Diffraction

Wavefront:
Diffraction definition:

Bending/spreading out of waves as they pass by

some objects or through a finite-width aperture.

Huygens’s principle:

Every unobstructed point on a wavefront will act a

source of secondary spherical waves which spread
out in the forward direction. The new wavefront is the
surface tangent to all the secondary spherical waves.
If a portion of the wavefront enters a different
medium (enters glass from air, for example), then
the wavelets generated by each portion of the
wavefront travel with the velocity that is appropriate
for the medium that the wavefront is in.
 a b

(a) Spreading of light producing diffraction pattern.

(b) Absence of diffraction patterns if paths of light
waves are straight lines.
 Difference between interference and diffraction:

➢InInterference, minima are usually perfectly dark

while this is not the case for diffraction.

➢In interference, all maxima are of same intensity but

they have varying intensity in diffraction.

➢Fringe width could be equal in some cases in

interference while they are never equal in diffraction.

➢Ininterference, interaction takes place between two

separate wavefronts originating from two coherent
sources while in diffraction, interaction takes place
between secondary wavelets originating from same
wavefront.
Difference between interference and diffraction:

If you have two infinitely-narrow double slits,

there will be just interference, but for finite-width
slits there can be both interference and
diffraction effects.
Finite width slit: the width of slit is comparable
with the wavelength λ.
One continuous wide slit is equivalent to the N
→ ∞ limit of the N-slit result of interference.
Diffraction is simply the N → ∞ limit of
interference, there is technically no need to
introduce a new term for it. But on the other
hand, a specific kind of pattern arises, so it
makes sense to give it its own name.
Diffraction at single slit:
Simplistic way of finding Minima:

Condition for minima if slit is

divided in 2 parts:

(b/2) sin(θ) = λ/2 or

b sin(θ) = λ

And if slit is divided in 4

parts :
(b/4) sin(θ) = λ/2

And so on …….
Diffraction at single slit:

If the distance between two consecutive points be

Δ. Thus, if the number of point sources is n, then
b = (n – 1)Δ.
The additional path traversed by the disturbance
emanating from point A2 will be A2A'2, where
A2A'2= Δ.sin(θ).
Corresponding phase difference, φ = (2π/λ).Δ.sin(θ)

if the field at point P due to the disturbance emanating

from point A1 is “a cos(ωt)”, then the field due to the
disturbance emanating from A2 is “a cos (ωt – φ)
Field due to the disturbance emanating from A3 is
“a cos (ωt – 2φ)” and so on. For An it will be “a cos
(ωt – (n-1)φ)”.

Resultant field at point P will be,

E= a cos (ωt)+a cos (ωt – φ)+a cos (ωt – 2φ)…….
…..+a cos (ωt – (n-1)φ)

Where φ = (2π/λ).Δ.sin(θ)

Mathematically,
a cos (ωt)+a cos (ωt – φ)+a cos (ωt – 2φ)…….
…..+a cos (ωt – (n-1)φ)
sin (n ϕ /2) 1
a cos(ω t − (n−1)ϕ)
= sin (ϕ /2) 2
 sin (n ϕ/ 2) 1 1
E=a cos(ω t − (n−1)ϕ)=E θ cos(ω t− (n−1)ϕ)
sin (ϕ/2) 2 2
where the amplitude Eθ of the resultant field is given by :

sin (n ϕ/ 2) And φ = (2π/λ).Δ.sin(θ)

Eθ =a
sin (ϕ/2)
In the limit of n→∞ and Δ→0 in such a way that nΔ→b,
nϕ π
= n Δ sin (θ)→ π b sin (θ)
2 λ λ
2 π b sin (θ)
ϕ=
λ n
If n→∞ then φ→0; sin(φ/2)=φ/2
sin (n ϕ/2) sin (π b sin (θ)/ λ)
Eθ ≈a =na
ϕ/2 π b sin (θ)/ λ
 sin (n ϕ/2) sin (π b sin (θ)/ λ)
E θ≈a =na
ϕ/2 π b sin (θ)/ λ
sin β
=A
β
π b sin (θ) ϕ
where , A=na ;β= =n
λ 2
sin (β) 1
Thus , E= A cos(ω t− (n−1)ϕ)
β 2
sin (β)
E= A cos (ω t−β), because n→∞
β

