Journal of Food Engineering 170 (2016) 16e23

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Journal of Food Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Simulation of the convective drying process with automatic control of

surface temperature
~ ez Vega a, *, B. Sturm b, c, W. Hofacker a
A.-M. Nun
a
HTWG Konstanz, Department of Environmental Engineering, Thermal Process Engineering, Braunegger Straße 55, Konstanz, D-78467, Germany
b
School of Agriculture, Food and Rural Development, Agriculture Building, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
c
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Kassel University, Nordbahnhofstrasse 1a, Witzenhausen, D-37213, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In convective drying of fruits and vegetables the maximum temperature develops at the product surface.
Received 13 April 2015 Furthermore, heat sensitive products can be subjected to high air temperatures in the first stage of drying
Received in revised form where the difference between air temperature and wet bulb temperature of the product is still very high.
17 August 2015
Automatic control of the surface temperature, avoiding exceeding of the maximum allowable temper-
Accepted 23 August 2015
Available online 30 August 2015
ature, can guarantee for the best drying results in terms of product quality.
In the study presented, a lumped parameter model, based on experimental results, for both the drying
process of apple slices as well as the automatic control functionality is proposed. The simulation model
Keywords:
Convective drying
shows close correlation with experimental data and can be used to determine optimum control and
Automatic control process parameters for convective drying of apples slices. Application of this strategy leads to a signif-
Surface temperature icant decrease of drying time and, potentially, increase of process efficiency and product quality.
Temperature and moisture distribution © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Process optimization

