ECS 238

BASIC SOLID MECHANICS

CHAPTER 1b:
1D & 2D LINEAR STRESS & STRAIN SYSTEM

BY
AIMI MUNIRAH BINTI JALILLUDDIN
 CONTENTS
1 Learning Outcomes

2 Introduction

3 CHAPTER 1: 1D & 2D Linear Stress and Strain System

a Direct Stress & Direct Strain

b Shear Stress & Shear Strain
c Direct Stress – Strain / Shear Stress - Strain Diagram
d Poisson’s Ratio
e Deformation of Axially Loaded Member
f Deformation of Composite Materials
 LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this topic, students should be able to :
1. Differentiate and compute the normal and shearing
stresses (CO1: PO1, CO1: PO3)
2. Compute the deformation caused by normal and
shearing stresses (CO1: PO1, CO1: PO3)
3. Solve the composite material problem using stress
and strain concept (CO1: PO1, CO1: PO3)
4. Solve theoretically OR graphically the plane stress
problem (CO1: PO3)
 CHAPTER 1
1D & 2D LINEAR STRESS &
STRAIN SYSTEM
 INTRODUCTION
 Direct Stress
 Symbol: σ
 Unit : N/m2 (Pascal) or N/mm2
 Formula: σ = P/A or F/A
 Shear Stress
 Symbol: Ʈ
 Unit : N/m2 or N/mm2
 Formula: Ʈ = V/A
 Strain
 Symbol:
 Unit : Dimensionless
 Formula: = δL/L
 INTRODUCTION
 Load
 Tensile Load (+ve)
 Compressive Load (-ve)

Tensile Load (Tension )

Example: towing ropes
or lifting hoist

Compression
Example: column/pillar
 REVIEW OF PHY190:
Equilibrium of a Particle
A particle is in equilibrium when the resultant of
all the forces acting on that particle is zero
EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODIES
Equilibrium of a Rigid Body
A rigid body is in equilibrium when the external
forces acting on it form a system of forces
equivalent to zero

If the resultant force is zero, and the

resultant moment about one axis is zero, then
the resultant moment about any other axis
in the body will be zero also.
 VISUALIZATION OF
CONCEPT
F1 = 2kN A B F2 = 2kN

Rigid body AB is in statically equilibrium under set of 2 forces.

Check whether true the rigid body is in statically equilibrium

 Horizontal force = -2 + 2 = 0 kN (correct)

Say, cut the rigid body into 2 equal sections at ‘X’, as shown below;

F1 = 2kN A X B F2 = 2kN
 F1X = ? F2X = ?

F1 = 2kN A X X B F2 = 2kN

But, rigid body AX and XB are also in statically equilibrium under the force.
 Horizontal force = 0
Applying to rigid body AX;
-F1 + F1x = 0  -2 + F1x =0; F1x = 2 kN

Applying to rigid body XB;

-F2x + F2x = 0  -F2x + 2 = 0, F2x = 2 kN

Remember sign convention for direct forces,

+ve

-ve +ve

-ve
DIRECT STRESS
 DIRECT / NORMAL STRESS
 Normal stress results from a uniformly or equally
applied direct force across a cross section.
 The average normal stress in the member is obtained
by dividing the magnitude of the resultant internal
force F by the cross sectional area A.
 Formula =>  = P/A
where P = load, A = cross section area
 Unit : N/m2 = Pa, N/mm2
Cross sectional area

Force perpendicular to area

DIRECT / NORMAL STRESS
NOTE ON UNITS:
• The fundamental unit of stress is 1 N/m2 and this is
called a Pascal (Pa).
• This is a small quantity in most fields of
engineering so we use the multiples kPa, Mpa
and GPa.
• Areas may be calculated in mm2 and units of
stress in N/mm2 are quite acceptable.
• Since 1 N/mm2 converts 1 000 000 N/m2 then it
follows that the N/mm2 is the same as Mpa.
 EXAMPLE 1
Determine the stress in a bar of 20 mm
diameter if it is subjected to an axial load of
30 kN in tension

A =  x 202/4 = 314.16 mm2

= 30 x 103 N = 95.5 N/mm2

314.16 mm2
 EXAMPLE 2
Determine the stress in each of the bar in the
Figure below.