Intensity distribution for this will be given by :

sin2 β
I=I 0 2
β
Where I0 ( I0 = A2) gives intensity at θ=0.
 sin (n ϕ/2) sin (π b sin (θ)/ λ)
E θ≈a =na
ϕ/2 π b sin (θ)/ λ
sin β
=A
β
π b sin (θ) ϕ
where , A=na ;β= =n
λ 2
sin (β) 1
Thus , E= A cos(ω t− (n−1)ϕ)
β 2
sin (β)
E= A cos (ω t−β), because n→∞
β

Intensity distribution for this will be given by :

2
sin β
I=I 0 2
β
Where I0 ( I0 = A2) gives intensity at θ=0.
Positions of Maxima and Minima:
The intensity is zero when β = mπ m≠0

When β = 0, (sinβ)/β = 1 and I = I0 , which corresponds to

the maximum of the intensity.
π b sin (θ)
but β=
λ
π b sin (θ)
=m π
λ
Hence ,b sin θ=m λ ; where m=±1,±2,±3,. .....(minima)

First minimum occurs at θ = ± sin-1 (λ/b), second minimum

occurs at θ = ± sin-1 (2λ/b) and so on. Can be used for fringe
width calculations.

Upper limit of sin(θ) is 1 so max. value of m is integer

closest to b/λ.
Positions of Maxima and Minima:

Intensity distribution is given by

sin 2 β
I= I 0 2
β
dI 2 sin β cos β 2 sin 2 β
=I0( − )=0
dβ β 2
β3

⇒ sin β(β−tan β)=0

Condition sin(β) = 0 or β = mπ (m0) gives minima.

Condition tan(β) = β gives maxima. β=0 gives central

Maxima. Rest of roots are found by intersection of
curves y = β and y = tan(β)
(a) Intensity distribution.
(b) roots of equation
tan(β) = β. Roots are:
β=1.43π, 2.86π and
so on.
Two slit diffraction pattern :

Resultant intensity distribution will be product of the

single-slit diffraction pattern and the interference
pattern produced by two point sources separated by
distance “d”.
 sin (β)
The field produced by first slit at point P will be : E 1= A cos(ω t−β)
β
The field produced by second slit at point P will be :
sin (β) 2π
E2 = A cos(ω t−β−Φ1 )where Φ1= d sin (θ)
β λ
Φ1 gives phase difference between disturbances reaching point
P corresponding points such as ( A1, B1 ), ( A2, B2 )… at
distance d.
The resultant field will be given by:
E = E1+E2
sin (β) sin (β)
=A cos(ω t−β)+ A cos(ω t−β−Φ1)
β β
sin (β)
=A (cos(ω t−β)+cos(ω t−β−Φ1 ))
β
sin (β) Φ1 Φ1 2π
=2 A cos( )cos(ω t −β− ); where Φ1 = d sin (θ)
β 2 2 λ
The intensity distribution will be given by
sin 2 β 2 Φ1 2
I=4 I 0 2 cos ( );where I 0 = A
β 2
In this expression, (sin2β)/β2 represents diffraction pattern
produced by single slit of width b.
Second term cos2(Φ1/2) represents interference produced
by two point sources separated by distance d.
 2
sin β 2 Φ1
I =4 I 0 2 cos ( )
β 2
π b sin(θ)
β=
λ

If slit widths are very small (b→0, sin(β)→β) so that there

is no variation of of the term (sin2β)/β2 with θ, then one
simply obtains Young's interference pattern.
Positions of minima :
sin 2 β 2 Φ1 π b sin (θ) 2π
I=4 I 0 2 cos ( );where β= ; Φ1 = d sin (θ)
β 2 λ λ

Intensity is zero wherever

β = π, 2π, 3π …..
Which means b sin(θ) = mλ m = 1,2,3…….

Or when Φ1 = π, 3π, 5π …..

Which means d sin(θ) = (n-1/2)λ n = 1,2,3…….
Positions of maxima :
2
sin β 2 Φ1 π b sin (θ) 2π
I =4 I 0 2 cos ( ); where β= ;Φ1= d sin (θ)
β 2 λ λ

Interference maxima wherever

when Φ1/2 = 0, π, 2π ….. or (π/λ)dsin(θ) =0,π,2π……
Which means d sin(θ) = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ…….

This can be used to calculate fringe width for double slit

interference maxima.

This will be approximate positions of maxima provided

variation of diffraction pattern is not too rapid.

