspectiory and as a result many techniques exist for detecting the
joining process.
11,.4 FLAW TYPES

are to be sought'
Another option to consider when designing a technique for PAUT is the flaws that
Welds (ERW) in
For example, not all pipe welds contain the same type of flaw. Electric Resistance
to detect them will
pipe-long seams, contain flaws that are unique to the process, so the methods used
welding used in the DSAW of long
be different than the flaw types associated with submerged arc
seams on other PiPes.
primary processes (castings) tend to have volumetric flaws (although hot tears would be considered
planar). Entrapments of gas or slag or sand, segregation of alloys and the formation
of spongiform
generally omnidirectional scatterers of
,hrinkug" are characterisiic of many castings. Such flaws are
technique will
incident sound, so they create weak echo signals. Therefore, for most casting wotk, the
apply to both
need to consider the slgnificant limitations of ultrasonic testing (the same limitations
mono-element and phased array UT)'
For forgings and wrought (extruded) products, the flaws tend to be aligned in the direction
being
compressed'
worked.; and what were volumetric inclusions in the primary form are now flattened
and
advised to know the forming process so as to arrange
The operator designing the technique would be
the beam(s) to be perpendicular to the major axes of these flaws.
welding) and
Similarly, each welding Process can have unique flaw types. GTAW (gas tungsten arc
welds,
GMAW (gas metal arc welding) do not use a flux in the welding Process. Therefore for these
gap bevels with
real slag inclusions do not occur. GMAW welds are usually associated with narrow
small bevel angles requiring tandem beam paths to detect non fusion. The welding Process called
friction stir welding, ,pin, around agitator head along the seam where 2 plates are pressed together'
185
No flux is introduced but the spinning of the heated (melted) metal results in flaws at any orientation.
This makes the use of a matrix array advisable, so as to direct the beam in two planes.
Service flaws occur after a component has been fabricated and used. Corrosion, erosion and"fatigue
cracking are forms of flaws commonly seen due to service wear. The operator designing a PAUT
technique should be aware of the environment in which the component was used in order to design a
technique that is best suited to detecting the most likely flaws. Figure 11-9 illustrates a phased array
probe in a scanner designed to scan around the outer edges of a flange to flange corurectiory in a pipe
product line. On the right is an image made in a polar view indicating that the sealing flange face has
been corroded back from the original inside surface of the flange
(a) Phased array probe on a flange to '1Ywzffi=<\
flange connection
(b) Polar B-scan indicating corroded seal face
Figure 11-9 Flange to flange phased array scanning
It must be noted that no technique will find all flaws, all the time! In facf no single NDT method can
be used to provide 1007o assurance of detecting all flaws. Each method has its advantages and
disadvantages and the best that can be done is to identify MOST flaws that MIGHT be considered
critical.
To some extent the techniques developed will need to follow instructions andlor requirements
stipulated in Codes, Standard or company specifications. The technique is to conform to the
overriding document: there may, however, be some aspects of the technique that the operator has no
control over.
186
11.5 CONTACT OR IMMERSION

1.1.5.1 IMMERSION
Another optiory that the technique designer has, is whether or not to develop the inspection for
contact or immersion application PAUT. Small volume, irregular parts or components that are
assembled or are on site, would not be considered for immersion testing. Parts with a syminetrical
shape that are relatively small may be suitable candidates for immersion testing.
Immersion testing should be defined. Immersion testing is achieved when the part and probe are
immersed under water. This has the advantage of maintaining uniform coupling and allows for
relatively simple mechanisation.
Shafts and round bar-stock are easily mounted on roller supports that can rotate the part directly
under a probe that is advanced along the length of the part.
Flanges and short tubular shapes lend themselves to inspections where the part is rotated on a
turntable, as the beam is indexed across the flange surface or upwards along the length, from either
the inside or outside surface.
A special immersion case occurs, when the probes can be placed in a fixture under water, while the
part is moved past the beams. Figure 11-10 illustrates a tube inspection system where the tube enters a
small opening in a "stuffing box" filled with water. Inside the bor; four phased array probes are used
to provide multi-angle inspections for flaws and to determine wall thickness. The tube need not be
spun as would be the case where single element probes are used.
Figure 11-L0 Phased array UT tube inspection using a stuffing box (+a)
In additiory bubblers, water columns and other special immersion probes also use the same
advantages of laboratory immersion testing, but with the added advantage of being portable.
1.87
1.7.5.2 CONTACT
Phased array probes are designed with the intended use in mind. Contact probes can be made with a
hard wear-face to be used in direct contact with the test piece (with a thin film of couplant), or can be
designed to mount a plastic delay line or refracting wedge. If it is intended that a delay line or
refracting wedge be used with the phased array probe, it is NOT advisable to use it in direct contact
with a test specimen! Separate packaging is required for immersion applications. The elemehts and
cabling are suitably sealed to prevent water ingress.
1,1,.6 SCAN-PLAN AND ESSENTIAL PARAMETER DETAILS .
A requirement of nearly all national or international Standards is the inclusion of a description of the
inspection volume coverage of the test piece. This is variously called the "scan-plan", the scanning
technique, or the procedure, depending on the terminology used in the specific industrial venue. The
"technique" therefore is more of a documentation item. The description of a technique development in
this section is not intended to address the documentation aspect of a technique. Instead, we will give
consideration to concepts required to design the inspection methodotogy that might be most suitable
for the part to be inspected and the most likely flaws to be detected.
After being presented with the component to be tested, the operator designing the technique considers
the equipment, best suited to meet the inspection requirements and then assesses the part for methods
to introduce the beams necessary to provide the detecfion of suspect flaws.
The process can be grouped into two components; volume coverage and instrument settings (essential
parameters).
11.6.1 VOLUME COVERAGE AND ANGLE DETAILS

Given a part of a particular material (or materials), the best way for the technique designer to
approach the problem of inspection is to identify where the beam must be directed and what access is
available on which to place the probe (or surface for beam entry if using immersion).
For a simple geometric shape, it was adequate to use pencil and paper and drafting tools when a
single angle was used. However, with the complexity of three dimensional issues when addressing
nozzles and the many possible skip options when dealing with the sweep of angles available with S-
scans/ many users have found it convenient to develop techniques using computer assisted drawings.
Several solutions have been developed by different users.
' Spread-sheet programmes have long been able to generate graphics-based line and curve
equations.
' Simple ray tracing programmes allow lines representing the centre of beams to be drawn on a
basic computer-drawn graphic of the test piece. Some enhancement to these progranunes
provides information about the beam, such as beam spread, near zones and the ability to
represent multiple probes and beams.
188
. Complex ray tracing programmes have been developed that can be used to configure the
entire probe/wedge setup and duplicate beam paths in CAD (computer assisted drafting)
images of components in 3D. They can provide computations of the signal characteristics from
interactions with flaws that can also be modelled in the software.
. Finite element modelling is perhaps the most complex approach. In addition to considering
the characteristics of the transmitted and received impulses, finite element computations use a
"mesh-strucfure" to calculate all aspects of the wave mechanics of the pulse as it moves
through the material. This sort of computation is usually so time-consuming that the average
operator has little use for it, when designing a technique to address volume co.verage of a part.
A significant advantage of the first three options is the ability to export details of the elements used
and angles to be generated. With the proper computer protocols, the information can be sent to the
phased array instrument and converted into the focal laws that provide the specific delay timings to
the elements used.
The intent of all these software options is to provide a visualisation of the beams generated by the
phased array system. Genericall!, we consider this "image" a scan-plan. Typically, the scan-plan
would be incorporated into the technique document.
Examples of the options are indicated in the following paragraphs.
In order to streamline the process of

zonal discrimination calibrations for
girth weld inspections, a modelling
tool with a firmware feedback was
developed using a spread-sheet
format. The girth weld inspection
software was designed to allow the
operator to design the weld by
entering the appropriate values to
define the bevel geometry, including
defining the number of zones
desired. This displays a table of focal
law parameters and a graphic
representation of the centre of beam
rays is provided, indicating where
the beam is directed and focused.
(See Figure 11-11)
Figure 11-11 Spreadsheet-based beam modelling
189
S-scan inspections of simple butt welds can often be done using a single probe standoff. However, in
order for each volume region to have at least two sound beams, at different angles, pass througtL
usually requires at least two sets of S-scans and a probe with sufficient elements that can provide
starting elements in the S scan focal laws that are sufficiently spaced. Optimisation can be made using
a very simple ray-trace model indicating the weld bevel with weld cap allowance, heat affected zone
and probe/wedge di mensions.
The upper image in Figure

11-12 indicates a 50mm thick Hatching shows near field extent
plate with a pair of phased

array probes on either side,
each with two sets of S scans
(45"-70"). As indicated in the
lower image, a single smaller
PA probe could not provide
the standoff coverage to Figures generated using ESBeamTool
achieve the necessary
volume and angle coverage
(and with a single small
probe a total of at least four
passes would be required).
Figure 11-12 Simple Ray Trace Beam Modelling
More complex ray tracing

programmes allow us to
place a probe on a 3D CAD
image and consider how the
rays would interact with the
geometry of a complex
configuration. Figure 11-13
illustrates the ability to place
a phased array probe on a
complex nozzle geometry
(created in Civa simulation
software).
Figure 11-13 3D CAD image of nozzle with PA probe
1.90
Details of the beam interacting on the flaw, including the A-scan, can also be computed by software;
and the S-scan that results, indicated along with the associated A-scans where a flaw can be modelled
in the inspected volume. A zoomed-in view of the S-scan overlaid on the component as well as the A-
scan that would result with a planar flaw on the inside surface of the set-on nozzle is illusfrated in
Figure 11-14
Figure 11-L4 A-scan (left) extracted from S-scan (right)
11.6.7 l,VELD-VOLUN{E CONSIDERATIONS

Guidance to ensuring suitable volume coverage to inspect a typical butt weld (or similar) should
consider the angles used and the extremities of the beam for coverage. Linear and Sectorial scanning
patterns are considered.
77,6.2.1 LI}/EAR (ELECTRO}/IC) SCAN

Phased Array I'robe
Figure L1-15 Beam positions for E-scan
When configuring the E-scan, an optimum angle is selected to provide near-perpendicular incidence
with the bevel profile. The first focal law would have the probe arranged to have the beam intersect
the test surface at a point equal to the edge of the HAZ on the near side of the weld.
1.91.
Ideally a probe is selected with sufficient footprint to provide a beam that will intersect the far side of
the weld on the edge of the HAZ. If the probe has insufficient length (elements), the full volume may
require multiple scans at decreasing standoffs from the weld centreline.
11.6.2.2 SECTORIAL (AZIMUTHAL) SCAN
\Atrhenconfiguring the S-scan, an angle is selected to provide the first focal law to intersect the test
surface at a point equal to the edge of the HAZ on the near side of the weld. Since the S-scan uses the
same elements, but different delays to obtain different angles, the far side of the weld is addressed by
increasing angles until the edge of the HAZ is covered.
Further concerns need to be addressed for S-scans. Sweeping from 30-90" is not feasible since for
angles below about37", strong compression mode components can result and cause unwanted signals
arriving early in time. Similarly, shear mode at 90o is impossible since most of the pressure has
converted to a surface wave as we approach 90' (it is very difficult to get practical steering over about
75" for most probes).
A reasonable range respects the

steering limits of the probe (typically
+f-15", so the i,t,edge selected must
also be considered. A usefui wedge
has a natural refracting angle of 55'
allowing good steering down to 40'
and up to 70o. The range of 40-70"
refraction provides reasonable
volume coverage for many weld
designs.
Figure 11-15 Beam positions for S-scan

The exit point for a given focal law
may be obtained by determining the
surface distance from the front of the
wedge to the weld centreline. If the
position from the wedge to the
centreline doesn't allow both the low
and high angles to pass through the
weld and HAZ, then two scans will be
required (and some standards require
at least two S-scans, regardless of
coverage in a single pass).
Figure ll-17 Calculating probe position for weld inspection
192
Ideally a probe is selected with sufficient footprint to provide a beam that will intersect the far side of
the weld on the edge of theHAZ. If the probe has insufficient length (elements), the full volume may
require multiple scans at decreasing standoffs from the weld centreline.
11,6,2.2 SECTORIAL (AZIMUTHAL) SCAN
When configuring the S-scan, an angle is selected to provide the first focal law to intersect.the test
surface at a point equal to the edge of the HAZ on the near side of the weld. Since the S-scan uses the
same elements, but different delays to obtain different angles, the far side of the weld is addressed by
increasing angles until the edge of the HAZ is covered.
Further concerns need to be addressed for S-scans. Sweeping from 30-90" is not feasible since for
angles below about 37", strong compression mode components can result and cause unwanted signals
arriving early in time. Similarly, shear mode at 90o is impossible since most of the pressure has
converted to a surface wave as we approach 90' (it is very difficult to get practical steering over about
75" for most probes).
A reasonable range respects the

steering limits of the probe (typically
+f-15", so the wedge selected must
also be considered. A useful wedge
has a natural refracting angle of 55'
allowing good steering down to 40"
and up to 70". The range of 40-70"
refraction provides reasonable
volume coverage for many weld
designs.
Figure 11-15 Beam positions for S-scan

The exit point for a given focal law
may be obtained by determining the
surface distance from the front of the
wedge to the weld centreline. If the
position from the wedge to the
centreline doesn't allow both the low
and high angles to pass through the
weld and HAZ, thentwo scans will be
required (and some standards require
at Ieast two S-scans, regardless of
coverage in a single pass).
Figure ll-17 Calculating probe position for weld inspection
192
In order to establish the probe positiory some basic guidelines can be followed:
The surface distance for the beam intersecting the surface on the near side of the weld (40' beam in
Figure 11.-17) is: Surface Distance = 2t x Tan 0; where t is the material thickness and 0 is the refracted
angle (40', in this case)
That distance, plus the weld cap and HAZ distance, provides the required standoff of the beam to the
centreline of the weld. In the example, it is just over 75mm surface distance plus 16rnm for a total of
91mm.
For calculating the standoff distance, the exit point for the beam should be known. The distance from
the nose of the wedge to the centre of the first element and also the height of the first element is
provided by most wedge manufacturers. Some manufacturers provide the distance from the back of
the wedge to the centre of the first element. Ther; exit point on the wedge can be calculated using
manufacturer data, wedge angle and sound velocity in the wedge.
If the distance from the exit point in the wedge to the surface distance is less than the exit point to the
nose of the wedge distance, the start element should be increased or a shorter probe wedge should be
selected. This condition will become a concern as the wall thickness decreases and as the weld cap
dimension increases.
For most weld conditions, the 40-70" angular sweep can achieve full volume coverage (the example
indicates 67' is adequate in the illustrated bevel). Flowever, plate thickness, weld cap size, HAZ
distance and probe details can all have a bearing on the results. Each case needs to be dealt with
separately.
11..6.3 INSTRUMENTATION SETTINGS

The other component required when developing a technique is an assembly of all the relevant
instrument settings. Even here, the pertinent aspects of a phased array probe selection can be assisted
using suitable software.
By modelling the performance of a particular set of elements and wedge configurations, it is possible
to see if there are any limitations to beam steering, with a particular probe selected for a technique.
Figure 11-18 shows that a strong shear
wave grating lobe has formed as the
probe design attempted to minimise the
number of elements (16) and increase the
aperture (0.5mm gaps and 1mm element
widths).
Figure 11-18 Poor steering capability forms grating lobes
1.93
Identifying parameters of the probe and instrument become necessary essentials when designing a
technique so these must be listed with specific values or ranges of suitable values. Table 11.2 indicates
items that become essential parameters in a PAUT technique.
Sufficient parameters should be identified, such that any subsequent operator could set up an
inspection that is identical to the first inspection and obtain nearly identical results to the first
inspection.
ble1,'1.2 Essential parameters in

Number of elements
Element width (height)
Element length
Probe
Kerf (gap)
Element pitch
Nominal frequency
Material
Wedge material velocity
Wedge
Incident angle
Height of ref. element over test piece
Make/model
Pulser voltage (volts)
Pulse voltage shape
Instrument
Pulse duration
Receiver frequency settings
Processing settings (smoothing, compressiory averaging)
Scan type (fixed, E-scary S-scan)
Number of elements in focal law
Beam-setups
Start element
Step increment (angle or elements)
Immersion or contact
Test mechanics Scan type (manual/mechanised/motorised)
Scanning pattern (line, raster, helical)
Test piece material (and velocities)
Couplant
Materials
Geometry (thickness, shape)
Scan surface
Reference Reference blocks and targets
794
Chapter (12): Software Options and Principles of Data Collection
CHAPTER (L2): SOFTWARE OPTIONS AND PRINCIPLES OF

DATA COLLECTION
This section deals with the software components of a phased array system. Because software is
manufacturer specific, the treatment of these topics must be of a general nature. Any instructions
given to a student learning the features of software must first make the student familiar with the
menus provided for a specific instrument or system. A similar consideration will need to be given
when looking at the specific enhancements that can be used to analyse signals.
12.1 GRAPHIC USER INTERFACE

The entire set of parameters that are required for an inspection can be stored and recalled. These
would include;
. Part details (thickness, material, velocity)
. Wedge details (material, velocity, dimensions, incident angle)
. Probe details (dimensions, pitch, number of elements, frequency)
. Instrument details (voltages applied, gain settings, elements selected, filters, etc.)
. Scanning details (encoder details, probe offset from datum, skew directions, etc.)
Ideally the PAUT instrument software is laid out in a way that the operator is led through each
required step. Screens that appear on the computer, coach the operator to make entries in a logical
sequence, so that all necessary parameters are input. A Graphic User Interface (also called as a GUI) is
the window seen by the operator where parametric values are entered.
12.2 SETU P PARAMETERS
12,2.1 UT SETTINGS - PROBE, \!EDCE, N,lATERIAL AND INSPECTION

PARAMETERS
Each manufacturer will have a unique approach as to how this is done, so no single example fits all
software. However, as an illustrative example, we can consider the sort of displays that might be used
by extracting some aspects from modelling software, where similar considerations are made.
The list of main items bulleted above is a common format to all PAUT setup software. More generally
it can be divided into 4 parts. (See Figure 12-1)
Sperimen Probe ItrspecUr:n Arra,; settings
Figure l2-l P ar arneter groupings
195
:
The specimen parameter entry requires knowledge of the part shape and material. Material
parameters such as the acoustic velocities and density can be entered and if the software has the
ability to alter the display to indicate reflection effects, then the part thickness (and in special cases for
cylinders, the diameter or radius of the part) can be entered (See Figure 12-2).
Figure 12-2 Typical material parameters
The Probe parameters entry comprises both the element housing and any wedges that may be
attached. The operator needs to identify things like the probe type (e.g. contact, immersiory dual) and
pattern. Pattern would include single element (all PAUT instruments can also operate as a pulser-
receiver for mono-element probes), linear array, matrix array/ annular aruay, elliptical array or bi-
elliptical array. Figure 72-3 illustrates typical element parameters.
o-cte !,oe
i;rE(r i.
Most PAUT applications involve linear arrays. Upon indicating that the probe uses a linear array, then
only specific parameters can be entered; e.g. height (orthogonal dimension), number of elements,
element width, kerf (in this example, the software identifies kerf as the gap between elements).
Elements can be shaped to produce a mechanical focusing in addition to the phasal focusing
generated by the elements. If the focal law calculator needs information to adjust timing, this
parameter can sometimes be selected, as indicated in Figure 12-4.
1.96
Figure 12-4 Options for element shapes
Subsequent to the element details, the operator needs to identify wedge details (asstrming the test is
not immersion or straight contact). The relevant parameters of the wedge need to be entered. This
would include the wedge material (velocity), angles and dimensions. A simple graphic as in Figure
12-5 canbe used to indicate the wedge parameters required.
Refa.bon 6nde !E) Fs ,1g

lnsderie anlle i'IJ :6.2r_r tj_i
:.qunt6nEeld r-';ea
Diserlenlabsn O) | ie!
Cersitr '..;5 f' -'

--
-:r1q,Ld,"ai | 6 e .elloi, ::{ -'.-.- i
Trars.erse i 6,'e' eoa'!, Ll:. ,, -.

i
Figure 12-5 Wedge parameters
797
Having selected the probe and wedge details, the operator would then move on to entering details
that will in turn generate the beams required. Assuming that an E or S scan is used, the operator
selects the number of elements in the aperture along with the element to be used in the first focal law.
Scanning step indicates the number of elements that the focal law will step through to the stait of the
next firing. E.g. if the scan is an E-scary the operator may want to increment 7 or 2 elements, so the
aperture will be advanced such that the first focal law has an aperture of 16 elements and s-tarts at
element 1. If the scanning step is 1 then the next firing would be 16 elements, starting at element 2. If
there are only 64 elements in the probe, then a maximum of 49 steps would be achieved with a 1
element step. If the operator puts a large number in the step value (e.g. 60) then. the 16 element
aperture cannot be achieved in the next step so, only a single beam is calculated. Aperture detail entry
Alternatively, most software also has a provision for half steps. This is sometimes called high
resolution scanning. This effectively moves the centre of the beam by a step equivalent to half an
element. E.g. if 16 elements are used in the aperture, then the focal law generated could be made to
actually start with 15 elements, the next firing would be 16 elements, the firing next to that would be
15 elements starting at element 2, and then the next firing would be 16 elements starting at element 2,
and so on. The effect is to advance the beam in very small increments and if there are 76 elements (or
more) in a focal law, the change in characteristics of the beam would be imperceptible by reducing the
aperture by a single element. Figure 12-7 indicates the half step process.
Figure l2-7 Centreline exit point for half step advance process
798
Having identified the scanning type for the array (E-scan, S-scarL fixed angle), the operator then needs
to define aspects of the beam such as the angles to be generated. In (Figure 12-8) the angular increment
(if using an S-scan) and the focal plane or distance if focusing is used. Since the focal law calculations
can be made for either compression or transverse modes, the operator will also be asked to"identify
the mode being used.
Ii*ti"lqiqq iuqr*onf : Transmission n*iqntion . Editlarvs

Tl'ansffissior'r definitian
Forusing type 1fl
Inibal angle +5 deg
Final angle 65 deg
l'lunrber of steps
uc-!
Referenre frame Along normal
Belal, la','r ralrr"rk tic,n
tlljEve tyFe ,,", Longifudinal wales

,C' Trans*-ersal luaves
Figure 12-8 Angle definition parameters
The operator is now ready to run the focal law computations and adjust the gain (sensitivity) as
appropriate. Pulser-voltages and tuning (filters, pulse duratioru etc.) are set separately. If apodization
is one of the instrument capabilities and is being used, it is entered prior to the focal law being
generated.
12.2.2 INSPECTION SCAN DETAILS - SCAN SEQUENCE AND ENCODER

SETTINGS
Separate from the ultrasonic parameters are the inspection scan details. When the scanning is done
manually, the operator moves on to scanning the component. Flowever, when the probe (or probes)
is/are moved by a mechanical holder, the position of the probe relative to a pre-defined coordinate
system will be used to accurately locate indications. The encoder that provides positional information
is connected to the scanner and needs to be "calibrated". For each encoder, the scanner uses, the
number of pulses per millimetre must be determined. The accuracy of the encoding is determined by
measuring the actual distance moved, compared to the encoder indicated distance on the scan display
in the setup. Simple scan lines use a single encodet, but more complex systems can use two or more
encoders.
1.99
L2.2.2.L ENCODER DATA ACQULSTTION CONTROLS AND pROTOCOL

The encoder configuration will also be used to determine the intervals at which the PAUT system will
acquire data. The scan parameters then become part of the scanning configuration and are also
entered into the software. This determines the number of samples acquired during the scan process. In
a 2-axis scanner, the step size and number of steps, or total scan length is input for each axis. Also
required is instruction on how the data will be acquired. The initial scan direction may be selected or it
may be a default of the polarity of the encoder setup (e.9. the scan direction is always positive, so for
scanning in the opposite directior; the encoder must be instructed to switch from positive to negative).
Another feature that needs to be input in a 2-axis system is how the data is 'acquired; either
unidirectional or bidirectional. Unidirectional data collection is used where mechanical play exists and
the scanner needs to recover from a "backlash" in the system; so scan data is collected in the same
direction, each step incremented. In bidirectional scanning either the system is very "|,ght" or
backlash effects are not important. In bidirectional scanning patterns, the scanner increments at the
end of each long scan movement. In unidirectional scanning, the scanner moves along the scan path
acquiring data" then returns along the scan path but there is no data collected. It then increments to
the next position and the data is collected in the forward directiory but not in the backward direction.
Figure 12-9 shows some of the scan parameters required.
TrEnsEui:iX
Dire.ton of scanning
qfen f ,ranliCeg
Flumber cfsteps
Translatian along Y {mm}
5hp 1
lilumber of steps lfiil
fhoice of sranning modes
Inrrementt5canning re','ersed t t1e 'r,es
Increment sklp comb
Figure 12-9 Scan parameters
12.3 FILE STRUCTURE

Since all phased array systems are now computer controlled, the parameters of setup and the data
collected can all be assembled into files that are stored to memory on the computer.
The collection of these parameters includes much more than just the "focal Iaws". The focal laws are
the delays and amplification applied to the elements. A long list of other items is required to ensure
that all aspects of the inspection can be repeated, in addition to simply the time-delays applied to
generate the beams.
200
When the entire set of parameters for the scanning process of a specific application is collected in a
file, we generally consider it to be a "setup file". There can be several sub-classes of data sets within
the setup file and these may be stored in other files.
A critical aspect of good inspection policies when using computerised systems is to ensure thai all files
are identified in a useful manner and organised in a way that ensures that they can be quickly and
reliably identified for subsequent use or analysis.
This implies that some thought should go into the naming of files. Some guidelines for the setup
aspects follow.
Unless there is a written document where all the file names are recorded with a description for each
file, an operator will need to have some clue as to what the file is about. Without some sort of link to
the purpose of the configuration in the file name, the file could simply be a number that provides no
connection to its purpose. E.g. seeing a file named 123456.dat may indicate that the file is a scan-data
file, but there is no clue as to what project and what component is contained in the file. If the operator
can separate files into projects, then it is possible to organise the various file types within a common
main folder.
A file name should indicate some connection to the contents. Generally manufacturers provide unique
file extensions to the file naming process. These are the last 3 or 4letters after the "dot" irr the name.
E.g. file extensions might include (where "*" indicates any file name)
. *.cfg (configuration of PA parameters)
. *.lyt (for the arrangement of views for data display)
. *.dat (for the data collected in a scan)
r *.prC (for data files that have been processed for various enhancements)
. *.col (for the colour palettes used for colour displays)
Many systems used in NDT PAUT are based on some form of "Windows" software. This organises
files using a tree structure. The location of files in the structure is critical in some cases, and it is a
matter of convenience in others. E.g. for the instrument internal setups and self-checks, the
manufacturer will have organised files to be under a specific folder or "directory". The user should
have no access to these files.
But files made by the user can be located in user-made folders or manufacturer provided folders.
Figure 12-10 indicates how the user might arrange a set of files on the computer used by the phased
array instrument. Note, this is an illustrative example only and specific aspects will vary depending
on the manufacturer.
Figure 12-10 indicates that the user has made a separate folder for a project. Theru instead of saving
the files to the manufacturer's default folders, the user would save each file to the project folders
(using the "Save As" feature of the computer). This can allow the user to keep the relevant files, for all
aspects of a project together (something that may be required by a client wanting a final report
package that includes the raw data and the pertinent settings for viewing of the data).
201
r ffi l"'ll; BccL iZ:l

r AB{-Prcject
i.n a l',,si :: Tenr pl ate-.
D otr -Fi I ei
Fccal-Lai'r- f cnf iquraticn Files
Inspe,:ttcn 5equence-.
La,r,*u;- P',.t
P a letter
Figure L2-10 Illustrative File Layout for Phased Array Systems
Example:
Project -ABC
Setup and Layout Files
ABC-5564-2G-45-70-Sk90. cfg
AB C -55 6 4-2G - 45 -7 0 -5k27 0 . cf g
ABC-Setup1.lvt
ABC-Analysis1.lyt
Data Files
Dayl
ABC-Part1 -Weld1 -0-2050
ABC-Part1 -Weld1 -1950-4000
ABC-Part1-Weld1-3550-5600
ABC-Part1 -Weld2-0-2050
ABC-Part1-Weld2 - 1 950-4000
In the above breakdown, the files are named with ABC starting each file-name to identify the project
thev are associated with. In the files relating to a probe setup, some attempt is made to identify the
probe (e.g. 5564 is used here to indicate it was a 5 MHz probe with 64 elements used on a wedge that
provided shear mode). The 2G is used to indicate two groups of focal laws and 45-70 denotes the
angular sweep from 45' to 70". The last item in the name is indicating the skew of the probe relative to
the scan direction (90' or 270'). Similarly the layout files are connected to the project name and are
provided with a name to help identify the use (e.g. one layout of views for setup of UT parameters
and another for analysis of results).
Of primary concern to the client is how the scanning results will be tracked. This will allow them to
see if all the items that were supposed to be inspected, were actually inspected. Typically there will be
a component identified and if it is a weld inspectiory there may be several welds in each component. If
the welds are large, it may be necessary to scan the weld in sections so the scan distances may also
appear in the file name. For welds scanned in sections, there should be some overlap between each
scan. In the example, we indicate that the scan increment for one file is from 0-2050mm and the next
adjacent one is 1950-4050mm. These are 2.05m scans but the overlaps are indicated in the naming.
202
12.4 SOFTWARE OPTIONS

This section presents, in a generic fashiory some of the features available in software used to analyse
data collected by phased array UT systems. A generic treatment is required for several reasons:
. Although some features are commonly found on most units supplied by various
manufacturers, the actual displays and methods of use may vary from one manufacturer to
another.
. Some models of PAUT equipment may not have all the features that others do.
. In some cases the features described may not use the same terminology.
As a result, our coverage of this topic will attempt to provide information about the concepts rather
than illustrate features with specific manufacturer's displays.
12.4.1, VIEWING DISPLAYS

We have already considered displays and display types; here we will provide information about how
they can be viewed.
Display types are generally of 3 types;

. A-scans: using either rectified or RF presentations
. A-scan composites: scans that are composed of multiple A-scans arranged, such as B-scans, S-
scans, C-scans and D-scans (as used by some in TOFD terminology to indicate a B-scan where
the beam is perpendicular to the scan direction)
. Post-processed scans: echo dgramic scans like strip-chart displays, merged scans, top-side-
end views, and signal processed scans that reduce noise or other artefacts)
The A-scan is the basic building block for the other options. When stacked with time versus position,
we get a B-scan and when we have a grid pattern of scanning and imagine the A-scans as viewed from
the probe at each point in the grid, we form a C-scan. When the B-scan is corrected to indicate
angle(s), the corrected B-scan indicates the beam's trajectory in the component. This is the foundation
of the True B-scan or True S-scan (True Depth projections).
\44ren the C-scan is constructed such that the time interval along the A-scans is limited to a start and
stop along the time base, then projected regions in the volume of the test component can be displayed
without interference from the entry or backwall signals.
In many cases post-processed scans allow users to better analyse results. The strip-chart display used
in the pipeline zonal discrimination technique allows for a very fast analysis of the weld and it can be
reconstructed by gating a small region along the A-scan time base and displaying the maximum
amplitude in that small region of time, either side of the weld fusion line. A C-scan setup is illustrated
in Figure 12-17. A 32 element probe is configured with an E-scan focal law (0") and moved over a
series of 4 hemispherical targets at increasing depths.
203
:
{'- o
Figure 12-11 C-scan setup for corrosion mapping scan
Components of a composite of A-scans are seen in Figure 72-72. The full A-scan is captured at each
point along the E-scan (1 element steps for a 16mm aperture in a32 element probe).
,*:
{*j
Figure 12-12 Cornbining A-scans to derive B-scan and C-scan
Gating of the C-scan is critical to defining targets of interest. Upper right in Figure 12-12 the C-scan
has no limit on data displayed so only the backwall is seen. The lower right C-scan indicates targets by
stopping data collection at a point just prior to the backwall.
Overlaying the B-scans on the drawing of the targets in the test piece shows how each sequence in the
E-scans adds to the next, to build up a 3D collection of data in the inspected volume. Each "B-scan" is
added to the next scan-step. \zVhen a C-scan is imaged, the maximum amplitude along the time base is
used to indicate the "point" on the grid that the probe collected data. If the operator collects data from
the full length" they risk masking important internal features, because the maximum amplitude occurs
at the backwall. By limiting the region of data collection to prevent interfering geometric signals, the
echo dlmamic responses from the targets can also be plotted by extracting the maximum amplitude
along every E-scan at every scan position as is seen in Figure 12-13.
Figure 12-13 Echo dynamic plot of the 4 targets shown in Figure 12-11
204
12.4.2 ONLINE VIEW MODES OF DATA PRESENTATION