1. Introduction biological materials, could be minimized when a stepwise variation

Preservation of sensitive agricultural products using convection
drying is commonly used. It is well known that most biological
foodstuffs are sensitive to high temperatures and long drying times
leading to structural, organoleptic and nutritional changes.
Although in recent years there has been an increasing demand for
high quality dried products that retain their natural appearance
(Fernandes et al., 2011; Krokida et al., 1998; Kiranoudis and
Markatos, 2000; Nijhuis et al., 1998), the influence of drying con-
ditions on product quality is still not fully known (Lewicki, 2006).
Furthermore, many settings for industrial drying processes had
been found experimentally years or even decades ago and their
validity has not yet been evaluated (Mujumdar, 2007). This leads to
a great need for optimization of the actual process settings, focus-
sing on product quality criteria.
Jumah et al. (2007) stated that dryer automation could improve
efficiency and help to meet consumer needs regarding product
quality. Chou and Chua (2003) investigated the influence of
different air temperature profiles on product quality and found that
colour changes, as well as vitamin C content of heat sensitive
* Corresponding author.
~ ez Vega).
E-mail address: anna-nunez-vega@hotmail.com (A.-M. Nun
of the air temperature with high initial temperature was applied.
Ho et al. (2002) observed a positive influence on product quality
when drying conditions were changed periodically. Furthermore, it
could be proven that even heat sensitive biological products can be
exposed to high air temperatures during the first stage of drying
without being damaged (Chua et al., 2000; Sturm, 2010).
Sturm et al. (2009, 2012) developed a laboratory dryer that
allowed for continuous non-invasive measurement of product
temperature and automatic control thereof. Sturm et al. (2010,
2014) established a surface temperature control strategy that
showed advantages regarding product quality in terms of colour,
shrinkage and rehydration characteristics when compared to air
temperature control.
The fundamental mechanisms of heat and mass transfer have
been known for a long time (Krischer and Kast, 1978). According to
Mujumdar (2007), transport of moisture can take one or several of
the following forms: diffusion of the liquid phase (if the product
temperature is lower than the evaporation temperature of the
liquid), steam diffusion (when the liquid evaporates within the
product), Knutsen's diffusion (very low temperatures and pres-
sures), hygrostatic pressure difference (when the inner evaporation
rate is higher than the steam transport rate through the solid to the
particle surface), combinations of the mechanisms described.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.08.033
0260-8774/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 ~ ez Vega et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 170 (2016) 16e23
A.-M. Nun
However, due to the coupled heat and mass transport, the changing
product characteristics and shrinkage, the drying process is very
complex. Therefore, the related equations can only be solved
numerically (Hernandez et al., 2000; Białobrzewski, 2006).
Application of simulation methods is an efficient and powerful
tool for evaluation and display of thermal processes in the food
industry (Wang and Sun, 2003). In the past, these mechanisms
were described with models of varying complexity. The simplest
models only account for the mass transfer, assuming the drying
process evolves under quasi isothermal conditions (Akpinar et al.,
2003). The second degree of detail includes the heat and mass
transfer under consideration of the temperature dependent diffu-
sion coefficient. The use of empirical and semi-empirical models is
very popular in this context. Several authors have applied these
approaches for the simulation of apples (Doymaz, 2009; Kaya et al.,
2007; Menges und Ertekin, 2006; Sacilik und Elicin, 2006; Seiiedlou
et al., 2010; Vega-Galvez et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2007; Zarein et al.,
2013).
However, such drying models are only valid for the processing
conditions and product characteristics they were developed for
(Seiiedlou et al., 2010). In model development, assumptions such as
simplified geometry, constant thermo-physical characteristics,
constant heat and mass transfer and neglect of changes in volume
throughout the process are prevalent (Wang und Sun, 2003).
Whilst these assumptions simplify the model they lead to a reduced
capability of the model to depict the experimental data of the
drying kinetics (Hernandez et al., 2000).
In the area of the simulation of drying of apples, the most
commonly used assumption is the neglect of the shrinkage
throughout the process (Esfahani et al., 2014; Jun et al., 1998; Kaya
et al., 2007; Lamnatou et al., 2010; Oztop und Akpinar, 2008; Wang
et al., 2011). Often there also is no differentiation between mass
transport in the liquid and gaseous phase (Białobrzewski, 2006;
Esfahani et al., 2014; Golestani et al., 2013; Jun et al., 1998), or the
thermo-physical characteristics are assumed to be constant
(Esfahani et al., 2014; Golestani et al., 2013; Oztop und Akpinar,
