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STRUCTURAL PERFORMANCE
10 Geoseismic Design Challenges
in Mexico City
By Sissy Nikolaou, Ph.D., P.E.,
George Gazetas, Ph.D.,
Evangelia Garini, Ph.D.,
Guillermo Diaz-Fanas, P.E.,
and Olga-Joan Ktenidou, Ph.D.
STRUCTURAL FORENSICS
14 Structural Engineers
in Fire Investigations
By Dan Eschenasy, P.E., SECB
ON THE COVER The Lincoln Avenue Pedestrian Bridge, Lone Tree, CO, was an Award winning
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Engineering Awards program. 4 Advertiser Index
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CASE, SEI, the Publisher, or the Editorial Board. Authors, contributors, and advertisers retain sole responsibility for the 40 SEI Update
content of their submissions. 42 CASE in Point
I n 2013, the Structural Engineering Institute published A Vision for Examples of activities that SEIFF has supported in the last few
the Future of Structural Engineering and Structural Engineers: A case years include:
for change (the SEI Vision – www.asce.org/SEI). The SEI Vision lays • Scholarships for students and young professionals to attend
out an inspiring view of what the structural engineering profession Structures Congress
could be by the year 2033, and it • Support to launch the new SEI
makes a number of recommenda- Global Activities Division
tions for SEI Board of Governors’ • Beta testing to live stream ses-
action to lead us to that vision. sions at Structures Congress
The recommendations include • Creation of an SEI Global
bold initiatives involving (1) Practices Guideline document
education for innovation and (to be published early 2019)
leadership and (2) professional • Research in support of SE
practice for innovation and lead- licensure
ership. Recognizing the massive • Support for ASCE Continuing
need for professional volun- Education Webinars for SEI
teerism and financial resources Chapters and SEI Graduate
necessary to bring about the SEI Student Chapters
Vision, SEI established, in 2013, 2018 SEI Futures Fund Student and Young Professional Scholarship Recipients. • Stakeholder workshops for
the SEI Futures Fund (SEIFF). Continuing Education
Every dollar contributed to the SEI Futures Fund goes directly to Initiatives that the SEIFF Board has funded for 2019 include more
profession-building initiatives identified and approved by the SEIFF than $100,000 for:
Board. The SEI Futures Fund operates in collaboration with the ASCE • Investigating the Future of SE Licensure: This will provide a com-
Foundation for administrative and professional fundraising expertise. prehensive view of SE Licensure and the various options for a
The goals of the SEI Futures Fund are unique: to advance the art, path to 2033.
science, and practice of structural engineering for a brighter future • SEI Standards lecture for SEI Chapters: This initiative seeks a
for our profession. It does this by funding strategic initiatives outside win-win by increasing knowledge of SEI standards and provid-
the normal bounds of the SEI operating budget. It does not support ing resources for increasing attendance at SEI Chapter meetings.
scientific research. The four strategic priorities for funding are to: • SE 2050 Sustainability Commitment Initiative Workshop: This
• Invest in the future of the profession, will support a planning workshop for the SE 2050 Initiative
• Promote student interest in structural engineering, for structural engineers to meet embodied carbon benchmarks.
• Support younger members involvement in SEI, and • SEI Codes & Standards Young Professional Program: This is an
• Provide opportunities for professional development. extension of a highly effective initiative to involve young profes-
Fundraising is driven primarily by the Futures Fund Board members. sionals in various SEI codes and standards activities.
Donors may be individuals, companies, or organizations. The Board’s • SEI Student & Young Professional Scholarships to Structures Congress:
strategy for individuals has been top-down, ensuring we have the sup- These scholarships are intended to draw more students and young
port and commitment of the SEI Board, the SEIFF Board, and the professionals into SEI activities by supporting scholarships to
many SEI committees, chapters, and members. Progress along this attend Structures Congress.
route has been excellent. Presently, about 65% of all donations come • SEI Local Leadership Conference Facilitation Training: This
from individuals, 20% from corporations, and 15% from ticket sales follows the SEI Vision goal of leadership development for
at the annual gala held at Structures Congress (more on this below.) structural engineers.