There are essentially three modes of viewing data in a PAUT system. There is a Setup mode, an
Acquisition mode and an Analysis mode. The Setup and Acquisition modes allow for an online or
real-time viewing of data.
There are two occasions when the operator would want to monitor signals in real-time. During the
configuration of the A-scans at the time of setting range and sensitivity, and during the actual
acquisition of data.
During the setup of each probe and group of focal laws, the operator can monitor: the A-scan by
making sure the software is in a "frrrred" mode. This merely means that the screen is updating the
displays at a fixed rate so the operator can make the necessary adjustments to the instrument and
display parameters by monitoring signals from the relevant targets. Display modes for B-scans, S-
scans and C-scans are usually also available in real-time. In some cases it may be desirable to freeze a
display and make measurements during setup.
The other time when an online (real-time) display is used is during the acquisition. In the case where a
scan pattern has been entered into the scan configuration, the scanning may require a significant
amount of time to collect (e.g. a 200x200mm area being scanned, using a unidirectional scan pattern
with a pitch of 1x1mm). Unless there is some means of monitoring the data being collected, any
mechanical or coupling issues that are not identified during the scan could result in a rescan. And if
the scan required 3-4 hours to acquire data, this could represent a significant waste of time, had the
problem not been identified early in the scanning. In this case, the data presentation layout would
provide a view that would allow a quick assessment of conditions that could identify potential
problems. E.g. A scan can be configured with a dedicated channel to monitoring coupling quality (e.g.
a C-scan monitoring a pitch-catch signal, where the constant signal in the gated region indicates good
coupling, so triggers a colour of green and when the signal drops below a minimum, the output to the
C-scan changes to red).
12.4,3 ANALYSIS MODE

After a scan has been completed, the acquired data that was sitting in memory should be saved to a
file using the appropriate file-naming protocol for the project.
The operator then changes the mode of viewing to analysis, to assess the scan quality and perform an
analysis of the results. As a side-note, the data displayed, during the data collection identified as the
acquisition mode display, is perhaps nothing more than a subset of the Analysis mode. Since the
acquisition display is merely the data being collected, it is still going to memory (only volatile memory
so could be lost unless saved). Since Analysis must be done using data stored in memory, it is only the
state of the data memory that separates the Analysis from Acquisition modes. Mark-up and analysis
functions would not be available to the operator during acquisition.
205
Chapter (1"2): Software Options and Principles of Data Collection
12.4-4 PRESENTATION OF DISPLAY VIEWS FOR ANALYSIS

Analysis of collected data depends entirely on the form in which the data was collected. The options
to collect data have been considered in the basics of digital concepts. Data collected can be a maximum
of the information by collecting the entire RF waveform at a maximum digitisation rate with high bit-
depth and small sample intervals between encoded acquisitions. We can extract specific aspects from
the waveform when maximum detail is collected, but we cannot fabricate RF signals when we reduce
the detail acquired.
In some cases just the amplitude or time, that a signal occurs in a gate, is of interest. In some cases we
are interested in viewingautu as might be done in manual UT using a rectified signal. Yet in other
cases the phase of a signal is required (as in tip sizing) so we need the full RF signal to determine
positive and negative pulse aspects.
These details need to be determined before we get to the analysis state! Once we have collected the
data, we are limited in how we analyse the results by the nature of the results we have collected.
View types of data have already been considered when configuring the Setup and Acquisition
displays. After data is collected, there are other features available to the operator.
Some aspects of analysis display are the same as those used in setup and acquisition modes' These
would include A-scan, S-scan, B-scan and C-scan displays. Most software allows the operator to select
multiple views to be displayed simultaneously.
Figure 12-14 illustrates a simple setup with a 16 element probe configured to scan over 3 targets. The
targets (3mm SDH, 3mm FBH and a 3mm high rectangle) are at the same depth, but spaced along the
block and the probe is configured to move backwards 75mm to ensure that each of the beams from a
45o-70" S-scan, pass over the target. The scan is configured to be a unidirectional scan so the probe
then returns to the start position and increments 35mm to the right; then to the centre of the next
target and repeats the 75mm backward scan movement; and then repeats the process again for the
third target.
tffiiil${* :
,:;1ir$$i$l,iiiili$J
:
Figure 12-14 Scanpattern for unidirectional scanning
206
Collecting the data from such a scan provides three rows of S-scans. If a specific angle is selected and
we display the data as if looking along the beam for that angle at each point of the scan path for the
three increments, we have a version of a C-scan.
Selecting a single scan path and a single angle, we can then display the side view for that angle. This is
the traditional B-scan.
At a single point along a single scan path, we can select the sweep of angles to display the S-scan. By
selecting a single angle in the S-scan, we would extract its basic component and display the A-scan.
All of these scan display types can be seen in Figure 12-15. The 3D image of the block.with the targets
is NOT an image associated with the options available with PAUT but is provided as an aid to
visualising the displays.
il:
H+Stffi
BScan
{ L
Figure 12-15 Scan display types and 3D projection illustrating relative probe position
In addition to the standard A, B, C and S-scan displays, other data can be extracted after collection has
been completed. \rVhen the PAUT system has all the ultrasonic signals (A-scans) and has them related
to position and angles on and in the tested component, there are several process options.
S-scans displayed as the fan of angles is a software correction for position in the test piece. But the
original data is simply collected as a grid, with time (along the sound path) in one axis and the angle
sampled along the other axis. This is shown in Figure 12-16.
207
Figure 12-16Uncorrected S-scan (left) and true depth-corrected S-scan (right)
When the data displayed is corrected for the angle in the component it is much easier to understand
what is happening to the beam. The corrections can be made to E-scans or S-scans, although the idea
of an angle correction to a 0o E-scan is not sensible since the angle between the time base and the scan
direction is 90' anyway. Data displays with corrections for beam angles have been given several
names depending on the manufacfurer of the software. Some of the more common terms include;
r Volume-corrected
o Volume-corrected end view
. True depth
. True S or E-scan
o Depth-corrected
r Angle-corrected
When the A-scan data is fanned out in the True S-scan, the ravs nearest the probe are closely spaced
but even at a 1o angular separatiory the rays farther from the probe begin to separate.
? pixels required to fill

behJeen cenire.ays
Figure 12-17 Colour filling required due to angular spread of rays in true S-scans
208
When the software is instructed to paint a corrected S-scan, it has a built-in algorithm that adds extra
colour between the rays as the time increases from the source as indicated inFigure 72-77.
A means of rapid evaluation of scan data has been derived for the application of PAUT to pipeline
girth weld inspections. These inspections use several displays, but the primary analysis is for non
fusion on the weld bevels. Dividing the weld into vertical zones and firing a separate focused beam at
each zone, permits a very fast means of analysis by extracting the amplitude data from the gated
region straddling the weld fusion line. Users call the display, a " strip chart" display, but it is nothing
more than the echo dynamic of the amplitude at each position along the weld.
Scanning over the targets in a calibration block produces a rise and fall of signal amplitude from the
main target in each zone. See Figure 72-18 for an example of the zone targets placed along the
theoretical fusion line.
Figure 1..2-18 Zonal Calibration Targets and Modelled Flaw Targets
Output from the PAUT system can be selected to provide just amplitude data in the gated region. As
the probe is scanned along the weld, the rises and falls are recorded as displacements from a baseline
level (zero voltage) and each zone identifies if there is a flaw at that depth (see Figure 12-19).
F2U F1U HFU R2U RlU
Figure 12-19 Echo dynamic plots (strip chart display)
209
Chapter (12): Software of Data Collection
A similar plot can be extracted from other scan pattems. Figure 12-20 illustrates a scan over 9 notches
of increasing length. The upper image is the B-scan and the lower is the echo dynamic pattern
(extracting the maximum amplitude from each position along the scan length).
Figure 12-20Echo dynamic extracted from B-scan over 9 notches of increasing length
12,4,5 ANALYSIS TOOLS

Other software features can be added to assist in the analysis of PAUT data. These are generally
software processing tools and usually applied to the A-scan data but could be applied to the C-scan or
B-scan images as well.
12.4.5.1. OVERLAY S - CREATING AND IMPORTINGI MANIPULATING

Not all inspections can be as simple as corrosion assessment, where a nominal thickness is assumed
and signals arriving prior to that indicate wall loss. Some PAUT inspections can be difficult to analyse
if the operator is unsure of the geometry or if there are variations in geometry along the scan path or
beam path.
A useful tool commonly used to aid in setup and analysis is the "overlay". This is an outline of the
weld or component that is positioned over the PAUT display and used simply to aid in determining
the origin of signals.
Overlays are generally specific to a project so it is not reasonable to have a collection of drawings
supplied by the PAUT equipment manufacturer. Some systems have drawing packages or templates
to help the operator prepare cross-sectional views; and even plan views to indicate relative position
along a scan.
Depending on the software, some c;rn provide the effect of a "skip" off a parallel surface; others prefer
to use multiple images of the outline mirrored in the depth projection. With a weld bevel outlined on
the projected S-scan or B-scan, interpretation can be aided, by indicating if there are geometric features
that could be interfering with the beam or if the signal arises from the bevel, prior to the bevel or after
210
the bevel. This sort of information provides guidance to the operator on what the origin of the
indication might be.
Figure \2-21Skip (right) and mirrored (left) projections with S-scan overlays
The same flaw is imaged in both views with the view on the right indicating the corrected position as
a result of a skip off the opposite wall.
12,4.5.2 CURSORS AND GATES

In ultrasonic data displays, cursors are markers, used to identify positions on the display. On the A-
scan display cursors can indicate position along the time base, or they can indicate amplitude (Figure
12-22). Ofteru there will be a numeric readout at some point on the cursor or the cursor may be linked
to a box on the numeric data display that indicates the position that the cursor is crossing.
Figure 12-22 Amplitude and time cursors on A-scan
271
(12): Software and Principles of Data Collection
so cursors can be used to read the position of the

In encoded scans, the scan position is part of the file.
are seen and the cursor crossing points provide
scan location. on a C-scan, both X and Y positions
12-23)
Cartesian coordinates for an indication. (see Figure
IIIT
at 10x1Omm scan coordinates

Figure 12-23 Cursors on c-scan indicating peak position
scan distance (as

on a B-scan, the cursor would read either time- or velocity-corrected distance velsus
in Figure 72-24).
Figure L2-24Cursor at 0.6mm scan position and 11'459mm
212
r (12): Software Options and of Data Collection
Two cursors are useful to have on the display in order to indicate difference. Time difference or
another'
position difference can be used to assess flaw sizes or the proximity of indications to one
S-scan at
Cursors are also used to manipulate data displays. When a line-scan is made collecting an
each scan increment, the "reference" cLrrsor is used to "extract" the S-scan at that point.'Figure
12-23
cursor'
indicates a horizontal cursor at 10mm down from the top of the image. This is the reference
The image associated with the scan position at 10mm is seen as Figure 12-24 (i,e. the B-scan is
extracted from the C-scan via the reference cursor). All the images are built up from the
A-scans,
hence the cursor at 0.6mm on the B-scan in Figure 12-24is the position that the A-scan inFigare 12-22
is extracted from.
that we want to
Cursors are also used to manipulate "gates". Gates are regions in time or position
limit data analysis in. For example in Figure 12-25 we have "gated" the region of interest from a depth
B-scan that was
of 7.5mm to only 19mm depth, so as to eliminate the backwall geometry signals in our
imaged inFiglre12-24.
Figure 12-25 B-scan with gate limited data display
72,4.5.3 PALETTES
Colour display on PAUT is an important feature. We use colour to bring our attention to regions of
potential .o.,"".r,. Colour scales are intended to indicate changes in amplitude (although they can also
be used to indicate changes in time of arrival). Colour has the added importance that it must be
arranged to provide a constant representation of flaw severity when dealing with amplitude. To this
end, we use TCG to ensure that a specific colour change is representative of our reference regardless
213
of the distance along the sound path. Amplitude patettes may be fixed or can be variable. Some
systems even allow for operator- built palettes to customise the display for different applications.
Some examples are provided here in Figure 12-26
Greyscale
Symmetrical
Asvmmetrical
Spectral
Symmetrical
-'-,
Asymmetrical -
*.:-
Thermal
Custom
Figure 12-25 Colour palettes

The result of changing colour can provide the effect of adjusting "sensitivity" by making some
features visible and others not. The same indication is illustrated in both images in Figure 12-27,but
by selecting the palette display weightings, the indication can be more or less visible.
Before After il-
Figure 12-27 Enhancing flaw signals by adjusting palette settings
Similar palettes can apply to depth (time of arrival) in the gated region. This is useful for corrosion
assessments. Different depths (amounts of corrosion) can be represented by different colours.
214
1.2.4,5.4 SOFTWARE GAIN AND THRESHOLDING

In the application of PAUI the use of distance amplitude correction curves (DAC curves) has no
practical place. DAC curves is a throwback to mono-element single channel manual UT. Since
evaluations are made using the collection of A-scans in the form of angle-corrected B-scans or S-scans;
the preferred compensation method is time corrected gain (TCG). This process divides the time-base
into increments along which the amplifier can vary the gain applied to the signals. Points along the
time-base are selected (usually these are the points at which a calibration target occurs at increasing
sound-paths) and at each point an amplification is added according to the line connecting the last
point to the previous on the time-base.
PAUT instruments usually use some form of visual display to indicate where the TCG point is placed.
The line connecting the TCG points indicates how the gain is increasing between the points. (See
Figure 12-28)
Figure 1.2.28TCG points, associated curve - time positions of points in and added gain
PAUT displays used for evaluation usually rely on the operator seeing indications with a particular
pattern of colour rising out of a muted background. This allows for a form of "reject" or "suppression"
that was sometimes used in single element instruments. Reject is an instrument function permitting
the reduction or elimination of low amplitude signals (electrical or material noise), below a
predetermined amplitude, so that the relevant signals are clearly visible. In PAUT we can achieve a
similar result by adjusting the colour palette. By adjusting the first colour to change to the second
colour at a predefined level, we effectively threshold the presentation (i.e. reject all signals less than
the second colour); since it is the change in colour, with increasing signal amplitude, that allows us to
discern indications.
With an 8-bit data acquisition unit, the smallest change in amplitude recorded by the system
is20log(r*-t-) = -48d8' The fraction;| represents about 0.4% full screen height. \A/hen discrete
colours are used, there are no gradual increases noted as amplitude changes from one to the next.
Therefore any small signal amplitude changes, in a colour interval, will need to change significantly to
21,5
(12):Software of Data Collection
be noticed. For example, in a palette with 10 colours starting with 0-10% as white and each colour
representing a 10% increment the effect is to hide alt signals under 10%. (See Figure 12-29)
'i
Figure 12-29 1.0 -Colour palette with discrete transitions
Simply making a linear interpolation of all 256 levels using the same 10-colour palette can significantly
help in the assessment of the same signal. (See Figure 1.2-30)
Surface intedace signals tnd cated
Figure 12-30 10-Colour palette with 256 graduated transitions
Provided that signals are not saturated, software can be used to manipulate signal amplitude. The
advantage of this is most noticeable when using bit sampling greater than 8 bit. The g bit digitiser
has
been the standard for many years. Although 10 bit and 12 bit units have been available, they
are not
yet commonly used. Recall that S-bit digitising refers to the number of intervals in the amplitude
216
sampling of a signal; 8 bit refers to 28,10 bit is 210 and,1,2bit is 212. When calculated, these bit depths
represent 256 intervals,7024 intervals and 4096 intervals, respectively.
With 12 bit digitisation, each interval would be 0.02% of the fu1l screen height. That is 16 times more
resolution in the amplitude than the 8 bit method. This allows us to collect signals at 16 times less
electronic amplification and still reproduce the same signal as if we had collected with an 8-bit unit.
For example, if we calibrate our 8 bit instrument on a L.Smm diameter SDH and set the iectified
response to 80% screen height we may find that many of our flaw signals are greater than 100%. This
would require us to rescan the component at a lower gain setting to establish the actual amplitude
relative to the reference target.
Flowever, if we use a L2bit digitiser we can set our reference level to a point 16 times lower than the
80% used for the 8-bit system. That is only 5Y" screen height. This is not a very practical amplitude for
evaluation, but with software gain we can then increase all the signals collected by 24dB and be able to
view the data as if the 1.5mm SDH had been set to 80% full screen height.
12.4,5.5 NO/SE REDUCTIO}/ AND SMOOTHING
Images assembled by computer monitors are made using the picture elements (called pixels) on the
monitor. These are discrete regions on the monitor made up of small rectangular blocks that the
computer can adjust the colour for. When an image is constructed for a scary the colour change from
one point along the A-scan to the next may be an abrupt change. Or, the scan increments may be
coarse, so the change from one amplitude to the next can result in an abrupt colour change. This is not
aesthetically appealing to the viewer and the computer can actually smooth the image without
altering the intended representation. (See Figure 12-31)
Figure 12-31 Raw pixelated (left) and same image after smoothing (right)
277
12,4.5.6 SOFTWARE GAIN

Provided that signals are not saturated (i.e. have an amplitude more than the total bit-depth of the
system), it is possible to adjust signal amplitudes using software. This is not such a startling concept.
Since digital systems are collecting a single point of amplitude information at every position along the
time-base, it is reasonable to assume that this information can be mathematically processed using the
same simple equation that we use when assessing dB. The equation that gives us the dB difference
between two signals, states that the difference in dB between the signals is given by20log(A1./A2).
Therefore, if we want to adjust the amplitude of a series of A-scans we need only to look at each point
sampled along the time-base and multiply it by the appropriate factor to adjust the .signal to a new
value.
For example, if we want to increase the amplitude of a simple rectified A-scan by 6dB we take the
recorded amplitude at each point on the time-base and multiply its bit-value by 2 (i.e. the ratio of the
new amplitude to the original amplitude in the equation is 2 if 6dB is added).
For an 8-bit signal, there are 256 levels over the range of 100% screen height. If we have a
measurement in levels over the A-scan and find that they have values as below (around where the
signal rises):
255795610024611125090502021.
Then, doubling the amplitudes provides a new set of values at each point on the time-base, as shown
below:
10 10 74 18 71.2 200 592 222 500 180 100 40 4 2
Our display considers 256 points as the maximum, so we will generate some points above this and the
effect is to make the signals " appear" to saturate. (See Figure 72-32)
Figure l2-S2Software gain manipulation of A-scan amplitudes
We also have the ability to reduce gain so we can just as easily divide the amplitudes by 2 and the
effect is to reduce the original signal by 6dB. Any signals that were at the fulI screen height upon
acquisition (i.e. at the 2561evel) are not possible to reduce to any level lower than 256 (maximum
amplitude).
278
Chapter (12): Softwarg Optio"t rrra p.itt"ip
12.5 PROIECTIONANALYSIS
12.5.7 VOXELISATION
When a component is scanned with a variety of beams passing through each region of the'componenf
it is possible to use the three-dimensional coordinates available from an encoded scan, to plot
indications in 3D space. As well, it is possible to limit the data being viewed to just slices of the
component. This first requires that we divide the component into discrete volumes.
These inspection volumes may be thought of in terms of the three different scan dimensions;
. The Scan increments (e.g. along a weld)
. A-scan time (distance) along the beam
. And the angle (and standoff distance) from the beam exit point
The small volume elements that result from the discrete divisions are called "voxels" (portmanteau of
the words volumetric pixel), which is the volume image equivalent of the computer image term
"pixel" (which is a portmanteau of the words pixel and element).
The concept of a voxel is illustrated in Figure 12-33, where we indicate 3 voxels with beam centrelines
passing through them. These voxels would be arranged in a 3D grid pattern.
Figure L2-33 Voxelisation of the inspection volume
If we imagine the entire inspected volume divided into these small volume packets, the ultrasonic
responses can be placed as amplitudes within each volume. A well designed technique for weld
inspection would ensure that at least two beams pass through every voxel. This ensures that every
volume of the weld is interrogated by at least two beam angles. With multiple S-scans and skip paths,
the actual number of beams passing through a volume point may in fact be four or more. By using the
calculated centre of beam axis for every focal law and incorporating the geometric corrections for
skips, the software can then determine which beams passed through each voxel. It must then
determine the amplitudes at every voxel from every beam. When several beams have passed through
279
a single voxel, the software assigns the maximum amplitude that occurred in that voxel from all the
beams.
With the volume voxelated, we can now consider a true Top-Side-End view projection. This is "
accomplished using projection gating. The operator limits the amount of volume being looke d at, by
placing the projection gates on either side of the region of interest (Figure 72-34).
Projection gate posjtions

side view limits to HAZ
Figure tz-s+Pro1,iec,,"";;;"^ ria" of wetd

"itn"r
Although a projection gate can be used to allow the user to look along the weld from the End (End
View), this is not normally useful. Instead, having made a line scan where the probe is moved along
the weld length and an E-scan or S-scan collected, the user usually elects to look at each "slice"
through the weld (Figure 12-35).
Scan Slice
; Scan direction Projection gate positions
defining top
I
po
o
L
Figure 12-35 A single slice displayed at each position along the scan
Depth of the projection is limited, by placing the depth projection gates just below the top surface and
to a depth that is determined by the thickness of interest. Depth projection gates can also be set
relative to the End View.
Figure 12-36 illustrates the Top View and for a weld, this view can also provide the indication as to
where the operator would want to place the projection gates, in order to limit the projections for the
Side View.
220
gate positions
lo deflne side view limits
Figure l2-S0ProjecLion gates selecting a region either side of theHAZ
12.5.2 VOLUMETRIC IMAGE MERGE

When using several probes or several groups of focal laws with different start elements from a single
probe, or when two or more probes are used to inspect a component from two sides (of the weld) at
the same time, the amount of data obtained about the weld volume can be significant. Some software
will allow the user to merge all the data into a single large file for analysis.
As with the single probe having some rays that pass directly through a voxel while other rays pass
through the voxel after a skip in the merged data set, only one amplitude value (the maximum
amplitude) is indicated in each voxel.
As an example of how a volumetric merge can be useful for data analysis, Figure 12-37 shows volume
corrected S-scans from two directions (i.e. 90' and 270" beam skew) to verify a flaw position. The
presentations on the right side of Figure 12-37 shows the indication occurring after the line on the Side
view that corresponds to the root geometry.
Figure 12-37 Conlirmation of flaw position with two S-scans
227
Chapter (12): Software OPtions and Princi of Data Collection
By simple modelling, it can be seen that there are portions of the weld which are not
well addressed
by a simple pair of S-scan from either side of the weld, even with the skip from the outer diameter
to
(OD) sur?ac". S"lrg from the inside diameter (ID) surface of the pipe, the inspection is configured
is covered by the half skip. The overlay
provide a full skip for coverage of the root, and the cap region
using a pair
illustrates how the cap region is missed by the first S-scan. In fact, this weld was inspected
of S-scans from each side of the weld, as indicated by the modelling in Figure 12-38'
Figure 12-38 Pipe butt weld using four S-scans
\zVhen the full collection of A-scans is used from all four S-scans and these are "merged", the operator
can get a full volume analysis. With a few other enhancements, such as correction for skip
and
5rrroot1"ri.,g to reduce the pixellation, analysis becomes a bit easier. Figure 72-39 is a photomontage
made using a single End view from the four merged S-scans with a sketch of the two phased
array
probes orr".lui., to align with the S-scan beams in the image. A series of these S-scans is collected
weld
i"r".y 1mm) along the pipe inside surface to build up the total merged volume of the inspected make
and HAZ. On the initial slice, the weld overlay is seen and because the software was
used to
correction for the skip, the mirror image of the weld seen in Figure 12-37 is now the weld bevel
outline
for just the 20mm wall thickness.
Figure L2-39 Merged S-scans with Corrections and Smoothing
222
gate positions
to define side view limits
Figure 12-S6Projection gates selecting a region either side of the HAZ
12.5.2 VOLUMETRIC IMAGE MERGE

When using several probes or several groups of focal laws with different start elements from a single
probe, or when two or more probes are used to inspect a component from two sides (of the weld) at
the same time, the amount of data obtained about the weld volume can be significant. Some software
will allow the user to merge all the data into a single large file for analysis.
As with the single probe having some rays that pass directly through a voxel while other rays pass
through the voxel after a skip in the merged data set only one amplitude value (the maximum
amplitude) is indicated in each voxel.
As an example of how a volumetric merge can be useful for data analysis, Figure 12-37 shows volume
corrected S-scans from two directions (i.e. 90" and 270" beam skew) to verify a flaw position. The
presentations on the right side of Figure 72-37 shows the indication occurring after the line on the Side
view that corresponds to the root geometry.
Figure 12-37 Confirmation of flaw position with two S-scans
227
The process of merging has divided the total inspection volume into smaller volumes (voxels) made of
the three different scan dimensions;
Scan increments x A - scan time (distance)interval x angle(or standoff increment)
With the entire inspection volume reduced to a 3Dimensional grid, it is then possible to make "slices"
through the grid in each of the orthogonal planes. By linking the cursors, the software can project
either a single "slice" or project several slices from one of the orthogonal planes.
By limiting the projections to either a single plane or just a small range of one of the planes it is much
easier to identify details of the indications of concern.
Using the amplitudes in the voxels, it is possible to construct a line indicating amplitudes as might be
seen in an A-scan. Flowever, this is not a true A-scan as extracted from the raw data. Instead, this is a
composite of maximum amplitudes for all the voxels that make up the reference cursor position. This
pseudo-A-scan has a jagged shape (not characteristic of a 100 MHz digitisation rate of the time-base)
and should not be used for analysis or characterisation in the way that the actual A-scan is used.
12,6 REPORTING AND DATA FILE CONVERSIONS

Codes and Standards often require details of the inspection to be included with the report. PAUT data
acquisition systems now often include provision for operator input of inspection details to be included
with the inspection data file. Report "templates" can provide fields for the operator, to enter
information about the setup, equipment, operator qualifications, materials tested, and even capfured
images, indicating rationale for rejections. Without these convenient templates, the operator would
need to record details in some other form and risks losing track of the specific details
File format conversion is a feature available from some software suppliers. With so many
manufacturers of PAUT equipment and so many programmers developing software for the different
systems, it is currently impossible for one manufacturer's software to read the data collected by
another manufacturer's equipment. Efforts have been made in the medical industry to overcome this
problem. DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine) is a standard for handling,
storing, printing, and transmitting information in medical imaging. Unfortunately, the exchange
protocol is not available in NDT PAUT systems. Although efforts are being made to set out standards
for the process in ASTM 82663, Standard Practice for Digital Imaging and Communication in Non-
destructive Evaluation (DICONDE) for Ultrasonic Test Methods, this is a voluntary process and
manufacturers are unlikely to provide interchange-ability with what they consider to be proprietary
formats.
However, it is possible in some systems to extract at least the A-scan data in a format that can be used
with other software. This usually strips the inspection "header" information from the file and uses
only the A-scan data. Formats most commonly exported are Excel rM and txt (ASCII text format).
These formats can be read by other generic software and scientists can then process signals using
more powerful algorithms for post-processing data.
223
Chapter (13): Principles of Data Analysis
CHAPTER (1.3): PRINCIPTES OF DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis is essential in the inspection of any component tested by ultrasonics. Without at least
cursory analysis of the data collected, the operator is simply pushing a probe around apatl {or fun.
Data analysis allows the inspector, or a separate analyser, to assess the condition of the area of the
inspected part, and draw conclusions about its fitness for service, estimate remaining lifespan of the
parf and make direct recommendations about how to proceed post-inspection.
However, improper analysis is, perhaps, more detrimental than no analysis at all. Poor analysis can
cause overcalling of non-critical defects, causing a part to be repaired or pulled from service
unnecessarily; or worse, it can cause under-sizing of critical defects which have the potential to result
in catastrophic failures. As a result, a good understanding of the nature of sizing defects, the correct
techniques for sizing and how these sizing techniques differ based on the inspection methods is
critical in performing high quality repeatable inspection and analysis.
13.1 IMAGE FORMATS

13.1.1 MANUAL SCANNING
For manual scanning techniques, the operator relies on the monitor for assessment of the display.
Since manual scanning does not involve data collection (i.e. saving waveforms to files), the assessment
of the scan results is made immediately. There is no practical way for any operator to actually monitor
the A-scan responses of 20-30 focal laws simultaneously. Therefore the operator must select a display
that can provide useful information as the probe is moved over the test surface. In virfually all cases
this will involve monitoring the S-scan or B-scan display.
Several items must be kept in mind when performing manual scanning. Selecting a noticeably low
colour threshold level helps the operator to monitor the coupling condition (much as the mono-
element operator watches the grass level on the A-scan). Using a graduated colour palette, where the
first noticeable colour-change occurs at 3-5% screen height, will ensure that, maintaining that colour
provides an indication of suitable coupling.
\zVhen using the PAUT system manually in a pulse-echo mode, the operator moves the probe forward
and back (as they would with a mono-element probe). Changes in the colours displayed on the S-scan
display are monitored for regions where signals are seen to broach the colour identified as the
reporting amplitude level. For example in a colour palette that ranges from white through a spectrum
'*
ttrroughto r.d, .il
The operator might look for signals tuming green to yellow. Assuming the reference amplitude is
80% (yellow to orange) the amplitude of interest is typically set to about half the reference amplitude
(e.g. 40% screen height).
22s
In order to locate any flaws that are detected, the operator needs to ensure that the depth and standoff
distances are correctly indicated on the display scales. By con{iguring the offset scale to some
convenient reference the operator can easily locate the source of an indication relative to the probe's
position. In most cases it is easiest to measure from the nose of the wedge when using an angled
refracting wedge. This then makes the nose of the wedge the zero position and the flaw can be located.
Mono-element probes use the exit point of the beam as marked on the wedge. With phased-anay
probes the exit point moves depending on angle, start element used and number of elements used in
the focal law, so the "exit point" of the beam is not a suitable reference for this function.
An operator seeing an indication of interest on a suitably configured S-scan display for manual
scanning, will then be able to identify the flaw location relative to the probe reference point. With
knowledge of the test piece, the operator can imagine (or draw) the location of the flaw relative to the
component features. (See Figure 13-1)
Figure 13-L S-scan detection display showing a positioned flaw (after skip off backwall)
A further required display for manual PAUT scanning is the A-scan. This will allow the operator to
consider the characterisation of the indications using the echo-dlmamic methods employed by
traditional manual scanners using mono-element setups. The S-scan and A-scan (for the selected focal
law) are positioned side-by-side on the monitor (as in Figure 13-2).
Figure 13-2 Combination A-scan and S-scan for manual scanning
226
13.1.2 MECHANISED SCANNING

When we mechanise PAUT scanning, the normal assumption is that the system is encoded and that
the A-scan data is being saved to file. This implies that analysis was done after the scan sequence has
stopped and the data stored to memory. Under these conditions the operator has more flexibility to
perform a detailed analysis. Displays selected should therefore consider how the data was acquired
(what volume was covered, how many probes used, the range of angles required and whai was the
useful sound path range).
Because the scan is automated, there should be some provision to check for scan quality. This means a
review of any coupling channels (i.e. channels dedicated to monitoring the presence of the signal
indicating that coupling was maintained). If there are dedicated coupling channels, the views to
display these should be presented first. It may be as simple as a 0" B-scan to monitor a backwall signal.
Once the operator is satisfied that the scan quality is suitable, the next step is to display views that
allow analysis of the inspection volume in an effective way. This step has many variations. The analyst
needs to assess which features are to be monitored;
. Is it best to look at a single display at a time?
' Should there be any limitations made on the extent of the data collected? (sometimes
geometry signals are in a region beyond the area of interest and data viewed can be restricted
so as not to include the geometry)
. Was there rotary motion and if so is a polar display useful?
' When a sweeP of angles are used in an S-scan should the operator scroll through each angle
individually or is there some means of displaying all the angles to better locate areas of
concern? (e.9. using a C-scan)
' When is it appropriate to use the projection gates and configure a Top-Side-End view?
' If multiple scan positions and/or types are used from a single probe; or scans from multiple
probes are obtained for the same scan regiory is it possible to combine the data for better
analysis (merge data)?
The variety of displays has already been addressed in earlier chapters. A separate consideration
will
also determine how the operator arranges the displays used for analysis; ,r,onito. space.
\z\4ren carrying out analysis, it is necessary to be aware of both the operator's and the display,s
limitations to see indications. The analysis process will invariably occur on a computer monitor.
When the operator is doing the analysis (as opposed to automated data analysis by computers),
the
operator relies on being able to see indications having a colour indicating amplitude at or above the
evaluation level. To do so, requires that the image display have sufficient number of pixels to attract
the operator's attention to that location for closer assessment.
When viewing data on a desktop monitor, the monitor size and pixel count is likely to be better
than
viewing the same data on a monitor that is fitted to a portable PAUT instrument.
The display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed.
It is
usually quoted as width ,. height, with the units in pixels.
E.g.7024x768 means the width is 7024 pixels and the height is 76g pixels.
227
ter (13): of Data Analysis
Use of the word "resolution" here is technically incorrect' The number

of pixels in each dimension
Technically, resolution refers to the
(e.g.,1920x10g0) does not indicate the resolution of the display.
measurement, the display
pixel density, the number of pixels per unit distance or area. In digital
resolution would be given in pixels per inch (North America)'
Calculating the pixel density using Pythagorean Theorem:
- Diagonal resolution in Pixels:

(13.1)
Pixels per inch (PPI):
(1,3.2)
PPr =3;
Where;
dr:Diagonal resolution in Pixels

a5: Width resolution in Pixels
hr: Height resolution in Pixels
dl: Diagonal size in inches (the number advertised as the size of the display)
(in which ar=1680, hr=1050 and
For example , for a20 inch (50.8cm) scleen with a 1680x1050 resolution
a typical small monitor (as might be
the diagonal monitor size in inches di= I)),we get 99'06PPI' For
o., u pJrtuble pAUT unit) there may be a 10.1 inch screen with a 1024x600 resolution (in which a5=
1024, ltr= 600 and di = 10.1), and we get 118 PPI'
If a monitor on a desktop is 18 inches wide and has 1680 pixels in the horizontal dimension it will
for menu display (about 20% of
have 93.3 pixels per inch. If the software uses a portion of the monitor
requires another small portion of
the width) there is a smaller portion remaining ior data display. This
the display be d.evoted to make room for the display boundary and
scale (e'g' 80 pixels)'
If a scan is 1000mm long with a sample taken

1680 pixels
every 1mm then we can display the scan axis in
the horizontal direction such that each pixel
represents 1.3mm (i.e. the scan would fit on the 1344 pixels
monitor such that every scan increment is 1'3

pixels along the horizontal axis).
But if our scan is 2000mm, then each scan
increment would fit into 0'6 pixels! But the pixel is
the smallest image unit we have on the monitor, Figure 13-3 Figure restriction on monitor display
so in order to display all the points in a 2m scan
the software must "hide" some of the points'
For the smaller 10.1 inch monitor, the viewing width is approximately 8 inches,
with 1024 pixels'
793 pixels for a
Losing 20"/" for menu, another 80 pixels for scales and boundary demarcatiorL leaves
228
B-scan or C-scan axis. Even a 1m scan will not fit along the 793 pixels without "hiding" some of the
scan (in this case nearly 20% of the scan data will need to be removed from the display).
If we estimate that an indication seen on a monitor must be at least 2mm long, for it to be noticed by
an operator on the monitor, it would imply that we require the flaw indication to be about 10 pixels
long on the 10.1 inch monitor. But at 10 pixels and a 1 meter scan, squeezed into a793 pixel space, the
indication is about 12mm long.
It is not feasible to analyse long scans on small monitors or in small windows on larger monitors. An
effort should be made to display scan dimensions not less than 2:1 on the monitor used for analysis;
e.g. a scan 1000mm long should be viewed in a window not much less than 500mm across (assuming
the scan axis is the horizontal axis). Different monitors have different pixel densities so an absolute
value cannot be defined. However, since acceptance criteria often defines a minimum allowed length,
the operator should be able to easily identify any flaw that might be close to the minimum allowed
flaw length.
Another concern for the operator is the amount of display space that is available on a monitor. With
multiple probes, multiple axes of motion and mulfiple scan groups for each probe, there can be large
numbers of displays assembled for analysis. But each time the operator adds another display to the
monitor, the detail becomes more and more difficult to see.
Putting 3 or 4 displays on a monitor is generally adequate to maintain details for analysis. For large
monitors or multiple monitors this can be increased. But if the analysis is done on the relatively small
monitors available on portable instruments, useful analysis quickly vanishes with additional displays
in the same confined space. Figure 13-4 indicates how 3 displays (C, B and S-scans) may be suitable on
the monitor.
Figure 13-4 3 Display presentation on monitor
229
Trying to add more displays to the same monitor size presents a resolution restriction (the operator
c€u:r no longer see the details necessary when too many displays are presented at the same time as in
Figure 13-5.
Figure 13-5 7-Display presentation on monitor (same size as Figure 13-4)
To overcome this limitation, software usually allows the user to configure several display layouts. E.g.
Layout 1 might display coupling data; Layout 2 would provide an S-scan, A-scan and B-scan for the
90o skew; Layout 3 would provide an S-scary A-scan and B-scan for the 270" skew; and a Layout 4
could be configured with a Top-Side-End view of the data merged from the 90o and 270" probes.
13.2 ECHO DYNAMICS OF SIGNALS IN ENCODED DATA

We have noted that some displays in PAUT include "echo-dynamic" plots. These are the displays that
plot maximum signal amplitude in a gated region at each point of a scan path. This is quite different
from the concept of echo-dynamics used in characterisation of flaws when carrying out manual UT.
The idea of using "echo-dynamics" to characterise flaws in mechanised systems using PAUT does not
have the same flexibility as in manual UT. The probe is locked at a fixed position so the combined
pivot, swivel and lateral oscillation used in manual UT is not possible.
Manual UT uses the rise and fall of signals, with the associated change in position along the time-base,
as the probe position is changed to determine if a flaw is a pore, crack, lack of fusion or slag. There are
echo-dynamics associated with PAUT mechanised scanning, but the operator needs to look carefully
at the data; and is usually require comparing the arrival time and amplitude changes seen from one
side of the component or weld to the arrival time and amplitude changes from the other side of the
component or weld. There is still useful echo-dynamic information from a mechanised PAUT scan.
230
Imagine a line scan made with a probe

configured with an S-scan (45-70') on a
plate with a single vee butt weld. Also
assume the plate is 25mm thick, has 3 flaws
in the weld region lack of side wall fusiory
a small porosity cluster and a multi-faceted ,S \
planar flaw (like a crack) as illustrated in
Figure 13-6. Selecting the B-scan from the Probe motion
60'focal law it can be seen that there is an
echo-dynamic seen by looking at the
amplitude (colours) and arrival times from
each of the flaws. (See Figure 13-7)
Figure 13-5 3 Flaws aligned in the fan of a PAUT S-scan
Figure 13-7 Echo-dlmamics based on B-scan data
From left to right we cErr see characteristics of the echo-dynamics that the operator might use as an aid
to analysis. The crack occurs near the same location as the weld bevel and has both stronger and
weaker amplitudes with slightly varying arrival times (although the weak signals are difficult to see as
associated with facets). The pores are weak amplitude signals arriving after the bevel fusion line and
have multiple points of arrival time. The lack of fusion has a simple rise to a single large-amplitude
signal that coincides with the bevel position and then drops off again. Flaws in the images of Figure
1.3-6 and Figure 13-7 are shor.tm to also present weak signals earlier in time. These are due to the
redirection of the beam, directly back to the probe, whereas the larger amplitude signals retrace the
path and return via a skip of the far surface. This is indicated in Figure 13-8.
Path of \./eak r edirected signal
Figure 13-8 Accounting for early arriving weak signal
237
The main signal in the image in Figure 13-8 originatesfrom the beam moving to and from the flaw
along the red line path. The weaker signal is derived from travel to the flaw along the red line and
then directly back to the probe via the black line. Due to the non-perpendicular return to the emission
poin! as well as the "glancing" way as the probe met the defect, lower amplitude is received.
1,3,3 TIP ECHO TECHNIQUES

Figure 13-8 presented an image of a weak signal arriving before the main specular reflected signal.
Such signals are a result of the spherical radiation of sound off the tips of flaws. These signals are
weak (typically 20-30dB lower, than the reflected signal amplitudes). They can however, provide
useful information about flaw size and orientation.
Figure 13-9 is a photoelastic image of a compression mode pulse having just interacted with a vertical
notch (1x3mm). The probe is placed at the upper right with the beam initially sent to strike the notch.
The reflected (specular) portion of the wavefront is seen moving down and to the right. At the upper
and lower tips of the notch we see circular patterns centred in the notch points. These are the upper
and lower tip signals.
Figure 13-9 Photoelastic image of tip diffraction process
Tip diffraction analysis of signals was first developed in the 1970s at Harwell UKAEA laboratories in
England. This was the foundation for the ultrasonic technique known as Time of Flight Diffraction
(TOFD). TOFD is considered a"forward scattering" technique and relies on a pitch-catch arrangement
where the probes are usually arranged facing each other on the same surface of the test piece. Pulse-
echo techniques can also take advantage of the tip echo process since the circular shape of the tip echo
ensures that some of the sound can return to the transmitiing probe.
The two techniques (forward scatter and back scatter tip echo testing) are illustrated in Figure 13-10.
r-i D ../\
Figure 13-10 Forward scatter and back scatter tip echo testing
232
TOFD principles are indicated on the left, with transmit and receive probes and the circular shaped tip
echoes emitted from a subsurface planar flaw. On the righf back scatter tip echo testing with a pulse-
echo probe, used to identify the tip echo from a surface-breaking flaw, is illustrated.
13.4 RF OR RECTIFIED
Phased array probes have been used to generate TOFD techniques. This requires two phased-anay
probes facing each other, along with the electronics that can address the elements of the two probes
such that one group is in transmit mode while the elements selected on the opposite probe are in
receive mode. The normal display for TOFD uses a greyscale palette with the A-sean at each scan
position along a weld being collected and imaged essentially as a B-scan (i.e. scan coordinate along
one axis and time along the other).
Figure 13-11 illustrates a typical TOFD A-scan, B-scan, and the associated probe placement over a
modelled weld with4 flaws.
Figure 1"3-LL TOFD B-scan (top left), A-scan (lower left), scan pattern (right)
The main signals in a TOFD display are the first arriving compression mode (called the lateral wave),
the backwall reflected signal from the compression mode and the upper and lower tip echoes from
any flaws between the top and bottom surface. These are identified in Figure 1.3-72.In Figure 13-11 the
A-scan that forms the point where the vertical cursor is placed in the B-scan is seen on the top right.
Figure 13-12 TOFD signals and their origins
ZJJ
It can be seen that the A-scan display is an un-rectified waveform. This is used in TOFD to identify the
upper and lower tip signals. Phase inversion occurs when there is a direct hit, such as when the pulse
hits the backwall or upper tip. Therefore, if the lateral wave signal has its first displacement appearing
black (e.g. positive going), then the backwall should have its first direction of displacement in the
opposite direction and appear white. Upper and lower tips of flaws are similarly reversed relative to
each other.
Because indications from tip echoes are faint, TOFD analysis does not rely on the signal amplitude.
Instead the operator tries to consider the length and vertical extent of the flaw.
For most pulse-echo PAUT applications the signals are analysed based on some arbiirary amplitude
level being set as the evaluation level. Therefore, one of the main differences between TOFD and
pulse-echo PAUT is the way that amplitude is used. For most general applications pulse-echo PAUT
will therefore use a simple rectified signal and analysis based on whether or not the signal exceeds the
evaluation threshold.
Flowever, there are some cases it is useful to collect pulse-echo PAUT data in un-rectified form. As
with the TOFD application, there is a phase consideration depending on which edge of the flaw a back
scattered tip echo signal is arriving from. Figure 13-13 illustrates an A-scan extracted from an S-scan
over a planar flaw with 4mm height and inclined 30' toward the probe. The S-scan indicates that the
upper and lower tips can be resolved on the image and the A-scan pattern shows how the upper tip is
j
formed in the opposite direction to the lower tip.
4A
tip +lre
---.-il,
,ll flfl
-----------* 'll
Uppertip -ve I il
I
Figure 13-13 Phase reversal of tip echo signals in back scatter pulse echo testing
13.4.1 PA TOFD
Phased-array TOFD has been proposed as a method of improving detection and sizing as compared to
the traditional mono-element TOFD. This involves using several focal laws each focusing at different
depths in the component. Each focal law is then used to collect and display TOFD data.
Focusing at specified depths ensures a higher signal to noise ratio but the technique needs to be either
used as a follow-up to the more traditional un-focused TOFD, or it needs to be demonstrated that the
regions above and below the focal spots are adequately ensonified, so there are no regions between
the focal spots where insufficient sound pressure occurs to detect flaws of concern. The concept of
multiple-depth TOFD using a phased array probe pair is illustrated in Figure 13-14.
234
Figure 13-L4 Multiple-depth TOFD with phased array probe pair
13.4,2 PULSE ECHO

One of the limitations of using phased array TOFD is the fact that PAUT is often used in conjunction
with pulse echo techniques. As such, the technique uses the same probe for both the pulse echo and
TOFD. For applications on thicknesses under about 30mm, it is standard to use 5 MHz for pulse echo
(transverse mode). This is a thickness that is reasonably tested with TOFD (compression mode) at 10
MHz to 15 MHz. Figure 13-15 illustrates a dedicated 10 MHz TOFD scan and a 5 MHz PAUT scan
over the same set of targets. The ringing of the lateral wave is clearly seen to be much more
pronounced for the 5 MHz phased array TOFD. It is notable that the near-surface notch detected by
the phased array TOFD is completely missed by the 10 MHz dedicated TOFD.
Lateral lvrve short
f;i[.XOFn.... . Lateralwavelong
***
Figure 13-15 Comparing mono-element 10 MHz TOFD (upper) to 5 MHz phased array generated
TOFD (lower)
The two notches on the backwall are detected by both but only the phased array system detects the
near surface notch. The clarity of the scan is limited significantly and the size of the lateral wave also
masks some of the part.
235
Chapter (14): Procedures for Verification of Flaw Existence and Position
CHAPTER (14): PROCEDURES FOR VERIFICATION OF FLAW

EXISTENCE AND POSITION
Methods of verification of the presence of flaws and determination of their position will vary itignUy,
depending on whether or not the PAUT system uses manual or mechanised probe motion. However,
we can use the lessons learned in manual UT to aid in the process of both verification and
characterisation of fl aws.
Invariably it is the presence of some indication over the background "grass-1evel" that brings our
attention to a signal. For most ultrasonic inspections, there is some level of screen height that a signal
must achieve before the operator is expected to begin a process of evaluation. Evaluation is the
process that an operator goes througtU to identify several parameters about the indication in an
attempt to determine its origin.
1,4.1, GEOMETRICINDICATIONS
The first step is to determine if the indication originates from a flaw (some imperfection in the
intended structure of the material being tested), or if it originates from simply a geometric feature on
the surface of the component tested. Geometric reflectors are not compared against acceptance criteria
so these must be eliminated as items of concern. Typical geometric indications arise from weld caps
and excess root penetrations in welds. Sometimes handling or identification marks can be detected on
plate surfaces. Letters and numbers hard-stamped into the metal to identify components or weld
numbers can be >1mm deep. These could be 4-5mm long, and with the overestimation of length due
to beam spread, it could be conceivable that such indications might be misinterpreted as unacceptable
surface flaws.
\zVhen manually scanning, some of these geometric signals can be easily identified. The cap signal will
occur at a distance just beyond the full skip path length and usually can be seen with some travel
along the time base, as the probe is moved forward and backwards. A finger wet with some couplant
dabbed at the cap surface where the beam interacts will cause the signal to increase and decrease in
amplitude. The signal damping technique will work when monitoring a selected A-scan, S-scan or B-
scan display.
Other geometric features require more information about the component tested. Geometric signals
from the root of a weld can be especially problematic because the operator often does not have visual
or physical access to the opposite surface. Pipe girth welds are a common item inspected by PAUT
and the operator does not have the opportunity to put a couplant-wetted finger on the root surface to
see if there is a damping effect on the signal. Three examples of conditions on the far surface are
considered for weld inspection.
ZJ/
If the plates joined are equal thickness and well

aligned, the weld re-en{orcement will typically
be a convex shape. Some degree of symmetry to
a signal from this feature is seen when the
operator places the probe on either side of the
weld. The indication peaks slightly after the plate
thickness from both sides. The equivalent sound
path CAN originate due to a skip from the far
surface, but any such indication is expected to be
seen prior to the plate thickness depttr, when
inspected from the opposite side of the weld.
Figure 14-1 illustrates the geometric effect seen Figure L4-1 Root geometry seen by S-scan display
by the S-scan display.
The operator does not necessarily need to know the relative position of the probe and beam with
respect to the component references. In this case the image indicates that the source of the indication is
3mm past the weld centreline. Scanning from the opposite side of the weld the operator can see the
same sort of signal about 3mm on the opposite side of the weld centreline.
For the condition known as "mismatch" one side

of the weld has a thickness that is different than
the other side. Although some preparation of the
bevel may be made, this results in a sloped
surface where the weld transitions from one
thickness to the other. When the scans from the
opposite sides are positioned to correct for the
beam position relative to the weld centreline,
there can be seen a marked response from the
taper on one side that is not visible from the
other. In some cases, the sharp corner on the
thinner side may present a tip diffraction effect
that can indicate the transition point from the Figure 14-2 Mismatch geometry seen by S-scan
plate to weld. These features are seen in Figure display. Maximum response seen with probe on
1.4-2, wherc the two S-scans are superimposed on thick section
each other.
A similar condition to mismatch, results when plates or pipes are not aligned, even though they are of
the same thickness. The condition is then called misalignment or "High-Low". The condition will
result in a similar signal to that seen in mismatcl'r, but the origin can be seen by the operator when
making a measurement of the surface levels at which each probe is placed. This is illustrated in Figure
74-3.
238
Figure 14-3 High-Low geometry (high side on the left, low side on the right)
Other geometric features that can account for signals that should not be evaluated against acceptance
criteria include bore-holes, change in shape (comers) on the opposite wall of the test component or
welded attachments.
Attachments can be difficult to assess depending
on the access for directing the beam in the
opposite direction from the same surface. If an
attachment is close to a weld if could be confused
as a flaw in the heat affected zone. Operators
faced with an indication well away from a weld
with a large amplitude signal would be advised
to check design drawings if the opposite surface
is not visually accessible. A typical source of such
signals is seen in Figure 14-4 where a simple
angle iron is represented as being welded with a
fillet weld on the opposite surface. Figure 14-4 Welded attachment geometry
detected by E-scan
1,4.2 FLAW INDICATIONS

Having eliminated geometric indications as the source of signals, the operator would then attempt to
identify characteristics of the indications that could help identify type of flaws.
Flaw indications located well away from the surface geometries are generally easy to identify and
locate. The ability to display data as corrected B-scans or S-scans allows the operator a reasonably
accurate indication of the depth of the flaw. As noted in previous images, the ability to incorporate an
overlay of the weld profile and relate the data display coordinates to the component layout reference
points (such as the weld centreline), allows a reasonable estimation of the position of the flaw with
respect to the test piece reference.
239
Flaw characterisation is not a perfect science. Attempts are made to characterise what the flaw is by
collecting information about the signals. Amplitude and time of arrival of a relevant signal are used
along with the direction of the beam relative to the component to plot and characterise indications.
This information is then compared to expected characteristics from "ideal" known flaws. In oriler that
an operator makes sensible "speculation" as to the nature of a flaw, they require some understanding
of the component. This could include information about:
. Material (metal, polymer, composite)
. Form (cast, extruded, machined, welded)
. Service (new, in service, cyclic service, corrosive environment)
. Stresses (direction of most likely failure modes)
Rolled plates or drawn rods of round cross sections inspected just after forming, will have certain
flaws that are more likely to be present and techniques are designed to locate these, if they exist. The
operator cannot reasonably identify flaws in rolled plate as porosity or shrinkage. Simitarly, a weld
inspection in a newly made pressure vessel is not likely to reveal forging bursts or fatigue cracks.
Knowing the type of flaws that can be associated with different components will go a long way
towards the operator making sensible characterisations. Some techniques are designed to detect
specific flaws. For example, specialised PAUT equipment has been developed to detect a special form
of cracking in aircraft called "faying surface cracking". A "faying surface" is where two joined
surfaces are in contact. In aircraff large sheets of aluminium are riveted together. Where the rivets
squeeze the sheets together, the surfaces contacting each other are "faying surfaces". Regions of
contact between the two surfaces around the rivets are subject to fatigue and form cracks unique to
this process. Ary flaws identified by the process would be considered to be faying surface cracks
since no other flaws are being considered.
However, for weld inspections, the variety of flaws that could be formed is significantly greater than
one single tyPe. Lt addition to the flaws that could be introduced during the welding process, there
may also be other flaws to consider if the weld inspection is carried out on a component that has been
in service. Flaw types in welds and how they can be characterised is addressed here.
Different welding processes can have different welding flaws associated with them. Common weld
processes include:
. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
. Electric Resistance Welding (ERW)
Less common welding processes include electro-slag welding and friction-stir welding.
240
1.4.2.1. SAW
Submerged arc welding (SAW) has the I leat of thc arc nre.lts thc Ijlu.r cor.ers u,eld
rvire, flux ancl plate zone in front r:f rvire
arc occurring submerged beneath a
pile of granular flux. The arc [;r:ser'l f lr-rx slr.rpes anel
protl'cts lvclcl ntetal
generates heat to not only melt the
base metal and filler but the flux as
well. The flux in its molten state is
conductive so the arc is maintained
l\icltl nretal -lrar,el
under the flux without spark, spatter,
smoke or flash. (See Figure 14-5) Figure 14-5 SAW process (45)
SAW is a popular option for joining thick sections

,'*- ,
of steel. The normal process when joining thick 3*
sections is to use a double V preparation. First

one side is welded (from the middle out), then the
joint should be back-gouged from the other side
and welded from the opposite side. A common
problem occurs at the mid-wall where the back-
gouge process may not always clean out
entrapped slag and incomplete penetration or
Figure 14-6 Double Vee SAW macro indicating
slag can occur. Fig;re 1,4-6
entrapped slag at penetration (root) point
1.4,2.2 SMAW
HMA prinripl€
In another form of arc welding, the electrodes used in
"stick" welding (manual welding) are usually covered with
a baked-on flux coating. The flux melts under the high
temperature of the arc. This flux melt forms a gas over the
arc as well as slag, which protects the metal from oxides,
stabilises the arc and forms a coating over the cooling weld
metal to protect and insulate it, thereby reducing the
cooling rate. Since the shielding provided from the air is
directly over the filler rod, this process is also called
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) or manual metal arc
(MMA). The process is more often used where there is
single-sided access, so the bevel preparation is V-shaped to
accommodate the manual positioning of the stick, the bevel
opening is typically 60'included angle. Components of the
SMAW process are seen in Figure 14-7. Figure 14-7 SMAW Components (+s)
247
Welding flaws most usually encountered in NDT, are those associated with the SMAW process.
Similar flaws can be found in the other welding processes (with exceptions based on the unique
aspects of the other processes, e.g. ERW welding would not have slag or porosity associated with the
process).
1.4.2.2,1 COLD CRACKS

Cold cracks occur after the weld solidifies completely (See Figure 14-8). They can occur up to several
days after welding and include; transverse cracks, toe cracks, underbead, hard cracking or throat
cracks. Cold cracking is a result of:
. Rapid cooling of weld and heat affected zone in high carbon and alloy steels
. Excessive joint restraint
. Hydrogen inclusions (hydrogen cracking, underbead cracking)
FUS]OIJ LINT
Figure 14-8 Types of cold cracking
14.2,2.2 GAS INCLUS/ONS

Dissolved gases or gases released during the welding process, may become trapped in the metal if
there is insufficient time to escape prior to solidification. If it is in the shape of rounded holes, the gas
is called porosity, but if elongated, the terminology is wormholes or piping (See Figure 14-9). Causes
of porosity are:
. Excessively long or short arc length
. Welding current, too high
. Insufficient or moist shielding gas
. Travel speed, too fast Spherical
. Base metal covered with oil, grease, moisfure, etc.

. Wet, unclean or damaged electrodes
Elongated (Wormholes)
Figure 14-9 Porosity forms
242
14.2.2.3 SLAG /NCLUS/ONS

Slag originates from the flux that is used to remove impurities from the weld metal. If the metal does
not stay molten long enough to allow the slag (flux carrying impurities) to rise to the surface, it may
become trapped in the solidifying metal. In multi-pass welding, insufficient cleaning between passes
may trap previously deposited slag. Dirty, irregular or undercut joint edges can also trap slag. Slag is
often associated with lack of penetration, lack of fusion, oversize root faces, poor electrode
manipulation and too narrow a groove.
14.2.2.4 LACK OF PENETRAT/ON (INCOMPLETE PENETRATION)
Generally associated with the weld root in simple "Vee Prep" welds, this occurs where insufficient
weld metal has been added to the root and a void or "missed edge" results (See Figure 14-10). Causes
are:
. Travel speed, too high

. Welding current too low
. Poor joint design or preparation
. Too large a diameter electrode
. Wrong type of electrode
. Excessively long arc
Figure 14-L0 Incomplete or lack of penetration

(abbreviated IP or LOP)
14.2.2.s LACK OF FUSION

\z\rhen the base metal and weld metal fail to fuse, the flaw is termed lack of fusion. In multi-pass
welds, adjacent layers of weld are short, they may fail to fuse. This is sometimes called a stop/start
if
(associated with the welding process being stopped and restarted). If the non-fusion occurs between
one pass and the next pass above it the orientation of the non-fusion is in a horizontal plane. It is then
considered "inter-pass non fusion" and in some regions it may also be called a cold lap. (See Figure
1,4-11)
ffiLackor
ffiinter-pass
ffiLackor
sidewalt ffi\cordrap
-.ffi (non-
rusion W rusion tusion)
W W
Figure l4-11Lack of fusion examples
14.2.2,6 UNDERCUT
Undercut is usually defined as a surface flaw. The exposed edges of the base metal tend to melt and
run into the weld. It may occur adjacent to the root or the crowrr depending on geometry and
configuration (See Figure 1,4-12). Causes are:
243
I
Excessive welding current
External undercut
I
Poor electrode manipulation
I
Arc length too long
I
Travel speed too fast
Figure 14-12 Undercut forms at weld reinforcemertt edges
14,2,2,7 BURN THROUGH

If penetration of the electrode becomes too greaf
the weld puddle can be pushed through into the
pipe or vessel being welded. Any condition
causing excessive heat at one spot can cause this;
e.g. high current too slow travel, incorrect
Figure 14-13 Burn through
electrode manipulation. (See Figure 74-13)
1,4.2.3 GTAW AND GMAW

Another method of shielding the arc from air is to ensure that
it is surrounded by an inert gas. Gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode to
produce an arc which is surrounded by an inert gas, usually
argon or helium. The weld is often used to just fuse the base
metals, but filler metal can be added to the melt. (The
process is also called TIG for tungsten inert gas). Gas metal
arc welding (GMAW) is similar to GTAW in that a shielding
gas is maintained around the arc. However unlike GTAW,
the electrode is consumed and deposited in the welding
process. Both GMAW and GTAW processes originally used
inert gases exclusively, hence they were called MIG (Metal
Inert Gas) and TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) welding both now
can use gases other than just the traditional inert gases.
The GMAW process uses a continuous feed electrode,

controlled in such away as to maintain a constant and correct
Figure 14-14 GMAW Ple6gss (46)
arc length and burn off rate while shielding is provided by
the gas introduced through the welding gun. A variation on
the GMAW process uses a wire electrode which incorporates
a flux (either as a coating or as a core material). This is
appropriately called flux-cored arc welding (FCAW). Some
fluxes are sufficient as to not require the protective cover gas.
The mechanics of the process are seen in Figure 14-14.
244
This process is a preferred option for high production fabrication of pipeline girth welds. The nozzle
apparatus can be mounted on a track and the welding process advanced automatically. Without the
need for space for an operator to manipulate the filler rod, the gap can be much narrower. Instead of
30'of opening on either side (as in GMAW), the bevel shapes used for GMAW are typically j-shaped
with the bevel angles above the radius portion of only 3-5'.
Similar flaws as described in SMAW arise in GMAW welding, but lack of side wall fusion is the
predominant flaw encountered. With the narrow gap and small angle welds, PAUT is ideal as it can
be automated and con{igured to use tandem element arrangements to optimise the transmitter and
receiver parameters in the tandem arrElngements.
1.4.2.4 ELECTRICRESISTANCEWELDING
Electric resistance welding, although it welding. Associated
uses electric current, is not a form of arc
with electric current flow is the generation of heat. The amount of heat generated, depends on the
amount of current made to flow through the part and it also depends on the metal's intrinsic
resistance to current flow. \zVhen current is applied across a metal to metal interface, heat occurs
throughout the circuit, but since highest resistance occurs at the metal to metal interface, due to the
contact area being relatively small, heat tends to concentrate at this interface.
One of the most common applications of ERW is in the production of pipe used for gas or oil
transmission. Flat plate is formed into a tube and the edges butt up against each other to form the
contact surface for long seams welded using ERW. (See Figure 14-15)
Figure 14-15 ERW pipe forming and welding {az)
OD Weld Bead:
The heat generated at the plate edges brings the Mateiial exkuded
by forge process. Weld Forge Zone
temperature of the metal to something less than the It is nomallv.
cut away. '. .: }IAZ
melting point. The pressure of the rollers squeezing
the surfaces together forms a "forged weld". The ID Weld Bead:
Material similar to
plastic state of the metal results in its deformation at OD bead. Inside bead
may be left, scarfed,
the seam and the deformed metal extrudes to the or rclled down as
required by end use
of welded tube.
inside and outside surfaces of the pipe that is formed
(See Figure 14-16). The excess metal is often removed
Figure L4-L6 Excess weld metal formation in
by a sharp cutting tool in a process called scarfing.
ERW PiPe {az)
245
(14): Procedures for Verification of Flaw Existence and Position
A common defect in ERW welding is a hook crack. This

type of crack can form due to laminations that were
present in the plate prior to the welding process.
Deformation during welding, redirects the grain
structure towards the surface (inside or outside) and the
previously harmless lamination is then a surface breaking
or surface interacting planar defect (Figure 1,4-77).
Other flaws that can occur in ERW seams include non-
fusion and excess scarfing. The scarfing tool can dig into
the metal and remove more than what was intended.
This leaves one or both sides of the seam having sharp
gouges and reduced wall thickness, both of which can be
Figure '1.4-17 Formation of hook g14sk (a8)
detrimental to the serviceability of the pipe. (See Figure a
74-78)
Figure 14-18 Well scarfed weld seam (left) excessive cutting by scarfing tool (right) r+el
1!1.2.5 FRICTION STIR WELDING

Friction Stir Welding (FSW) was invented by
Wayne Thomas at TWI Ltd in 1991. FSW is a
solid state process which produces welds of
high quality in difficult to weld materials such
as aluminium. See Figure 14-19 illustrating the
process of FSW.
Figure 14-19 Friction stir welding process (FSW; rsol
246
FSW has unique flaws. Insufficient weld temperatures can result due to low rotational speeds or high
traverse speeds. This may result in long, tunnel-like defects running along the weld (either as surface
or subsurface flaws). Insufficient pressure pushing the pieces being joined together can result in the
so-called "kissing bond". Here the material is physically close but not metallurgically bonded, so very
difficult to detect using non-destructive methods, including PAUT. If the rotating pin is not long
enough, or the tool rises out of the plate, then the interface at the bottom of the weld may not be
welded, resulting in a lack-of-penetration defect.
14.3 FLAW CHARACTERISATION

With so many processes and potential flaw types, the PAUT operator needs to use a logical approach
to flaw identification and characterisation. Instead of describing detailed processes for each flaw type
we will use some of the welding flaws to describe a methodical approach.
Discriminating flaws from nearby geometric indications can be difficult. Small cracks emanating from
near a root or a cap geometric reflector can be masked by the geometry. The operator needs to rely on
good details of physical measurements such as wall thickness determinations, weld cap measurement
and centreline determination (the weld cap centre may not accurately indicate the actual weld bevel
centre). Incorporating an overlay of the weld bevel is the best way to verify the location of a flaw. By
accurately identifying the flaw position relative to the overlay outline of the bevel, the confidence in
the characterisation of the indication can be greatly increased.
Characterisatiory as learned in manual UT using mono-element probes can use manual techniques
when data is not collected by mechanised methods. The range of probe motion for echo dlrramic
analysis is increased using manual techniques. However, mechanised techniques may offer superior
analysis when using visual patterns available only with encoded scan displays. In mechanised
scanning the geometric features can be identified and flaw features are often detected by observing
subtle deviations of the flaw signals moving away from the geometry signals.
74.3.1 ROOT INDICATIONS