A maximum may not occur at all if θ corresponds to

diffraction minimum (b sin(θ) = λ, 2λ, 3λ…..). These are
called missing orders.
N-slit diffraction pattern:
The resultant field at any arbitrary point P will be :
sin(β) sin(β) sin(β)
E=A cos(ωt−β)+A cos(ωt−β−Φ1 )+ A
β β β
sin(β)
cos(ωt−β−2Φ1)+......+ A cos(ωt−β−(N−1)Φ1)
β
sin(β)
=A (cos(ωt−β)+cos(ωt−β−Φ1 )+cos(ωt−β−2Φ1 )+......+cos(ωt−β−(N−1)Φ1))
β
Using same trignometric relation as used in single slit
N Φ1
sin( )
sin(β) 2 (N−1)
=A
β Φ1 cos(ωt−β− 2 Φ1 )
sin( )
2
π bsin(θ) 2π
whereβ= ;Φ1= d sin(θ)
λ λ
The corresponding intensity distribution will be :

2 N Φ1
2 sin ( )
sin (β) 2
I=I 0
2 Φ1
2
β sin ( )
2
In this expression, (sin2β)/β2 represents diffraction pattern
produced by single slit of width b.

Second term (sin2(NΦ1/2)/sin2(Φ1/2)) represents interference

produced by N equally spaced point sources separated by
distance d.
 2 N Φ1
2 sin ( )
sin (β) 2
I=I 0
2 Φ1
2
β sin ( )
2
sin 2 (β) Same as we obtained in
When N =1 : I=I 0 single slit
β2
2 2 Φ1
2 sin ( )
sin (β) 2
When N =2 : I =I 0
2 Φ1
2
β sin ( )
2
Φ1 Φ1 2
2 (2 sin ( )cos( ))
sin (β) 2 2
=I 0
2 Φ1
2
β sin ( )
2
sin 2 (β) 2 Φ1 Same as we obtained in
=4 I 0 cos ( )
β 2
2 double slit
Position of principal maxima :

2 N Φ1
2 sin ( )
sin (β) 2
I =I 0
2 Φ1
2
β sin ( )
2
The condition for principal maxima is :
Φ1
=m π ; m=0,1,2,3. ..
2
2π
Φ1= d sin (θ)
λ

⇒ π d sin (θ)=m π
λ

⇒ d sin (θ)=m λ ; m=0,1,2,3...

Position of principal maxima :

2 N Φ1
2 sin ( )
sin (β) 2
I =I 0
2 Φ1
2
β sin ( )
2
The condition for principal maxima is :
Φ1
=m π ; m=0,1,2,3. ..
2 Something doesn't make
2π
Φ1= d sin (θ) Sense here!
λ

⇒ π d sin (θ)=m π
λ

⇒ d sin (θ)=m λ ; m=0,1,2,3...

Position of principal maxima :

L' Hôpital's rule or L' hospital's rule

If exists
 N Φ1
sin ( )
sin (β) 2 ( N −1)
E= A Φ1 cos (ω t−β− 2 Φ1 )
β
sin ( )
2
Apply L' Hôpital's rule on
N Φ1 N Φ1
sin ( ) N cos( )
2 2
lim Φ = lim Φ =±N
Φ 1 Φ 1
1
→m π sin ( ) 1
→mπ cos( )
2 2
2 2
Asin(β) (N −1)
Thus , E=N cos(ω t−β− Φ1)
β 2

Physically, at these maxima fields produced by each of the

slits are in phase and hence resultant field (E) is N times of
field produced by single slit
Intensity will be given in this case by
2
2 sin (β)
I =I 0 N 2
β

π b sin (θ) π b m λ π bm
where β= = = ; m=0,1,2,3.....
λ λ d d

➢ Intensity has large value unless (sin2β)/β2 itself is small.

➢ Since sin(θ)≤1, m can not be greater than d/λ.

➢ It means more is the number of slit (N), intensity of

maxima will be more.

➢ This concept is used in diffraction grating where you have

15000 or so slits per inch!
Position of minima :
2 N Φ1
sin ( )
sin 2 (β) 2 π b sin (θ) 2π
I=I 0 Φ ; where β= ; Φ1= d sin(θ)
β
2
2 1 λ λ
sin ( )
2
Intensity is zero wherever
β = π, 2π, 3π ….. (minima for single slit!)

