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MTBM504C
Unit I
Concept of Instrument: Chronological history of medical instruments, problems
encountered while measuring medical parameters, static and dynamic characteristics of
medical instrument. Sensors & Transducers: Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive
Transduction. Strain Gauge based Blood pressure transducer, and Electromagnetic Blood
flow transducer.
Unit II
Bio-potentials and Amplifiers: Resting and action potential, Electrode-Electrolyte interface,
half cell potential, polarizable and nonpolarizable electrodes, Ag/AgCl electrodes.
Characteristics of ideal and real op-amp, instrumentation amplifier, ECG "leads", differential
bio-amplifier – right leg driven ECG amplifier, Design and analysis of EMG & EEG pre
amplifiers.
Unit III
Clinical Laboratory Instruments: Blood Cell Counters, Blood gas analyzers, Auto
analyzers. Stimulators: Basic principle, working and technical specifications of Shortwave
Diathermy, Surgical Diathermy machine, Ultrasonic therapy unit, Nerve and Muscle
Stimulator.
Unit IV
Patient monitoring & ICU equipments: components of patient monitoring system, holter
monitor (cardiac stress test), Anaesthesia Machine, Heart-lung machine, Haemodialysis
machine.
Pacemaker & Defibrillators: Cardiac Pacemakers: Modes of operation, leads and
electrodes. DC defibrillator, Modes of operation and electrodes.
Note:
1. The paper setter will set two questions (with/without parts) from each of the four
units. The examinee will attempt five questions in all selecting at least one question
from each unit. All questions carry equal marks.
2. The use of programmable devices such as programmable calculators, phones etc. and
sharing of any material during examination are not allowed.
A specific note shall be inserted in relevant question paper wherever the use of graph papers,
semilog papers, steam tables, etc. shall be allowed during examination
Unit I
Concept of Instrument: Chronological history of medical instruments, problems
encountered while measuring medical parameters, static and dynamic characteristics of
medical instrument.
Sensors & Transducers: Resistive, Inductive and Capacitive Transduction. Strain Gauge
based Blood pressure transducer, and Electromagnetic Blood flow transducer.
Concept of Instrument:
Instrument: Measurement.
Meaning of Instrument:
A tool or implement, especially one for precision work.
A means of pursuing an aim.
A person who is exploited or made use of.
A measuring device used to gauge the level, position, speed, etc. of something, especially a
motor vehicle or aircraft.
A formal or legal document.
An object or device for producing musical sounds.
1. Inaccessibility of Variables
2. Variability of data
3. Lack of knowledge about interrelationships
4. Interaction among Physiological systems
5. Effect of Transducer on measurement
6. Artifacts
7. Energy limitations
8. Safety considerations
The static characteristics of instruments are related with steady state response i.e when the
input (measured) does not change, or the input is changing at a slow rate.
Various static characteristics are
Accuracy & Precision
Range & Span
Linearity
Hysteresis
Resolution& Threshold
Repeatability& Reproducibility
Dead space
Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value of
the quantity to be measured. The accuracy can be expressed as:
Precision: It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity, precision
is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements. The precision is
composed of two characteristics:
Conformity: If a measuring instrument consistently and repeatedly provides a value as close
to the true value (of the measured quantity) as an observer can estimate the true value from its
scale reading then this characteristic refers to the conformity of the measurement.
Significant figures: The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of
significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the
actual information about the magnitude & the measurement precision of the quantity.
BASIS FOR
ACCURACY PRECISION
COMPARISON
Represents How closely results agree with How closely the results agree with
the standard value? one another?
Hysteresis
Instrument should be capable of
following the changes of the input
parameter regardless of which
direction the change is made;
hysteresis is the measure of this
property. Hysteresis causes
instrument’s output to assume
different values at a given stimulus
point when that point is approached
with increasing or decreasing
stimulus. Hysteresis includes
backlash. It is usually measured as a
percent of full scale when input
varies over the full increasing and
decreasing range.
Resolution& Threshold
This specification is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can
be detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the
reading (or the full-scale reading) or in absolute terms.
Threshold on the other hand is the smallest detectable incremental change of input that can be
detected for the first time when instrument starts taking input from zero.
Repeatability& Reproducibility
Repeatability and reproducibility are ways of measuring precision. Repeatability measures
the variation in measurements taken by a single instrument or person under the same
conditions generally over a short duration of time. Reproducibility on the other hand refers to
the degree of agreement between the results of experiments conducted by different
individuals, at different locations, with different instruments. Generally reproducibility is
over a given period of time.
Dead space is Range of different input values over which there is no change in output values.
Dynamic characteristics
Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the instrument when the input variable is
changing rapidly with time. When dynamic input is applied to an instrument or a
measurement system, the instrument or the system cannot take up immediately its final steady
state position. It goes through a transient state before it finally settles to its final steady state
position. At times it becomes necessary to study the response of the system under both
transient as well as steady state conditions. In many applications, the transient response of the
system, i.e., the way system settles down to its final steady state conditions is more important
than the steady state response.