2008).
However, several authors showed that the shrinkage signifi-
cantly impacts on the validity of simulation models. Białobrzewski
(2006) found that changed heat and mass transfer which result
from shrinkage, directly influence product temperature as well as
moisture content. Golestani et al. (2013) modelled the drying
process of apples with and without consideration of shrinkage.
They found that this significantly changed the effective diffusivity
and influenced the temperature- and moisture distribution within
the product.
Mayor and Sereno (2004) claimed that shrinkage influenced the
quality of the product and therefore needs to be accounted for
when temperature and moisture profiles within a product are
predicted. Curcio und Aversa (2014) also found a significance of
changes in shape within the drying material on transport phe-
nomena during drying. Chen (2007) stated, that solely accounting
for the diffusion within the liquid phase leads to unsteady results.
To better understand transport phenomena, multi-phase
models, reflecting local water distribution in the liquid, as well as
the gaseous phase, need to be applied (Putranto and Chen, 2013).
Baini und Langrish's (2007) work showed that Fick's diffusion
model was suited to simulate instationary drying if the changes in
product temperature and humidity within the product are
accounted for.
A multitude of publications on simulation of apple drying can be
found (Chiang and Petersen, 1987; Vergara et al., 1997; Jun et al.,
1998; Krokida et al., 2000; Lewicki and Łukaszuk, 2000; Moreira
et al., 2000; Białobrzewski, 2006; Bravo et al., 2009; Doymaz,
2009; Lin et al., 2009; Putranto et al., 2011) but there has been no
17
work focussing on the simulation of a constant surface temperature
controlled drying process for apple slices.
In the work presented, a lumped parameter model of the drying
material with implemented automatic process control was estab-
lished using discretization and calculation methods known from
aerospace engineering. Information about the implementation of
automatic control features in ESATAN Models was given by
Hofacker et al. (1991). The aim of this study was to develop a model
that allows in-depth analysis of temperature, water and vapor
content, shrinkage and other quality changes during surface tem-
perature controlled drying of apples.
2. Materials and methods
A lumped parameter model established by Hugenschmidt and
Hofacker for the simulation of constant air temperature drying of
apples and specified in (Hugenschmidt and Hofacker, 2011a) and
(Hugenschmidt and Hofacker, 2011b) was extended for surface
temperature control as described below. The control parameters
were fitted to experimental data. The simulation results obtained
for several air and dew point temperatures as well as different air
velocities then were compared to experimental data.
2.1. Experimental materials and methods
Apples of the Jonagold variety were sourced from a farmer in the
Lake Constance region (Germany) and stored at 4
C after purchase.
Raw material was cut into slices of 3.9 mm þ 0.2 mm thickness
with an inner and outer diameter of 20 mm and 72 mm respec-
tively. Ripeness was determined by the evaluation of the ratio be-
tween green and yellow of the fruit skin.
Drying tests were carried out using a precision dryer developed
by Sturm (2010) which is described in detail by Sturm et al. (2012).
The overflow mode was used and the product temperature
controlled method described by Sturm et al. (2014) was applied.
For the testing the dryer was not pre-heated but started when
the product was placed in the drying chamber. Apple slices were
distributed as described by Sturm et al. (2012). Seven slices from a
single apple were used for each test with a total resulting weight of
approximately 90 g. Tests were conducted at 35, 40, 47.5, 55 and
60
C maximum product temperature. Maximum air temperature
was limited to 100
C to simulate the maximum temperature that
can be reached by the industrial drying system for which the
strategy was developed. Dew point temperature was set to 5.0, 10.0,
17.5,25 and 30
C with air velocities of 2.0, 2.6, 3.4, 4.2 and 4.8 m/s.
The drying process was determined at a moisture content of
approximately 0.13 gW/gDM which is typically used for dried apple
products (desorption aW ¼ 0.5 (Wolf et al. (1972); adsorption
aW ¼ 0.52 … 0.54 (Wolf et al., 1972; Lewicki and Lenart, 1977).
During drying product temperature, air temperature and weight
were measured continuously.
2.2. Mathematical model
Coupled partial differential equations describing simultaneous
heat and mass transport within the drying material were solved by
discretizing apple slices in nodes, representing the finite elements
of the problem area (Fig. 1). Nodes of height s and exchange area A
were treated as isothermal and as of uniform moisture content. The
governing partial differential equations were transformed into a
system of non-linear equations solved by using an implicit forward
backward differencing method.
Heat flow and mass streams in liquid and gaseous state
(H_ J ; M_ wj ; M_ vj ) between node j and jþ1 were calculated by analogue
mathematical approaches.
18 ~ ez Vega et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 170 (2016) 16e23
A.-M. Nun

