Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Tytko*
University of Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, MO 65409-0450
*University of Mining and Metallurgy, 30-057 Krakow, Poland
Summary
1. INTRODUCTION
Depending on the application and on the related rope wear pattern either LF
or LMA type damage may be predominant. As an example, friction winder
ropes wear is predominantly of LF-type, caused by fatigue breaks of wires.
Ability to accurately quantify LF–type damage is thus important for correct
assessment of rope condition in this application (Hansel et al, 1990). The
drum winder ropes wear most often through external abrasion (Chaplin,
1994), thus here the accurate knowledge of rope LMA is of utmost
importance. While one type of wear may be predominant in specific rope
applications, in general knowledge of both the LF and LMA type wear, and of
its other forms is required to accurately assess rope condition (Golosinski,
1995).
1
2. Quantifies relations between the LMA measured by a magnetic apparatus
and the length of a worn out part of the rope. It also defines the averaging
length of the apparatus in question. The averaging length is defined here
as the minimum length of worn-out or damaged part of the rope for which
the LMA can be accurately quantified (Weischedel, 1991).
LMA MEASUREMENT
To define the LMA of ropes during their magnetic investigations the apparatus
measures the density of magnetic flux along the magnetized rope. The actual
point of flux measurement differs for different makes of the apparatus as
explained below. Changes in the measured flux are then converted to LMA
using formula (1) shown below. The formula assumes that the flux density is
directly proportional to the LMA of the examined rope (Martyna, 1993 and
1996). While a variety of sensors may be used to measure the magnetic flux
(Haller, 1984), the Hall-effect sensors are preferred by many apparatus
suppliers. Therefore, further discussion is limited to their use. The basics of
the use of Hall-effect sensors for measurement of magnetic flux are presented
graphically in figure 1.
H
a
lls
en
so
rs
i
gna
l
:
B
B
1
B
=B
-
1B2 U
h
B
2
E
x
am
in
ed
ro
pe
: I
c
on
s
t
S
=
F
e S
F
e-
1SF
e2
1 S
F
e1
S
F
e2
2 P
r
in
ci
ple
of
fl
ux
m
ea
sur
eme
nt
2
quality of the sensor as defined by the factor k H,
quality of apparatus electronics, which influences the stability of sensor
current, Iconst, and
location of sensors in relation to the rope.
The sensor voltage, UH, can thus be expressed as follows:
1 3 2 HB 6 4 5 7
B
Z
R
N HR1
S
N HN1 HN3
N
G
HN2 HN4
N HR2 N
R
N S
Z
3
location of the sensors on the console bridging the magnets in the measuring
head (HB) to measure the density of the return flux, B or Z, ( Martyna,
1993, 1996).
As various heads measure the magnetic flux in different locations, the relative
accuracy of LMA measurements done with various apparatuses differs.
Additional inaccuracies may be introduced as a result of non-linearity of
magnetic field in the measuring head, a result of interference and
superimposition of individual fluxes (Hansel et al, 1990). Finally, accuracy of
LMA measurement depends on type, geometry and extent of the rope wear.
Since the investigations presented in this paper were done with the apparatus
that measures the leakage flux, R, in locations HR1 and HR2 , the findings may
not fully apply to other apparatus makes with different sensor locations.
S Fecal
LMA U H U H k Hcal (2)
U Hcal
Conditions during actual rope examination are different from those during
static calibration. First, the measurement of the LMA takes place while the
rope moves relative to the apparatus. Furthermore, in most circumstances,
the rope metallic cross-section decreases. Measurement of the LMA in these
conditions is further called dynamic measurement to differentiate it from the
conditions of static rope calibration.
4
Where: LMA Dynamic measurement
1 - examined wire rope [mV]
2 - the magnetic apparatus +10
1 2 3 4 5
+5 Maximum
Steady value of the signal
Length of the rope
[m]
LMA Static calibration
[mV]
+10
Figure 3. Schematic of static calibration of the LMA signal and its dynamic
measurement.
The difference between conditions under which the static calibration and the
dynamic LMA measurement are done has a direct impact on accuracy of LMA
measurements. The resulting error is quantified below based on laboratory
investigations. The latter involved static calibration of the LMA signal followed
by the dynamic measurement of the LMA for a rope with the LMA equal to the
cross-section of the calibration rod. In addition, the effect of increasing rope
metallic area, as opposed to its loss, on the accuracy of LMA determination
was investigated. The LMA readings made during static calibration and during
dynamic measurements were then analyzed and compared to quantify the
possible errors. The results of these investigations are presented in Table 1.