However, we have far more to go. Only a small fraction of SEI’s more So, how can you help? First, if you are not already a regular donor,
than 30,000 members contribute. Imagine what we could do for please consider becoming one. This is our future at stake! If you are
the profession if everyone was engaged! a donor and are comfortable recruiting others, let us know. We need
A tremendous supporter of SEI and the Futures Fund (and the to leverage our voice. And, finally, if you have an idea for a proposed
structural engineering profession in general) has been Ashraf SEI Futures Fund activity to advance the profession, let us know,
Habibullah, founder and CEO of Computers and Structures Inc. regardless of whether you or someone you know are interested in
Since 2016, Ashraf has hosted a gala at Structures Congress cel- advancing the idea.
ebrating the structural engineering profession and promoting its This year’s SEI Futures Fund Board is Ed DePaola, Anne Ellis, Jon
future. The pinnacle social event at Congress, it is always great fun Magnusson, John Tawresey, and myself. We would be pleased
and profoundly inspiring. We invite you to join us next April at to talk with you about getting involved.
Structures Congress in Orlando. Learn more and give at www.asce.org/SEIFuturesFund.■
STRUCTURE magazine 7 December 2018
InFocus
The Northridge Earthquake
25 Years On
By John A. Dal Pino, S.E.
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PERFORMANCE
with high tectonic activity. This
article discusses the challenges that
continue to grow, as the center of the
ruins of the Aztec capital has turned
into the most prominent modern
metropolis of Latin America, with
economic growth that demands
taller buildings. The response of Figure 1. Evolution of the lake system at Mexico City Valley
the regional soils has repeatedly and (Ovando-Shelley et al., 2013).
destructively materialized in the form
of soil basin amplification phenomena (one- and original water area of 700 km2 (270 mi2) except
two-dimensional) that manifested as seismic waves for a small lake near Xochimilco.
propagating through the natural valley’s topogra- New human settlements between the 16th and
phy. This topography is filled with 18th centuries by the conquering Spaniards caused
soft, high-plasticity elastic clays the biggest impacts on the built environment due
Geoseismic Design Challenges that were a part of the drained to further deforestation, agriculture, pasture lands,
lake that once existed below the construction, and land reclamation. The Spaniards
in Mexico City City. A vivid recent reminder was tried to control the water by replacing the Aztec
the 2017 Mw7.1 Puebla-Morelos system of dikes and canals with streets and squares,
Earthquake, a déjà-vu precisely on draining the lakes and removing forestland. These
the 32nd anniversary of the September 19th, 1985, actions resulted in severe floods, some of which
Part 1: A 32-year Déjà-vu Michoacán Ms8.0 Earthquake, with an epicenter drowned the city for months and even years on end.
400 kilometers (km) (~250 miles) away from the Moreover, the Valley of Mexico is mainly
By Sissy Nikolaou, Ph.D., P.E., DGE, city center. The 1985 toll of more than 39,000 formed by volcanic materials, while the surface
George Gazetas, Ph.D., deaths and nearly 10,000 building collapses was layers consist of alluvial deposits, mostly lacus-
Evangelia Garini, Ph.D., attributed to a multi-resonance of seismic incident trine clays. A large part of Mexico City is built
Guillermo Diaz-Fanas, P.E., waves, soil deposits, and structures. In 2017, the on top of highly plastic soft clay sediments inter-
and Olga-Joan Ktenidou, Ph.D. soil amplification repeated from a different type layered with thin silt and sand layers. The clayey
of earthquake that was 120 km (~78 mi) away, deposits of Mexico City are fairly unique, con-
with only slightly different recorded motions than taining volcanic ash, and are characterized by an
those in 1985. This article provides an evalua- unusually high plasticity index (PI ≈ 200-300), a
tion of selected recorded motions within the City natural water content (wn ≈ 200 - 600), and low
that correlates with observed differences in the shear wave velocity, Vs, within the 40 to 90 m/s
level and distribution of damage between the two (~130 - 300 ft/s) range. This saturated deposit
events that occurred 32 years apart. The evaluation is extremely compressible and has caused settle-
is a combined result of experiences and studies ments of 9 m (~30 ft) since the beginning of the
performed over more than 2 decades by the co- 20th century (Tapia et al., 2000) which, in turn,
authors – designers at WSP and researchers at have induced damaging differential settlements in
NTUA, and the recent findings many monuments, structures, and infrastructure
by the ATC reconnaissance team built in the former lake area (Figure 2).