2.3. Implementation of automatic control

For the simulation of constant surface temperature drying a PI-

controller was implemented to the model described above.
Fig. 2 shows the general structure of a feedback control system
that can be described as follows:

yðtÞ ¼ functionðuðtÞ; zðtÞÞ (9)

with

y(t) ¼ output signal of the system

u(t) ¼ controller output signal
z(t) ¼ disturbance signal
r(t) ¼ reference for y(t)
Fig. 1. Sectional view through the drying material. e(t) ¼ actuating error signal

The PI-controller algorithm is given by:

A
 Zt
H_ j ¼ lj $ $ wj  wjþ1 (1)
s uðtÞ ¼ eðtÞ$kp þ eðtÞ$ki dt (10)
0
A

M_ wj ¼ kj $rj $ $ Xj  Xjþ1 (2)
s and can be transformed to:

A
 _
uðtÞ _
¼ eðtÞ$kp þ eðtÞ$ki (11)
M_ vj ¼ mj $dj $ $ Pvj  Pvjþ1 (3)
s$Rv $Tj _
Regarding discrete systems uðtÞ becomes Du=Dt and thus the
The constants of proportionality (thermal conductivity lj, liquid controller output signal can be calculated by:
diffusivity kj, vapor diffusivity (mj∙dj) were assumed to be functions
unew ¼ uold þ ðenew  eold Þ$kp þ e$ki $Dt (12)
of local moisture content Xj and temperature wj . where rj is the
density of the drying material, Rv the individual gas constant for In the case of surface temperature control by the model pre-
water vapor, Tj is the absolute temperature and Pvj the water vapor sented in this work the controller output was calculated as follows:
partial pressure of node j. Due to heat of vaporization of water and
sorption (hvap, hsorp) the difference in vapor streams entering and
 1 
wa;new ¼ wa;old þ wp;t  wp;act $kp þ ki $wp;t $  wp;act  wp;old
leaving the node lead to a loss of heat within the node HIj: 2
 
(13)

HIj ¼ M_ vj1  M_ vj $ hvap  hsorp (4)
with
The convective boundary conditions for heat transfer (H_ s ) and
vapor stream (M_ vs ) leaving the drying material at the surface (index wa;new ¼ new air temperature
s) were given by: wa;old ¼ air temperature, last time step
wp;t ¼ target surface temperature
H_ s ¼ f$A$ðws  wa Þ (5) wp;act ¼ actual surface temperature
wp;old ¼ surface temperature, last time step

 kp ¼ proportional gain, a tuning parameter
P
P  Pva A
M_ vs ¼ b$ $ln
$ $ðPvs  Pva Þ (6) ki ¼ integral gain, a tuning parameter
Pvs  Pva P  Pvs Rv $Ts
Heat transfer coefficient a and mass transfer coefficient b were The dryer used for the experiments represented an inert system,
expressed dimensionless via Nusselt- and Sherwood-number (Nu, therefore air temperature had to be adjusted. Hence a PT1 element
Sh). Depending on flow conditions they could be calculated by was implemented which can be described by the transfer function:
different empirical equations. P0, Pva and wa are the surrounding
pressure, water vapor partial pressure in the air and air K
GðsÞ ¼ (14)
temperature. 1 þ T$s
Assuming that the decrease of drying material volume is equal
with
to the volume of water removed, a linear approach describing
shrinkage and based on experimental results was applied:
 
X
sðXÞ ¼ s0 $ 0:66$ þ 0:34 (7)
X0

 
X
dðXÞ ¼ d0 $ 0:16$ þ 0:84 (8)
X0
Fig. 2. Feedback control system.
 ~ ez Vega et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 170 (2016) 16e23
A.-M. Nun 19

K ¼ amplification factor
T ¼ time constant

For the discretized system described in this work, equation (12)

can be transformed to:
 
1 T1 T
wa;new ¼ $ wa;old $ þ wa;act for Ts  1 (15)
1 þ T1Ts
Ts 10

with

wa;act ¼ actual air temperature

T1 ¼ control settling time from experiments
Ts ¼ step size chosen for simulation

The thermal inertia of the dryer used differed for heating and
cooling processes. This is because each experiment was carried out Fig. 3. Predicted and experimental drying curves for different target surface
at a constant air velocity leading to different air mass flows ac- temperatures.
cording to density variation with temperature as explained by
Sturm et al. (2009). The influence of the PT1 element therefore had
to be reduced for the cooling process.

3. Results

3.1. Control parameters

In order to determine the tuning parameters ki and kp used in

the model, the drying curves simulated were adjusted to experi-
mental data provided by Sturm (2010) who examined the drying
behaviour of Jonagold apples, in a wide parameter range as
described above. An experiment with drying parameters in the
center of the parameter space was chosen to fit the calculated data.
Once the control parameters were determined, the model was
verified by comparing predicted drying curves with experimental
ones. It was also examined whether the influence of temperature,
velocity and relative humidity of drying air were all reproduced
Fig. 4. Predicted and experimental surface temperature development.
correctly by the model.