L4.3.L.1 ONE-S/DE
Undercut depth-wise, is generally a small indication. Added to this feature, the shape of undercut is
generally rounded, so it presents a small reflecting surface regardless of the refracted angle detecting
it. Since it occurs at the edge of the weld (cap or root) it is not possible to reliably discriminate it from a
very small surface non-fusiory or even a crack next to the weld. To add to the difficulties in
interpretation, it is possible for an excessive cap or root to provide a sharp corner which will result in a
tip echo that may provide a signal with amplitude sufficient to merit evaluation. Not until the signal
amplitude rises well out of the surrounding background, can any effort be made to reasonably
characterise the indication. In all cases the operator should use a weld overlay and ensure that the
standoff coordinates are correct. This will ensure that the side of the weld that the indication
originates from is correctly defined. Note that in some cases there may only be 2-3mm of difference
between the two sides of the root. In a single V weld preparation, the B-scan or S-scan will indicate
incomplete penetration on a single side by a constant time of arrival on the side that the incomplete
247
penetration has occurred when the scan is made using a fixed standoff. The amplitude may be
relatively constant if the condition is uniform but constant amplitude is not a guaranteed
characteristic. The difference between a crack and incomplete penetration in a single V root can be
subtle. A crack is generally thought to have facets, so the time of arrival is thought to be varying
slightly along the weld length. Flowever, the changes in time of arrival may be so small as to be
unnoticeable. Longitudinal cracks in a single V root weld can be in the middle of the weld, at tfre edge
or in the HAZ. Position relative to the centreline is therefore not a definitive trait to characterise
cracking.
In double V bevels, the "root" is not at the surface but at some location mid-wall. In a weld, where
only one side of the root land has been missed, there may not be any good indication of the flaw, due
to the fact that most of the beam is reflected away from the probe. If incomplete penetration is a
suspected flaw, the technique should be configured to provide a tandem path to ensure detection.
14.3.L.2 TWO-SIDES
Single V welds with indications from both root land faces would most likely indicate a complete lack
of penetration. Arrival time of the signals is usually uniform, as is the amplitude (although amplitude
rr.ay .vary depending on the height of the root land and amount of penetration). The probability that
cracking would occur on either side of the root of a single V bevel is very low.
In the double V bevel, the possibility that the two vertical lands of a root are not fused is small.
FIowever, it may be more common that slag has been trapped in the root region and one side exhibits
a uniform arrival time and constant amplitude while the opposite side indicates an irregular arrival
time and amplitude. Incomplete penetration associated with slag is perhaps more commonly seen in
SAW welds where the back-gouge process may be automated and poorly done.
14.3.7.3 BURN THROUGH

Burn through is easily identified on a
radiograph but not so easily identified
in PAUT. The loss of metal caused by
the puddle being "blown through" the
joint can be symmetrical or
asymmetrical. It may be deep or
shallow. Because the blow-through is
often short and leaves a small and
somewhat rounded top, the amplitude
of the response is typically low. These
characteristics would make the
identification of burn though nearly
impossible using manual techniques.
The patterr; although weak, is best
seen on the B-scan (Figure 14-20). Figure 14-20 Burn through seen from two sides of the weld
248
L4.3.L.4 ROOT POROSlrY

Regardless of where it occurs, porosity tends to have a low amplitude signal. The spherical shape of
pores presents little surface to redirect much pressure back to the probe. Most of the pressure is
scattered in a forward direction and can then interact with any other pores later in the sound path.
Arrival time of the associated signals tends to be irregular when the porosity is scattered, although it
is conceivable that a single line of isolated pores could form, this is not a common event. Porosity
occurring in the root of a single V bevel will, in addition to presenting a low amplitude diffuse signal,
also reduce or eliminate the geometry signal that may be associated with the root reinforcement.
1,4.3.2 CAP INDICATIONS

14.3.2.1. TOE.CRACK, HAZ CRACK AND "MISSED EDGE"
Toe-cracks occur at the edge of the weld reinforcement and may follow the bevel angle. When the
crack occurs away from the edge of the weld but in the heat affected zone, it is considered aHAZ
crack. When a HAZ crack occurs below the surface and follows the angle of the weld bevel but
remains in the parent metal, it can also be called under-bead cracking. (The HAZ region at the surface
is also a possible site for fatigue cracking to occur).
Surface breaking cracks at the cap generally provide strong signals due to the corner effect of
reflection. Caution should be used so that sufficient standoff is used in the technique design to ensure
that the HAZ region is suitably covered to detect such cracks.
Missed edge is a welding term indicating a lack of fusion that has occurred at the outer surface of the
weld joint. If the operator has visual access to the weld surfaces it should be possible to identify this
type of flaw by seeing a lack of weld metal at the edge of the joint. Sometimes the cause is simple
under-fill (the welder failed to put sufficient weld metal in the groove to bring the weld flush with the
plate thickness). Other times, the welder may be required to make multiple runs along the weld to fill
the joint and the last pass is not brought close enough to the plate edge to fuse the weld metal to the
plate. Characterisation of the indication can be made from the position of the flaw (on the overlay) and
the characteristics of arrival time as the line scan is made. Some further characterisation can be made
by the relative amplitudes, as the operator places the probe first on one side and then the other.
A HAZ crack perpendicular to the surface
and several millimetres away from the HAZ Cracl<
weld cap edge can be seen by the scan from
both sides of the weld in Fig:rre 74-27.
Reflected S-scans from either side are
overlain on an outline of the weld (single
V) and 3mm high planar flaw.
Figure l4-2lHAZ crack perpendicular to surface
249
A flaw at the toe of the weld cap could be identified as either a crack or missed edge. The operator
would need to assess the time of arrival along the line scan. If it is a missed edge, it may be visible to
the eye. The proportionality of amplitude is not as effective a tool in PAUT as it might be in manual
UT. In manual UT, the operator would have only one or two angle beams to use and be able to see
thaf from the flaw side where nearly perpendicular incidence could be had, the amplitude would be
large. From the opposite side, the amplitude would be smaller. In PAUI with a fixed stand-off line
scary the angle that interacts with the flaw may not always be the one that is perpendicular to its main
surface. Figure 14-22 illustrates a 3mm high flaw, detected by the S-scans from both sides of the weld.
The flaw is angled, parallel to the weld bevel and the S-scans are configured to indicate the reflection
off the opposite wall. Detection of a surface breaking planar flaw is originating at weld edge and
rurrning parallel to bevel.
Fi gure 1.4-22 U nderbead def ects
1.4.3.3 MID-WALL-FUSION LINE OR INCOMPLETE PENETRATION

(DOUBLE-V)
The side of the weld where non fusion occurs will be seen on the overlay; and its amplitude will be
based on the incident angle that encounters the flaw. Since with an S-scan, the beam incident angle
need not always be the ideal perpendicular angle, it is advised to always scan each side of the weld
with at least two standoff settings of the S-scan. Also indicated, is the relative response of the ideal
smooth, vertical and incomplete penetration in a double V weld. Only the tip echoes are detectable on
the vertical face. Although most flaws in this region would be associated with some slag and result in
higher amplitude responses, it may be desirable in some cases to have a dedicated tandem path focal
law. To characterise the indication at the fusion line as non-fusion would require close assessment of
the arrival times of the responses. Constant arrival times indicate lack of fusion, whereas irregular
times might suggest potential cracking. (See Figure 74-23)
250
Sicle rvall nontusion

-..-______.-,
Irrcornplete penetration .- ----------+
I*
z
lnconrplete
penetratior'r -1{tlll
Sidc rvall nonflrsitn {LlB
Figure 14-23 Subsurface planar flaws in double V weld
14.3."} N,lID-WALL VOLUNIE - POROSITY

Scattered porosity presents a relatively weak signal. In the model of a double V weld with mid-wall
porosity, we can see that there are tip echoes off the far surface cap that could have signals only 10-
12dB lower than some of the stronger pore signals. (See Figure 74-24)
ttered signals from mid wall pores
Figure l4-24Porosity indicating low amplitude signals with varied arrival times in weld volume
251
1,4.3.5 MID-WALL VOLUME _ INTERPASS NON-FUSION

Interpass non fusion can have many orientations, but it usually has a more significant component in
the horizontal plane. Portions of the non-fusion may also form up the bevel, as an extension -of the
interpass flaw. Detection is usually best at the bevel edge of the flaw and the portion farther inside the
weld is difficult to detect. V\rhere the condition is of concem, the preferred option is to use an E-scan
that can detect portions of the flaw from the underside, after a skip. This provides a response deeper
into the weld metal. (See Figure 14-25)
"7*T:--*
45-70'S-scan 40" E-sca n
Tip echo
Figure 14-25Interpass non fusion - S-scan technique (left) improved detection with E-scan (right)
252
Chapter (15): Use of Software Tools for Flaw Detection and Sizing
CHAPTER (15): USE OF SOFTWARE TOOLS FOR FLAW

DETECTION AND SIZING
Once the sensitivity is adjusted to a suitable level using the reference target (plus colour palette and
TCG); scanning a component will reveal "indications" flrat are then analysed by the operator. The
operator makes decisions on whether or not the indication originates from a geometric feature or from
a flaw in the component. Only flaws are evaluated against acceptance criteria, so it is flaws that we are
ultimately interested in as a PAUT operator.
We have considered the type of information we gather about flaws in PAUT: amplitude, time of
arrival and the relative position of the arrival of signals relative to geometric features. With the aid of
overlays and the detailed analysis of the indication characteristics, the operator attempts to determine
the nature or type of flaw. Having determined that an indication is a flaw, the operator is obliged to
compare the details of the indication against the acceptance criteria. Acceptance criteria may be of
several varieties:
. Workmanship
. Generic fitness for purpose
. Project specific fibress for purpose
In the early days of UT inspection, only workmanship criteria existed. This was more of a detection
assessment than actually determining if a flaw was critical to the service of the component. Often it
was just a means of making sure that welders were paying attention and not leaving gross flaws in
their work. When pulse echo UT is carried out to workmanship acceptance criteria, it is always based
on a simple amplitude assessment. In some cases, the operator is expected to reject any indication that
exceeds a specified level. In other cases, the operator must also assess the length of a flaw, having
amplitude over a specified level. In such cases, there is limited expectation for sizing, other than the
length, which is usually based on assessing the probe displacement to positions where the signals
drop from a maximum to a specified level. And in still other cases, there are expectations for the
operator to evaluate the flaw type, with certain flaws being rejectable, regardless of amplitude over
the recording level.
Efforts to assess flaw height bring new challenges to UT. Techniques based solely on amplitude have
limited success. The DGS system (AVG in German) was designed to estimate a flaw size compared to
a theoretical disc reflector. As such, comparisons are made to the amplitude response from a flat
bottom hole. But the theory works ("approximately") only for flaws with dimensions less than the
probe dimension; and for flaws that are exactly perpendicular to the beam axis and centred in the
beam.
Amplitude drop techniques have been popular in manual UT using mono-element probes. But these
too suffer from amplitude variations arising from coupling, flaw orientation and flaw texture. The
three most popular amplitude sizing methods are the 20dB drop, 6dB drop and the "MaxAmp"
253
Chapter (15): Use of Software Tools for FIaw Detection and Sizing
techniques. The 20db and 6dB drops require beam spread corrections, so the operator must first
construct a beam spread diagram and use it to compensate for beam spread effects. The MaxAmp
option is much more convenient as it relies on the assumption that the operator can determine the last
point of interest on a flaw and the probe displacement where the amplitude drops 10% from the local
peak, indicates the centre of beam moving off the flaw. Manual techniques have not performed well
using any of the amplitude techniques and typically have a standard deviation of error on the order of
3-5mm.
The trend to fitness-for-purpose assessments of components has put increasing pressure on NDT
techniques to size flaws more accurately.
Backscatter techniques have been most successful where a flaw is known to be surface breaking. This
provides a ready reference signal from the corner reflection. Except for the difficulties of flaws not
being oriented exactly perpendicular to the connected surface; these techniques can provide
reasonably accurate size assessments for flaws having vertical extents more than about 2-3
wavelengths.
Figure 15-1 illustrates the principles of the backscatter sizing technique for a surface-breaking flaw.
Note that the same principles can be used for both single element and PAUT probe techniques.
Examples in Figure 15-1 indicate a simple shear mode with the two conditions of the probe
positioning; either peaking on the flaw tip in the first half skip (upper) or second half skip (lower).
]W
1 1
o 1 2 A4 5 6 I I S 1(
Figure L5-L Simple tip diffracted signal using pulse echo shear wave
For an embedded (subsurface) planar flaw, the general condition for the origin of tip diffracted signals
can be described as in Figure 15-2.
254
5-- ted wave
Figure 1.5-2Tip signal origins
The delta time between Dr and Dz does allow for some

estimate of sizing via:
2D
Xs - v
(1,5.1)
-sine
D is the distance equivalent time between the defect
extremities; 0 is the angle that the incident beam
makes with the line perpendicular to the planar
defect; u is the acoustic velocity.
In mono-element application of these concepts, the

analysis that allows sizing and orientation
determination relies on probe motion and is
somewhat dependent on coupling variation as the
analysis, in part, uses amplitude peaks. The principles
of depth and orientation determination technique can ^lll\^
be illustrated by the probe positions as related to the
echo dlmamic peak positions in Figure 15-3.
Figure 15-3 Probe positions and sound paths

recorded for peak amplitudes of tip echoes
The presence of the Fz specular reflection signal relies on the size of the flaw and the texture of the
flaw surface. In some cases it may not be evident.
Depths to the upper and lower tips can be calculated knowing the sound paths Fr and Fs and the
nominal refracted angle 0 of the beam. Depth to the tips can be determined from:
d:
F(cos0) (1.5.2)
Where F is the sound path, 0 is the refracted angle of the beam, and drand dl are the depths for the
upper and lower tips as calculated for either Fr or Fs.
255
But if the separation between the upper and lower tips can be determined from the probe
displacement (X, - Xr), then the flaw orientation is also possible to determine.
d, - d".
tanq.: (#)
/r3 rr7
(15.3)
\Alhere a is the angle, the flaw axis makes to the horizontal. The flaw height over the beam
displacement is a simple calculatiory but in a practical application of these principles, the flaw must be
fairly large; and the coupling ideal to ensure that measurement error is minimised. Of course, the
beam directiory with respect to the flaw axis, will also have a significant bearing on the detectability of
the tip signals. If the beam is directed parallel to the flaw plane, the far tip may be considered to be in
the "shadow" of the flaw and no discernable signal obtained. Likewise, a flaw oriented such that the
beam is exactly perpendicular to its long axis will see no discrete variation in the tip signal amplitudes
due to the very strong back reflection signal and no separation of tip echo peaks is obtained.
Phased array scanning and the associated depth-corrected displays now common in PAUT, simplify
all the earlier issues associated with mono-element probes and probe displacement. The basic PAUT
display now allows reasonable assessment of flaw vertical extent and orientation. Phased arcay E-
scans avoid the operator's coupling difficulties in optimising signal amplitudes and measurements of
small probe displacement, using manual techniques. As well, it can improve S/N ratio by optimising
tip responses through the use of focused beams.
Examples of the tip echo sizing technique can be reconstructed for planar flaws. Tip echo sizing is not
feasible when tip echoes are not detected. Irregular volumetric flaws (e.g. slag) do not provide
discernable tip signals and are better sized using the MaxAmp technique as modified for PAUT.
Having "detected" a flaw at some prescribed scanning sensitivity, the operator may be required to
increase gain (sometimes significantly) in order to detect the tip signals.
15.1 TIP ECHO SIZING BY PAUT

15.1.1 SURFACE CONNECTED
Consider a surface connected planar flaw in a weld using an E-scan at 55' (5 MHz). The direct path tip
diffracted signal, peaks at about 32dB lower than the corner signal. As the beam moves back, the
corner signal rises then falls; and then the beam bounces off the backwall and the centre of beam can
again interact with the flaw tip to produce another tip echo. See Figure 15-4 illustrating the pre- and
post- corner responses.
Figure L5-4 Faint tip echoes either side of corner response
256
Note the pattern as the E-scan passes over the flaw. There is a faint tip signal either side of the large
corner signal, that has its peak coincide with the plate thickness.
\Alhen cursors are used in the True B-scan display, the

peak from the corner is seen at 29.8mm (actual plate is
30mm); and the tip echo peaks at 27.2mm (flaw modelled
is 3mm high). Estimated height can then be made as
2.6mm. See Figure 15-5 for cursor placement and
measurement of height.
Consider a surface connected planar flaw in a weld using

an S-scan. The same probe as used in Figure 15-4 and
Figure 15-5 is used for the demonstration in Figure 15-6.
The S-scan sweeps from 40o to 70" in 1o increments.
Figure 15-5 Tip sizing using the Corner
signal and direct path tip echo
Figure 15-6 Tip sizing of surface-breaking planar on full skip with S-scan
The same pattern seen on the E-scan half skip is seen on the full skip S-scan display. A large corner
signal is seen with the tip responses either side of the comer reflection. The same sizing technique is
used with the cursors placed at the peaks of the tip and corner indications. Knowing the exact wall
thickness at the flaw location allows a more accurate assessment, as at least, the reference corner signal
can be accurately indicated.
15.1,.2 EMBEDDED
Subsurface planar flaws provide no reference corner indications. As well, the detection process of
planar flaws being ideal when the beam is perpendicular (or even just "almost perpendicular") is not
suitable for tip sizing. Using an S-scan provides a range of angles and not all are ideal for detection;
but when a flaw is nearly perpendicular to the beam, the returned signal will generally be so large and
257
the associated tips so closely spaced in time (i.e. no difference in travel from upper to lower tip), that
tip sizing is not possible. This is seen in Figure 15-7.
Strong
specu la r
Figure 15-7 S-scan detection and occluded tip signals
When the flaw is approached from the opposite direction, the tips can be separated and not hidden in
the strong ring of the specular reflection. However, the indications are weak. They may even be much
smaller than the geometric features from the root or cap roughness. (See Figure 15-8)
Figure 15-8 Tip echoes detected when approached from opposite side
In addition to vertical extent estimates, the true

depth display used by PAUT systems allows for
some estimate of flaw tilt. The peak signals may be
offset, one from the other. Identification of the
peaks on the display can therefore indicate which
tip is left and which is right of the vertical. Figure
15-9 is the same indication as used in Figure 15-8 but
the cursors are positioned to where the tip peaks
were identified. This indicates a vertical extent of
2.9mrr. and the tip offsets indicate the flaw is at
some angle (not vertical). Connecting the cursor
cross-hairs we have marked a red line that would
indicate the estimated flaw length and tilt. It is
relatively close to the actual flaw modelled. Figure L5-9 Assessing height and tilt of a
subsurface planar flaw
258
To further assist in the determination process, we can use the A-scan display to aid in our
determination of the flaw's upper and lower tips. To do so, we need to display the A-scan in its
unrectified form. Figure 15-10 is a capture of the unrectified A-scan associated with the beam along
the green line in Figure 15-9. Note that the upper and lower tip signals are phase-reversed.
Edge of beam on root geometry Lower tip
Figure 15-10 A-scan at a60" refracted angle
It was considered that a planar flaw, vertically oriented,

would not easily be detected. Such flaws are perhaps best
"detected" using a tandem arrangement. However, having
detected the flaw, a simple 45" E-scan is a very effective option
for sizing its vertical extent. Figure 15-11 illustrates an
example of such a flaw. This orientation of flaw might be
typical of a shrink-crack. The beam path (in red) indicates how Figure 15-L1 Tandem path of 45"
a 45'beam would strike the flaw and be redirected to the cap beam striking centreline shrink-crack
(missing the probe on the reflected path back to the probe).
\zVhen the overlay is placed on the B-scan display, corrected for reflection off the backwall, we see that
the upper and lower tips are easily indicated. The same principles used in the S-scan for sizing lack of
fusion (LOF) can apply here as well. (See Figure 75-12)
Edge of beam on
root geometry
Figure 15-12 45" B-scan overlaid on profile and flaw (left) A-scan at lower tip (right)
259
r (15): Use of Software Tools for Flaw Detection and Si
75.2 MAXAMP SIZING BY PAUT

MaxAmp sizing in manual UT relies on the operator making precise measurements of the beam exit
point and recording the exact travel time (distance) to the points where the beam has dropped ta 90"/"
of its peak value. The operator can then draw a line on a scale drawing at the refracted angle of the
probe, to indicate the end points of the flaw.
A similar process can be carried out on PAUT S-scan and B-scan displays. There are tolerances and
limitations to consider but these are no worse than the field-measurement tolerances that would be
experienced by manual UT operators using a mono-element probe.
Consider a slag-like inclusion in a weld

using an S-scan. No tip echo will be seen
and the amplitude response will vary in
all directions of approach. (See Figure
15-13)
Placing cursors at the vertical locations,

where the signal first drops off, provides a
means of MaxAmp sizing. Since the
resolution of the scanning (angular)
increment determines the smallest change
in signal that can be seen, the accuracy of
this process hinges on the angular
Figure 15-13 S-scan overlaid on slag-like profile with
resolution. Figure 15-14 illustrates sizing
maximised A-scan (right)
by MaxAmp using the cursors in the S-
scan display. On the left is a 1" resolution
scan and on the right the angular
increment is reduced to 0.5o.
Figure 1"5-14 Comparing MaxAmp sizing with angular increment (1" Ieft, 0.5' right)
15-14 the MaxAmp size using a 1o resolution is 2.7mm; and

In Figure for 0.5mm resolution the
MaxAmp size is 1.9mmm. The measured size is actually 2.3mm.
260
r (L5): Use of Software Tools for Flaw Detection and Sizing
In addition to the scan or angular increment used, the distance along the sound path and the angles
where maximum amplitude occur, can affect the results. This derives also from the angular
dependence of the measurements. For example, a flaw 50mm deep, detected by a 45" beam, in an S-
scan, might be seen between 4g"-47". This approximates to 2.5mm either side of the maximum depth,
so that an estimate of Smm height is made. But at 100mm depth the same angular increment indicates
1Omm of height.
If the flaw at 50mm depth is peaked by the 60'beam and we see the MaxAmp drop points at 59o and
62", its height estimate will be approximately 5.2mm; but again, this would double if the flaw was at
twice the depth and had the same angular separation between MaxAmp drop points' ''
The same process, using an E-scarL suffers less variation with increased distance. Using a 60o E-scan
on the same flaw as seen in Figure 15-13, we can achieve a signal via the direct and skip paths (the
flaw was moved outside of the weld to avoid the wedge interfering with the cap). (See Figure 15-15)
Figure 15-L5 MaxAmp sizing with E-scan on direct (left) and skip (right) paths
The vertical intervals as measured by the cursors on the direct and skip paths are 2.1mm and 3.2mm
respectively. This is a much smaller variation than would occur for the S-scan; and can be accounted
for, at least partially, by variation in the reflecting characteristics of the flaw and the increased beam
spread with greater sound Path.
15.3 GUIDANCE TO TIP ECHO ASSESSMENTS

Pattern recognition of planar flaws can help assessing the nature of the flaws. Figure 15-15 illustrates
some guidance to the different patterns that result from surface flaws of increasing vertical extent; and
subsurface flaws having variation in vertical extent and variation in ligament for a constant vertical
extent. Findings assessed 45o E-scans to provide the best opportunities to characterise most such
planar flaws. It is interesting to note how the corner reflected signal grows in extent as the flaw height
increases. Also note, that as the subsurface ligament grows, the tandem paths that were characteristic
of the corner reflections move farther away from the plate depth and there comes a point in the E-scan
where the tandem path from the flaw is lost and no signal is seen.
261.
Figure 15-16 Pattern recognition to characterise planar flaw position il1d si2ss(sr)
262
Chapter (16): Reporting
CHAPTER (16): REPORTING
Having completed an inspection, there is usually an expectation that a report will be provided to the
company requesting the inspection. Even if nothing was detected in the inspectiory simply indicating
that the part was tested and no reportable flaws detected is not much of a report and would probably
not be acceptable to the client.
The concept of "reporting" may carry with i! some confusion. Wording of some standards makes
reference to "recording" of flaws.
e.g. " Any indication of a suspected flaw, shall be recorded regardless of amplitude" ...or
"Tabular summary (or sketches), providing the following information for recorded indications..."
Typically this is wording, associated with manual UT and when PAUT is done manually, there will be
need to make a written record of indications detected and identified by the operator. However, when
using encoded PAUT systems, where the waveforms are captured, the concept of "recording" is
perhaps a misnomer. Data is constantly being "recorded" in such systems. Further, standards also
include wording that indicates the level at which "evaluation" is to be made. If the "evaluation level"
is specified as 20"/o of Reference level; data display and even data recording levels can be adjusted so
that, only data above the evaluation level is displayed or recorded. Since evaluation of data during
analysis may occur remote from the collection site, the idea that a separate reporting of all the
indications "recorded" over 20"/o Reference should not be interpreted in the same way as manual UT
where the operator actually "wrltes" values into a table. Since all the data is on the data hle, this extra
step is a waste of time. Only the flaws that are identified for "reporting" (e.g. flaws greater than 50%
Reference, or 100"/' Reference, depending on the Standard) would merit the extra step of reporting the
details (amplitude, sizes, coordinates) in a separate table.
Contents of a PAUT report should be reasonably comprehensive so as to indicate not only the results
of the inspection, but also some background on the component equipment used and personnel
involved. Several national or international standards have been written that can be used as guides to
standardise report f ormats.
The following items represent a good (but not exhaustive) list of information that would be required
in a PAUT inspection report. Contracting parties may add, delete or alter some of the items based on
the specifics of the component or their needs.
-],6.1, REPORT TOPICS
76.7.7 CON,{PONIENT DETAlLS

Geometric details including thickness, dimensions, material, weld process and bevel
shape. Descriptive sketches are usually recommended
Scanning surfaces and surface conditions
263
)6.1.2 EQUIPiUENjI'
. Phased array ultrasonic instrument details
. Phased array probe details including:
- Number of elements
- Frequency
- Element pitch dimensions
. Wedge (velocity, incident angle, dimensions, reference dimensions to first element)
. Encoder(s)
. Scanning mechanisms used
' Couplant
16.1.3 EQUIP\,{ENTSETTINCS
. Focus (identify plane, depth or sound path as applicable)
. Virtual aperture used (number of elements and element width)
. Angular range of S-scan
. Element numbers used for focal laws
. Pulser voltage settings
' Receiver filter settings
. Documented calibration, TCG and angle gain compensation
. Method of sensitivity calibration and details of correlating indications with flaws
. Scan-plan indicating probe position on test piece, probe movement, angles used and
volume coverage
. Mode of transmission (compression, shear, pulse echo, tandem, through transmission)
16.1.1 RESULTS AND PERSONNEL

. Scanning results (flaw details such as length, position, height, amplitude, acceptability
with respect to agreed specifications)
' Status of the component(s) in the form of accept or reject
. Operator name
. Operatorqualifications
. Date of examination
16,2 REI'ORTSOFTlryAITE
Some of the PAUT equipment now incorporates software that provides a template to enter many of
these items. Flexibility in these templates allows adding information entry fields so they can be
customised to a specific project or client's requirements.
Projects often include many welds or components and the equipment and calibration settings remain
the same for each weld and component of the same size or shape. The specific parameters of
equipment and calibration would also be found in the inspection Techniques (Written Instructions). It
would be feasible in such cases to have a section of the report identify the instrument and calibration
264
settings by reference to attached Technique documents and the details of findings for each weld or
component listed in tabular form (with attached images of flaw indications where appropriate).
To some degree, the overall layout of the report will be determined by the scope of work conducted.
A convenient method for data reporting, after the details of a project are entered in the introduction of
a reporf is to link the data entry from tables with a plotting programme (software linking a graphic
image with coordinates of the indication data). Such a format is seen in the example in Figure L6-1.
An outline of a typical format for a report of a PAUT inspection on a specific (single) component is
shown in Appendix (A): Samples of Inspection Reports. These reports are typically rnulti-page items
due to the amount of relevant information needed.
Tabl e 16.1Sample of indications summa
Weld A77_C5_7600 2600
Depth Depth ScanDist. ScanDist. Y Max

Indication Status Analyst TyP" Height Length
Start End Start Start (Inclex) Amplitude
INDl
OK DC Primary 34.9 39.3 4.4 -48 29 77 7 69.4
lnclusion
iND 2
OK DC Primary 30 -)/ 7 85 297 272 6 B5
Inclusion
IND 3
OK DC Primary 32 39 7 353 380 27 6
Inclusion
IND 4
OK DC Primary 31 35 4 494 651 757 6 45
Inclusion
IND 5
OK DC Primary 63 65 2 1511 1527 10 0 46.1
Inclusion
al
cl
6l
'v
figur! gencrnted trrins

llSti.ar'n fool & r:slnsFrr_tionllrnk
Figure 15-L Example of linking flaw data report to graphic plotting
265
Chapter (17): Codes for Phased Array Applications
CHAPTER (17): CODES FOR PHASED ARRAY

APPLICATIONS
Phased array UT came onto the NDT scene relatively recently compared to the "traditional' NDT
methods. M*y standards have been made for UT, but when they are read closely, people seem to
think that PAUT cannot be used as an option to manual UT because all the items in the standard
cannot be met when PAUT is applied. This is unfortunate because in most cases PAUT provides more
advantages over manual UT than drawbacks.
Items, that some people would point to, include requirements that some of the standards have for
probe characterisations. Manual UT requires that the operator check the exit point of the probe
wedge. But a PA probe has no defined exit point. Similarly, on a manual UT probe wedge, the
manufacturer is obliged to indicate the refracting angle in steel. Instead, the PAUT probe indicates the
incident angle (and sometimes velocity of the wedge). Weld inspection standards indicate that a weld
is to be inspected by, for example, two angles in addition to the compression mode used for plate
testing. When an S-scan is used in PAUT, the angles are swept through many values, not just two.
Inspection rules in structural steel inspection standards identify probe element sizes and stipulate
minimum dimensions. PA probe elements are smaller than the stipulated element sizes for structural
steel inspections, and even though the PA probe uses "apertLlres" comparable to the structural steel
requirements for mono-element probes, the wording is specific to "elements" so the potential user is
frightened away from the PAUT equipment because it does not conform to the exact words of the
standard.
As we will discuss, some of these wording problems have been overcome. Flowever, other issues
have arisen around the "traditional" calibrations used. In PAUT equipmenf we ctrn no longer
consider our work done, when assessing a single receiver amplifier for gain linearity. A separate
check is required for every amplifier in the PA unit. Another issue arises in setting sensitivity for
scanning. Calibrating on a target is intended to ensure that a uniform compensation is made to the
beam as it travels farther away from the probe. To this end we construct DAC or TCG using a
uniform target at increasing distances. But the preferred target for pipe calibrations, the square notch,
is not compatible with PAUT. The notch may be okay for a single angle, but when using an S-scary
the effect of variable reflectivity with different angles makes it unsuitable as a sensitivity calibration
target.
Codes and Standards are written by committees, so the process of bringing standards up to date with
technology, can be a slow process. But progress has been made. Now there are opportunities to use
PAUT based on modifications to the "traditional" standards and by the writing of new dedicated
standards for PAUT.
Standards can be considered as regulating, or setting base requirements for the equipment; or
standards may be established as a means of ensuring uniform inspection requirements when using the
equipment.
267
Chapter (17): Codes for Phased Arcay Applications
There is a related document that addresses only the terminology used in an industry. Glossary
documents have been drafted to address PAUT terms. In the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), the document for NDT terminology addresses PAUT items within its section on
ultrasonic testing. This document is ASTM vol. 03.03 E-1316 Standard Terminology for Non-
destructive Examinations. An equivalent document is now prepared in Europe. The document is EN
76018:2017 Non-destructive Testing - Terminology - Terms used in ultrasonic testing with.phased
arrays.
17.1 EQUTPMENT CONTROL (TNSTRUMENTATTON AND PROBES)
Standards exist that regulate the instrumentation (pulser-receiver and displays) and probes. It is
possible to also have standards that provide instruction on the performance expectations for the
combined instrument and probe. Some of the traditional standards used for equipment control can be
adapted to PAUT equipment. In additioru there have been a few special additions to existing
standards and the addition of new standards to address specific PAUT requirements.
Initial standards in the industry in Europe relating to equipment are an EN document set.
' EN 12688-l Characterisation and Verification of Ultrasonic Examination Equipment - Part 1-