that traveled to Mexico City, In the past few decades, the City has grown from
which is gratefully recognized about 78 km2 (30 mi2) to a metropolis about 100
for contributions to this article. times larger, as shown in Figure 3. The lakebed
This is Part One of two articles continues to sink by up to 30 cm/year (~12 in/
that focus on the geotechnical year), as groundwater is extracted to support its
and structural design challenges more than 20 million inhabitants. Development
of Mexico City. of tall buildings with deeper basements over the
past two decades has increased exponentially to
Geology and accommodate the rapid growth.
The problematic soil conditions, continuous
Tectonics water extraction, and frequent strong seismic
Mexico City is mostly built on a activity have presented unique challenges in
basin formerly occupied by the the design and construction of Mexico City.
ancient Lake Texcoco that has The Spanish settlers identified these difficulties
evolved since the Aztec arrival since the mid-16th century after observing their
in the 13th century, as shown buildings sinking. In 1550, Cervantes de Salazar,
Figure 2. Continuing sinking of the Mexico City lake bed in Figure 1. Currently, the lake author and rector in Mexico, concerned about
causing visible differential settlements in buildings. is completely drained from its the continuous settlements and seismic activity,
introduced a height limit of two stories The incident waves that constitute the seis- range even for high shear strain amplitudes,
(Cervantes de Salazar, 1978). Per Rosenblueth mic motion, propagating from the bedrock γ, on the order of 10-3. This is accompanied by
& Ovando (1991), this was probably the through the soil, undergo changes in both low damping, which means that the straining
first rule for earthquake-resistant design in their amplitude and frequency characteristics. of the soil does not absorb the seismic energy
the Americas. Since the amplitude usually increases, the and that it keeps being amplified as the waves
Currently, a Performance-Based Design term “soil amplification” is used to describe propagate upwards within this layer.
(PBD) approach has been followed in the the phenomenon, as discussed in a previous Taking advantage of this unique character-
seismic design of new tall buildings. PBD article (STRUCTURE, Nikolaou, February istic offers the opportunity to understand the
also presents challenges, many of which are a 2008). The effects of soil amplification on cause and the selective spatial distribution of
result of the behavior of the unique soft soils a structure depend on its location with damage by examining the soil amplification
that seem to have similar behavior over past respect to the lake area, as shown in Figure 5 using simplified engineering approximations.
strong earthquakes. (Nikolaou et al., 2018), that is largely Mexico City profiles may be generalized
described by the three zones defined in the simply as a soil column of soft clay with Vs
Mexican Building Code (OGDF, 2017): Hilly = 80 m/s (260 ft/s) and PI = 200 overlying
A 32-year Earthquake Déjà-vu (I), Transition (II), and Lake (III). More spe- the assumed bedrock at a depth H from the
A vivid and destructive manifestation of such cifically, a typical geotechnical profile within ground surface. Extensive analytical studies
amplification was observed in Mexico City the lakebed varies in thickness H and, as have validated this simplified approach, by
during both the 1985 Ms8.0 Michoacán and shown in Figure 6, consists of an upper fill Gazetas (1988) and the ATC reconnaissance
2017 Mw7.1 Puebla-Morelos earthquakes. deposit, a regional soft plastic clay, and dense geotechnical study for the Puebla-Morelos
The 1985 event occurred in the subduction layers of silty sand and dense clay that reach a earthquake (Gilsanz & Nikolaou, 2018). The
zone offshore of western Mexico, nearly 400 stiff deposit referred to as “bedrock.” fundamental period of vibration for this soil
km (~250 mi) from the city. Yet, it caused However, soil amplification in the lakebed column, Ts, equals 4 H / Vs. Using contour
enormous damage with tens of thousands is controlled primarily by the thickness of the maps of the estimated Mexico City Ts offered
of deaths mostly concentrated in the north- upper soft clay that varies within the lakebed, in the local building code from micro-zona-
western part of the Mexico City lake region. as shown in Figure 5. Past events have docu- tion (Ordaz & Perez-Rocha, 1992), engineers
It became abundantly clear that the soft clay mented striking soil amplification effects can estimate H and the primary vibration
layers were the main culprit of the disaster, (Romo & Auvinet, 1992) attributed to the characteristics of the soil.