B
4 kN
A C
3 kN

D = 10 mm
D = 15 mm

BC = 3 x 103 N = 38.2 N/mm2

78.54 mm2
AB = 7 x 103 N = 39.6 N/mm2
176.71 mm2
 EXAMPLE 3
Determine max. average normal stress in bar when
subjected to loading shown.
Given: Bar width = 35 mm, thickness = 10 mm
 SOLUTION
Internal loading

Normal force diagram

Average normal stress

PBC 30(103) N
σBC = = = 85.7 MPa
A (0.035 m)(0.010 m)
SHEAR STRESS
 SHEAR STRESS
 Shear stress is the
type of stress that
acts tangential to
plane
 Shear stress,
= Shear force, V
Area, A
Single shear
 Unit : N/m2 = Pa,
N/mm2
Double shear
 SHEAR STRESS
Shear occurs typically:

1. When a pair of shear

cuts a material

2. When a material is
punched

3. When a beam has a

transverse load

4. When a pin carries a

load
SHEAR STRESS
SHEAR STRESS
EXAMPLE 1
EXAMPLE 2
DIRECT STRAIN
 DIRECT STRAIN
Description: When a force is applied to an elastic
body, the body deforms. The way in
which the body deforms depends
upon the type of force applied to it.

A tensile force makes A compressive force

the body longer makes the body shorter
 DIRECT STRAIN
 Direct strain is the deformation per unit of the
original length. It has no units since it is a ratio of
length to length
 Formula =>  = L/L

where L = change in length

L = original length

P P
L L
 EXAMPLE 1
A metal wire is 2.5mm diameter and 2m long. A force
of 12N is applied to it and it stretches 0.3mm. Assume
the material is elastic, determine the following:
1. The stress in the wire, 
2. The strain in the wire, 

A =  x 2.52/4 = 4.909mm2  = 0.3 = 0.00015

2000
 = 12 N = 2.44N/mm2
4.909
SHEAR STRAIN
 SHEAR STRAIN
 Shear strain is defined as the ratio of distance
deformed to the height.
 Formula =>  = x/L
where x = deformation
L = length
 EXAMPLE 1
The plate is deformed into the dashed shape as
shown in the figure below. Determine the average
normal strain along side AB and average shear strain
in the plate relative to the x and y- axes.
 SOLUTION
(a) Line AB, coincident
with y axis, becomes
line AB’ after
deformation. Length
of line AB’ is…

AB’ = √ (250 − 2)2 + (3)2 = 248.018 mm

 SOLUTION
(a) Therefore, average normal strain for AB is,

AB’ − AB 248.018 mm − 250 mm

(AB)avg = =
AB 250 mm

= −7.93(10−3) mm/mm

Negative sign means strain

causes a contraction of AB.
 SOLUTION
(b) Due to displacement of B to B’, angle BAC
referenced from x, y axes changes to θ’.
Since xy = /2 − θ’, thus

( 3 mm )
γxy = tan−1 = 0.0121 rad
250 mm − 2 mm
FACTOR OF SAFETY
(FOS)
 FACTOR OF SAFETY
• Every material has a certain capacity to carry load,
but it is unsafe to load a material to the full capacity –
it would have no reserve strength.

• This is dangerous because:

1. May experience a load greater than anticipated
2. Material may be defective
3. Construction may be faulty (fabrication/erection/
workamanship etc.)
4. Other unforeseen situation (calculation errors etc.)

• Remedy: Apply a Factor of Safety (FOS) that provides

a margin for error and uncertainty
 FACTOR OF SAFETY
• Factor of Safety (FOS) = Maximum Stress
Allowable Working Stress
• Maximum stress is obtained from experimental testing
of the material

ALLOWABLE
STRESS

MAXIMUM OR
ULTIMATE STRESS
 FACTOR OF SAFETY
FOS for normal stress = max/allow

FOS for shear stress = max/allow

In above equation, FOS will be greater or equal to 1.0 to

avoid potential failure.
ALLOWABLE
STRESS

MAXIMUM OR
ULTIMATE STRESS
 ALLOWABLE STRESS
To determine area of section subjected to a
normal force, use

A=P
σallow

To determine area of section subjected to a

shear force, use
V
A =τ
allow
EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION
NORMAL STRESS-STRAIN
DIAGRAM
 TENSION &
COMPRESSION TEST
 Used primarily to determine the relationship
between the average normal stress and average
normal strain in common engineering materials
 Before testing, 2 small punch marks identified along
specimen’s length
 Measurements are taken of both specimen’s initial x-
sectional area A0 and gauge-length distance L0;
between the two marks
 TENSION &
COMPRESSION TEST
Performing the tension or compression test
 Set the specimen into a testing machine shown
below
The machine will stretch specimen at slow
constant rate until breaking point
At frequent intervals during test, data is
recorded of the applied load P.