Instruments
' EN 12688-2 Characterisation and Verification of Ultrasonic Examination Equipment-Paft2-
Probes
' EN 12688-3 Characterisation and Verification of Ultrasonic Examination Equipment - Part 3-
Combined Equipment
Part 1 of the EN document states it is intended for methods and acceptance criteria for assessing the
electrical performance of analogue and digital ultrasonic instruments for pulse operation using A-scan
display, employed for manual ultrasonic non-destructive examination with single or dual-element
probes operating within the centre frequency range 0.5 MHz to 15 MHz.
Provision is made to use the standard for other ultrasonic instrumentation. It states that "This
standard may partly be applicable to ultrasonic instruments in automated systems but then other tests
can be needed to ensure satisfactory performance."
Part 1 of the EN document divides the type of tests into two groups:
Group 1 tests
. Stability against temperature
. Stability against voltage variation
r Transmitter pulse parameters
. Receiver
. Monitor gate
. Monitor gates with proportional output
. Digital ultrasonic instruments
268
Group 2 tests
. Physical state and external aspects
. Stability
. Transmitter pulse parameters
. Receiver
. Linearity of time base
Some of the instrumentation tests can only be carried out with suitable electronic equipment (at the
manufacturer's facility) while other tests can be done reasonably at suppliers or in the. user's test labs.
For probes Part2 of the EN document makes it clear that it is intended only for the standard probes,
i.e.
' Single or dual transducer contact probes generating compressional or shear waves
' Immersion probes
However, some of the assessment techniques relating to functions/characterisitics carried out by the
manufacturer can be useful for general guidance. Manufacturers using EN 12688-2 are required to
assess such items as:
. Weight and size of probe

. Wedge material
. Shape and size of elements
. Cross-talk damping
. Centre frequency and bandwidth
. Pulse echo sensitivity
. Impedance or static capacitance
. Squint angle
. Focal width and length
Blocks used for the assessment of some of the characteristics are described in some detail and could
also be useful for PA probe assessments.
Part 3 of the EN standard is typical of the tests run in the field to monitor for any performance
variation. No electronic equipment is needed: just the A-scan display and standard blocks with a
probe attached to the instrument. Parameters measured include:
. Linearity of time base
. Linearity of equipment gain
. Probe index
. Beam angle
. Physical state and external aspects (wear, damage, cracks to probes)
. Sensitivity and signal to noise ratio
' Pulse duration
Except for Probe Index and Beam Angle (as determined by the guidance in Part 3), the other aspects
could be equally applied to PAUT systems.
269
ASTM has a standard dedicated to PAUT systems; ASTM VoI. 03.03 E-2491 Standard Guide for
Evaluating Performance Characteristics of Phased Arcay Ultrasonic Testing Instruments and Systems.
This standard has recognised that some users do not need to carry out all of the possible assessments
on a system. Therefore the standard specifically allows the users to select the assessments that would
be used for a project or system based on agreement with the contracting parties.
E-2491, describes recommended methods of assessment outlining approaches without being

prescriptive. Items assessed include:
. Beam profile
. Steering limits
. Element activity (dead elements or broken cables or malfunctioning pulser-receivers)
. Focusing ability
. Computer-parameter control and display accuracy
. Wedge attenuation and delay assessments
. Instrument linearity
Reference Blocks are illustrated in E-2491,, but these are illustrations of how the beams could be
assessed. Diameters of SDHs, spacing between them and depths below the test surfaces are all given
as examples. It is interesting to note here that some manufacturers seem to have interpreted the
ASTM E-2497 drawings as mandatory calibration block dimensions. As suctu they have even
fabricated blocks using the designs in the document.
A new ASTM document is being prepared for probe manufacturers. It will be titled Standard Practice
for Evaluating Phased Array Transducers for Manufacture.
17.2 TNSPECTTON CONTROL (SCANNTNG)

As with the equipment control standards, a few special additions to existing standards have been
made that are specific to PAUT. Also there are a few new standards to address specific PAUT
requirements.
To address the new technologies, some Codes have incorporated wording that allows for deviation
from the "traditional" application of manual ultrasonic testing. For example:
EN/ISO 17640 Non-destructive testing of welds - Ultrasonic testing - Techniques, testing levels, and
assessment, in the Scope states that, "The requirements of testing level D, which is intended for special
applications, shall be in accordance with the general requirements of this standard and may only be
used when defined by specification. This includes tests of metals other than ferritic steel, tests on
partial penetration welds, tests with automated equipment, tests at object temperatures outside the
Tange".
AWS D1.1 - Structural Welding Code (Steel) states, "Variations in testing procedure, equipmen! and
acceptance standards not included in Part F of Section 6 may be used upon agreement with the
Engineer. Such variations include other thicknesses, weld geometries, transducer sizes, frequencies,
couplant painted surfaces, testing techniques, etc."
270
In the case of EN/ISO 77640, the use of "automated equipment" needs to have some liberal
interpretation to recognise phased array systems and all the intricacies associated with them. AWS
D1.1 makes it clear that other options may be used, provided that these are agreeable to the
contracting parties and the Engineer approves.
Another Code that is often associated with ultrasonic examination of welds is the Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code by ASME (American Society for Mechanical Engineers). This has long recognised phased
array systems as an option to ultrasonic examinations. ASME Section V has recognised phased array
UT as an option to the single element manual techniques since the December 1.992 addendum. At that
time it was added as a non-mandatory appendix and identified as one of the "computerised imaging
techniques" (CITs). Since then ASME has been developing mandatory appendices to provide more
explicit instructions on the proper use and calibration of phased array systems for weld inspections.
ASME addresses PAUT in several sections of the document. Mandatory Appendices IV and V
address manual UT by phased array UT and linear encoded PAUT respectively. The general
requirements for manual weld inspection apply with added setup and reporting information listed in
these appendices. ASME Section V Art. 4, also references SE-2497 and SE-2700 found in Article 23 of
Section V. These are adoptions of ASTM E-2491. and ASTM E-2700.
At this time, only one standard document exists that instructs how weld inspections should be carried
out using PAUT. ASTM Vol. 03.03 E-2700 Standard Practice for Contact Ultrasonic Testing of Welds
Using Phased Arrays is laid out similar to the manual UT version (ASTM E-764). A1l aspects of
inspection are laid out and subject to agreement between contracting parties. Some of the items
covered by ASTM E-2700 include:
. Procedures and Techniques
. Surface Preparation
. Timing of Examination
. Extent of Examination
. Reporting Criteria/Acceptance Criteria (acceptance criteria shall be specified in the contractual
agreement)
. Re-examination of Repaired/Reworked Items
. Equipment
' Sensitivity
. Time-Corrected Gain (mandatory for PAUT weld inspections)
. Multiple standoffs for S-scans in thicker sections
. Indication Size Determination
. Reporting
The ASTM E-2700 is suitable to use as a guide for PAUT Procedure development. Included in the
document are suggestions for techniques to inspect various geometries of welded joints.
API 620 and API 650, Design and Construction of Large, Welded, Low-Pressure Storage Tanks, and
Welded Tanks for Oil Storage, respectively; contain options to use ultrasonic testing in lieu of
radiography. The appendix of these documents describes the requirements for its application and
without stating it specifically, the requirements for pulse echo UT with computerised data acquisition
271
systems and sizing, fits well with phased array UT. Since the two API documents reference ASME
Section V Art. 4; as the basis on which to develop the UT Procedure; it is now clear that PAUT is an
acceptable option for API 620 and API 650 since ASME describes in detail, the requirements for PAUT
examinations.
Finally, there is a draft of a PAUT inspection standard prepared by the EN community. It is actually
an ISO document, prEN ISO 13588, Non-destructive Testing of Welds - Ultrasonic Testing -'Use of
(semi-) automated phased array technology.
This document specifies the application of the (semi-) automated phased array technology for the
semi-, or fully- automated ultrasonic testing of fusion welded joints in metallic materiils equal to and
above 6mm thickness. It is intended for use on fuII penetration welded joints of simple geometry in
plates, pipes, and vessels, where both the weld and parent material are low alloyed carbon steel.
Where material dependent ultrasonic parameters are specified in this standard, they are based on
steels having an ultrasonic sound velocity of (5920 t 50) m/s for longitudinal waves, and (3255 t 30)
m/s for transverse waves. This has to be taken into account when examining materials with a different
velocity. The document provides guidance on the specific capabilities and limitations of phased array
technology for the detectior; locatiory sizing and characterisation of discontinuities in fusion welded
joints. The document specifies four testing levels, each corresponding to a different probability of
detection of imperfections. This document permits assessment of indications for acceptance purposes
based on either, amplitude and length, or height and length, but does not include acceptance levels for
discontinuities.
272
Chapter (18): Procedures, Techniques, and Written Instructions
CHAPTER (1.8): PROCEDURES, TECHNIQUES, AND

WRITTEN INSTRUCTIONS
18.1 DOCUMENTATIONHIERARCHY
The terms "code", "stantdard", "specification" and "procedute" are often confused in NDT. In some
cases, these terms are used interchangeably. However from a technical point of view, each refers to a
separate type of document. To avoid even further confusion we will restrict our definitions to the
written documents implied by these terms. This caution is due to the common referral to calibration
blocks or test pieces with knor.a,,n defects used to verify accuracy of a test procedure, as "standards".
A Standard is a written document assembled by recognised experts, with the purpose of

recommending actions to achieve certain objectives.
A standard is usually enforced or given authority by an organisation or agency (typically professional
societies or national institutions). When a set of standards is incorporated into law and thereby
en{orceable legally, it is considered a code. This concept is perhaps more prevalent in North America.
An example of a code is:
. American Society of Mechanical Engineers - Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (ASME BPVC)
The ASME BPVC is referenced by most state legislative bodies in the USA and provincial
governments in Canada as the standard, to which pressure vessels shall be built. Requirements to
follow the ASME BPVC are written into the laws of each state or province.
A similar condition exists in the United States for certain Standards. For example, the U.S.
Department of Transportation (DOT) is responsible for the safety involved in construction of natural
gas pipelines and facilities. These are governed by Title 49, Part 192, of the Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR). This part prescribes minimum safety requirements for pipeline facilities and the
transport of gas, including pipeline facilities and the transport of gas within the limits of the USA.
This Code of Federal Regulations states that the API 1104 Standard will be used for pipeline
construction. So although the API 1104 document may be used outside the USA in some applications
where it is used as guidance, within the USA, the Standard is enforced legally via the CFR process.
When a user or purchaser of a specific product requires assurance of quality level, they will often
arrange their own document describing specific test parameters and acceptance criteria. Such a
product-specific standard is considered a specification. Although it may reference other codes and
standards, it can require more stringent limits than the more general standards. An example of a
specification might be; "NDE -1." XyZ Co. Ltd., Specification for Non-destructive Testing of Electric
Resistance Welds.
To avoid the ambiguity of the usually general standards, and to avoid the constant updating of
specifications that refer to national standards which are constantly revised, companies often develop a
z/5
procedure. In fact, the Standards often require that companies carrying out NDT do so, to a "written
procedure".
E.g. ASME section Y, art.4 on Ultrasonic Testing of Welds, T-422.7 written procedure requirements
states: "Ultrasonic examination shall be performed in accordance with a written procedure".
E.g.DNV OS F101 Submarine Pipeline Systems, appendix D non-destructive testing, part B 102.: "Non-
destructive testing shall be performed in accordance with written procedures" . .
The procedure is generally submitted to a client to indicate how the inspection company proposes to
implement its standard practices for the various aspects of the test method to meet the.requirements of
the Standard or specification being used on the project.
Finally, as a contracted inspection company applies a test to various parts, the variations available to
achieve the desired results can be too myriad to list as part of the procedure document and
generalisations are again too vague to allow an operator to setup and to perform the inspection. A
common method of addressing the specific inspection application to a specific part is to use a
technique sheet.
Not to be confused with the term "NDT Technique"; which is defined as a specific way of using an
NDT method, e.g. immersion technique used in ultrasonic testing method.
This technique sheet would typically contain the following information:
. Part description and identification (e.g. model or type number)
. Origin of part of material (e.g. customer)
. Technique number
. Date of issue of the technique
. UT procedure to be used
. Any other NDT methods to be used
. Applicable codes, standards, or specifications
. Acceptance criteria
. Signatures of authority approving the document
In European Standards, the Standard itself may often be used as the "Procedure". However, there is
still a requirement to provide details of the project and specifics of the test parameters. The company
is then required to submit a document that might be considered a mix of a Procedure and a
Technique. In the EN Standards, this is usually referred to as a "Written Instruction".
In summary, there is a hierarchy of documentation in NDT:
a) Standards and codes, which provide general guidelines and limits
b) Specificatiory which is a product specific document, usually assembled by the customer
c) Procedures, which are usually an inspection company's statement of their standard practices
or a document designed to address the requirements of a specification used by the company
they are providing a service to
d) A technique is often part of a procedure and provides a brief description of test application to
a specific part
274
1,8.2 MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE DOCUMENTS

Our topics of concern in this section are the Procedure and Technique (Written Instruction)
documents. These are of particular concern in PAUT training because the examinations for
certification require the Level 2 candidate to write a "Written Instruction" and the Level 3 candidate is
required to prepare a Procedure with a technique for one sample attached to the procedure document.
These documents are expected to conform to a standardised format. The Level 2 or Level 3 should
organise the documents using a series of headings and then fill in the details for each subject described
by the heading. Expectations for Procedures are essentially the same for all NDT methods. The
requirements generalised in DNV OS F101 Appendix D are typical. That document describes the
requirements as:
Non-destructive testing shall be performed in accordance with written procedures that, at a minimum,
give information on the following aspects:
. Applicable code(s) or standard(s)
. Welding method (when relevant)
. )oint geometry and dimensions
. Material(s)
. Method
. Technique
. Equipment - main and auxiliary
. Consumables (including brand name)
. Sensitivity
. Calibration techniques and calibration references
. Testing parameters and variables
. Assessment of imperfections
. Reporting and documentation of results
. Reference to applicable welding procedure(s)
. Example of reporting forms
. Acceptance criteria
Clearly, we are to provide a description of important inspection aspects in our Procedure.

The following provides a guide to the components that are expected in preparing a Procedure
document for PAUT. The numbered topics within a Procedure outline should be maintained in the
order displayed. A description of the contents of each topic is provided.
In addition to the list of expected topics, a Procedure should also follow suitable guidelines for the
cover page and overall layout. A title page would include:
. The company name . Date of issue
. A document identification number . Signatures
. Originator (writer, qualification) . Provision for Revisions recording
. Authorising/approving person (Note: All Pages need to be numbered)
275
The above bullets would apply to any stand-alone Written Instructions, but may not be required for a
Technique if incorporated as an annex to the Procedure.
18.3 EN/ISO 9712 STY LE PROCEDURE OUTLINE

An example of a PAUT procedure with an appended technique can be referred to in Appendix (B):
Sample of Inspection Procedure
18.3.1 SCOPE
. Introductorystatement
. The NDT method concerned
. A summary of the technique
. Details of the material, component type, thickness range, test area, etc.
18.3.2 STANDARDS AND REFEI{ENCES
' A list of relevant standards and reference documents, including source (e.g. ASME, EN, BS,
etc.), number and title
18.3.3 DEFINITIONS
' A statement on the use of standard definitions, source(s), together with definitions of non-
standard terms used, which if not defined, could lead to ambiguity; and a list of abbreviations
used in the text of the procedure
18.3,4 SAFETY
' A general statement that, before application, the tester shall be familiar with the relevant
regulations covering health & safety and hazardous substances, both local and statutory,
appropriate to the test method
18.3.5 PERSONNEL
' The minimum requirements for training, certification and experience of NDT operators and
supervisors
18.3.6 IDENTIFICATION AND DATUN{ POINTS

. Identification of the material, weld or component to be inspected
' The means of marking datum points to ensure repeatability of test results or the future
location of defects
' A clear system for measuring from datum points to defect indications, e.g., 'clockwise from
datum looking in the direction of flow'
' A statement that repairs etc., must be identified separately from original work
I8.3.7 SURFACE PREPARATION
' The standard or level of cleanliness, surface finish and/or flatness required, together with
details of the precise extent of the area to be prepared
276
18.3.8 EXTENT OF INSPECTION

. Specify the precise extent of the test zorres, e.g. "Test weld and HAZ", "Test all surfaces", etc.
18.3.9 EQUIPMENT SPECIFICATiON

Should include type(s) of equipment to be used, details of any specifications or requirements to be
met, as well as ancillary equipment to be used during the test, e.g. probes, calibration pieces,
standards, film, etc.
18.3.10 EQUIPIvIENT CALIBRATION

. Method of, and requirements for, calibration of system and system elements, including
records
. Required frequencies of calibration or recalibration
18.3.11 EQUIPN,lENT CHECKS

. What functional checks are to be performed and when
. Formal records of functional checks
. The action to be taken in the event that the equipment fails a functional check
r8.3.12 TECHNTQUEDETATL
Shall define the essential elements of the technique, equipment settings and any other parameters
required for the preparation of an NDT Instruction by a Level 2 person i.e. Double wall single image -
Post emulsified fluorescent etc. Test sensitivity, Scan paths, Probe angles, Exposure details. An NDT
instruction may be contained within, or referenced from, the NDT procedure. If the latter, it must
provide all information necessary to carry out the test.
18.3.13 ASSESSMENT OF TEST RESULTS
. The procedure must specify the minimum size, or type of indication to be recorded, and the
defect classification and sizing method to be employed
. A statement should be made that defects are to be located with respect to defined datum
18.3.14 REPORTINC OF TEST RESULTS
Should include essential data for the report; e.g.
. Procedure reference
. Component
. Equipment data
. Settings/sensitivity
. Location of defects
. Status of defects, e.g. accept, reject or simply record, against agreed standard code or
specification
. Operator name and qualification
. Date of test
. Operator's and /or supervisor's signature
277
Chapter (18): Procedures, Tr and Written Instructions
The above is not an exhaustive list and will vary according to the NDT method and product tested.
18.3.i5 NON-CON,,TPLIANCE STATE\,{ENT
' A statement describing the actions to be taken by the operator in the event of an inability to
comply with the procedural requirements
18.3.16 ATTACHMENTS
' Should include a listing of any additional materials provided to assist the operator, e.g.
drawings, equipment schedules, sample techniques, etc.
18.4 EN-STYLE IVRITTEN INSTRUCTION OUTLINE

In the EN-Style exam process, a Level 2 candidate writes a Written Instruction for a given tested
specimen. However, an NDT instruction may be contained within, or referenced from, an NDT
procedure. If the latter, it must provide all information necessary to carry out the test and refer to the
parent procedure. Elements of an NDT wdtten instruction follow and an example of a PAUT written
instruction can be referred to in Appendix (C): Sample of Written Instruction.
18.4.1 FOREI,VORD, STATUS AND AUTHORISATION
' A unique reference number (in examinations this is devised by the candidate)
. Purpose of the test
. Originator's name, signature and date
. Authorising person's name, signature and date
1B"4.2 PERSONiNEL
. The minimum level of certification required to apply the instruction.
I8.4.3 APPARATUS TO BE USED

. Equipment to be used, together with settings
18.4.,1 PRODUCT/AREA TO BE TESTED
. Component identificatiory brief description and a drawing if appropriate
18.4"5 TEST CONDITIONS
. Pre-test preparation of the test area
r Post-test cleaning and preservation of test object
278
18.4.6 DETAILED INSTRTJCTIONS FOR APPLICA'IIONI OF TEST

. Step by step instructions in the application of the NDT technique, with reference to sketches if
appropriate
. A statement instructing the operator on actions to be taken in the event that the instruction
cannot be applied
78.1.7 RECORDING AND CLASSIFYINC RESULTS

. Action to be taken when defects are detected
18."T.8 REPORTING THE RESULTS
. This is not part of the actual technique (written instruction) but should follow the details
provided in item 14 of the procedure
279
:
Exercises
EXERCISES
PART (A): MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Chapter 1
1.1 How is the construction of phased array probes similar to conventional UT probes?
(A) A phased array probe can be thought of as being made of a single ultrasonic transducer
with small pieces of tape preventing sections of the probe from transmitting sound
(B) A phased array probe can be thought of as being made up of multiple / very small,
conventional transducers housed in a single unit.
(C) A phased array probe can be thought of as a rectangular conventional UT probe
(D)
D) A phased array probe has no similarity to a conventional probe
Chapter 2
2.7 Phased array ultrasonic testing has its origins in...
(A) Industrial UT
(B) Medical UT
(C) Airport radar
(D) Agriculture
2.2 Early Medical UT suffered from "artefacts" seen in the scans. What was their origin?
(A) Top Lobes
(B) Grating Lobes
(C) Mixed Frequencies
(D) Ear Lobes
2.3 What aspect of electronics delayed phased-array UT development until the 1960s?
(A) Piezo element materials
(B) Timing circuit design
(C) Digitisation of the time-base
(D) Voltage supplies were not strong enough
2.4 Generally, why does Industrial UT technology develop slower than medical?
(A) Industry is less motivated to develop
(B) Less reason for development
(C) More variables, both in material types and the part shapes/sizes
(D) Less precision is required with Medical UT, than in Industrial
287
Exercises
Chapter 3
3.1 The process of steering a beam is primarily a by-product of what wave property?
(A) Constructiveinterference
(B) Destructivelnterference
(C) Refraction
(D) Mechanical Alteration of Incident Angle
3.2 Coherent Wave sources are?
(A) Waves which have the same frequency the same amplitude and are in phase with each
other
(B) Waves which are in phase with each other regardless of frequency
(C) Waves which have the same phase and amplitude
(D) Waves which have the same frequency, but have different phases
3.3 The concept of "wavelets" can be considered a derivative of which principle?

(A) Huygen's
(B) Fermat's
(C) Schrodinger's
(D) Einstein's
Chapter 4
4.7 An array constructed of a series of concentric rings of cylindrical elements is known as
(A) Annular array
(B) Matrix array
(C) Rho-Theta array
(D) Linear array
4.2 The type of phased-array probe which has a single ring of individual elements and is used
primarily with an ultrasonic mirror to inspect from the inner surface of tubes, is
(A) Daisy array
(B) Rho-theta array
(C) Annular array
(D) Matrix array
4.3 When using delay lines attached to a phased-array probe, how thick should they be?
(A) 25mm
(B) The same thickness as the part tested
(C) Thick enough to avoid the back wall of the test part from occurring prior to the interface
multiple
(D) 4 times thicker than the tested component
4.4 An inspector in the field has only a 5 MHz probe. The plant shutdown ends that night, and
several inspections remain to be done. For one, the inspector determines that 5 MHz is
resolving defects poorly, despite easily penetrating the part. He suspects that smaller defects
282
Exercises
are present which should be reported, though they may be too sma11 to be rejectable. What
should he do?
(A) Follow the approved procedure and technique and note in the report that the next time,
a higher frequency probe should be used for that job.
(B) Accept that he cannot do the inspection and report to the foreman for permission to go
home.
(C) Pretend to do the work and explain to his supervisor at the end of the night
(D) File the existing probe using the hand rasp in his toolbox until it creates a 10 MHz
frequency which resolves the defects better
Chapter 5
5.1 Dynamic Depth Focussing is
(A) A mean of varying the focal length by varying the timing of the elements in reception
(B) the ability of varying the shape of the pulse for each depth in the working range
(C) The ability to vary the pulse voltage for each depth
(D) A software function that varies the aperture size of the probe for each focal law
5.2 The effective aperture is

(A) The active aperture with the effect of refraction taken into account
(B) A projected dimension indicating the equivalent size of the aperture
(C) The aperture which generates sound efficiently and correctly, with the inefficient
portions discounted
(D) Both A and B above
5.3 The main lobe refers to

(A) The area of primary sound intensity found directly in front of the transducer or the front
of propagation in phased arrays
(B) The area of sound at the edge of the ultrasonic wavefront
(C) The area of sound created accidently by the use of phased array probes, at angles other
than directly in front of the probe, or the front of propagation
(D) The region of increased sound pressure that forms due to element spacing periodicity
5.4 Three basic scans are possible with a Linear Phased Array probe. They are
(A) Sectorial Scary E-scan, Fixed beam scan
(B) Fixed beam scan, S-scan, Electronic scan
(C) Azimuthal scan, E-scan, Fixed beam scan
(D) All of the above
5.5 What would be considered the steering limit in a rectangular phased-affay probe?
(A) sin0,, :0.44(7/e)
(B) tan9,, :0.51'(7/e)
(C) cos 0,, : O.+a(f / e)
(D) sin0,, = O.+4(v/f)
283
Exercises
Chapter 6
6.7 Sectorial scans are formed
(A) When all aspects of the Focal Law are also changed along with the delays provided to
alter the angles such that a range of angles is covered by the beam
(B) When all aspects of the Focal Law are held fixed, except for the delays provided to alter
the angles such that a range of angles is covered by the beam
(C) When all aspects of the Focal Law and the delays provided to alter the angles are held
fixed such that a range of angles is covered by the beam
(D) None of the above
6.2 Type of scan lvhere the direction of probe travel may be required to be at some angle other
than 0o or 90' relative to the weld axis. Such a scan is considered
(A) Skewed scan
(B) Raster scan
(C) Helical scan
6.3 For cylindrical or tubular products, when the part is simultaneously spun and advanced past
the probe array, we get
(A) Skewed scan
(B) Helical scan
(C) Spiral scan
6.4 For disk-shaped products, time can be saved by scanning the ends with the probe being
moved
outward from the centre while the part is rotated. The scan pattern is called
(A) Skewed scan
(B) Helical scan
(C) Spiral scan
6.5 The advantage of Unidirectional scanning pattern is that

(A) Duplication of data is avoided by collecting data in only one direction
(B) Data file sizes can be reduced by collecting data in a single direction
(C) Backlash in the mechanical system can be reduced by collecting data in a single direction
(D) Scanning time is less
Chapter 7
7 '7 What aspect of PAUT transducer design accounts for the significant signal losses experienced
in the probe?
(A) T/R Switches
(B) Cable capacitance on the transducer elements
(C) Multiplexer switching noise
284
Exercises
7.2 Phased Array digital beamforming systems are

(A) The most flexible systems where some transducer elements can be individually phase
controlled
(B) The most flexible systems where all transducer elements can be individually phase and
amplitude controlled
(C) The most flexible systems where some transducer elements can be individually
amplitude controlled
(D) Are not yet perfected and only used in prototype units
7.3 The 3 main ultrasonic acquisition modes in medical systems are

(A) B-mode, F-mode, D-mode
(B) A-scary B-scan, C-scan
(C) A-mode, B-mode, C-mode
(D) A-mode, M-mode, C-section
7.4 Which of the following transmitter types does industrial NDT use for phased array ultrasonic
inspection
(A) Pulse wave Doppler
(B) Continuous wave Doppler
(C) Pulse
(D) Frequencymodulated
7.5 Adjusting the beam shape by reducing the voltage applied to the outer elements in a focal law
is called
(A) Tweaking
(B) Apodisation
(C) Harmonizing
(D) Hanning transfer function
Chapter I
8.1 The purpose of the damping resistor in a Spike pulser is
(A) To increase the rate of voltage decay
(B) To decrease the ring downtime of the transducer
(C) Neither A nor B above
8.2 For a square wave pulser, by pulsing at a pulse duration shorter than that for maximum
output,
(A) Bandwidth can be decreased and lower frequency components reduced
(B) Bandwidth can be increased and lower frequency components reduced
(C) Bandwidth can be increased and higher frequency components reduced
(D) Bandwidth can be increased and lower frequency components increased
285
Exercises
8.3 In a square wave pulser, pulsing a transducer at a pulse duration longer than that for
maximum amplitude,
(A) Decreases mechanical damping and causes a higher ring on time
(B) Increases mechanical damping and provides a sharper cleaner signal with little ring-on
(C) Increases mechanical damping and causes a higher ring on time
8.4 Electronic circuits that are used to eliminate noise from frequencies that are higher and lower
than the desired frequency, are called
(A) Linear filters
(B) Bandpass filters
(C) High pass filters
(D) Broadband filters
8.5 In Ultrasonic data presentatiory the regions of time that can be selected to monitor for signals to
extract information are called
(A) Cursors
(B) Markers
(C) Gates
(D) Time base encoders
8.6 Important controls in setting a gate used in automated industrial ultrasonic inspection include
(A) Start, end, width and threshold
(B) Start, width and threshold
(C) Start, duration, threshold and polarity
8.7 A sensor that uses light to sense the speed, angle and direction of a rotary shaft is called
(A) Light sensor
(B) Light encoder
(C) Rotary sensor
(D) Rotary optical encoder
8.8 Which of the following are considered more accurate but more delicate than other encoders?
(A) Optical encoders
(B) Magnetic encoders
(C) Ultrasonicencoders
(D) Mechanicalencoders
286
Exercises
8.9 The process of soft gain applies

(A) Pseudo amplification to all points along the A-scan
(B) Amplification multiplier to high amplitude areas in the scan to enhance certain defects
(C) Amplitude suppression to every point along the A-scan to avoid saturating signals
(D) Post-processingdigitalsmoothing
8.10 An electronic bandpass filter can be applied to an ultrasonic system. They are usually used in
pairs. What is the setting usually used for the high pass filter?
(A) Twice the probe nominal frequency
(B) Half the probe nominal frequency
(C) The probe nominal frequency
8.11 The type of data presentation where time is displayed along one axis and probe positiory as
moved over the test surface, along the other, is called
(A) A-scan
(B) B-Scan
(C) C-Scan
(D) D-Scan
8.72 Which of the following statements about sampling rate is false?
(A) Sampling rate dictates the periodicity of the time interval along the A-scan that is
captured and digitised
(B) A minimum sampling rate of four to five times the nominal frequency of the probe used,
is recommended for a reasonable reproduction of the analogue signal
(C) 8-bit is 256 intervals of vertical sampling
(D) A 20 MHz sampling rate will give far closer reproduction of the analogue signal than the
100 MHz sampling rate
8.13 \Alhat would be the estimated file size for a simple B-scan that was collected from gating a 50
mm thick steel plate, at every 0.5 mm interval of the 100 mm probe travel distance, using a 5
MHz frequency probe, normal beam and an 8 bit digitiser? Sound velocity=5900 m/s. ADC - 25
MHz.
(A) 42.3K8
(B) 84.4K8
(c) 675K8
(D) 337.6K8
287
Exercises
Chapter 9
9.7 The purpose of Horizontal linearity checks is to
(A) Verify that a constant relationship exists between incremental horizontal display and the
incremental time required for reflected waves to pass through a known length of
material
(B) Verify that the time-corrected-gain feature is working properly
(C) Verify functionality of the receiver amplifiers
g.2 To reduce the number of pulser receivers in a phased-array unit, a standard setup in Phased
array instruments uses
(A) Multiplexer unit to address several elements with a single pulser receiver
(B) Each multiplexer is multiplexed to the next elements in the series
(C) Both A and B above
Chapter 10
10.1 Ideally a separate block with two radii can be made from a project-specific material when
establishing velocity for a phased-array inspection. Why would the project specific material be
superior to the standard IIW block?
(A) It is required by the standards
(B) Velocities in the project material may be different from the IIW block material
depending on differences in material manufacturing process or temperature
(C) It is less expensive to make your own calibration block
70.2 A recommended target for compensating for wedge attenuation, especially for S-scans, is the
100mm radius of the V1 block because
(A) Radius block can provide a target of uniform shape and metal-path regardless of the
angle used, so provides the ideal shape for this function
(B) The target in the test material is required to be at the same sound path for all beams so
that the signal amplitude is not further deteriorated by the effects of divergence and
absorption in the test material
(C) The use of the radius for S-scan configurations also provides correction for echo
transmittance effects intrinsic in angle variation
Chapter 11
11.1 Which of the following would not normally be considered an essential parameter when
developing a PAUT technique?
(A) Aperture
(B) Instrument serial number
(C) Scan-plan
(D) Part geometry and material
288
Exercises
77.2 What is required in a mechanised PAUT system that is not present in a manual application of
PAUT?
(A) Some form of guide/probe holder
(B) Positional encoder
(C) Both A and B above
(D) Nothing special
11.3 In the power generation sector, PAUT is preferred over mono-elements when assessing the
"steeples" in turbine disks. Why?
(A) No mechanical motion is required
(B) The space on the steeple is limited to about the same size as most probes
(C) A sweep of angles can be used to identify the steeple geometry
71.4 What flaw is generally being sought when a PAUT technique is designed to inspect bolted
flanges from the outer edge of the flange-to-flange connection?
(A) Forging bursts
(B) Slag inclusions in the flange to pipe weld
(C) Erosion/corrosiondamage
(D) Hot tearing
11.5 When using PAUT in a pipe mill where pipe is moved through a "stuffing box", how is the full
circumference of the pipe normally tested for wall thickness and extrusion flaws?
(A) Spinning the pipe past a line-focussed array focussed at the pipe ID
(B) Oscillating the pipe 200" as the pipe is pushed past a pair of matrix array probes
mounted in the stuffing box
(C) Pushing the pipe straight through while the pipe is encircled with 2-4 arrays firing 0'
and angle beam focal laws
(D) None of the above, PAUT is not used in pipe mills
77.6 When developing a PAUT technique, what is the term usually given to the figure indicating the
coverage of the beams and the list of settings for the essential parameters?
(A) Procedure
(B) Scan plan
(C) Data report
(D) Beam plot
Chapter 12
72.7 What kind of PAUT signal does software gain not work on?
(A) RF
(B) Rectified
(C) Saturated
(D) C-scans
289
Exercises
12.2 What is the purpose of image smoothing on a PAUT data display?