having amplified the ±2 seconds period of behavior of the soft clay deposit and particu- For example, the SCT site (Figure 5) is
the motion of the incoming waves. As shown larly its high plasticity, PI, that controls the within the area of concentrated severe damage
in Figure 4, the 2017 event occurred as the non-linear effects in soils. Vucetic & Dobry in 1985 and can be used to compare record-
result of normal faulting in Central Mexico (1991) showed that the Mexico City clay ings and analytical predictions from the 2017
at a depth of approximately 50 km (~30 mi), behaves practically within the linear elastic earthquake. The site has an H of 40 m (~130 ft)
approximately 120 km (75 mi) away from Zone I Zone II Zone III
Mexico City. The damage was significant
in the City, with 40 building collapses and
at least 400 deaths, but lower than those in
1985 thanks to mainly the improved local
seismic code. Although the two events had
different seismological characteristics of
magnitude, distance from the epicenter, and
orientation, they generated quite similar soil
amplification effects. Figure 5. East-West section and code-specified seismic zones: Hilly (I), Transition (II), and Lake (III).
with an actual soil layering shown in Figure 6. peak ground acceleration, PGA, is multiplied the strong destructive ground motions of the
However, this model is simplified with a by an amplification factor, A. The fundamen- 1985 disaster which targeted only buildings
uniform soft clay layer excited by motions tal soil period is Ts = 4 H / Vs = 2 seconds, at this period range, as shown in Figure 5.
recorded at a rock outcrop at the UNAM and an approximate theoretical resonance In 2017, the upper clay soil was probably
(National Autonomous University of Mexico) amplification at that same period is A ≈ 11, slightly stiffer as the continuing consolidation
recording station for both the 1985 and the assuming soil damping of 4%. The predicted increased its density and stiffness, validating
2017 events. The relative similarity of the peak SA at the SCT station site for this period the assumption that a smaller soil period of
UNAM rock spectra, with a distinct high- would be SASCT(1995) ≈ A × SAUNAM(1995) ≈ 11 × Ts ≈1.8 seconds is a reasonable approxima-
period content, could be attributed to the 0.08 = 0.9 g, a value close to the maximum of tion for this event. This produced the same
roles of the large-scale geometry of the wider the average spectrum from the two horizontal amplification at the resonance of A ≈ 11 and
(≈ 10 km or 6 mi) and deeper (≈ 500 m or records of the 1985 earthquake (Figure 6 ). a peak SA at the resonance at the SCT site,
1600 ft) lake basin (Singh et al., 1993) and The agreement between observations and equal to SASCT(2017) ≈ A × SAUNAM(2017) ≈ 11
the dense built environment of Mexico City simple analysis is excellent, confirming the × 0.05 = 0.55 g, which is, again, in excel-
that may cause building-to-building effects claim that it is the resonance of the soil lent agreement with the record. The response
and elongation of the recorded motions. deposit at T ≈ 2 seconds that is subjected to a of the simplified soft clay profile with H =
To estimate the peak Spectral Acceleration high-period excitation and is rich at the period 40 m to the excitation of the 2017 UNAM
(SA) at the surface, the known UNAM rock range 1.5 < T < 2 seconds. This produced record is also shown in Figure 6. While the
soil amplification effects at the reso-
nance period of the soil column of Ts
≈ 1.7 seconds are evident, the overall
shape of the response spectrum deviates
from the 2017 SCT record. This can be
Technical Sessions attributed to the limitations of the one-
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FORENSICS
may be expanded to estimate the fuel quantity, as fire might not have been the only trigger of
the heat developed, and its duration. Building the collapse. For example, they can determine
re-occupancy may take place only after a structural the building loads that existed at the location of
engineering assessment of the effect of the fire on the collapse. Even if the fire caused the collapse,
the existing structural system. the structural engineer’s participation can bring
Even in cases where a significant structural additional technical context and information,
collapse occurred during the fire incident, and lead to a more complete understanding
the investigation remains focused on issues of of the incident.