 Elongation δ = L − L0 is measured using

either a caliper or an extensometer
 δ is used to calculate the normal strain in
the specimen
 TENSILE TEST

GAUGED
LENGTH
ELONGATED

GAUGED
L + L
LENGTH

 = change in length/original length

= L/L
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
 Using recorded data, we can determine nominal or
engineering stress by
P

A
Assumption: Stress is constant over the x-section and
throughout region between gauge points

 Likewise, nominal or engineering strain is found directly

from strain gauge reading, or by


L
Assumption: Strain is constant throughout region between
gauge points
By plotting σ (ordinate) against  (abscissa), we get a
conventional stress-strain diagram
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM

Figure shows the

characteristic stress-
strain diagram for steel,
a commonly used
material for structural
members and
mechanical elements
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Elastic behavior
 A straight line
 Stress is proportional to strain, i.e., linearly elastic
• Upper stress limit, or
proportional limit; σpl
• If load is removed
upon reaching elastic
limit, specimen will
return to its original
shape
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Strain hardening
 Ultimate stress, σu
 While specimen is elongating, its x-sectional area
will decrease
• Decrease in area is
fairly uniform over
entire gauge length
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Necking
 At ultimate stress, x-sectional area begins to
decrease in a localized region
• As a result, a
constriction or “neck”
tends to form in this
region as specimen
elongates further
 STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Necking
 Specimen finally breaks at fracture stress, σf

51
STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Ductile materials
Offset method to determine yield strength
1. Normally, a 0.2 % strain is
chosen.
2. From this point on the  axis,
a line parallel to initial
straight-line portion of
stress-strain diagram is
drawn.
3. The point where this line
intersects the curve defines
the yield strength.
HOOKE’S
LAW
 HOOKE’S LAW
 Most engineering materials exhibit a linear
relationship between stress and strain with the
elastic region
 Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 using
springs, known as Hooke’s law

  E
 E represents the constant of proportionality, also
called the modulus of elasticity or Young’s
modulus
 E has units of stress, i.e., pascals, MPa or GPa.
 HOOKE’S LAW
 Most grades of steel have same modulus of elasticity,
Est = 200 GPa
 Modulus of elasticity is a mechanical property that
indicates the stiffness of a material
 Materials that are still have large E values, while
spongy materials (vulcanized rubber) have low values
IMPORTANT
 Modulus of elasticity E, can be used only if a material
has linear-elastic behavior.
 Also, if stress in material is greater than the
proportional limit, the stress-strain diagram ceases to
be a straight line and the equation is not valid
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY/
YOUNG’S MODULUS,E
 E, sometimes called as elastic modulus, is a
constant value of a material.
 i.e. Steel has E = 200 GPa = 200 x 109 N/m2

We can measure this value by finding

the gradient of the stress-strain graph
over the elastic region
 EXAMPLE 1
An aluminium rod specimen has an initial gauge length
of 254 mm before the tensile test. After been pulled by a
force of 165 kN, the gauged length increase to 300 mm.
Determine the modulus of elasticity of the specimen if the
rod diameter is 30 mm.

1. The elongation, L = 300-254 = 46 mm

2. Force required to elongate, P = 165 kN
3. Cross sectional area, A = /4 x 302 = 706.86 mm2
4. Direct stress, = P/A = 165 x 103/706.86 = 233.42 N/mm2
5. Original length = 254 mm
6. Strain, = L/L = 46/254 =0.1811
7. From Hooke’s Law , E = / = 1289 N/mm2 = 1.3 kN/mm2
SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN
DIAGRAM
 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN
DIAGRAM
 Use thin-tube specimens and subject it to
torsional loading
 Record measurements of applied torque and
resulting angle of twist
 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN
DIAGRAM
 Material will exhibit linear-elastic behavior till its
proportional limit, τpl
 Strain-hardening continues till it reaches ultimate
shear stress, τu
• Material loses shear
strength till it fractures,
at stress of τf
 SHEAR STRESS-STRAIN
DIAGRAM
 Hooke’s law for shear
  G

G is shear modulus of elasticity

or modulus of rigidity
 G can be measured as slope of
line on τ-γ diagram, G = τpl/ γpl
 The three material constants E,
ν, and G is related by
E
G
2(1  )
POISSON’S
RATIO
 POISSON’S RATIO
 When a body is subjected to axial tensile force, it
elongates and contracts laterally
 Similarly, it will contract and its sides expand
laterally when subjected to an axial compressive
force
 POISSON’S RATIO
 Strains of the bar are:

 '
 long   lat 
L r
 Early 1800s, S.D. Poisson realized that within
elastic range, ration of the two strains is a
constant value, since both are proportional.
 lat
Poisson' s Ratio ,  
 long
 POISSON’S RATIO
 ν is unique for homogenous and isotropic
material
 Why negative sign? Longitudinal elongation
cause lateral contraction (-ve strain) and vice
versa
 Lateral strain is the same in all lateral (radial)
directions
 Poisson’s ratio is dimensionless, 0 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5
EXAMPLE 2
SOLUTION
DEFORMATION OF AN
AXIALLY LOADED
MEMBER
 DEFORMATION UNDER
DIRECT FORCE
 For constant x-sectional area A, and
homogenous material, E is constant
 With constant external force P, applied at each
end, then internal force P throughout length of
bar is constant
 Load-displacement relationship is:

PL
δ = AE
 EXAMPLE 1
Composite A-36 steel bar shown made from two
segments AB and BD. Area AAB = 600 mm2 and
ABD = 1200 mm2.

Determine the vertical

displacement of end A and
displacement of B relative to
C.
 SOLUTION
Internal force
Due to external loadings, internal axial forces in regions
AB, BC and CD are different.
Apply method of
sections and equation
of vertical force
equilibrium as shown.
Variation is also
plotted.
 SOLUTION
Displacement
From tables, Est = 210(103) MPa.
Use sign convention, vertical displacement of A relative
to fixed support D is

 PL [+75 kN](1 m)(10 6)

δA = AE = [600 mm2 (210)(103) kN/m2]
[+35 kN](0.75 m)(106)
+ [1200 mm2 (210)(103) kN/m2]

[−45 kN](0.5 m)(106)

+ [1200 mm2 (210)(103) kN/m2]

= +0.61 mm
 SOLUTION
Displacement
Since result is positive, the bar elongates and so
displacement at A is upward
Apply load-displacement equation between B and C,

PBC LBC [+35 kN](0.75 m)(106)

δA = A E = [1200 mm2 (210)(103) kN/m2]
BC

= +0.104 mm

Here, B moves away from C, since segment elongates

EXAMPLE 2
SOLUTION
 DEFORMATION DUE TO
TEMPERATURE CHANGES
 DEFORMATION DUE TO
TEMPERATURE CHANGES
 It is a common experience that materials
expand on heating and contract on cooling.
 Consider a rod of a material has a length L at
any temperature TO, then it increases to a
length L + L when heated to a temperature T1
or decreases to a length L-L if T1 is less than TO.
 The increase/decrease of material due to
temperature effect depends on coefficient of
thermal of material.
 L at temperature TO

Expand
on heating
L L
L at temperature T1 > To

Contract
on cooling
L-L L
L at temperature < To
 TYPICAL CIVIL ENGINERING
STRUCTURES EXPERIENCING THERMAL
EXPANSION/CONTRACTION
 TYPICAL CIVIL ENGINERING
STRUCTURES EXPERIENCING THERMAL
EXPANSION/CONTRACTION

SMALL GAP
ALLOWING
EXPANSION
OF DECK
BRIDGE
DECK

APPROACH SLAB

BRIDGE DECK – SLAB APPROACH CONNECTION SYSTEM

EXPANSION JOINTS
 STRAIN DUE TO
TEMPERATURE CHANGES
Due to change in length by L, therefore
the corresponding strain

 = changes of length/original length

= L/L

L = original length x coefficient of thermal x

temperature changes
= L x  x ( T1 – To)
 EXAMPLE 1
A steel rod, 20 mm diameter, and 1.5 m long, is constrained
between supports A and B. The material is stress-free at 270C.
Determine the stress in the material when the temperature
increases to 500C.
(Take E = 200 GPa. = 12 x 10-6/0C)

L = 1.5 m,  = 12 x 10-6/0C
Temperature changes = 50 – 27 = 230C

Changes in length, L = 1.5 x 12 x 10-6 x 23

= 0.000414 m = 0.414 mm

Strain in the bar,  = L/L = 0.414/1500 = 0.000276

From Hooke’s Law,  = E

= 200 x 1o9 N/m2 x 0.000276
= 5.52 x 107 N/m2
 PRINCIPLE OF
SUPERPOSITION
 PRINCIPLE
4.3 PRINCIPLE OF
OF SUPERPOSITION
SUPERPOSITION
 After subdividing the load into components,
the principle of superposition states that the
resultant stress or displacement at the point
can be determined by first finding the stress or
displacement caused by each component
load acting separately on the member.
 Resultant stress/displacement determined
algebraically by adding the contributions of
each component
85
 PRINCIPLE
4.3 PRINCIPLE OF
OF SUPERPOSITION
SUPERPOSITION
Conditions
1. The loading must be linearly related to the stress or
displacement that is to be determined.
2. The loading must not significantly change the
original geometry or configuration of the member

When to ignore deformations?