(A) Eliminate "missing data points"
(B) Make the image more aesthetically appealing
(C) Lrcrease contrast of flaw features
(D) Smoothing has no function
72.3 When multiple beams pass through a single voxel, which data sample is used?
(A) The lowest angle value
(B) The highest amplitude value
(C) The average amplitude value
(D) The first calculated value
12.4 A line indicating amplitudes can be constructed by connecting the voxel points along the beam
path of a merged data display. What is this pseudo A-scan then used for?
(A) FIaw depth analysis
(B) Flawcharacterisation
(C) Vertical extent assessment
(D) Nothing (the pseudo-A-scan should not be used)
72.5 Raw data collected by PAUT systems from one company is not possible to read on software
from another company. However, with the header information stripped off the file, the
underlying A-scans can often be exported in
(A) Excel format
(B) ASCII format
(C) DICONDE format
Chapter 13
13.1 Poor data analysis in PAUT can result in
(A) Accepting critical defects
(B) Unnecessaryrepairs
(C) Serious financial and safety consequences
73.2 In a manual PAUT setup using an S-scan from 40' to 70", in 1o increments, which A-scan
would the operator be watching during the scanning?
(A) 40"
(B) 55o
(c) 70"
(D) none of the above
290
Exercises
13.3 What does the PAUT operator use the A-scan capability of a PAUT unit for, when carrying out
manual PAUT?
(A) Flaw depth analysis
(B) Flawcharacterisation
(C) Vertical extent assessment
(D) Nothing
73.4 Analysis is done after the scan sequence has stopped and the data stored to memory for what
type of PAUT?
(A) Mechanised
(B) Manual
(C) ERW pipe mill inline
(D) Only for PAUT on aerospace components
13.5 What is the risk of displaying a long scan length in a small display window on the monitor?
(A) Not being able to size critical geometric features
(B) Not being able to see flaws of a critical length
(C) Pixelation
(D) So called "voxe1-blooming" of the display
73.6 Mechanised PAUT usually uses a fixed standoff for scanning so the idea of echo dynamics as
used in manual UT cannot be used for flaw characterisation. But what aspect of a PAUT
display could be considered as providing echo dynamics?
(A) Amplitude and time variations on the S-scans and B-scans
(B) Pseudo A-scans
(C) Top-Side-End view projections
(D) Colour-palettesliders
73.7 What ultrasonic inspection technique uses forward scattered tip echo signals?
(A) Delta technique
(B) TOFD
(C) Tandem technique
(D) Zonal technique
13.8 When a planar subsurface flaw is identified for sizing by back-scattered tip echoes, what is true
of the signals?
(A) The upper tip is larger amplitude than the lower tip
(B) The lower tip is larger amplitude than the upper tip
(C) The upper tip is the opposite phase of the lower tip
(D) There is no upper tip echo
291
Exercises
73.9 When is focussed phased array TOFD used?

(A) As a follow-up to traditional TOFD
(B) When improved signal to noise is required to define flaw tips
(C) Focussed PA TOFD is never used
13.10 The use of tip echo techniques to locate and size surface-connected planar flaws with pulse
echo PAUT is called
(A) Forward scatter tip echo testing
(B) Back scatter tip echo testing
(C) Gaussian scatter tip echo testing
(D) Contact tip echo testing
Chapter 14
74.1 When analysing data from a PAUT scan of a weld, what is the first step to take after assuring
acceptable quality of the scan data?
(A) Identify all defects over the reference level
(B) Identify all signals associated with geometric features so as not to evaluate them
(C) Identify only the flaws in the scan that are longer than the minimum allowed length
(D) Identify who the scan data was collected by
74.2 In PAUT, flaw characterisation is

(A) Critical to all service aspects of any component
(B) Not an exact science
(C) Not possible when data has been acquired via mechanised scanning
(D) Only used where workmanship acceptance criteria applies
74.3 In a weld inspection by PAUT, which flaws are the most difficult to analyse?
(A) Those that originate near surface geometries
(B) Slag flaws
(C) Those with their largest surface perpendicular to the beam
(D) Intermittent flaws
74.4 What display would be used to best characterise burn through when using PAUT?
(A) Manual PAUT methods
(B) Depth-encodedC-scans
(C) Projection S-scans
(D) B-scans of the root region from both sides of the weld
292
Exercises
When using PAUT for weld inspection, what is the easiest way to identify which side
of the
l4.S
centreline a non-fusion flaw occurs?
(A) Use an overlay with the data display
(B) Use simple trigonometry calculations
(C) The side where the probe is located identifies the side of the centreline that the flaw is
located
(D) There is no sure easy way to identify which side
74.6 Which PAUT scanning technique would probably provide the best (strongest) response to
interpass non fusion when the weld cap is not removed?
(A) Manual PAUT methods
(B) Tandem S-scans
(C) E-scans (at an angle between about 40'-45')
(D) Skewed raster scanning
Chapter 15
15.1 Which is not a "beam boundary" technique used for estimating flaw height?
(A) 6dB droP
(B) 20dB droP
(C) MaxAmP
(D) Tip echo
15.2 what aspect of tip echo sizing is used to estimate flaw vertical extent?
(A) AmPlitude droP
(B) Time differences between signal peaks
(C) Time of flight to the corner reflection signal
(D) Diffractioninterference
15.3 A pAUT B-scan is made using a 45" E-scan pattern and a iarge signal is detected on the far side
of the plate. There is a faint line both above and below the large signal. What accounts for the
faint lines if this is a Planar flaw?
(A) Upper and lower tiP echoes
(B) Mode convetsions
(C) Plate inclusions
(D) Tip echo seen before and after skip
15.4 An embedded planar flaw is sometimes possible to size using tip echoes. Why should this be
done using an RF disPlaY?
(A) So the operator pays ciose attention to the arrival times
(B) To avoid issues with colour palettes causing ghost-imaging
(C) To aid in identifying the upper and lower tip time of arrivals and phase
(D) None of the above, rectified signals are always used for tip sizing
293
Exercises
15.5 When is the MaxAmp option of vertical extent assessment useful?

(A) For sizing irregular volumetric flaws like slag
(B) When porosity causes confusing tip arrival signals
(C) For sizing pure planar flaws like sidewall non fusion
(D) When length assessment is not required
75.6 A 45'E-scan is made on a weld with a known vertically oriented planar flaw near the opposite
surface the probe is on. The B-scan that results indicates a noticeable gap between the signals
identified as the tandem paths off the opposite wall. What does the gap indicate?
(A) Poor coupling
(B) A large ligament from the lower tip
(C) The flaw is surface connected
(D) The flaw is tilted with the upper tip towards the probe
Chapter L6
76.1 What are the main components included in a PAUT report?
(A) Component, equipment, settings, results and personnel
(B) Personnel, reference codes, equipment, calibration blocks
(C) Sensitivity, personnel, equipment settings, results and personnel
(D) Results, personnel, equipment, sensitivity
76.2 What is not an item that would be included in the report section on results and personnel?
(A) Flaw details such as length, height, amplitude
(B) Component material and form
(C) Operator name
(D) Operatorqualifications
76.3 In a PAUT standard, the operator is often required to "record" any indication of a suspected
f1aw. How is this addressed in mechanised PAUT?
(A) It is not addressed
(B) Adjust the data recording level to collect the entire waveform
(C) Collect gated amplitude data from just over the grass level
(D) Always collect data in the form of S-scans
76.4 Contents of a PAUT report should be reasonably comprehensive. In addition to indicating the
results of the inspection, what else is typically required in a report?
(A) Equipment details
(B) Component and personnel details
(C) Equipment settings
294
Exercises
Chapter L7
77.7 What aspect of PAUT is not compatible with most codes and standards used for manual UT on
welds?
(A) Need to determine refracted angle
(B) Need to determine probe exit point
(C) Use of notches to set sensitivity when using S-scans
77.2 Amplifier control linearity is a required calibration check on UT equipment. What is the
difference between the check made on a mono-element traditional UT unit and a PAUT unit?
(A) None
(B) A separate check is done on each channel for the PAUT unit
(C) A separate check is done on each pulser-receiver module in PAUT units
(D) Both b and c
77.3 Why is the display horizontal and vertical linearity of a PAUT system not a sensible calibration
check?
(A) Because it is only applicable to the single element manual UT instruments
(B) Because it is not possible to perform on all 16 or 32 channels at the same time
(C) Because the function is accomplished automatically when the amplifier gain control
linearity is checked
(D) Because the display is always a computer monitor and the linearity concerns were due
to "deflector plates" in CRT-style oscilloscopes
17.4 In the ASTM standard, E-2491 Standard Guide for Evaluating Performance Characteristics of
Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing Instruments and Systems, which of the several tests described
is mandatory in the standard?
(A) Element activity
(B) Wedge attenuation and delay assessments
(C) Instrumentlinearity
(D) None of the checks are mandatory
17.5 Which of the following standards is suitable to use as a guide for PAUT procedure
development for weld inspections?
(A) ASTM E-2700
(B) ASTM E-21e4
(c) ASTM E-21e2
(D) EN/ISO 17640
295
Exercises
PART (B): MATH QUESTIONS

You are given a phased-array probe with a nominal SMHz frequency, passive aperture 10mm and 64
elements with widths of 0.5mm and kerfs of 0.1mm. It is mounted on a wedge with an acoustic
velocity of 2400m/s and having a machined angle of 36". The height of the first element from the test
surface is 11mm.
A 16-element focal law is configured to generate a 45" refracted shear wave beam in steel (sound
velocity is 3200m/s) starting at element number 1 (the lowest element on the wedge). Answer the
following:
1. \zVhat is the delaytime in nanoseconds for the 16 elements?
2. \zVhat is the sound path distance in steel to the end of the near zone?
3. What is the spot size (approximate value) of the beam at the near zone?
4. What is the focal zone length of the un-focused beam and its start and end point distance
measured from the probe face?
5. What is the angular resolution in degrees (approximate) of the beam at the near zone?
6. If the pulse was symmetrical with respect to its frequency content and its peak frequency was
SMHz; what would the lower and upper frequencies in the FFT if it had a bandwidth of 80%?
296
Appendix (A): Samples of krspection Reports
APPENDIX (A): SAMPLES OF INSPECTION REPORTS
SAMPLE (I): COMPREHENSIVE REPORT CENERATED USING.

"ESBEAMTOOL"
Project Project No. Site Location Technique Scanner Model
Qualification CWSIP-1 Park Lane PA 20mm Home-Made

Part Description Weld Procedure Reference Code Scanner S.N
Sample Double V butt PAUT-1 na Na
Instrument Model Serial Number PA Channels Law Channels

Manufacturer
PAUT Co PA-MKI nla 128 JZ
TxlRx Mode Voltage (V) Pulse Width (ns) Pulse Repetition Encoder Model
PIE Max Auto Auto XYZ Encoder
Filter (MHz) Rectified Video Filter Averaging Encoder

Resolution
5 FW FALSE 7 14 counts/mm
Piece Material Piece Thickness Piece Length Shear Velocity Compression

Velocity
Steel 1020 20mm 300mm 3.24rnrnls 5.89mm/s
Calibration Material Target

Block
DNV-standard Carbon Steel 3mm SDH
297
Inspection Layout
irrr:r',:1 ii'..!, !,. : .-:
!:lilisiilni.ii,! ${$laiiii,ii!r . . '.,r .
i
I ,l
Weld Information: 37.0" 37.0"
Region Angle Height Gap Radius Landing

Upper
J/
Fi11
B 7n6ft
Root 2.6mm 3mm
Root
37 8.7mm
Fill
6,lgmm
18.61mm ,i
:
37.0'
298
Appendix (A): Samples of Inspection Reports
-
Phased Array Probe: 1

Index Offset: -15mm Scan Offset: Omm Mirrored: False
Wedge: Wedge Part NyLmber

Velocity Primary Offset Height 1st Element Length Width Angle
2.4mmls 58.6mm 11mm 68.6mm 20mm 36.
Transdttcer: Transducer P urt Number
Total Aperture:38.4mm Number of Elements: 64 Element Pitch: 0.6mm

Sectorial Beirrn-sert
Law Element First Min Max Angle
Wave Type Focus
Confie. Qtv. Element Angle Anele Steps
Sectorial Shear 16 77 45. 70" 0.81. None
Illlllililillllt
299
:
Phased Array Probe:2

Index Offset: 15mm Scan Offset: Omm Mirrored: True
!"/
!
I
I
{" 56.60nm
Wedge: Wedge Part lrlumber

Velocity Primary Offset Height Lst Element Length Width Angle
2.4mmls 58.6mm 11mm 68.6mm 20mm 36.
Tr snsdtLcer : T r unsducer P ar t N umb er
Total Aperture:38.4mm Number of Elements: 64 Element Pitch: 0.6mm

I Sectorial Beam-set
Law Element First Min Max Angle
Wave Type Focus
Config Qty Element Angle Ansle Steps
Sectorial Shear 16 77 45" 70" 0.81. None
.1.-
ilililillilll|tl
H
'illililllfllilfilll
Sectorial Beam-set
Element First Min Max Angle
Law Config Wave Type Focus
Qtv Element Anele Ansle Steps
Sectorial Shear 76 47 45" 70" 0.81. None
illililllillIlll
Scanning Instructions: Line scan full length (300mm) with 15mm from nose of wedge to centreline
both probes
Record Criteria: Record all A-scans at 6dB over reference (3mm SDH to 80% using TCG)
300
Acceptance Criteria: DNV OS F101 Appendix D
Scan Results:
Depth from
Indication # Amplitude Start Length Height Typ" Status
test surface
1 +4 28 54 13 J volumetric Rei
Status/Comments: Reject status based on indication #1 length and amplitude
Operator: B. Smith CSWP PAUT Level2
301
SAMPLE (II): SIMPLE REPORT

Report Client Project Operator Certification Inspection
Date
# 2012-001-PAUT Bis Utility Co. Outage . Doe CSWP Level2 2012.02.29
Component Material Geometry

Weld # 12-145 Carbon Steel Pipe. 12" diameter, 25mm wall Single V butt weld,
Procedure Technique Scan Surface Surface condition
PAUT-OO1 72D25-PAUT-1 Outside surface Smooth pipe, cap as welded
Velocity Long 5900 Velocity Shear 3240
Equipment Instrument Model Serial Nr. Software

Version
PAUT PAUT-Co. Focal-Mk1 123345 Ver.2.1
Probe Frequency Elements Pitch Kerf
PAUT 5L64 5 MHz 64 0.6mm 0.1mm
Active Element Passive element Wedge Wedge angle Wedge
heisht length Velocity
0.5mm 1Omm 5L64-B 36" 2345mls
(Setup files settings)

General Settings
Setupl Setup2 Setup3 Setup4
Skew (") 90 90 270 270
Gain 10.0 10.0 10 10
Ranqe Start (mm) 0.0 0.0
Range (mm) 150 150 150 150
Probe Delay (mm)
Wave type Shear Shear Shear Shear
Sound Velocity (m/s) 3240 3240 3240 3240
Pulser Parameters
Tx/Rx Mode PE PE PE PE
Fresuency (MHz) 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Voltaqe 180.0 180.0 180 180
Pulse Width (ns) 100.0 100.0 100 100
PRF (Pulse Repetition
80 80 80 80
Frequency)
Receiver Parameters
Filter 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Rectified FW FW FW FW
302
Video Filter ON ON ON ON
Averaging 1 1 7 1
Reiect OFF OFF OFF OFF

Beam Characteristics
Gain Offset 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Scan Offset 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Index Offset -30 -30 30 30
Skew 90 90 270 270
Beam Delay calculated calculated calculated calculated .
and Controls (Linear):

Aperture lBearn files settings)
First Element
Settinss and Controls Sec torial):

Sectorial Array (Setup file settings)
Aperture / Beam
Setupl Setup2 Setup3 Setup4
Element Oty 16 76 16 76
First Element 1 39 1 39
Last Element 76 54 76 54
Wave Type Shear Shear Shear Shear
Min Angle 40 40 40 40
Max Ansle 70 70 70 70
Angle Step 2 2 2 2
Focus Depth 500 500 500 500
Law File TBA TBA TBA TBA
Scanner Detail:
Scanner Model Mini-Encoder
Scanner Serial No. NA
EncoderAxisl&2 1.
Step Size 1mm

Resolution Step/mm 1.2
Axis 2 NA
303
Step Size NA
Resolution Step/mm NA
Calibration Detail:
Calibration Detail
Calibration Blocks
Range IIW
Linearity IIW
Sensitivity ASME 1-2 inch Basic
Other None
TCG set to 80% FSH
304
Flaw Indication
re
n$s
'.!,$ql'. lli$.T@
.:,...
ta a;a
. .r.ri\l\i.i!1rt:
NiNi@
.? Wat444:aa.).t't.
,4.@. ,t:&***'*:*)':
Flaw coordinates:
Scan axis Peak Min Max Lensth
100 85 722 J/
Max Amplitude Offset (with respect to centreline) Depth from test surface
100 0 23
Status: Reject
Operator: B. Smith CSWP PAUT Level2
30s
Appendix (B): Sample of Inspection Procedure
APPENDIX (B): SAMPLE OF INSPECTION PROCEDURE
Magic NDT Corporation

Phased Array Ultrasonic Examination Procedure to Inspect Butt Welds
Procedure ldentification: PAUT 101
Responsibility Name/Signature Date Revision
Writer Name 1 2009.04.01. Rev 0

Magic NDT Corp. Original approval
Authorisation Name 2 2009.04.30 Rev 0
Magic NDT Corp. Original approval
Name and Qualification of Level 3 Preparer:
A. Key CSWP Level3 PAUT #24067
306
PROCEpURE (PAUT 101-01)

1.0 SCOPE
1.1 This procedure describes the method and techniques to carry out Phased Array
Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT) on fusion welded joints in metallic materials equal to and
greater than 10mm thick which exhibit low ultrasonic attenuation (especially that due
to scatter).
1,.2 Either manual operation or encoded semi-automated scanning will be used.
1.3 Semi-automated scanning will require a holding fixture equipped.with a position
encoder and provision to hold the probe(s) in a fixed orientation to the weld. Probe
motion for semi-automated scanning shall incorporate a guide-bar to provide a fixed
standoff.
7.4 This procedure shall be used with inspection techniques applicable to the specific
geometries for wall thickness, weld preparation and weld process. These are attached
as Appendices of this Procedure.
1.5 This procedure describes Magic NDT's standard practices for carrying out PAUT.
Unless other contractual details are issued, this document shall take precedence.
2.0 STANDARDS AND REFERENCES
2.1. Documents referenced in the development of this procedure include:
2.1..1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section V, Article 42006 edition
2.1..2 ENISO 17640 Non-destructive testing of welds. Ultrasonic testing.
Techniques, testing levels, and assessment. British Standards 2010
2.7.3 EN 583 Qualification and Certification of NDT Personnel - General principles
(latest edition)
2.1.4 EN-1330 -4 Non-destructive Testing - Terminology - Part 4: Terms used in
ultrasonic testing (latest edition)
2.7.5 EN 12688 -1 Non-destructive Testing - Characterisation and Verification of
Ultrasonic Examination Equipment - Part 1: Instruments (latest edition)
2.1..6 EN 12688 -1 Non-destructive Testing - Characterisation and Verification of
Ultrasonic Examination Equipment - Part 2: Probes (latest edition)
Ultrasonic Examination Equipment - Part 3: Combined equipment (latest
edition)
2.1..8 ASTM E-2491. Standard Guide for Evaluating Performance of Phased Array
Ultrasonic Instruments and Systems, 2008
3.0 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS
3.1. For the purposes of this procedure, the definitions in EN-1330-4 apply.
3.2 Other terms used in this procedure are defined here:
3.2.1 E-scan- the same focal law and delay is multiplexed across a group of active
elements; scanning is performed at a constant angle and along the phased
array probe length (aperture). This is equivalent to a conventional ultrasonic
307
ix (B): Sample of Inspection Procedure
transducer performing a rastel scan for corrosion mapping or shear wave

inspection.
3.2.2 S-scan - (also called azimuthal or sectorial scanning): the beam is moved
through a sweep range of angles using the same elements.
3.2.3 Focal law - the set of delays and amplifications applied to a group of
elements required to generate a specific beam (e.g. several focal laws.would
be required to generate an S-scan).
g.2.4 PAUT -abbreviates phased array ultrasonic testing. When data is collected to
a storage medium in a computer-based memory and whe3 used with a
positional encoder, the PAUT is considered semi-automated.
3.2.5 HAZ - Heat affected zone
4.0 SAFETY
Prior to carrying out examinations on the component to be tested, the examiner shall be familiarised
with the safety hazards associated with the work and site. As well, the examiner shall also be aware
of the relevant rules and regulations covering health and safety and hazardous materials as they
pertain to the test method.
5.0 PERSONNEL
5.1 PAUT technicians shall be trained and skilled in performing PAUT analysis and
-i - rnsp ection p e rs onnel sha' be cate gori se d as;
:#::i:,:resurts
' Scanner Technicians
5.2 Supervisors and Operators shall be certified in accordance with CSWP Level 2 in
manual phased array ultrasonic testing.
5.3 Supervisors and Operators shall have a minimum of 80 hours of documented training
in the operation of the ultrasonic equipment being used and 80 hours of experience in
data analysis and equipment calibrations'
5.4 Scanner technicians may be used to move and maintain the ultrasonic scanning heads.
They shall be provided adequate training, specific to their tasks to ensure they
understand and can perform all the necessary requirements.
5.5 Procedures shall be approved by an individual qualified to Level III in the ultrasonic
method.
6.0 WELD IDENTIFICATION AND ZERO DATUM
6.1. A weld numbering identification shall be used that is agreeable to the client.
6.2 If welds are to be permanently marked, low stress stamps and/or vibra-tooling may be
used. Markings applied after final stress relief of the component shall not be any
deeper than 1mm.
6.3 Each weld shall be located and identified by a system of reference points. The system
shall permit identification of each weld centreline and designation of regular intervals
along the length of the weld.
308
6.4 The scan start position shall be indicated on the component using a permanent marker
or hard-stamp. The start position and scanning direction shall be established based
on the weld identification reference points.
6.5 Probe(s) placement on the weld to be tested shall be such that the probe reference
surface (typically the front of the wedge) is within 5mm of the reference standoff
(usually relative to the weld centreline). In cases where two probes are used
simultaneously in a semi-automated scan, this will usually mean that the scanner
technician will be positioning 2 probes symmetrically, either side of the weld
centreline. The scanner technician shall use the centre of weld cap to estimate the
probe to weld spacing required for the linear scan being made
6.6 Scanning of repaired areas shall be identified separately from original scans.
7.0 SCAN SURFACE PREPARATION
7.1 Scan surfaces of the calibration block used for setting beam position and sensitivity
shall be of a condition similar to the plate being inspected. It shall be free of rust,
scale, grease or any other material that would impede ultrasound from being coupled
into the metal. As well, the calibration blocks shall be monitored for deterioration due
to scoring of grooves caused by excessive protrusion of carbide wear pins if used.
Such grooves may be dressed out with a light buffing. Should the dressing out of
grooves result in a wall reduction of the calibration block by more than 0.5mm from
its initial wall thickness the calibration block shall be replaced with a new one.
7.2 The scanning surface of the test part shall be wide enough to permit the testing volume
to be fully scanned. Scanning surfaces shall be even and free from foreign matter
likely to interfere with probe coupling (e.9. rust, loose scale, weld spatter, notches,
grooves). Waviness of the test surface shall not result in a gap between the probe and
test surfaces greater than 0.5 mm. These requirements shall be ensured by dressing, if
necessary. Scanning surfaces and surfaces from which the sound beam is reflected
shall allow undisturbed coupling and reflection.
8.0 EXTENT OF EXAMINATION
8.1 The scanning techniques developed for each weld configuration examined shall ensure
that the weld volume plus the affected zone (HAZ) are suitably inspected to detect the
flaws typically associated with the welding processes used or the service conditions
experienced by the component.
8.2 The parent metal through which the sound beam travels shall be examined with a
straight beam focal law to detect imperfections or high attenuation. The straight
beam exam may be replaced with a TOFD examination when feasible.
8.3 \Atrhere imperfections are detected in the parent metal scans, their influence on the
angle beam examination shall be assessed and if necessary, the techniques adjusted
accordingly.
8.4 Angle beam examination of the weld andHAZ shall be carried out from both sides of
the weld where access permits.
8.5 A minimum of two angles of angle-beam (centre ray of the beam) separated by at least
10" should pass through each point in the volume of the weld examination zone.
309
8.6 Where geometry permits, a further scan should be carried out to detect potential flaws
transverse to the weld centreline.
8.7 Any restrictions shall be noted in the report.
9.0 EQUTPMENT
9.1, Instruments and Probes
9.7.7 Weld inspection using PAUT shall be carried out using a phased array.system
capable of addressing a minimum of 16 elements in a focal law. As well, the
phased array system shall include suitable software for controlling both the
instrument parameters and data acquisition.
9.1..2 The instrument and software shall be used with phased array probes and
suitable focal laws, provided that the wedges used, allow the correct exit
point and PCS positioning of beams to achieve the calibrations without
interference from the weld cap.
9.1.3 The ultrasonic instrument shall have a current annually renewed calibration
certificate. On lengthy projects, the validation of the annual calibration may
be extended. This shall be done by verification of vertical and horizontal
linearity in the manner described in ASTM E-2491..
9.7.4 Probes used shall be specified in the details of the specific inspection
technique associated with each weld configuration.
9.1.5 Scanner head (probe holder) shall be in good repair and the associated
encoder capable of providing accurate positioning within better than 2"/o of
the length of a weld scan.
9.7.6 Suitable calibration block(s) shall be used to confirm distances (range) and
delays on the A-scan displays. These will typically be V1, V2 and step wedge
blocks.
9.1,.7 Side drilled holes (SDH) in blocks at suitable depths shall be used to establish
reference sensitivity.
9.2 Calibration Reference Blocks
9.2.1 \Atrhen inspecting welded joints using PAUT, reference blocks for setting beam
position and sensitivity shall use sections of plate of approximately the same
dimensional and acoustic characteristics as that being inspected.
9.2.2 Calibration blocks shall be hard stamped with a method of documentation
linked to the hard stamped identification, identifying the plate details
including dimensions, manuf acturer, and metallurgy.
9.2.3 Targets machined in the calibration block shall be measured and compared to
the design drawings.
9.2.4 Calibration block design may be that of ASME Section V Art. 4 unless
otherwise qualified using a project specific design.
9.3 Reference Targets
9.3.1 Reference targets used in the calibration blocks for inspection of ferritic welds
shall be side drilled holes and notches.
310
9.4 Couplant
9.4.1. Couplant may be provided by water irrigation through the probes or by
application of a viscous gel or oil to the test surfaces. The same system of
coupling shall be used for both calibration and production scanning.
9.5 Test Surface Temperature
9.5.7 The PAUT system shall be capable of use on scanning surfaces of. a wide
range of temperatures. Although 20" C to 50" C is a typical surface
temperature range/ the system may be used on much lower temperafures
without any modification.
9.5.2 Water passing through and under the wedges with sufficient flow is normally
adequate to maintain the required temperature tolerance; however,
supplementary cooling via quenching (if allowed) prior to scanning may be
used to reduce the temperature differential, if water flow rate cannot
adequately control the wedge temperature.
EQUIPMENT CALIBRATION
10.1 Initial Calibration Setup and Adjustment Range
10.1.1 The technique for each specific weld geometry (diameter and wall thickness
and weld bevel) shall identify the applicable targets (side drilled holes or
r.rotches) on which to adjust sensitivity and gate positions.
1.0.1.2 Range as identified by the specified technique shall have a data acquisition
range of the time base specified. Range and wedge delay shall be calibrated
and confirmed correct within 2% of the true value by use of the known
distances on the range calibration blocks (e.9. V1, V2 or step wedge).
10.1.3 Verification of range (entered acoustic velocity) is made by comparing the
depth and offsets (distance in front of exit point) by comparing the cursor
readings on the B-scan or S-scan displays.
70.2 Initial Calibration Setup - Reference Sensitivity
70.2.1 Sensitivity of the pulse echo channels shall be set by a maximised response
from the side drilled holes in the sensitivity calibration block identified by the
technique.
10.2.2 Response of the pulse echo signals shall use TCG (time corrected gain) to set
all responses to 40o/" FSH. The gain required to achieve 40% response from
the reference targets is Reference Sensitivity. A minimum of 3 points shall be
used for TCG construction.
1,0.2.3 The TCG correction shall be applied to all focal laws used in the scanning
sequence. Confirmation of suitable TCG shall be made by observing the
response from the SDHs on the extreme and one midrange focal law. The
amplitudes shall fall within 2dB of the reference 40% amplitude. E.g. the A-
scans for the 40, 55 and 70 degree focal laws would be used to verify
acceptable reference amplitude for an S-scan sweeping from 40o to 70" in 1"
increments.
311
1,0.2.4 A pitch-catch technique shall be used to determine the transfer value between
the test piece and calibration block, i.e. a pair of conventional probes or two
phased array probes set to obtain a signal from the skip point (Vee-path) on
the calibration block is set to the reference amplitude after TCG is stit. The
probe pair is then positioned on the test piece and the dB difference below the
TCG is the transfer value.
10.3 ScanningSensitivity
10.3.1 Scanning of welds shall be performed at Reference Sensitivity plus 6dB plus
any added gain for transfer value.
1,0.4 Gate Positioning and Recording Thresholds
1.0.4.7 Data acquisition of PAUT can be made in two modes; real-time (no encoding)
and data-storage using position encoders. In both cases, the underlying A-
scan waveforms shall be gated as the data for analysis.
70.4.2 Electronic gates for the PAUT waveform data shall be identified in the
techniques for the specific weld inspected.
10.4.3 Gates shall start, not less than 10mm prior to the calculated HAZ to parent
metal to weld metal boundary.
1,0.4.4 No amplitude thresholding (reject or suppression) shall be used and the
default spectral colour palette shall be used as the initial evaluation colour
palette.
10.4.5 Evaluation of the pulse echo data shall be made using distance encoded B-
scan or S-scan displays.
10.4.6 An example of the B-scan or S-scan display is provided in Figure 1. When
multiple data displays are used for semi-automated scanning, cursors shall be
linked to provide alignment of indications in multiple views.
B-scan Display
S-scan Display
Figure 1: Typical S-scan and B-scan representation PAUT Pulse echo data
31.2
10.5 Distance Encoder Calibration