evaluating potential arson, negligence, or fire There may be cases where the fire is the
code compliance. Typically, the fire is deemed immediate cause of the incident but not the
the primary cause of the collapse and, as a primary or essential cause of the collapse. One
result, the scope of the investigation remains could argue that the National Fire Protection
limited to fire issues and does not include the Association’s NFPA 921 – Guide for Fire and
totality of the incident. Explosion Investigations also should recommend
expanding forensic investigations to include
hypotheses beyond fire. An investigation in
Structural Engineers in Fire Investigations The Bronx illustrates such a case where the
collaboration between fire and structural spe-
cialists led to the determination that the cause
By Dan Eschenasy, P.E., F.SEI, SECB Fire has a relatively limited effect on masonry of the collapse was due to structural defects
and concrete structures but can dramatically rather than fire.
change the capacity and stability of steel
structures and can consume wood structures.
Dan Eschenasy is the New York City Published cases of collapse incidents involving
Bronx Fire and Floor Collapse
Buildings Department Chief Structural steel buildings have described an assessment The author was called to participate in the
Engineer. He is an Honorary Member of the condition of code prescribed fire pro- New York City Fire Department’s (FDNY)
of SEAoNY and a member of the SEI tection of the steel. For several World Trade investigation of a fire incident that occurred
Structural Design for Fire Conditions Center (WTC) buildings, structural engineers at a “99 Cents” store in the Bronx. The fire
Standard Committee. partnered with fire experts for the evaluation completely destroyed the wood roof framing
of how changes in the stability or capacity of of this one-story plus basement structure
steel members led to the structure’s collapse. (Figure 1). During the firefighting opera-
tions, the ground floor collapsed, taking
Collapses of Wood the life of two firemen that were fighting in
the basement. Several years prior, the store
Floors or Roofs had suffered another roof fire. Subsequently,
For wood-framed buildings, because of the the roof had been rebuilt. The ground floor,
capacity of the fire to spread quickly and con- including the supporting wood columns,
sume wood, a collapse is considered a likely were built as mill construction (slow-burning
outcome and structural engineers may not construction) using sturdy elements. Along
be called to participate in the the perimeter, the ground floor was supported
evaluation of the incident. by masonry bearing basement walls. Typical
Buildings with bearing of mill construction, the center-heavy timber
masonry walls and wood floors girders were supported by bolsters set on top
resist fires somewhat better of 8-inch by 8-inch timber posts. Almost all
– combustible floors might col- the roof joists burned and were lying on top
lapse, but this collapse is not of the collapsed first floor.
expected to engage the walls. As the piece-by-piece removal and examina-
Since the mid-1800s, succes- tion of the debris progressed, the probability
sive New York City (NYC) of the fire causing the ground floor collapse
building codes have required decreased – the ground floor supporting
the ends of wood joists be “fire structure only had a few joists that displayed
cut” to allow the burning floor charring. The areas of wood breakage were
to collapse without inducing away from the char. One seriously consid-
torsional effects in the sup- ered hypothesis of causation was the load that
porting masonry walls, thus existed on the floor – the store was full of
preventing the walls’ collapse. merchandise with very narrow space between
Since fire investigators can shelves. The original carrying capacity of the
Figure 1. Debris field – roof charred joists cover collapsed first floor. establish the presence of “fire floor was 100 pounds per square foot (psf ).
store was erected (1928), there were KPFF is an Equal Opportunity Employer Eugene San Diego
www.kpff.com Sacramento Boise
numerous publications and handbooks
H
ave you ever heard the phrase, “don’t judge a book by its cover”? The same quote can apply to the Town
Center Parkway Rail Support Structure in Reston, Virginia. At first look, the hidden structure appears to be a
reinforced barrier along a track. However, just like an iceberg, the true intricacies lie beneath.
