EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake is a
phenomenon resulting from
the sudden release of stored
energy in the Earth’s crust
which creates seismic waves.
EARTHQUAKE
 broad-banded vibratory
ground motions, resulting
from a number of causes
including tectonic ground
motions, volcanism, and
man-made explosions
EARTHQUAKE
 Earthquakes represent one of the
largest potential source of
casualties and damage for
inhabited areas due to a natural
hazard. Throughout history, they
have destroyed countless cities
and villages around the world and
caused the death of thousands of
people.
EARTHQUAKE
 Earthquakes are one of the most
powerful forces to which civil structures
will be subjected, and designing
structures to resist these forces
represents an economic burden.
 At the same time, failing to design
structures against these forces can
bring serious economic consequences
in the event of a strong earthquake.
DAMAGING EFFECT OF EARTHQUAKES
In general, an earthquake can damage a structure
in three different ways:
1. By causing a ground failure
2. By producing other effects that may indirectly
affect the structure, e.g., ground cracking,
landslides or tsunami
3. By shaking the ground on which the structure
rests.
GROUND FAILURE TYPES
(a) Surface faulting
An earthquake fault is a geological feature associated with the generation of
earthquakes. It is the displacement that reaches the earth's surface during slip
along a fault.
Typical damage that may occur due to surface faulting include: overturning of
trains due to bending of railroad tracks, damage to irrigation channels or
rupture of water and sewage lines that crossed the fault rupture.
GROUND FAILURE TYPES
(b) Ground cracking
Ground cracking is possible when the soil at the surface
loses its support and sinks, or when it is transported to a
different location. It occurs because, when displaced, a
soil layer breaks causing fissures, scarps, horsts and
grabens on the ground surface.
GROUND FAILURE TYPES
(c) Ground subsidence
Ground subsidence is a phenomenon in which the ground surface of a site settles
or depresses as a result of compaction induced by an earthquake’s vibrations.
Sites with loose or compressible soils are the most likely to experience ground
subsidence. This damage may be in the form of cracks and perhaps some tilting of
the building.
In contrast, it may substantially damage elongated structures such as pipelines,
channels, and road embankments.
GROUND FAILURE TYPES
(d) Landslides
Landslides can be triggered by strong earthquakes. These landslides represent the
failure of slopes that are marginally stable before the earthquake and become
unstable as a result of the violent shaking generated by the earthquake.
A structure may be damaged by a landslide if the structure, or part of it, happens
to be on top of the soil mass that comes down during the landslide.
For the most part, earthquake induced landslides are small, so the damage they
induce is usually localized.
GROUND FAILURE TYPES
(e) Soil liquefaction
Soil liquefaction is a phenomenon by which fine saturated
granular soils temporarily change from a solid to a liquid state
and as a result lose their ability to carry loads or remain stable.
It occurs when a loose soil is vigorously shaken or vibrated, and
thus it is commonly observed during earthquakes.
INDIRECT EFFECTS

Common indirect effects that may

damage a structure are:
• Tsunamis
• Seiches
• Fires.
INDIRECT EFFECT
(a) Tsunamis
A tsunami is a large sea wave generated mostly by an undersea earthquake. More specifically,
a tsunami is a sea wave that is formed by a sudden vertical dislocation of the ocean floor
induced by the slippage of an earthquake fault under the ocean. When a tsunami reaches a
coastal area, its height may increase to catastrophic levels and strike the area with a
tremendous force.
To make it worse, tsunamis can travel great distances across the oceans at high speed and
strike far away lands with undiminished fury. Tsunami waves as high as 30m have been
reported.
INDIRECT EFFECT
(b) Seiches
Seiches are long-period oscillating waves generated by distant
earthquakes in enclosed bodies of water such as bays, lakes,
reservoirs, and even swimming pools. Seiches occur when the
natural frequency of a water body matches the frequency of the
incoming earthquake waves, that is, when the water body
resonates with the earthquake waves. When large, seiches may
damage structures located near the water.
GROUND SHAKING
Ground shaking may be considered the earthquake effect that is
the most damaging to structures.

During an earthquake, the ground moves vertically and

horizontally, at times strongly and violently. In turn, this motion
makes a structure lying on the shaking ground oscillate back and
forth and up and down and makes the structure experience large
stresses and deformations in the process.
EARTHQUAKE FORCES

For structural engineers and from a conceptual point of view, earthquakes represent
just another force for which structures need to be designed. Earthquake forces,
however, possess several characteristics that make them unique in comparison with
any other forces, such as gravity, wind, or thermal forces.
EARTHQUAKE FORCES
Earthquake forces are the result of a back and forth, and up and down motion of the
ground that supports a structure. These can be exceptionally larger in magnitude,
can change rapidly and erratically during the duration of the earthquake, and may
be radically different from earthquake to earthquake, from one site to another, from
one type of foundation soil to another, and even from one structure to another.
EARTHQUAKE FORCES
Most importantly, earthquake forces are unpredictable. Due to the fact that little is
known about the factors that shape the earthquake-generated ground shaking, the
magnitude and characteristics of earthquake forces can only be roughly estimated at
best.
BRIEF HISTORY OF EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
Robert Mallet, an Irish civil engineer, is often cited as the
first earthquake engineer and his report on the 1857
Naples earthquake is considered to be the first scientific
investigation that included observations of the
seismological, geological, and engineering aspects of an
earthquake.
BRIEF HISTORY OF EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
Modern research on earthquake-resistant structures, however,
began in Japan in 1881, the year of the Nobi Earthquake, with the
formation of an earthquake investigation committee set up by
Japanese government. It was this committee who first proposed
the use of a lateral force equal to the fraction of the total weight
of a building to account for the forces exerted on buildings.
BRIEF HISTORY OF EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
Similar developments in Italy after the devastating Messina earthquake in 1908
led to the appointment of a committee composed of practicing and academic
engineers to study the earthquake and the formulation of practical
recommendations for the seismic design of buildings. In its report, this
committee recommended buildings were to be designed for horizontal forces
equal to fractions of the building weight based on different story levels.
BRIEF HISTORY OF EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
The 20th Century can be divided into three very distinct periods:
First period
The first one (until 1950) is characterized by very timid attempts to develop a
consistent explanation of the nature of earthquakes. During this period no
records are available (with the exception of the historical record of 1940 El
Centro earthquake, the first recorded one).
BRIEF HISTORY OF EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
The 20th Century can be divided into three very distinct periods:
Second period
The second period (1950-1980), is characterized by coherent theory development, but due to
a reduced number of instrumented seismic stations, there was limited information concerning
the characteristics of ground motions and damage done by these earthquakes.
BRIEF HISTORY OF EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING
The 20th Century can be divided into three very distinct periods:
Third period
A dense network of instrumental seismic stations characterizes the last period of 20th Century, where the
developed theory was supported by a large number of records. At the same time, the tremendous
development of engineering seismology had a great influence in the developing of anti-seismic concepts.