Which means b sin(θ) = nλ n = 1,2,3…….

Or when NΦ1/2 = pπ p≠ N,2N,3N……

Because Intensity “I” become indeterminate at these points.
2π
N Φ1 N d sin (θ)
=p π⇒ λ =pπ
2 2
⇒ d sin (θ)= p λ
N
 pλ
d sin (θ)= ; p≠N ,2 N , 3 N .....
N
λ 2 λ 3 λ ( N −1)λ ( N +1)λ ( N +2)λ
d sin(θ)= , , .... , , .....
N N N N N N
(2 N −1)λ (2 N +1) λ (2 N +2)λ
, ,
N N N
Notice the missing terms! They correspond to principal
maxima. There are (N-1) minima between 2 principal
maxima.

Between two consecutive minima, intensity has to

have a maximum; these maxima are called secondary
maxima. There will be (N-2) secondary maxima
between two principal maxima.
 2 N Φ1
sin ( )
2
Φ
sin 2 ( 1 )
2

N-1 minima
N-2 secondary maxima

Φ1
→
2
What if angle of principal maxima is same as
diffraction minima?

This will happen when these conditions are satisfied

simultaneously
d sin(θ) = mλ m=0,1,2,…….. (Principal maxima)
And b sin(θ) = λ, 2 λ, 3 λ….. (diffraction minima)

These are referred as missing order.

Diffraction grating:

A very large number of equidistant slits is called diffraction

grating.

Corresponding diffraction pattern is called as the grating

spectrum.

Principal maxima: d sin(θ) = mλ m=0,1,2,……..

As it depends on wavelength, so principal maxima (m≠0) for
different λ will give different θ.
Can be used for measurement of λ.

More is number of slits, narrower will be principal maxima.

Usually 15,000 per inch slits are there.

Lines should be as equally spaced as possible.

Grating Spectrum :
Principal maxima: d sin(θ) = mλ m=0,1,2,……..
This equation is also called the grating equation.

The zeroth order principal maxima occurs at θ=0

irrespective of wavelength.
Thus for white light, central maximum will be white.

For m≠0, θ are different for different λ, various spectral

components appear at different locations.
Dispersive power of grating :
Principal maxima: d sin(θ) = mλ m=0,1,2,……..

Differentiating this equation:

d cos(θ)Δ θ=m Δ λ
Δ θ m
⇒ =
Δ λ d cos(θ)

Δθ/Δλ is called dispersive power.

Conclusions:
1. Dispersive power is proportional to “m” (order of principal
maximum). Higher is m, well separated will be maxima
corresponding to 2 close wavelengths like sodium doublet.
Zeroth order principal maxima will overlap.
Conclusions contd:

2. Dispersive power is inversely proportional to “d” (the grating

element). Smaller is “d”, larger will be angular dispersion.
3. Dispersive power is inversely proportional to cos(θ). if θ is
very small then cos(θ)≃1,
dθ m dθ m
= becomes =
d λ d cos(θ) dλ d
Such spectrum is known as normal spectrum. For this dθ is
directly proportional to dλ.
Resolving power of grating :

Minimum separation at which two objects look separate is

Called “limit of resolution”.

Smaller is separation between 2 objects an instrument can

Resolve, higher is its resolving power and better is the
Instrument.

In case of diffraction grating, resolving power is power

of distinguishing two nearby spectral lines.
Rayleigh's Criterion :

If the principal maximum corresponding to wavelength

λ + Δλ falls on first minimum (on either side) of the
wavelength λ, then the two wavelengths λ and λ + Δλ are
said to be just resolved.
Mathematically this means that

If angle θ is the angle corresponding to mth order spectrum

then these conditions are satisfied simultaneously :

principal maximum for wavelength λ+Δλ :

d sin(θ) = m(λ+Δλ)

minimum for wavelength λ:

d sin(θ) = mλ+λ/N

Equating both sides: m(λ+Δλ) = mλ+λ/N

Or m Δλ = λ/N
Or λ/Δλ = m N

λ/Δλ is called the resolving power of a grating.

Resolving power; λ/Δλ = m N

● Resolving power depends on total number of lines in

grating exposed to incident light (N).

● Resolving power is proportional to “order of

spectrum”.
dθ = Angular separation between the principal maxima of 2 patterns
Δθ = half angular width of principal maxima of each pattern