Conclusion
The Town Center Parkway Rail Support Structure presented many
challenges that required unconventional solutions. The ability to
incorporate changes in the design-build delivery method allowed
for increased coordination between team members and paved
the way for successful construction. By utilizing state-of-the-art
Figure 4. Field bending of bundled #14 reinforcement. soil interaction and structural engineering analysis tools, tech-
niques, innovative construction procedures, and open collaboration
applied as area loads along the surfaces of the solid members in between all parties including Fairfax County, WMATA, MWAA,
the 3-D FEM. The Project Directed Rail live loads were modeled and Capital Rail Contractors, a design was envisioned
as moving loads along alignments to capture the influence of the and implemented that could meet the needs for the local
Inbound and Outbound track loads. Examples of other loads community for years to come.■
within the 3-D FEM included train derailment force modeled as
a modified vehicle, temperature loads, wind loads, rolling forces, Bob Niccoli, P.E., S.E., is a Senior Structural Engineer at Parsons
seismic forces, concrete creep and shrinkage, longitudinal train Corporation in Boston, MA. (robert.niccoli@parsons.com)
braking forces, and a future vehicle collision force against the center Sean-Philip H. Bolduc, P.E., is a Senior Project Engineer at Parsons
wall from an impact along the future Town Center Parkway. The Corporation in New York, NY. (sean-philip.bolduc@parsons.com)
output from the 3-D FEM models was combined through post-
Peter Chou, P.E., is an Engineering Manager at Parsons Corporation in
processing techniques developed by Parsons, and the capacity of
Oakland, CA. (peter.chou@parsons.com)
the structure was determined using AREMA Reinforced Concrete
Specifications. Figure 1 (page 19) shows
an example 3-D FEM model of the
STRUCTURAL
been given annually since 1998 and each year highlight
IN work from the best and brightest in our profession.
Awards were given in seven categories, with one project in
More than 100,000 people are at risk from a tsunami on the Pacific
Northwest coastline. Tsunami waves are expected to hit the coast within
30 minutes of an earthquake on the Cascadia Subduction Zone. For
locations like the Westport peninsula (Washington), this is insufficient
time for evacuation. Degenkolb Engineers designed the structural system
for Ocosta Elementary School and its 1,000-person capacity Tsunami
Vertical Evacuation Refuge, which is the first tsunami evacuation
structure in the United States. These structures represent a milestone
in improving tsunami safety for the Ocosta School District and the
neighboring community, and forge a path for others.
Category 2: New Buildings $20 Million to $100 Million
OUTSTANDING PROJECT
Bahá’í Temple of South America
Santiago, Chile | Simpson Gumpertz & Heger
OUTSTANDING PROJECT
Halo Board at
Mercedes-Benz Stadium
Atlanta, GA | HOK
The Video Halo Board at Mercedes-Benz Stadium is
a unique structure designed and built using innova-
tive technology at unprecedented speed. At 56 feet
tall and 1,100 feet in circumference, it is the largest
video scoreboard in the United States. The support
structure contains as much steel as a 150,000-square-
foot office building and is supported by a long span
roof structure that expands and contracts by several
inches under service load conditions. Through design
and construction, the structural team developed proj-
ect specific computational design tools to successfully
deliver Mercedes-Benz Stadium’s centerpiece on an
accelerated schedule.
STRUCTURE magazine 24 December 2018
AWARD WINNER – CATEGORY 1 AWARD WINNER – CATEGORY 1 AWARD WINNER – CATEGORY 2
A. Zahner Company St. Luke’s School Expansion Intuit
Kansas City, MO | Wallace Engineering – New York, NY | Silman Mountain View, CA | Holmes Structures
Structural Consultants, Inc. To avoid a costly seismic retrofit and to reduce Holmes Structures engineered a new four-story
In 2015, Zahner commissioned a radical new the impact of construction on the existing struc- office building with one level of below-grade
expansion to their Kansas City campus. Consisting ture below, the addition to the 1955 two-story parking and a stand-alone five-story parking
of 35-foot-tall vertical “pods” resembling truncated St. Luke’s School building was constructed as lot. The post-tensioned concrete office build-
cones, the engineering office is intended to act as a a completely independent structure perched ing is unique in its trapezoidal shape (due to
showpiece of Zahner’s creativity and manufactur- above the existing one, supported on eight site constraints and client goals). To meet the
ing capabilities. Wallace designed custom-shaped 40-foot-tall super columns strategically threaded client’s desire for an open all-hands meeting
aluminum fins consisting of CNC waterjet-cut through the existing structure to new, inde- forum without structural interruptions, Holmes
aluminum with extruded flanges at each edge to pendent foundations. This allows for seamless Structures implemented a 90-foot, concrete-
provide strength. Assembled using stainless steel integration between the new and old spaces all encased steel truss that supports the upper two
self-tapping screws, Zahner fabricated these fins while providing necessary seismic isolation. The stories of the building and allows for a column-
at their existing factory on site. Built by and for a 19,000-square-foot addition, which provides free space in the atrium. The desired solution
manufacturer of high-end architectural metalwork, additional classrooms as well as a larger gym- overcame three significant site constraints: lim-
the office’s exposed aluminum structure and detail- nasium, was erected without requiring any lost ited lot lines and trapezoidal cantilevers, high
ing inspires both Zahner’s clients and employees. school days or displacing any students. water table, and anticipated uneven settlement.