3.2. Drying curves
Fig. 3 shows the predicted and experimental drying behaviour
as a function of time for two experiments carried out at different
target surface and dew point temperatures. The simulation results
obtained show high accuracy over the whole range of moisture
content and temperature.
3.3. Surface temperature
Fig. 4 depicts the predicted and experimental surface temper-
ature for two experiments carried out at different target surface
temperatures. It can be seen that the simulation results once more
are in good accordance with the experimental results even for
different drying conditions.
3.4. Air velocity
The control parameters first were chosen to simulate experi-
ments carried out at an air velocity of 3.4 m/s as this represents the
center of the parameter space chosen. Simulation results showed
good correlation with experimental data for all surface and dew
point temperatures chosen but deviated for different air velocities.
Hence different controller tuning parameters ki and kp had to be
applied in order to obtain satisfactory results for both surface
temperature and moisture content development. These results
were not surprising as control parameters also had to be adjusted
for different air velocities within the experiments carried out. This
was due to the reduced mass flow caused by the lower air velocity,
as well as variable mass flow with changing air temperature when
keeping air speed constant in the dryer. The simulation results
therefore were in accordance with reality. Figs. 5 and 6 show the
drying curves and surface temperatures for two experiments car-
ried out at the same target surface temperature but different air
velocities (3.4 m/s for Fig. 5 and 2.0 m/s for Fig. 6). The simulation
results in Fig. 5 showed excellent fit with experimental data,
whereas it is obvious that neither the surface temperature nor the
drying curve were predicted correctly for the experiment carried
out at the lower air velocity applying the same control parameters
(Fig. 6, dashed line). Nevertheless adjusting the control parameters
for an air velocity of 2.0 m/s led to very satisfactory results (Fig. 6,
solid line).
3.5. Air temperature
Fig. 7 shows the predicted and experimental air and surface
temperature for an experiment carried out at a target surface
temperature of 40
C. It can be seen that the predicted air tem-
perature was slightly too high when compared to experimental
data with a mean error percentage of up to 5.4%. This error however
had no influence on surface temperature and moisture content as it
could be equalized by adjusting the control parameters in an
20 ~ ez Vega et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 170 (2016) 16e23
A.-M. Nun

than the lower one. This can be explained with the fact that the
apple slices laid on a grid during the drying process reducing heat
and mass transfer at the lower surface. Moisture was unequally
distribute, particularly at the beginning of the drying process, and
after about 30 min the upper surface layer tended towards equi-
librium moisture content, whereas the lower one still contained
almost 70% of the initial moisture content. In the final stages of
drying, moisture distribution got increasingly symmetric. After
about 100 min, the lower surface layer reached equilibrium mois-
ture content and the drying process was increasingly controlled by
internal resistances.

3.7. Temperature distribution

Surface temperature controlled drying is often referred to as

isothermal drying. This is due to the fact that the external drying
Fig. 5. Drying curve and surface temperature at an air velocity of 3.4 m/s.
parameters are adjusted in order to achieve a constant surface
temperature with a product temperature that is supposed to be
isothermal throughout the whole process. This assumption seems
to be valid regarding Fig. 9 which depicts the predicted tempera-
ture distribution within the apple slice during the first stage of
drying. As with shrinkage, the reduced heat transfer at the lower
surface led to a slightly asymmetric temperature distribution. The
temperature difference between the apple slices' center and the
upper surface did not exceed 10% at any time and the sample
reached isothermal state after about 10 min.