The actual percentage loss of LMA, U R [%], presented in the third column of
Table 1 represents the actual change of the metallic area of the rope while the
fourth column, denoted Uz [%], presents measured values of the LMA. Figure
4 presents the results of the investigations in the graphical form and lists the
equation that describes the relation in question. The equation was defined
using linear regression at the confidence interval of 95%.
The dynamic measurement of the LMA gives the value that is 17% higher, on
average, than the value defined during the static calibration. The form of
equation which defines the relation between the two (figure 4) indicates
existence of high correlation between the two values in the investigated range
of the LMA change, from 0% up to 24% of the original metallic cross-section
of the rope.
5
Table 1. Results of the static and the dynamic calibration of LMA signal
The results of the investigations indicate that the commonly used method of
LMA static calibration results in overestimation of the actual LMA by about
17%. In practical terms it means that safety of rope application is higher than
that indicated by measured values of the LMA, however, this also means that
some ropes may be discarded prematurely.
6
apparatus averaging length is often used (Weischedel, 1991) to define the
minimum length of worn-out part of the rope over which the LMA can be
UZ [%]
Regression equation for dynamic measurement of LMA
25
UZ = - 0.09+1.17UR [%]
for: r = 0.995 at = 0.05
20
15
10
o - dynamic measurement
5
x - static calibration
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Figure 4. Relations between the actual change of rope metallic area, U R [%]
and
the change indicated by Hall-effect sensors, U [%].
Different line shapes are used in figure 5 to distinguish between the individual
records. The maximum and the average value of the LMA signal was
7
measured as shown in figure 3. Negative values of the LMA indicate loss of
metallic area, as different from the positive values recorded during static
calibration of the LMA signal.
.
LMA 5
[mV] 2
Sfe= 43.54mm
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
the average value of
the maximum value of the signal the signal
-25
0 100 200 300 400 500
Length of the rope section with the removed outer strand [mm]
Figure 5. Digitized records of LMA signal measured for the rope with changing
length of LMA defect.
Figure 6 presents the measured average and the maximum value of the LMA.
The difference between these two values depends on the geometry of the
rope damage, with the larger difference reflecting rapid LMA changes. Digital
filtering of the measured LMA values may help to limit this difference, thus
increasing the accuracy of the LMA determination (Geller et al, 1995).
0
LMA 2
[mV] SFe= 21.77mm
-5
the average value of the signal
-15
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Figure 6. Value of the LMA signal as the function of the rope damage length.
8
Figure 6 allows determining the LMA averaging length for the apparatus used
in the investigations. Measured LMA stabilizes at below 100 mm thus the
averaging length is in this range. The value is specific to the investigated rope
and increases if the instantaneous changes of the metallic cross-section
increase. If smooth transitions of rope LMA are faced the averaging length of
the apparatus decreases. Similar values of the apparatus averaging length
were defined for other rope constructions and diameters.
CONCLUSIONS
The shape of the LMA signal depends on the geometry of the LMA change in
the examined rope. Rapid and significant LMA changes result in a non-linear
signal that makes quantification of the LMA difficult. The value of the LMA
should be read off the flat, regular portion of the recorded LMA signal.
REFERENCES
Geller L.B., Udd J.B. 1990. How accurate are non-destructive testing based
estimates of mine shaft breaking-strength losses - an update. CIM Bulletin,
vol. 83, no. 944, pp 47-50.
9
Golosinski T.S. 1995. Nondestructive testing (NDT) of winder ropes in
Western Australia; Underground Operators' Conference, pp.207-210,
Kalgoorlie ,13 - 14 November 1995.
Hansel J., Kwasniewski J., Lankosz L., Tytko A. 1990. Magnetic testing of
wire ropes. Wydawnictwo AGH - Skrypty Uczelniane 1189, Pl ISSN 1189, p
96, Kraków 1990 (in Polish).
Weischedel H. R. 1991. The inspections of mine hoist ropes. Wire Rope News
and Sling Technology, June, pp. 14-25.
10