The transient response in the instruments is on account of the presence of energy storage
elements in the system, such as, electrical inductance and capacitance, mass, fluid and
thermal capacitances etc. The systems exhibit a characteristic of sluggishness on account of
presence of these elements. However many a times in several applications the measurement
systems are subjected to inputs which are not static but dynamic in nature, which means the
inputs vary with time. Since the input varies from instant to instant, so does the output. The
behaviour of the system under such conditions is described by the dynamic response of the
system and the characteristics of the measuring system under such conditions are known as
dynamic characteristics.
The dynamic characteristics of any measurement system are:
(i) Speed of response and Response time
(ii) Lag
(iii) Fidelity
(iv) Dynamic error
Out of the above four characteristics the Speed of Response and the Fidelity are desirable in a
dynamic system, while Lag and Dynamic error are undesirable.
Where, xi and x0 are the input and the output variables respectively. The above expression can
also be expressed in terms of a transfer function, as:
Normally m<n an n is called the order of the system. Commonly available sensor
characteristics can usually be approximated as either zero-th order, first order or second
order dynamics. Order of a system represents the energy storing elements it has. Here are few
such examples:
Potentiometer:
Zero order system (i.e only heat dissipating elements)
Displacement sensors using potentiometric principle have no energy storing elements. The
output voltage eo can be related with the input displacement xi by an algebraic equation:
where is the total length of the potentiometer and E is the excitation voltage.. So, it can be
termed as a zeroth order system.
Figure of potentiometer
Thermocouple
A bare thermocouple has a mass (m) of the junction. If it is immersed in a fluid at a
temperature Tf , then its dynamic performance relating the output voltage eo and the input
temperature Tf , can be expressed by the transfer function:
Hence, the bare thermocouple is a first order sensor. But if the bare
thermocouple is put inside a metallic protective well (as it is
normally done for industrial thermocouples) the order of the system
increases due to the additional energy storing element (thermal mass
of the well) and it becomes a second order system.
Seismic Sensor
Seismic sensors are commonly used for vibration or
acceleration measurement of foundations. The transfer
function between the input displacement xi and output
displacement
xo can be expressed as:
1. Delay time (td): The delay time is the time required for the response to reach half
the final value the very first time.
2. Rise time (tr): The rise time is the time required for the response to rise from
10% to 90%, 5% to 95%, or 0% to 100% of its final value. For underdamped
second-order systems, the 0% to 100% rise time is normally used. For overdamped
systems, the 10% to 90% rise time is commonly used.
3. Peak time (tp):The peak time is the time required for the response to reach the
first peak of the overshoot.
4. Maximum (percent) overshoot (Mp): The maximum overshoot is the maximum
peak value of the response curve measured from unity. If the final steady-state
value of the response differs from unity, then it is common to use the maximum
percent overshoot. It is defined by
5. Settling time (ts): The settling time is the time required for the response curve to
reach and stay within a range about the final value of size specified by absolute
percentage of the final value (usually 2% or 5%). The settling time is related to the
largest time constant of the control system.
So, there is lot of confusion between sensor and a transducer. You will notice that in literature
these two terms are frequently interchanged.
Classification of Transducers:
There are many principles on which a transducer can work like resistive, inductive, capacitive
etc. So Transducer can be categorized on the basis of four thoughts. On the basis of
transduction form it`s used, we can go further.
Capacitance Transducers
1. Variable capacitance pressure gage –
Principle of operation: Distance between two parallel plates is varied by an externally applied
force Applications: Measurement of Displacement, pressure
2. Capacitor microphone Principle of operation: Sound pressure varies the capacitance
between a fixed plate and a movable diaphragm. Applications: Speech, music, noise
3. Dielectric gauge Principle of operation: Variation in capacitance by changes in the
dielectric. Applications: Liquid level, thickness
Inductance Transducers:
1. Differential transformer
The differential voltage of two secondary windings of a transformer is varied by positioning
the magnetic core through an externally applied force. Applications: Pressure, force,
displacement, position
2. Magnetic circuit transducer
Self inductance or mutual inductance of ac-excited coil is varied by changes in the magnetic
circuit. Applications: Pressure, displacement
3. Eddy current gage
Inductance of a coil is varied by the proximity of an eddy current plate. Applications:
Displacement, thickness
RESISTIVE TRANSDUSERS
Where, Ks is a gage factor, expressing the sensitivity coefficient of strain gages. General-purpose strain
gages use copper-nickel or nickel-chrome alloy for the resistive elements, and the gage factor provided by
these alloys is approximately 2.
Gage factor for semiconductors is approx. 50 to 70 times that of the metals. For most metals
µ is 0.3 and thus G is at least 1.6.
Suppose the resistance R1 is a strain gage and it changes by ΔR due to strain. Then, the output
voltage is,
Blood Pressure is the measure of force applied by the flow of blood onto the artery walls.
Cardiac output (CO) = heart rate (HR)stroke volume(SV)
Normal adult ranges for the five vital signs
Blood pressure: <120 mmHg systolic, , <80 mmHg diastolic
Respiratory rate: 12 - 18 breaths/min
Heart rate: 60 - 80 bpm at rest
Temperature: 96.8 - 99.50 F
Arterial saturation of oxygen: 93 - 100%
Intraarterial pressure transducer system