 Most loaded members will produce deformations so
small that change in position and direction of
loading will be insignificant and can be neglected

86
 STATICALLY
INDETERMINATE AXIALLY
LOADED MEMBER
 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER
 For a bar fixed-supported at one end, equilibrium
equations is sufficient to find the reaction at the
support. Such a problem is statically determinate
 If bar is fixed at both ends, then two unknown axial
reactions occur, and the bar is statically
indeterminate

+↑ F = 0;

FB + FA − P = 0
 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
AXIALLY LOADED MEMBER
 To establish addition equation, consider geometry of
deformation. Such an equation is referred to as a
compatibility or kinematic condition
 Since relative displacement of one end of bar to the
other end is equal to zero, since end supports fixed,

δA/B = 0

 This equation can be expressed in terms of applied

loads using a load-displacement relationship, which
depends on the material behavior
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
Equilibrium
 Draw a free-body diagram and write appropriate equations of
equilibrium for member using calculated result for redundant
force.
 Solve the equations for other reactions

Compatibility
• Choose one of the supports as redundant and write the equation
of compatibility.
• Known displacement at redundant support (usually zero), equated
to displacement at support caused only by external loads acting
on the member plus the displacement at the support caused only
by the redundant reaction acting on the member.
• Express external load and redundant displacements in terms of
the loadings using load-displacement relationship
• Use compatibility equation to solve for magnitude of redundant
force
 PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS
 From free-body diagram, we can determine the
reaction at A

= +

91
 EXAMPLE 1
A-36 steel rod shown has diameter of 5 mm. It’s
attached to fixed wall at A, and before it is
loaded, there’s a gap between wall at B’ and rod
of 1 mm. Determine reactions at A and B’.
 SOLUTION
Compatibility
Consider support at B’ as redundant. Use principle of
superposition,
(+) 0.001 m = δP −δB Equation 1
 SOLUTION
Compatibility
Deflections δP and δB are determined from Eqn. 4-2

PLAC
δP = AE = … = 0.002037 m

δB = FB LAB = … = 0.3056(10-6)FB
AE
Substituting into Equation 1, we get
0.001 m = 0.002037 m − 0.3056(10-6)FB
FB = 3.40(103) N = 3.40 kN
Equilibrium
From free-body diagram
+ Fx = 0; − FA + 20 kN − 3.40 kN = 0
FA = 16.6 kN
EXAMPLE 2
SOLUTION
SOLUTION
 DEFORMATION OF A
STATICALLY
INDETERMINATE AXIALLY
LOADED MEMBER
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
 INTRODUCTION
 Stresses, strains and deformations in a bar are easily
obtained by applying the equilibrium (static) conditions
alone called statically determinate problem.
 However, certain problems cannot be solved by statics
alone where extra equations are required in order to be
solved. This is called statically indeterminate problem.
 Composite bar subjected to an axial is an example of
statically indeterminate problem where the bar is made
of more than one material.
 Consider the followings for solving:

1. Total force in the bar must equal to the applied load.

2. Axial deformation and strain in each material must
also be the same.
 VISUALIZATION :
FORCE EQUILIBRIUM
P P1 P2

A2
A1

= +

Force equilbrium , P = P1 + P2 ……………(1)

= 1 A1 + 2 A2
 VISUALIZATION :
COMPATIBILITY OF STRAIN
P

Shortening at once due to

perfect bonding assumption

=>

Shortening inside material 1 = shortening inside material 2

1 = 2
1/ E1 = 2/E2
 VISUALIZATION :
COMPATIBILITY OF STRAIN

Steel Ls  Lc

bar

s  c
Concrete block
EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 2
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 4
SOLUTION
TUTORIAL
 TUTORIAL
A 30 cm square steel bearing plate lies between a 20 cm
diameter wooden post and a concrete footing as shown in
Figure. Determine the maximum value of the load P if the
stress in wood is limited to 12.4MPa and that in concrete to
5MPa.
TUTORIAL
TUTORIAL
TUTORIAL
TUTORIAL
TUTORIAL
TUTORIAL
THE END