3.8. Water vapour partial pressure

The water vapour partial pressure in a node is a function of the

governing temperature and moisture content. Therefore, a water
vapour partial pressure profile is developed during any drying
process.
The local water vapour partial pressure for different times is
displayed in Fig. 10. The water vapour partial pressure initially
Fig. 6. Drying curve and surface temperature at an air velocity of 2.0 m/s.
increased almost identically in all nodes. This is due to the high
moisture contents. After circa 15 min the partial pressure in the
upper nodes decreased at a higher rate. Two effects were respon-
sible for this. With overall increasing temperatures, the water
vapour partial pressure increased in the nodes that were not yet in
the hygroscopic phase. Simultaneously, the water vapour partial
pressure in the upper border nodes decreased due to the increasing
effect of the hygroscopic behaviour where at that point the very low
moisture content had a higher influence than the temperature. As
soon as the other nodes reached the hygroscopic moisture content,

Fig. 7. Experimental and predicted results for air and surface temperature.

appropriate manner.

3.6. Moisture distribution

Fig. 8 shows the predicted moisture content for different times

as a function of dimensionless height, which takes into account
shrinkage. The upper surface of the apple slices dried much faster Fig. 8. Moisture distribution within the apple slice.
 ~ ez Vega et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 170 (2016) 16e23
A.-M. Nun
Fig. 9. Predicted temperature distribution within the apple slice.
Fig. 10. Calculated development of the water vapour partial pressure in the inner parts
of the product as a function of the relative height within the apple slice at different
times.
the water vapour partial pressure reduced there too despite the
increase in temperature. A symmetric profile was established with
its maximum in the centre. At the end of the drying process, the
water vapour partial pressure is identical throughout the product
and approximated to the equilibrium conditions of the drying air.
3.9. Water and water vapour streams
A compensation stream was caused by the difference in degree
of moisture between the nodes. The mass flux which was propor-
tional to this difference is displayed as a function of moisture
content for different temperatures in Fig. 11. The geometrical and
temporal development of the water vapour partial pressure was
reflected in the vapour streams.
The moisture gradient on the upper surface was very pro-
nounced at the beginning of the drying. This leads to high mass
fluxes. Large volumes of water were transported to the surface and
increased the drying rate. Furthermore, the curve progression was
less uniform than on the lower side. This was due to the higher
mass transfer rate. The maximum of the mass flux and the moisture
ration respectively were increasingly delayed with increasing dis-
tance to the surface.
The vapour streams within the particle e not directly beneath
the surface e were only significant towards the end of the process
and were significantly less developed than the outer ones. They
21
Fig. 11. Calculated development of water vapour and water fluxed within the product
particle as a function of moisture content.
were only strongly developed directly below the surface. However,
the differences between the upper and lower side were not as
significantly developed as in the case of the moisture flux. Steam
diffusion only occurred when the moisture profile was fairly
balanced.
3.10. Predicted shrinkage
Fig. 12 shows the side view of the predicted shrinkage during
the drying process. In this model, shrinkage was described as a
function of current moisture content and did not account for other
effects. Nevertheless, it can give a good idea of the shrinkage taking
place during the drying process.
4. Conclusions
The work introduced a lumped parameter model for the simu-
lation of constant surface temperature drying of apples taking into
account shrinkage and distinguishes between mass transfer in
liquid and gaseous state. It, therefore, showed close correlation
with the experimental results. The mathematical model enabled
the prediction of moisture content as a function of time within the
examined range of process parameters. Based on this model, an
automatic control feature was developed which allowed for the
simulation of transient drying parameters and, in this case, the
simulation of a drying process where the external drying parame-
ters were unsteady, but the product surface temperature was kept
constant. It was shown that the lumped parameter model is valid
even for unsteady drying processes. The model enabled the pre-
diction of overall drying time for different drying parameters
applied and consequently could be used to reduce drying costs.
Further investigation is necessary as the present model neglects
three dimensional transport phenomena, local heat and mass
transfer coefficients, and traces back shrinkage only to moisture
content, and not to geometry. The model for automatic control
Fig. 12. Predicted shrinkage.
22 ~ ez Vega et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 170 (2016) 16e23
A.-M. Nun

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