10.5.1 Positional encoders are used when specified by the technique.
1,0.5.2 \zVhen encoding is used, the encoder shall be calibrated to ensure that the
number of "counts" per mm correctly indicates the surface distance tiaversed
on the plate surface. The encoder shall be verified to correctly indicate scan
distance by comparing the encoded reading at the 100mm, 250mm and
500mm positions using a tape measure. The reading indicated shall be correct
within 2"/" of the actual distance.
10.5.3 The encoder position accuracy shall be verified at least monthly and the
results documented in the operator's log.
10.5.4 For scan lengths over 500mm, the encoded reading shall not be different from
the actual distance scanned by more than 10mm.
10.6 Scanning Speed
70.6.7 The semi-automatic scanning techniques use a linear scan motiorL i.e. the
probes are moved parallel to the weld axis with the beam directed
perpendicular to the weld centreline. Scanning speed is the speed at which
the probe is moved along the plate surface.
70.6.2 Scalning speed shall be not greater than 150mm per second.
10.6.3 If the operator observes unacceptable numbers of "missing data lines" the
scan shall be remade; and the scanner technician will be required to move the
scanner at lower speeds.
L0.7 RescanningRequirement
1.0.7.7 A re-scan of the weld shall be carried out when the calibration run,
immediately after the weld scan, indicates that the responses for any pulse
echo channels have dropped below 2dB of reference or have risen to more
than 2dB from reference level. If the amplitude has dropped below the 2dB
limit all welds scanned since the previous acceptable calibration shall be
rescanned.
1,0.7.2 Rescanning is required if more than 5% of the data has been lost due to
scanning too fast or if more than 2 adjacent lines of data are missing.
70.7.3 Rescanning of repaired areas shall be carried out using the same settings as
used for the original weld inspection.
1.0.7.4 Probe positioning and gate lengths may be extended if the repair results in
removal of material more than 5 mm prior to the original fusion line.
10.8 Other Scanning Requirements
10.8.1 \zVheru in the opinion of the operator or at the request of the clienf other
scanning is required to further investigate an indication's size or presence, the
equipment and techniques used shall be documented in the Operator's Log
and any findings recorded in the Report.
10.9 Calibration Verification Details and Frequency
10.9.1 Prior to a project or when set-up of a new unit is required on a project, the
sensitivity calibration shall be made.
JIJ
70.9.2 Verification of calibration quality shall be run at least once every 4 hours
during production scanning and at the start of each shi{t or whenever
equipment or operators have been changed.
LL.0 EQUIPMENT CHECKS
11.1 All equipment used in the application of this Procedure shall comply with the
requirements of the relevant EN Standards.
1.1.1.1 EN 12688 -1 Non-destructive Testing - Characterisation and Verification of
Ultrasonic Examination Equipment - Part 1: Instruments
Ultrasonic Examination Equipment - Part 2: Probes
Ultrasonic Examination Equipment - Part 3: Combined equipment
11.2 Aspects of phased array equipment verification not addressed by the EN Standards
shall conform to NDT Magic's procedures developed following ASTM E-2497.
12.0 INSPECTION TECHNIQUES
12.1 A scan-plan that includes details of probes, angles, elements, weld volume coverage
and probe placement, etc. shall be included in a specific Technique (document) for
each weld configuration inspected. Although initial settings may be designed during
planning, the actual details cannot be identified until a final approved calibration
block has been made. Details of the starting configuration shall then be incorporated
into the final version of the Technique.
12.2 Project specific Techniques shall be used in conjunction with this Procedure.
12.3 Project specific Techniques are to be annexed to this procedure and identified in the
Table of Contents. Additional Techniques may be added to the Annex. Each time a
Technique is annexed to this procedure constitutes a revision and shall be noted in the
Revision table.
13.0 ASSESSMENT OF RESULTS (ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA)
13.1 All indications assessed as flaws having an amplitude response greater than or equal to
-6dB of the reference level shall be assessed
73.2 When using this procedure with manually operated phased array probe motiory all
assessed indications shall be measured for length using the lateral displacement
distance of the probe to the points where the amplitude response drops to 20% screen
height at reference sensitivity level. When the scan is made using a semi-automated
encoded scan the assessment shall be made using the cursors on the C-scan or B-scan
display of the acquired data measuring to the encoded scan positions where the peak
response drops to 20"/" screen height at reference scanning level.
13.3 The location of the reported flaw shall be recorded indicating:
13.3.1 Flaw start with respect to the reference datum
73.3.2 Flaw offset from the weld centreline
13.3.3 Depth of flaw from the test surface
1.3.4 Flaws greater than the allowed lengths issued by the project supervisor shall be
considered rejectable.
374
13.5 Only level II or III personnel shall analyse or interpret PAUT results.
.1,4,0 REPORTING OF TEST RESULTS
74.7 Reports shal1 be provided in electronic format. In addition, printed hardcopies may be
provided at the client's request.
74.2 Information in the report shall include;
74.2.7 Procedure and Technique identification
74.2.2 Equipmentdetailsincluding
14.2.2.1. Instrument make and serial number
74.2.2.2 Probes (frequency, serial number) and cables
74.2.2.3 Beam angles
74.2.2.4 Couplant
74.2.2.5 Wedge details
74.2.2.6 Scanningequipment(holder)
74.2.2.7 Software version for data analysis
14.2.2.8 Probe standoff or Centre Spacing (PCS)
74.2.2.9 Focal Law details
74.2.2.70 Sensitivity
74.2.3 Client name
74.2.4 Weld preparation (e.9.L or V bevel)
74.2.5 Component diameter and wall thickness and material
74.2.6 Componentlocation
74.2.7 Operator name(s) and signature
74.2.8 Date of inspection
14.2.9 Weld and calibration identification
14.2.10 Reference reflectors and amplitudes
74.2.77 Signal averaging used
74.2.72 Test surface from which examination done, including surface condition and
whether or not the cap has been ground flush
74.2.73 Status of weld (accept or re;'ect)
74.2.74 Areas of restricted access
74.2.75 Map or record of rejectable indications or areas cleared
74.2.76 Details of any other scans used (e.g. special sizing)
74.3 When a weld is rejected, the nature and location of the rejected flaw shall be included
in the report.
74.4 Inspection results are stored in electronic form as data files. As a minimum, after each
day's scanning, the data shall be saved in two locations. The storage media may be
either magnetic or optical (e.g. hard drives or CD ROM or DVD).
15.0 NON-COMPLIANCE ACTIONS
15.1 When aspects of this procedure cannot be complied with, the project manager shall be
advised. Equipment issues shal1 be resolved prior to further examination. A.y
scanning access problems that cannot be resolved (e.9. nozzTes interfere with probe
location for full coverage) shall be noted in the final report.
315
75.2 When rejectable conditions are identified in the weld(s) examined, the locations sha1l
be clearly identified with a marker (paint-stick) and the area re-tested after repairs are
effected.
15.3 Repair scans shall include 50mm of scan length beyond the repair area limits and the
files and reports for repaired areas identified with R1 following the weld report
identification. Subsequent repairs of the same region shall increment the number
after the R (e.g.R2, R3, etc.).
16.0 ATTACHMENTS
Annexes are used to describe the specific techniques unique to project applications.
TECI{NiQUE (I'AUT 101 -T-01)

25-44mm wall Butt Weld
INTRODUCTION:
This technique defines the parameters for the semi-automated PAUT pulse echo ultrasonic
examination of double Vee manual or submerged arc welds in the range of 25mm to 44mm (1 inch to
1.7 inch) with weld caps in place. This technique is to be read in conjunction with the procedure
PAUT-101 for the testing of butt welds by the PAUT method.
Successful demonstration of this technique is defined as the detection of the machined surface and
in the qualification/calibration block. Successful demonstration of this
subsurface indications
technique on any qualification/calibration block in the 25-44mm wall thickness range shall be
considered adequate to use this technique on wall thicknesses from 10mm to 25mm.
This technique uses the Time Corrected Gain (TCG) option in the software used in conjunction with
theXYZ ultrasonic phased array instrument.
Details of typical weld geometry are provided in Figure 1; values are to be considered "typical" and
may vary.
60" +l 00
l
_; } . 1.5mm +lmm
'.1
>25mm -44mm ..v
l.Smm +lmm
I
Vf
600 3l 00
Figure 1: Double Vee Weld - carbon steel
316
PROBES:
The following probe(s) and wedge(s) are used in this technique:
Table (1): Transducer and Wedge Detai

Probe Model 5L64-42
Probe Serial No. 72345
Probe Frequency 5.00
Element Size 0.65x10

Wedge Model A2
Wedge Serial No. ABWX257A
Wedge Angle (physical) 34
Wedge Definition File Name SA2-N55S ABWX257A

Cable Length 2rn
SCANS:
This examination consists of a single pass scan using a single probe positioned with fixed distance
from the reference weld centreline. Distances from the centreline are maintained using a probe fixture
(scanning head) and guide-bar.
Scanning is required from both sides of the weld centreline using 2 S-scans and a straight beam scan
(the straight beam scan may be carried out manually or as a separate set of focal laws.
CALIBRATION BLOCKS AND CALIBRATION STEPS:

The IIW block (V1) is used to set wedge delay compensation over the angular range required. Wedge
delay will be set using the software instructions for this step.
Angle-corrected gain using the software instructions will be achieved using the 50mm radius of the V2
block.
Reference sensitivity is then set using the welded calibration block containing notches and side drilled
holes at varying depths throughout the weld.
The sensitivity calibration block shall be made from a section of plate of the same material to be
inspected. (The section shall be ultrasonically examined to ensure it is free of any plate imperfections
that would interfere with calibration).
Target placement and overall dimensions are illustrated in Figure 2; it illustrates the block used to
calibrate the TCG and qualify the inspection technique.
317
dia at
dia at
Figure 2: Double Vee Weld Calibration block target details
Holes will be drilled and reamed, a minimum of 25mm deep.
The tolerance for the hole diameter is + 0.3mm. The tolerance on the hole location, through the
thickness will be + 1.0 mm.
For each set of focal laws, the instrument is directed at the side drilled holes in the sensitivity
calibration block; and a TCG is constructed over the range required for the volume coverage, using the
software instructions for TCG construction.
INITIAL INSTRUMENT SETTINGS:

The following instrument settings and parameters are considered initial and may require some
adjustment to obtain acceptable results for the display and analysis of results.
Scan Scan Scan Scan Scan Scan

General Settings
Position 3 Position 3 Position 1 Position 2 Position 4 Position 4
Skew (") 90 90 90 &0" 270 &.0" 270 270
Gain 10 10 20 20 20 10
Ranse Start (mm) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Range (mm) 100 100 50 100 50 100
Wave type Shear Shear Long Long Shear Shear
Sound Velocity
3220 3220 5920 5920 3220 3220
(m/s)
Pulser
Parameters
TxlRx Mode Tx Tx Tx Tx Tx Tx
Fresuency (MHz) 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Voltage 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0 80.0
Pulse Width (ns) 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
PRF (Pulse
Repetition 80 80 80 80 80 80
Frequency)
318
Receiver
Parameters
Filter 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0
Rectified FW FW FW FW FW FW
Video Filter ON ON ON ON ON ON
Averaging 1, 1. 1 7 7 1
Reject OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF

Beam
Characteristics
Gain Offset 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Scan Offset 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Index Offset -30 -30 -30 30 -30 30
Beam Delay calibrated calibrated calibrated calibrated calibrated calibrated
Element QW 76 76 16 16 16 16
First Element 7 7 1 1 1 1
Last Element 76 1,6 16 76 76 76

Element Step NA NA NA NA NA NA
Scan Type S-scan S-scan E-scan E-scan S-scan S-scan
Angle(s) 40"-70" 40"-700 00 00 400-70" 400-70"
10 10
Step 2" 2" 2" 2"
elements elements
Focal depth 500 500 500 500 s00 500
Mechanical
Encoding interval 1mm 1mm Manual Manual 1mm 1mm
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA:
Unless otherwise provided by the client, the following assessment is used as the acceptance criterion.
Flaw indications with amplitudes greater than or equal to 50% of reference are unacceptable if the
length is 50mm or greater
SCAN-PLAN FOR VOLUME COVERAGE:
Figure 3 illustrates the probe placement relative to the weld centreline. For the angle beam S-scan, a
single scan is made with 2 sets of focal laws from the left side (90' Skew) and another from the other
side (270" Skew). The lamination check can be run manually (un-encoded) and the probe directed at a
0o skewi and with the probe moved, so that the side of the probe is touching the weld cap, in addition
to the 90" and 270". This is required to assess the plate as close to the weld as possible.
319
Figure 3: Volume Coverage
iskew 90')
Plqie
Side B
I
Plqte I
! Side A
I
Plole
!
--
.
r lr'i-il-
!r
I
_
... t- - I
5COh pOSrTrOnS;
i
I
rominctions !
I
Guide bor
[-., I
I
=J
!
I
Encoded scon I Encoded
position 3 position 4
ri-i"i----1 I
Scon s1o* position
320
Appendix (C): Sample of Written Instruction
APPENDIX (C): SAMPLE OF WRITTEN INSTRUCTION
Piate Reference# uA-002-72

Purpose: To identify, locate, size flaws in fusion welded carbon steel plate and classify
all defects within the weld andHAZ areas of the test specimen.
Orieinator: |ohn Doe, EN/ISO 9772PALevel 2 Welds, CGSB UT Level 2Reg#141"44
Authorisins Name: Name, Signature, Date, EN Certification Level
Personnel: This instruction to be carried out by an individual certified to a minimum
EN/ISO 9712 PAUT Level2 in Weld Inspection.
Equipment: PA Unit - OmniScanMx1,6l128
Software MXU-2.0Rxx
Probe- 5L64-A2 SMhz 64 Element 0.6mm pitch
Wedse- SA2-N555S-IHC - 55Deerees in Steel
Encoder - Generic Quad Encoder
Eclipse Scientific Scarrring Rig
Peng Pencils - Ruler - Protractor
IIW Type 2 Block - SDH TCG/DAC Block
Graph Paper / Reporting Paper
Couplant / Cleaning Rags
Laptop Running ESBeamTool and TomoView
Test Specimen: 19mm Thick 305mm long plate-to-plate single V butt weld, carbon
Steel,30mm cap (+l- 2mm)
Stamped: UA-002 - 12 (See Fis# 1+2)
Test Preparations: Ensure area to be scarrned is free of spatter and dirt, and will provide a good
coupling surface
Prepare drawings noting the extent of the inspection on the test specimen
Preform element check and ensure the following:
. Adjacent elements have a response less than 3 d13
. That no 2 adjacent elements are non-functioning or that no more than
10% of aperture is non-functioning
Sectoral Scan: A sectoral scan will be completed from 90 degrees and 270 degree skews to
coverHAZ, root and full weld volume (Fig, # 2)
Settings: Gain: 6.0(280)d13 Filter:Auth
Ranse:50,59mm Start:22.04mm
Tx/Rx made:PE Velocity: 3222.7 rr.ls
DW: Auth Voltage:40 V
Max PRF: Optimum Rectifier: FW
Video Filter: OFF Averaging: 1
Reiect:0% Gate A Start: 12.34mm
327
Cate A Width:58.25mm Threshhold: 15%

Display: A-S-l"Cl C-Scan 1: A"/"
UT Unit: True Depth Group Mode: PA Tx/Rx
Probe: 5L64- A2 Wedse: 5A2- N555 dual5L64A
Scan Offset: Omm Index Offset: -(+) 20mm
Skew: 90 Degrees (270") Geometrv: P1ate
Thickness:19mm Law Confie: Sectorial
Element Qty: 16 First Element:20
Min Ansle:4lDeerees Max Anele: 70 Deerees
Anele Step: lDesree Focal Depth:27rnrn
Polarity: Inverse (Normal) Type: Quad
Oriein:0.00 Scan Start: 0.00
Scan End:310mm Scan Resolution: 1.00mm
Linear Scan: A linear scan will be performed from both 9Odegree and 270 degree skews to
inspect the fusion faces
Settings: Gain: 6.0 (29.0) db Start: 12.00mm
Range:33.33mm Velocity: 3227.6
TxlRx Mode PE Voltaee:40V
PW:Auto Max PRF: Optimum
Filter: Auto Rectifier: FW
Video Filter: Off Averaging: 1
Reiect:0% Gate A Start: 12.00
Gate A Width:33.33mm Cate A Thresh: 15%
Displav: A-S-lCl C-Scan 1: A"/,
UT Unit: True Depth Group Mode: PA
Probe: 5L64- A2 Wedee: SA2 - N555
Index Offset: -(+) 20mm Skew: )Qo()/Q")
Geometrv: Plate Thickness:19mm
Law Confis: Linear C Element Otv: 16
First Element: 1 Last Element: 64
Element Step: 1 Min Ansle:54 Deqrees
Focus Depth:.27rnm Polarity: Inverse (Normal)
Tvpe: Ouad Origin:0.00
Scan Start: 0.00mm Scan End:310.00mm
Scan Resolution: 1mm
Instructions: 1,. Calibrate all beams for velocity, wedge delay and sensitivity
2. Construct TCE for all beams using supplied SDH block using a
minimum 3 points and depths appropriate for the inspection
3. Set ranges and gates appropriate for inspection
4. Attach probe to scanner / encoder and position the plate at required
index offset and so that sound beam is perpendicular to weld Axis.
322
Position probe at 0 (start) on 90 degrees skew. See Fig #3

5. Apply couplant to whole scan
6. Press Start. Scan weld while watching C-Scan to insure no missed data
7. Save PC data file with name containing plate ID, Name, Data, Skew
and scan description
8. Change skew, index offset and encoder polarity settings and repeat
steps 4 to7 for 270 degrees skew
9. Transfer data files to laptop for analysis. Convert OmniScan files to
TomoView.
Note: If at any point you are unable to continue with these instructions, report to NDT Supervisor.
Recording and Classifying Results:
. All defects noted during Analysis are to be compared against the acceptance criteria
. Note the length, height depth and classification of all defects
. Length sizing for planar reflectors to be done by - 6db Method Datum References
. Length sizing for slag to be done by 20db Method
. Lensth sizins for porosity to be done by Max Amp method
Reporting: Record all defects on supplied reporting paper. Note locatiort, size and orientation of all
defects on a sketch.
323
Phased Array Data Acquisition Preparation Sheet
Plate Identification:
Scan Type:
First Element Plate Thickness
Elements in Aperture Weld Configuration
Last Element Cap Width
Aperture size (nxp) Extent of HAZ
Probe Frequency Wedge reference to weld centre
Anzular Resolution Calculations below:
Minimum Angle
Maximum Angle
Focal Depth
Range Setting - Start Lower
Angle/First Aperture
Range Setting - Width Lower
Scq! Type:
First Element Plate Thickness
Elements in Aperture Weld Confiquration
Last Element Cap Width
Aperture size (nxp) Extent of HAZ
Probe Frequency Wedge reference to weld centre
Angular Resolution Calculations below:
Minimum Ansle
MaximumAngle
Focal Depth
Range Setting - Start Lower
Range Setting - Width Lower
324
r\
$
x
111 i
'.*l
*l
325
Appendix (D): Phased Array UT Equations
APPENDIX (D): PHASED ARRAY UT EQUATIONS
The following is a brief compilation of equations that may be used in PAUT applications. Many are
not specific to PAUT but generic to Ultrasonic Testing.
B Number of bytes of amplitude information per sample point on each A-scan
D Diameter of the transducer. (Inch or cm)
Dr aaa Beam diameter (at the 6dB drop boundary). Also called spot size
s Width of individual element
f Frequency of the transducer. (Cycles/second)(MHz)
\ Focal distance when the sound beam travels in the first medium only
f' Digitising rate or sampling frequency
F Focal length of the transducer
f, Centre frequency of transducer
ft Lower frequency of the transducer at the 6dB drop
f, Upper frequency of the transducer at the 5dB drop
g Gap between two adjacent eiements (also called kerf)
k Constant for the -6dB envelope
- k - 0.51 for circular element-transducers
- k - 0.44 for rectangular element-transducers
ku Correction factor obtained from the curve in Figure 5-30
I Length of scan distance trar.elled
L The long dimension of the rectangular probe
n Number of elements
N Near field length
Pt Sound path in the coupling (first)medium
eo Angular resolution
e, The refracted angle in the second medium
S Number of A-scans collected per mm of travelled distance
Se Normalised focal length
t Time required for the sound wave to traverse the desired material distance and back
v Sound velocity in the material
ui Sound velocity in the incident (first) material
vr Sound velocity= in the refracting (second) material
vt Sound Velocity in coupling (first) medium
v2 Sound Velocity in test (second) medium
W The short dimension of the rectangular probe
1 Wavelength of the transducer
326
Appendix (D): Phased Array UT Equations
The incident angle in the first medium (Snell's law):
sino,:uisino'
,v,
Beam divergence angle (0) for circular element-transducer:
= kL
sin0."Df
Active aperture:
A=ne+g(n-I)
Near field distance for circular elements:
Approximnte:
N :D'f :L
4u ...oR... N 4)
Acutrate:
D2-12
4)
Near field distance for rectangular elements:
k'(L2)f
l\Nr
rectangular - 4U
Maximum beam steering angle (6rr):
o,t = sin-.(o.nnl1
Band width:
BW = [(f"- ft)/f,] x 100
Total focal distance when the sound beam travels in trvo mediums:
v1
Fa=Pr*(F,-P,)(;)
Normalised focal length:
F
S.:-
,N
Beam diameter at 6dB drop (spot size):
1''o2Fv
DB _6dB -
fD
Dr-uau : 0.256BDSr
Angular resolution
vo-cart'(os&3e)
D
-+
\F)
File size:
FS=txf,xBxlx.S
Focal zone length:
Fz = N(srz)t-*S]
327
Appendix (E): Exit Point Formulas
APPENDIX (E): EXIT POINT FORMULAS
u
C
+-i
c
ra
()
{,
328
Appendix (E): Exit Point Formulas
T Thickness
B Heat Affect Zone (HAZ)
C YzC"p width
Vm Sound velocity of shear waves in material
Probe
n Number of elements in the active aperbure
e Width of each element
g Gap between two adjacent elements
W Wedge angle (cut angle)

X Distance from the front nose of the wedge to the centre of the first element
Height of first element, measured from the base of the wedge to the centre of the first
-
Z,
element
Vw Sound velocity of compression waves in wedge
r Required angle of refraction

i Angle of incident focal law: calculated from the refracted angle using Snell's law
The exit point on the probe for an angle can be calculated using the following formula:
Distance from exit point to the front of the wedge: X - a- p

Where:
f(ne)+ s(n- 1)-el

a - l-lcosw
L2l
s= (
, *l(ne)
+ s(n - r) - el ,in,,\ r"n i
'\l 2l/
Therefore, distance from exit point to the front of the wedge (index point) :
x.-- l(ne)+s(n-1)-el / l(ne)+s(n-1)-el

cos w - (,, *
\
y-T] l--]
sin w/ tan i
Index offset; the offset of the probe wedge reference (index point) from the weld centre is:
A+B+C
Note: the index point length is simply the distance from a reference point (in this case the front of the
wedge) to the exit point of the beam.
329
Appendix (F): Glossary of Phased Array UT Terms
APPENDIX (F): GLOSSARY OF PHASED ARRAY UT TERMS
Terms in this glossary have been compiled over several years from contributions made by individuals
from several different NDT companies. Not all of the terms they assembled are used here. Instead, we
have selected those that are relevant to the materials presented in this book.
In addition to PAUT terms some general terms have been added as they relate to this book.
PHASED ARRAY ULTRASONIC TESTINC TERMS

Angle-Corrected Gain: also called ACG. This is compensation for the variation in signal
amplitudes received from a constant sound path during S-scan calibration. Note that there are
technical limits to ACG, i.e. beyond a certain angular range, compensation is not possible.
Beam Steering: the ability of a phased array system to electronically sweep the beam through
a range of incident angles without probe movement.
' Dead Elements: elements in an array are no longer active. Dead elements may in{luence the
construction of the ultrasonic beam.
Electronic/Linear Scan: AIso termed an E-scan, swept index point, or electronic raster
scanning. The same focal law is multiplexed across a group of active elements; E-scans are
performed at a constant angle and along the phased array probe length.
Focal Law: A file containing the entire set of hardware and software parameters for phased
array operatiory which defines the elements to be fired, time delays, voltages, for both the
transmitter and receiver functions.
Line Scan: Also called a one-line scan in some industries. A single pass mechanical scan
parallel to the weld or region to be inspected.
Phased Array Technique: a process wherein UT data is generated by constructive phasal
interference formed by multiple elements controlled by accurate time delayed pulses. The
arrays can perform beam sweeping through an angular range (S-scans), beam scanning at
fixed angles (E-scans), beam focusing, lateral scanning and a variety of other scans depending
on the array and programming. Each element consists of an individually wired transducer,
with appropriate pulsers, multiplexers, AID converters, and the elements are acoustically
isolated from each other. The phased array system is computer-controlled, with software
typically user-friendly such that the operator can simply program in the required inspection
parameters.
330
. Probes:
a) Annular Array Probes: Phased array probes that have the transducers configured as a set
of concentric rings. Annular array probes allow the beam to be focused to different depths
along an axis. The surface area of the rings is in most cases constant, which implies a
different width for each ring.
b) Circular Array Probes: elements on a cylinder, for tube inspection from the inside'without
mirror.
c) Convex Array Probe: A curved array probe designed typically for inspection from the
inside of tubes.
d) Concave Array Probe: A curved array probe designed typically for inspection from the
outside of tubes.
e) Daisy Array Probe: Daisy array probes are effectively a linear array curved into a circle
such that the ultrasound is emitted along the axis of the circle/cylinder. This type of aruay
can be used with a mirror to inspect from the inside of tubes.
0 Linear Array Probes: (Also called 1D array) Probes made using a set of elements
juxtaposed and aligned along a linear axis. They enable a beam to be rastered, focused,
swept and steered along a single azimuthal plane (active axis) only.
g) Matrix Array Probes: These probes have an active area divided in two dimensions using
different elements. Matrix array probes are typically in a checkerboard formaf though
other designs are used. These probes allow ultrasonic beam steering etc. in multiple
planes. (Also called 2D aruay when more than 8 elements per side and 1.5D aruay if one of
the sides has less than 8 elements).
h) Sectorial Array Probe: an annular array probe in which the annular rings are subdivided
into multiple elements.
. Sectorial Scan: Also termed an S-scan, swept angle scan, or azimuthal scan. This may refer to
either the beam movement or the data display. As a data display, it is a 2D view of all A-
scans from a specific set of angled beams. When used to refer to the beam movement, it refers
to the set of focal laws that sweeps through a defined range of angles using the same set of
elements.
. Terminology for Array Probes:
a) Grating Lobe: Undesirable lobes of ultrasonic energy caused by the regular, periodic
spacing of aruay elements.
b) Active Aperture: The dimensions of the active acoustic elements.

c) Axial Resolution: The ability to distinguish closely spaced reflectors that lie in a plane
perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam's direction of propagation. (see temporal resolution)
331
Appendix (F): Clossary of Phased Array UT Terms
d) Cross-Coupling: Also called "cross-talk". An undesirable condition where array elements

are activated, electrically or acoustically,by adjacent elements.
e) Element Width: In a rectangular element the acoustic element's short dimension.
0 Element Length: In a rectangular element, the acoustic element's long dimension. See
Passive Aperture.
g) Element Pitch: The distance between the centres of two adjacent array elements.
h) Elevation: The same as Passive Aperture.
i) Elevation Focus: focusing a transducer in the passive direction by either applying a lens
or by shaping the ceramic.
j) Lateral Resolution: The ability to distinguish closely spaced reflectors that lie in a plane
parallel to the ultrasonic beam's direction of propagation.
k) Passive Aperture: The dimension of an array element's length.
l) Saw cut Also called "kerf" or "gap". The space between adjacent elements
' True Depth Display: Refers to S-scans or B-scans that display A-scan data on a Cartesian
coordinate display such that the beam paths are corrected for refracted angles in the
component. Terms are sometimes manufacturer specific and associated with their software.
These may include True S-scan, True B-scan, Angle-corrected B-scan, Corrected S-scan or
Corrected B-scan, Volume-corrected, Depth-corrected, Volume-corrected End View, etc.
. Wedge Parameters for Phased Array Probes:
a) Beam Offset see index offset length
b) Coupling: method for keeping the wedge to test material interface wet or coupled. Also
called irrigation.
c) Contoured Wedges: These are wedges machined to match the contour of the component,
for example, curved to match a pipe circumference.
d) Dual Array Wedge: Wedge made to accommodate two phased array crystals. These are
generally use in a pitch-catch application. They also normally have a barrier dividing the
wedge in half.
e) Exit Point The point where the centre ray of the computed focal law at intersects the
wedge/test-piece interf ace.
0 Index Point: The reference surface from which the index offset or focal law exit point are
referenced. Typically this is the front or back of the wedge.
g) Index Offset Length: The distance from the index point (reference surface) to the exit
point of a given focal law.
JJZ
h) Lateral Array Wedge: array wedge used with the array mounted 90 degrees to the normal
array wedge mounting. The resulting beam is fixed in the incident plane while it is
steered as to skew the beam.
i) Natural Refracted Angle: the un-steered angle of the refracted beam into a given material.
j) Normal Array Wedge: array wedge used with array mounted so that when the.array is
steered, the resulting beam is steered to vary the incident angle.
k) Probe Index Offset The distance from the probe reference (e.9. front of wedge) to the
scanning reference (e.g. typically the weld centreline).
l) Total Index Offset: the combined distance of the Probe Index Offset plus the Beam Offset.
m) Wedge Angle: The incident angle of a wedge as referenced to the normal longitudinal
axis.
n) Wedge Velocity: The longitudinal wave speed of the wedge material.
RELATED ULTRASONIC TERMS

. Angular Resolution: The ability of a beam to separate two objects occurring at the same
sound path but at different angular positions relative to the probe. Variation may exist
depending on whether or not the targets are at the same depth or same sound path. At the
same depth, two adjacent targets are also separated in time when assessing the resolution (see
also temporal and axial resolution).
. Coherent Wave Source: Coherent wave sources are those which have the same frequency and
are in phase with each other. They interact predictably and regularly and depending on phase
shift, can cause constructive or destructive interference.
. Diffraction: the apparent bending of waves around small obstacles and the spreading out of
waves past small openings
. Far Zone: The main lobe of an ultrasonic beam where the intensity of the sound field is
inversely proportional to the square of the distance to the transmitter. Sometimes referred to
as the far field or the Fraunhofer zol:le, named after ]oseph von Fraunhofer (1787-7826).
. Fermat Principle: the concept that a ray travelling from one point to another will follow a
path such that, compared with nearby paths, the time required is a minimum.
. Huygens Principle: Every wavefront may itself be regarded as being composed of secondary
waves (wavelets), which unify to form a single wavefront. Therefore, if the position of a
wavefront at any instant is known, a simple extrapolation enables its position to be drar,'rrn at
any subsequent time.
. Interference: When the amplitudes of the interacting waves add together, it is called
Constructive Interference. When the amplitudes of the interacting waves subtract (reduce
overall amplitude), it is called Destructive Interference.
JJJ
Lateral Resolution: The ability of a beam to separate two objects occurring at the same sound
path but at different horizontal positions relative to the probe.
Near Zone: The region in an ultrasonic beam which is subject to variations of intensity due to
diffraction effects. It extends from the source of radiation to a point just short of the far field.
Diffraction is a particular example of wave interference and is common to all wave motion. It
was the subject of a special study by A.J. Fresnel (1788-1,827). Also called the near field or
Fresnel zone.
Polarisation: May refer to mode of vibration (compression or shear). Usually restricted to

shear mode when the vibrations of transverse waves are confined to oire plane orLly
(horizontally polarised shear waves or SH shear). The transverse mode, that forms when a
compression wave impinges on a solid at some angle below the second critical angle, is
sometimes called SV shear (vertically polarised shear).
Sound Path: The distance and direction followed by a sound beam as represented by a ruy
from the centre of the transmitter to the point of interest along the centre of the beam.
Axial Resolution: The ability of a beam to separate two objects having a nearly identical
lateral position but different positions along the time base (hence temporal). This may also be
referred to as temporal resolution.
MISCELLANEOUS
Code: \uVhen a standard (q.v.) is incorporated into law and thereby enforceable legally, it is
considered a code. Legal document specifying key requirements of inspection.
Procedure: Written document that defines how the technique will be carried out in practice,
which defines all the critical parameters that need to be reported.
Standard: A standard is a written document assembled by recognised experts, with the
purpose of recommending actions to achieve certain objectives. A standard is usually
enforced or given authority by an organisation or agency.
Technique: The details of how the inspection will be performed, or a specific way of using an
NDT method.
Written Instruction: written description of the precise steps to be followed in testing to an
established standard, specification or procedure.
334
List of Figures
IIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-'1.3D rendering of a foetal face (i).......... ...........4
Figure3-2WaverefractionasexplainedbytheHuygensPrincip1e(3)...........'......
Figure 3-3 Wave interference - different wavelengths .................. ......................10
Figure 3-4 Wave interference, same wavelength and increasingly in-phase source (4)...,,........................11
Figure 4-1 Internals of the traditional single element Probe (s)...... -....................13
Figure 4-2 Components of the phased array probe .........................14
Figure 4-5 Focused linear array ...............15
Figure 4-7 2D matrix array probe ............15

Figure 4-8 Annular array probe ...............16
Figure 4-9 Rho-theta array probe........... ....^..................16
Figure 4-L0 Rho-theta - detailed diagram... .................17
Figure 4-l2Circular/ encircling array........... ...............17