175+ On Demand Courses | Monthly Webinars | Multi-User Options | 55+ Different Topics
www.ACIUniversity.com
I n Part 1 (STRUCTURE, November 2018) of
this 2-part series, the definition of the modu-
lus of subgrade reaction was presented and the
of the foundation towards the edge. In other
words, we can use a variable Ks to depict the
desired settlement profile of the supporting structural
DESIGN
current state of design with regard to its use was soil medium.
discussed. That article further described some
Solution
potential shortcomings of the simplified theory
of subgrade reaction. This article continues to As shown in Figure 6, divide the supporting soil
describe the settlement profile convergence medium into several bands (five for this example).
method and how it can be implemented into Also, assume subgrade reaction increases as much
a new design. as 100% from the center towards the edge.
Ks1 = 0.0833 kip/in2/in
Ks2 = 0.09996 kip/in2/in
Distribution of Ks Ks3 = 0.119952 kip/in2/in
As much as the value of Ks is important, distri- Ks4 = 0.143942 kip/in2/in
bution of Ks and its effect on foundation design Ks5 = 0.172731 kip/in2/in
is even more important. It is a complex subject After running the analysis, the deflection profile
and often not used for routine foundation design takes the shape of a bowl or trough and matches
because of the non-availability of any simple the expected soil settlement profile (Figure 7 ,
mechanism. For large scale projects, engineers
often collaborate and use sophisticated software
page 32). Also, it is interesting to notice the soil
pressure contour. Unlike the case for a uniform
Variable Modulus of
for soil-structure-interaction.
From the theory of subgrade reaction, we know
Ks, the base pressure contour now shows vary-
ing pressure from the center towards the edge Subgrade Reaction
that the settlement profile of a uniformly loaded (Figure 8, page 32).
flexible foundation takes the shape of a bowl So, it is natural to conclude that a flexible mat
or trough. Does this hold for a supporting soil foundation should always be analyzed using vari-
Part 2: Settlement Profile
medium having uniform Ks? We can begin with able moduli of subgrade reaction. It predicts more Convergence Method
a simple case study using a standard commercial accurate physical behavior and, hence, the results
software package. should be more accurate.
By Apurba Tribedi
Modeling
Mat geometry: Square Mat 12 x 12 x 0.5 feet
NCNB Corporate Center Apurba Tribedi is a Senior Director at
Soil Bearing Capacity: 4 kip/ft² Variable Ks was used for the second NCNB Bentley Systems Inc. in Anaheim, CA
Loading: 1 kip/ft² (Horvilleur and Patel) study, which varied from office. (apurba.tribedi@bentley.com)
the lowest value (181 psi/in) at the centroid to the
Solution
highest value (548 psi/in) at the edge. As expected,
Ks can be estimated as, the researchers observed a dishing phenomenon.
Iq 3 × 4⁄144 The two analyses were compared (uniform Ks at
Ks = a = = 0.0833 kip/in2/in
δ 1 290 psi/in and a variable Ks). Variation in soil
where, I = Safety factor = 3.0, qa (assumed) is pressure was around 11%, which may
the allowable bearing capacity (given 4.0 kip/ft²), not be that significant. However, the
δ is the allowable soil settlement = 1 inch (assumed) differences in moment was significant,
As discussed earlier, the displacement pro- varying as much as 120%.
file is expected to take the shape of a bowl or Figure 5. Vertical deflection diagram of the uniformly
trough. However, the foundation settled uni-
formly (Figure 5 ), which did not match our
Iterative Method loaded mat foundation.
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