Figure 4-13 Small scale large array 6) ...........................18
Figure 5-1 Linear sequenced ar:ray (7) ...........................23
Figure 5-2 Linear phased (steered) array (z)........ .........23
Figure 5-3 Saw cutting and filling of a piezo-composite (8)................. ................24
Figure 5-6 Phased array steering and focusing combined.................. ................26

Figure 5-7 Fundamental dimensions of a phased array probe ...........................26
Figure 5-8 Effective active aperture................. .............28
Figure 5-9 Lateral, angular and axial resolution... ...........................29
Figure 5-10 Lateral resolution obtained for SDH left pair but not the right pair.......................................30
Figure 5-11 Axial resolution for SDH pair (left) but not the pair (right).......... ......................30
Figure 5-12 Pitch size reduction effect on grating lobes - similar aperture si2e.............. ......32
Figure 5-13 Factors affecting grating lobes: frequency (a), pitch size & number of elements (b) (Same
Figure 5-14 Damping influence on grating lobes, 1 MHz probe focusing at 60mm (e).................. ............32
Figure 5-15 Pulser delays applied for simple focusing (10)................. ..................33
Figure 5-16 16-element probe focused at 25mm..... .........................33
Figure 5-17 1,6 element probe to steer a compression mode at 45o .............. ...........................35
Figure 5-18 Time-delay plot for a focused beam ........36
Figure 5-L9 Fermat's principle as applied to phased array ultrasonics........... .......................36
335
List of Figures
Figure 5-20 Phased array equipment schematic.............. ................37

Figure 5-21Sound field of aSMHz 10mm diameter probe on steel .................38
Figure 5-22Focal length alteration due to change in medium. ..........................40
Figure 5-23 Equivalent sound path............ ..................41
Figure 5-24Eocal length change due to change in wedge material...... .............47
Figure 5-25 Relative increase in signal amplitude vs. normalised focal length ...........*.......43
Figure 5-26 Working field of the probe (11)................. ............................................45
Figure 5-27 Effect of radius of curvature on the near field of a probe... ............46
Figure 5-28 Acoustic focus shift for specified geometric focus ........... ...............47
Figure 5-29 Principles of beam spread (s).................. ........................48
Figure 5-30 Correction factor "k," for rectangular elements, " a" aspect ratio = width/length$4) ............49
Figure 5-31 Beam profile for 10x20mm 5 MHz probe in steel .......50
Figure S-32Bffect of A.lD ratio on sound field diverggngg (t0) ........57
Figure 5-33 Limit of steering due to beam divergence............ .......57
Figure 6-3 Fixed beam scanning pattern. .....................61
Figure 5-6 Manual raster scan pattern .........................62

Figure 6-7 Probe skewed, raster pattern parallel to weld ..............63
Figure 6-8 Probe Parallel to Weld, Raster Scan Skewed.................. ....................63
Figure 5-9 Helical scan configurations......... ................64
Figure 5-L0 Spiral scan configuration ..........................64
Figure 6-12 Unidirectional scan pattern ......................65
Figure 5-14 Pipeline AUT line scan configuration.................. ........66

Figure 7-1 Phased Array instrument components ..........................68
Figure 7-2Image formation for B-mode (like industrial B-scans) (16)................. .....................70
Figure 7-3 Single delay pattern - linear scan (left) and sectorial scan (right) (rr) .............. ..........................77
Figure 7-4 Adjusting focal distance (left) and angle (right) by changing delay laws (18)...........................77
Figure 7-5 Focused beam from a1D artay (17) ................ ..................72
Figure 7-6Linear scan focal plane (tr) ......72
Figure 7-7 Sectorial scan with arced focal plane (t0)...... ...................72
Figure 7-8 Apodization princip1es................ ................73
Figure 7-9 Apodization effect (right images are with apodization) (,n)............... ....................73
Figure 7-10 Block diagram of ABF system (20) ................ ..................74
Figure 7-11 Block diagram of DBF system (FIFO=first in first out buffer) (20)................. .......74
Figure 7-l2Typical multi - pin connectors used with phased array probes (21) ............. .......75
Figure 8-L Krautkramer USIP1O circa 1950's Q2)................. ..............77
336
List of Figures
Figure 8-4 Tone burst pulser waveforms. ....................81

Figure 8-5 Pulse width effect on transducer excitation ..................82
Figure 8-5 Single element with spike pulse at 700 volts..... ............83
Figure8-7Phasedarray(1,6elements)withfunedpulseat180volts
Figure 8-8 Transducer bandwidths - narrow band (left), broad band (right) ........................84
Figure 8-9 Bandwidth versus signal shape (ring time)........... ...:.........................85
Figure 8-10 Pulse-Echo (PE) versus Transmit-Receive (TR) connections ..........85
iil;i:lllf:;if*'I**#",,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,..........................................ii
Figure 8-L5 Analogue to digital shaping .....................93
Figure 8-17 Multiplexed inputs and outputs via ADCs and DACs.. .................94
Figure 8-18 Manually operated scanner - Eclipse Scientific ESlinkScanner(2s)............. ........95
Figure 8-19 Motorised system - Eclipse Scientific TDPipe-Runner(2s)............. .......................96
Figure 8-20 Motorised remote operated scanner - Jireh Tri-Pod (26)................. .......................96
Figure 8-21Chip log with knot spool and timing dsviss(zz)..... ......97
Figure 8-23 Optical encoder system(2e) .........................98

Figure 8-24 Optical encoder circuit (30)................ .........98
Figure 8-25 Optical Encoder components(3l)................ ....................98
Figure 8-25 Optical encoder - quadrature pulse patterns ................ ...................99
Figure 8-27 Magnetic Encoder Components(32)............... .................99
Figure 8-28 Magnetic encoder (33)
Figure 8-29 Canon laser encodet (34) ............. ..............100
Figure 8-30 Ultrasonic distance ssnssl (3s) 100
Figure 8-31 Multi element scanning system - Asynchronous (upper), Synchronous (lower)...............101
Figure 8-32 Missing data points. ............103
Figure 8-33 Digital signal processing options....... .........................105
Figure 8-34 Echo - dynamic display........ ...................105
Figure 8-35 Phased array echo dynamic scan display ..................106
Figure 8-36 Fast Fourier transform (F-Scan) .............106
Figure 8-39 Dimensional digital signal processing (matrix averaging).. .........108
Figure 8-4L Data compression with 4:1 reduction of data in an A-scan ..........109
Figure 8-42 Uncorrected S-scan (left) and angle-corrected S-scan (right)......... ...................109
Figure 8-43 Split spectrum filtering process (5).................. .............110
Figure 8-44 DDF: Optimal resolution (left). Homogenous resolution (right).......... ............71L
33/
List of Figures
Figure 8-45 DDF improvement of scan (e).................. .....................111

Figure 8-46 A-scan display types........... .....................113
Figure 8-47 Formation of an amplitude B-scan (uncorrected)................... ..................... .......114
Figure8-48Formationofanamp1itudeC-scanover4targets
Figure 8-49 Depth encoded C-scan......... ........'.....'.....115
Figure 8-50 Projection scans nomenclature................. .............,.....116
Figure 8-53 R/D tech cube and its Isometric visrv (37) ...................:......................117
Figure 8-54 Digitising effects on oscilloscope waveform quality.. ...................118
Figure 8-55 8 Bit digitising effects on dynamic ran9e........... ........119
Figure 8-56 9 Bit digitising gate display to increase dynamic range .......... .....120
Figure 9-L Cathode ray tube (CRT) .......124
Figure 9-2 A-scan display for horizontal linearity ........................725
Figure 9-3 Display height linearity verification. .......127
Figure 9-4 Phased array linearity blocks ...................128
Figure 9-5 Channel 1 backwall echo set to 40"/" ........729
Figure 9-6 Gated numeric output for amplitudes over 100 % in a9bit instrument. ..........130
Figure 9-7 Multi - element multiplex switching from a series of pulser receivers .............130
Figure 9-8 Bent pin causing lack of signal in phased array channel................. ....................132
Figure 9-9 B-scan display element activity........ ........133
Figure 9-L0 Identifying the exit point of a beam for a specific focal law ............. ................133
Figure 9-1L Marking the block with the exit point where the SDH signal is peaked.... .....L34
Figure 9-12 Profiling E-scan of side drilled ho1es........... ...............136
Figure 9-13 B-scan display for beam profiling of side drilled holes........... .....736
Figure 9-L4 Angle-corrected B-scan display of beam profile of SDH........ ......137
Figure 9-L5 Passive axis beam profiling ....................137
Figure 9-L6 Combined active and passive axis beam profiling..... ...................138
Figure 9-17 Projected C-scan for active and passive axis beam profiling .......138
Figure 9-18 Beam steering assessment block - constant sound path ............ ........................139
Figure 9-19 Beam steering assessment block - fixed plane sound path............. ...................140
Figure 10-1 Example coordinate references for element positions in 3D space ..................1,44
Figure 10-2 Misplacement of plotted target due to velocity errors.......... ........745
Figure 10-3 Type 2 IIW block ................
(38) .................145
Figure l}-425mm and 50mm radii in semi cylinder b1ock......... ......................145
Figure 1"0-5 Two-radii test b1ock........... .................,...146
Figure L0-6 Determining wedge de1ay........... ............747
Figure 10-7 Varying wedge path in S-scans and E-scans .............149
Figure L0-8 Echo transmittance curves for Perspex steel interface (2a) ...................... 150
Figure targets.........
10-9 Series of S-scans over 3 ......L52
Figure 10-10 C-scan representation................ ............152
Figure 10-11 Comparing amplitude responses for 45 and 60 degrees on corner reflectors ...................153
338
List of Figures
Figure 10-12 Moving an S-scan past the centre of a semi-cylinder b1ock........... ..................154
Figure L0-13 Amplitude plot for a constant steel path from 45" through 70" .............. .......154
Figure 10-14 Ermolov equations to calculate gain difference (s) ................. ......155
Figure L0-15 Beam paths - one side of a 19.5mm J-bevel weld with 6 subsurface zones........................156
Figure 10-15 Tandem paths for vertical IP in DSAW ....................156
Figure 10-17 Addition of a second beam-set..... ........158
Figure 10-18 DAC constl'uction (41) .............. 159
Figure 10-L9 DAC using surface notches..... ..............160
Figure L0-20 Four points (SDH responses) displayed as DAC (left) and TCG (righQ ....:.......................150
Figure 10-21 TCG for a phased array focal law .............. ...............161
Figure 1.}-22Three point TCG with probe displacements for S-scan ..............1.62
Figure L0-23 NAVSHIPS calibrallon folesk {:s) .763
Figure L0-24 ASME Basic calibration block desi9n......... ..............164
Figure 10-25 ASME basic piping calibration block .......... .............164
Figure 10-25 FBH fabrication for zonal discrimination sensitivity ..................766
Figure 10-27 Calibration block for zonal discrimination sensitivity ................766
Figure 10-28 Comparing gaps under a 30mm wide wedge .........1.67
Figure 10-29 Maintaining wedge path for curved wedges. .........1.69
Figure L0-30 Centre rays arriving at the SDH at the same time............ ...........1,69
Figure L0-31 Comparing notch response to SDH's for a45" mono-element probe ............170
Figure L0-32 DAC curves for notch and SDH..... ......770
Figure 10-33 S-scan responses from 2mm notch (upper) and 3mm SDH (lower) ..............772
Figure 10-34 Composite end-views of SDH: flat (left) and curved (right) entry surfaces......................173
Figure 10-35 Calibration blocks - flat surface (left), 60.3mm curved surface (righQ ..........773
Figure 10-36 Comparing amplitude drops for the same SDH for flat and curved surfaces...................174
Figure 10-37 Comparing Echo dynamic C-scans for SDH in plate and curved surfaces........................774
Figure 11-L Types of focal configurations for linear array probes........ ...........779
Figure 11-2 Manual scanning using an S-scan to locate indications. ...............180
Figure 11-3 Single and dual probe mountings with encoders attached. .........181
Figure 11-4 Mechanised scanning with a guide strip held in place with a magnet........ ....182
Figure 11-5 Motorised phased array scanners............... ................782
Figure 11-6 PAUT on railroad rolling stock axles (42) ................ ....183
Figure 11-7 PAUT inspection of a carbon fibre composite spar (43)................ .......................183
Figure LL-8 PAUT on steeple of turbine disc (21) .......184
Figure 11-9 Flange to flange phased affay scanni^9............... ......186
Figure LL-10 Phased array UT tube inspection using a stuffing fs1 (aa) ..........187
Figure LL-L1 Spreadsheet-based beam modelling... ......................189
Figure 11-12 Simple Ray Trace Beam Modelling............. ..............190
Figure 11-13 3D CAD image of nozzle with PA probe.......... .......190
Figure 11-L4 A-scan (left) extracted from S-scan (right)......... ......191.
Figure 1,L-L5 Beam positions for E-scan... ..................191
Figure 1L-L5 Beam positions for S-scan .....................192
339
List of Figures
Figure ll-17 Calculating probe position for weld inspection... ........................792

Figure L1-L8 Poor steering capability forms grating Iobes........ ........................193
Figure l2-lPararr.eter 9roupings................... ............195
Figure 12-2Typical material parameters. ..................796
Figure l2-3 Typical probe element parameters ........196
Figure 12-4 Options for element shapes ....................197
Figure 12-5 Wedge parameters ..............797
Figure l2-6Probe aperture parameter details ..........198
Figure l2-7 Centreline exit point for half step advance process........ ...............198
Figure 12-8 Angle definition parameters. ..................... ..................7gg
Figure 12-10 Illustrative File Layout for Phased Array Systems...... ...............202
Figure 12-LL C-scan setup for corrosion mapping scan............. ........................204
Figure 12-12 Cornbining A-scans to derive B-scan and C-scan. .......................204
Figure 12-13 Echo dynamic plot of the 4 targets shown in Figure 72-77............ ..................204
Figure l2-'l,4Scan pattern for unidirectional scanning................ ......................206
Figure 12-15 Scan display types and 3D projection illustrating relative probe position........................207
Figure 12-16 Uncorrected S-scan (left) and true depth-corrected S-scan (right) .................208
Figure 12-17 Colour filling required due to angular spread of rays in true S-scans ..........208
Figure 12-18 Zonal Calibration Targets and Modelled Flaw Targets....... .......209
Figure 12-19 Echo dpramic plots (strip chart display)................. .....................209
Figure 12-20Echo dynamic extracted from B-scan over 9 notches of increasing length........................210
Figure 12-21,Skip (right) and mirrored (left) projections with S-scan overlays ..................271.
Figure 12-22 Arnplitude and time cursors on A-scan... ................211
Figure 12-23 Cursors on C-scan indicating peak position at 10x10mm scan coordinates ......................272
Figure 12-24Cursor at 0.6mm scan position and 11.459mm............. ...............212
Figure 12-25 B-scan with gate limited data display ......................213
Figure 12-27 Enhancing flaw signals by adjusting palette settings .................214

Figure 12-28TCG points, associated curve - time positions of points in and added gain............. .........215
Figure 12-29L}-Colour palette with discrete transitions ..............216
Figure 12-3010-Colour palette with256 graduated transitions .......................216
Figure 12-31 Raw pixelated (left) and same image after smoothing (right) ........................277
Figure l2-S2Software gain manipulation of A-scan amplitudes. ....................278
Figure 12-33 Voxelisation of the inspection volume................... .......................219
Figure l2-34Prcjection gates on either side of we1d............ .........220
Figure 12-35 A single slice displayed at each position along the scan............ .....................220
Figure 12-36 Projection gates selecting a region either side of the HAZ. ........221,
Figure 12-37 Conhrmation of flaw position with two S-scans .........................227
Figure 12-38 Pipe butt weld using four S-scans........ .....................222
Figure 12-39 Merged S-scans with Corrections and Smoothing ......................222
Figure L3-1 S-scan detection display showing a positioned flaw (after skip off backwall)... .................226
340
List of Figures
Figure 13-2 Combination A-scan and S-scan for manual scanning .................226
Figure display
13-3 Figure restriction on monitor ........................228
Figure 13-4 3 Display presentation on monitor . .......229
Figure 13-5 7-Display presentation on monitor (same size as Figure 1,3-4)............ .............230
Figure 13-6 3 Flaws aligned in the fan of a PAUT S-scan.......... ........................231
Figure 13-7 Echo-dynamics based on B-scan data ............ ............231,
Figure L3-8 Accounting for early arriving weak signal .......... ...;................. ......231.
Figure 13-9 Photoelastic image of tip diffraction process .................. ...............232
Figure 13-10 Forward scatter and back scatter tip echo testing ....................:........................232
Figure 13-11 TOFD B-scan (top left), A-scan (lower left), scan pattern (right).......... ..........233
Figure 13-12 TOFD signals and their origins ............233
Figure L3-L3 Phase reversal of tip echo signals in back scatter pulse echo testing......... ....234
Figure L3-L4 Multiple-depth TOFD with phased array probe pair............. .........................235
Figure 13-15 Comparing mono-element 10 MHz TOFD (upper) to 5 MHz phased array generated
Figure 14-1 Root geometry seen by S-scan display....... ................238

Figure 14-2 Mismatch geometry seen by S-scan display. Maximum response seen with probe on thick
Figure 14-3 High-Low geometry (high side on the left, low side on the righQ........... ........239
Figure 1"4-4 Welded attachment geometry detected by E-scan ........................239
Figure 14-5 Double Vee SAW macro indicating entrapped slag at penetration (root) point. ................241
Figure 14-7 SMAW Components (as).............. .............241
Figure 14-8 Types of cold cracking...... .......................242
Figure 14-10 Incomplete or lack of penetration (abbreviated IP or LOP) .......243

Figure '14-1LLack of fusion examples.... ....................243
Figure l4-l2Undercut forms at weld reinforcement edges...... ........................244
Figure L4-14 GMAW Process (46)................ .................244

Figure 14-15 ERW pipe forming and welding {az)
Figure 14-15 Excess weld metal formation in ERW pipe (47) ........245
Figure 14-17 Forrnation of a hook crack (48) ...............246
Figure 14-L8 Well scarfed weld seam (left) excessive cutting by scarfing tool (right) (4e) .......................246
Figure 14-19 Friction stir welding process (FSW) (50)................. ....246
Figure 14-20Burn through seen from two sides of the weld. ......248
Figure l4-2lHAZ crack perpendicular to surface... .....................249
Figure l4-22Underbead defects ............250
Figure L4-23 Subsurface planar flaws in double V weld........ ......251.
Figure l4-24Porosity indicating low amplitude signals with varied arrival times in weld volume....251.
Figure l4-2SInterpass non fusion - S-scan technique (left) improved detection with E-scan (right)...252
Figure 15-L Simple tip diffracted signal using pulse echo shear wave ........... .....................254
341
List of Figures
Figure 15-3 Probe positions and sound paths recorded for peak amplitudes of tip echoes...................255
Figure 15-4 Faint tip echoes either side of corner response .........256
Figure 15-5 Tip sizing using the Corner signal and direct path tip echo............ .................257
Figure 1,5-6 Tip sizing of surface-breaking planar on ful1 skip with S-scan ........................257
Figure L5-7 S-scan detection and occluded tip signals .........-......258
Figure 15-8 Tip echoes detected when approached from opposite side ..................... .........258
Figure L5-9 Assessing height and tilt of a subsurface planar flaw............. ......258
Figure 15-10 A-scan at a 60" refracted angle ........... .;.....................259
Figure 15-11 Tandem path of 45o beam striking centreline shrink-crack ........259
Figure 15-12 45'B-scan overlaid on profile and flaw (left) A-scan at lower tip (right) .....259
Figure 15-13 S-scan overlaid on slag-like profile with maximised A-scan (right) ..............260
Figure 15-14 Comparing MaxAmp sizing with angular increment (1'Ieft,0.5" right)...........................260
Figure 15-15 MaxAmp sizing with E-scan on direct (left) and skip (right) paths....................................261"
Figure 15-16 Pattern recognition to characterise planar flaw position and sizes(s1)................. ................262
Figure 15-1 Example of linking flaw data report to graphic plotting....... .......265
342
List of Tables
IIST OF TABTES
Table 5.1 Time-delay calculations for beam travelling 25mm below the surface. ................34
Table 5.2 Time-delay calculations for beam travelling at 45o angle .......:..........35
Table 9.L Linearity verification report form............ .......................126
Table 9.2Probe element activity chart: enter receiver gain for 80% FSH .......131
Table L0.1 Typical Parameter Entry Data for a probe to configure Focal Laws..............;:.......................144
Table L0.2 Sample wedge delay components for the seven 60o focal laws ....147
Table 10.3 Acoustic Attenuation Coefficients for Plexiglas (3e)................ .........1,49
Table 10.4 Calibration blocks selection..... ...............;..... .................163
Table 11.1 Essential parameters to consider in technique development.............. ...............178
Table 11.2 Essential parameters in technique design ...................1,94
Table 16.1 Sample of indications summary ..............265
343
Works Cited
WORKS CITED
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Petrofsky. 7996.[J.5. Patent # 5,555,534.
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20. A VLSI Receiae Beamformer for Digital Ultrasound Imaging. M., Karaman, E., Kolagasioglu and A.,
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23. Hedrick, W., Hykes, D., Starchman, D. Ultrasound Pl'tysics and lnstrumentotion, Fourth Edition. s.1.:
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Erhard, G. Schenk.
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346
Index
INDEX
compression.. ..4, 12, 14, 22, 33, 34, FBH ... 1 08, 748, 157, 152, 755, 759,
A 3s,38, 47,50, 104, 1"09,774,125, 163,166,206
1 41, 746, 792, 194, 199, 232, 233, Fermat............ .............. 36, 143, 333
aconstic impedance............69, 127
235,264,267,329,334 file si2e........... ............ 71,2, 1,22, 287
active apertur e ... 20, 27, 27, 28, 7 4,
cracking..... 104, 157, 177, 1 85, 1 86, filter.............. 86, 108, 728, 264, 287
11.0,770,283,329,337
240,242,248,249,251 focal law 6, 7, 37, 49, 59, 60, 61, 62,
angle-correcte d 709, 736, 168, 777,
Cross-ta1k...... ............................ 269 75, 79, 701, 103, 110, 123, 1,25,
208, 215, 317, 330, 332
C-scan....29, 30, 103, 107, 708, 114, 728, 729, 737, 734, 135, 1,40, 141,
angular resolution..... 30, 74L, 260,
775, 776, 738, 152, 203, 204, 205, L46, 747, 150, 151, 1,59, 160, 1,61,
JJJ
20b, 207, 21 0, 212, 2ll3, 227, 22q, 168, 780, 1,89, 1,91, 792, 194, 796,
annu1ar3, 13, 76, 144, 796, 282, 331,
285,314 798, 799, 203, 21,9, 226, 231,, 234,
apodization . 33, 68, 72, 73, 7 4, 799
2s1. , 283, 307 , 309, 370, 311 , 329 ,
ASME 127, 763, 764, 765, 768, 769,
330
271, 272, 273, 27 4, 27 6, 304, 307, D
focused beam s .......................... 1 78
310
DDF ............... 110, 111 friction stir welding ................. 185
ASTM 123, 725, 135, 223, 268, 270,
delay laws..... 16,71,744
277,295,307,370,374
depth-corrected.109, 208, 256, 332
attennation ..... 22, 69, 86, 104, 123, G
diffraction ..............7, 7, B, 232, 238
748, 149, 1 50, 151, 753, 1.54, 758,
digitisation.... ..78, 87 , 93, 778, 779, 1ap..... 7, 73, 27, 27, 33, 49, 73, 131,
759, 777, 270, 288, 295, 307, 309
720, 727, 729, 1.37, 206, 277, 223 167, 168, 778, 1,85, 794, 796, 245,
axial resolution ..29, 30, 69, 70, 72,
294,309,332
JJI/ JJJ, JJ4
glossa ry...................................... 330
E
grating 1obe.... 3, 27, 37, 32, 33, 56,
B encoder......64 , 97, 98, 99, 100, 701 , 741,793,331.
1,03, 772, 137, 787, 7E2, 195, 199,
beam of f set ........................ 332, 333
200, 286, 289, 307,308, 310, 313
beamforming....... 2, 68, 77, 75, 285 H
end view.... 1 1 6, 208, 220, 227, 230,
bidirectional ..............................200
297,332 heat affected zone.... L77, 790, 239,
bit-depth........ .... L18, L24, 206, 278
E-scan 60, 62, 66, 96, 717, 128, 130, 242,249
B-scan.. 29, 702, 706, 707, 108, 109,
133, 135, 746, 717, 748, 757, 778,
113, 774, 715, 7L6, 777, 127, 733,
191, 194, 798, 799, 203, 204, 220,
136, 768, 186, 203, 204, 206, 207, !
23q, 252, 256, 257 , 25q, 26 I , 283,
270, 272, 273, 225, 227, 229, 230,
293, 294, 307, 379, 330 index offset 299, 300,303, 319, 333
231, 233, 237, 247, 248, 257, 25q,
essential parameters 143, 177, 178, index offset length............. .......332
260,285, 287, 293, 294, 371, 372,
188,794 index point........... ..135, 328, 332
314
exit point...123, 733, 734, 135, 140, interference .. 1, 2, 3, 7, B, 9, 70, 77,
741, 768, 792, 1,93, 798, 219, 226, 23, 24, 25, 26, 37, 56, 8L, 83, 86,
c 260, 267, 295, 3L0, 317, 329, 332 L08, 764, 203, 282, 293, 370, 330,
JJ.)
characterisation. 223, 226, 230, 240
colour.... 38, 68, 113, 715, 117, 11.9, F
136, 138, 160, 207, 205, 209, 273, K
far fie1d.......... .39, 48,778,333, 334
2t 4, 2t5, 2t 6, 217, 225, 227, 253,
f ar 2one...................................... 333 kerf ................. ........ 27, 7 3, 79 6, 332
293,312
347
Index
L pulse duration ..30, 69, 72, 83, 799, TCG... 68, 79, 87, 88, 748, 159, 760,
269,285,286 761, 762, 163, 765, 768, 171, 77 4,
lateral resolution....29, 30, 72, 108, 775, 213, 215, 253, 264, 267, 300,
332,334 304, 317, 312, 376, 377, 318
R
limitations Ii, 40, 67, 772, 178, 785, temperature.. 89, 92, 745, 782, 24L,
193,227,235,260,272 rectangular probe34, 48, 49, 50, 57 245, 268,288, 311
line scan...... 6 6, 1.87, 220, 237, 249, reflection .7, 80, 137, 757, 796, 249, TOFD ...... 7, 79, 703, 772,.175, 122,
250,300, 330 250, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 203, 232, 233, 234, 235, 291, 292,
linear array... 73, 75,1.6, 18,26,59, 293,309 309
70, 728, 149, 179, 796, 282, 331 refraction.T, 9, 28, 40, 67, 734, 169, true depth. 1.25, 77 8, 203, 208, 258,
775,192,283,329 322,332
ref raction index .............. ............ 11,
M turbine ....................... 1 77, 1 84, 289
manual scan ................ ..62, 97, 777

S U
matrix array 1 5, 144, 786, 796, 282,
289 sampling rate................. ... 718, 287 unidirectional 64, 65, 200, 205, 206
mechanisation 7,78, 112, 181,782, scan pattern ....59, 62, 65, 205, 233,
787 )211" )9,L
V
scanner ......1,B, 63, 96, 99, 103, 773,
N L65, 767 , 782, 786, 799, 200, 226, velocity 7, 27, 22, 28, 31, 34, 35, 39,
309, 313 40, 41,, 43, 51,87,97,92,123,
near field. 39, 40,11, 43, 44,45,48, sectorial scan ................ 67, 72, 284 725, 733, 145, 746, 747, 768, 175,
50,57,334
49, skewing......... 60,777 793, 194, 195, 797 ,272, 264, 267 ,
near zone 77, 75, 38, 39, 40, 42, 43, smoothing.....43, 87, 126, 194, 217 , 272, 287, 311, 329
44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 287,290 voiume-corrected .............208, 332
55 56 2q6 114 Snell ............... ............ 20, 36, 40, 47 volumetric.... 18, 90, 776, 185, 21.9,
noise.. 2, 3, 4,24,33,58, 67, 68, 69, sound path....29,30, 4L, 45, 46, 47, 256,294,307
75, 87, 85, 86, 91, 101, 705, 707, 52, 53, 54, 109, 175, 138, 139,
108, 110, 738, 203, 215, 234, 269, 740, 746, 748, 749, 151, 754, 158,
284,286,292
W
759, 1,60, 1,62, 177, 778, 207, 274,
227, 238, 249, 255, 267, 264, 288, written instruction ..264, 273, 27 4,
P 296,330,334 275,276,278,321,334
square wave pulser..... 87, 82, 285,
pi',eI............ 217, 219, 227. 228, 22q 286
po1arised................................ B, 334
z
probe index offset.....................333 zonal.. 155, 759, 765, 166, 767, 178,
T
procedure 132, 135, 757, 788, 270,
. 1.89,203,291
27L, 272, 273, 27 4, 275, 27 6, 277, tandem 79, 708, 755, 156, 785, 245,
278, 279, 283, 295, 297, 302, 306, 248, 257, 259, 267, 261, 297, 294
307,314,37s,376,334
348

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1.1 Phased Array UT asit Relates to Conventional UT...... .....................1

Chapter (3): The Principles of "Phasing".,.,,.............. .......................7

3.5.1 Constructive Interference ................ ...................8

5.1 Beam Steering and Focusing .....................25

8.5.9 Dynamic Depth Focusing ..........110

17.7.2 Automated Applications of PAUT.. """""""181

77.6.3 Instrumentation Settings................... """""""193

73.4.2 Pulse Echo.. .............22s

76.1 Report Topics .......................263

18.3.8 Extent of Inspection.................. .......................277

CHAPTER (L): INTRODUCTION

1..7 PHASED ARRAY UT AS IT RELATES TO CONVENTIONAL UT

7.2 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF PAUT

7.2,2 LIMITATIONS FOR THE USE OF PHASED ARIiAY INSTRUMENTS

Figure 2-'1.3D rendering of a foetal face (t)

CHAPTER (3): THE PRINCIPTES OF "PHASING"

3.1 REFLECTION OF WAVES

3.2 REFRACTION OF WAVES

3.3 DiFFRACTION OF VVAVES

Figure 3-1 Natural diffraction (2)

3.5.1 CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

3.5.2 DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE

3.6 COHERENT WAVE SOURCES

3.7 HUYGENS' PRINCIPLE

Figure 3-2 Wave refraction as explained by the

3.8 FORMATION OF WAVEFRONTS

In frame 1, the separate wave pulses are seen as black lines.

Figure 3-3 Wave interference - different wavelengths

CHAPTER (4): PROBE PERFORMANCE AND SELECTION

Figure 4-1 Internals of the traditional single element probe (s)

Figure 4-2 Components of the phased array probe

4.7 TYPES OF PHASED ARRAY PROBES

Figure 4-3 Linear array

Curved linear arrays are most commonly found

Focused linear arrays as illustrated in Figure 4-5

Figure 4-61.5D array probe Figure 4-7 2D matrix array probe

Each numbered segment of the illustration represents a

Figure 4'10 Rho-theta - detailed diagram

4.1,.5 OTHER ARRAY TYPES

Encircling array probes such as seen in Figure 4-72 are

Figure 4-13 Small scale large affay $)

4.2.7 TEST MATERIAL CONSIDERATIONS (FREQUENCY AND

4,2.2 DELAY LINES AND WEDGE ANCLES

4.2.2.2 WEDGE AI'IGLE

4.2,3 ARRAY S]ZES

4.2.4,1 WEDGE STYLE

4.2,4,2 WEDGE MATERIAL

4.2.5 PROBES ON VVEDGES

CHAPTER (5): BEAMFORMING

Active Electrode Active Electrode piezoelectric

Linear Sequenced Array Linear Phased (Steered) Array

Figure 5-L Linear sequenced affay (7)

Figure 5-3 Saw cutting and filling of a piezo-composite (s)

5.1 BEAM STEERING AND FOCUSING

Figure 5-4 Beam steering

Figure 5-5 Beam focusing

Figure 5-5 Phased array steering and focusing combined

5.2 PHASED ARRAY PROBE TERMINOLOGY

Figure 5-7 Fundamental dimensions of a phased array probe

5.2.1. ACTIVE APERTURE

An approximate equation can be used to calculate the active aperture:

5.2.2 PASSIVE APERTURE