09/03/2019 Adult education - Wikipedia

Adult education
Adult education is a practice in which adults engage in systematic and
sustained self-educating activities in order to gain new forms of knowledge,
skills, attitudes, or values.[1] It can mean any form of learning adults
engage in beyond traditional schooling, encompassing basic literacy to
personal fulfillment as a lifelong learner.[2]

In particular, adult education reflects a specific philosophy about learning

and teaching based on the assumption that adults can and want to learn,
that they are able and willing to take responsibility for that learning, and Open air school for adults, Guinea-
that the learning itself should respond to their needs.[3] Bissau, 1974

Driven by what one needs or wants to learn, the available opportunities,

and the manner in which one learns, adult learning is affected by demographics, globalization and technology.[4] The
learning happens in many ways and in many contexts just as all adults' lives differ.[5] Adult learning can be in any of
the three contexts, i.e.:

Formal – Structured learning that typically takes place in an education or training institution, usually with a set
curriculum and carries credentials;
Non-formal – Learning that is organized by educational institutions but non credential. Non-formal learning
opportunities may be provided in the workplace and through the activities of civil society organizations and
groups;
Informal education – Learning that goes on all the time, resulting from daily life activities related to work, family,
community or leisure (e.g. community baking class).[6][7]
The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report on The Changing Nature of Work[8] argues that adult learning is
an important channel to help readjust workers' skills to fit in the future of work and suggests ways to improve its
effectiveness.

Contents
Characteristics
Types
Principles
Challenges and motivating factors
Benefits
Monitoring
Global Reports on Adult Learning and Education (GRALE)
See also
By geographic region
Educators
Historical
Organizations
Sources
Notes
References
External links

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Characteristics
Educating adults differs from educating children in several ways given that adults have accumulated knowledge and
work experience which can add to the learning experience.[9] Most adult education is voluntary, therefore, the
participants are generally self-motivated, unless required to participate, by an employer. The science and art of
helping adults learn,[10][11] the practice of adult education is referred to as andragogy, to distinguish it from the
traditional school-based education for children pedagogy. Unlike children, adults are seen as more self-directed,
rather than relying on others for help.

Adults are mature and therefore have knowledge and have gained life experiences which provide them a foundation of
learning. An adult's readiness to learn is linked to their need to have the information. Their orientation to learn is
problem-centered rather than subject-centered. Their motivation to learn is internal.[11]

Adults frequently apply their knowledge in a practical fashion to learn effectively. They must have a reasonable
expectation that the knowledge they gain will help them further their goals. For example, during the 1990s, many
adults, including mostly office workers, enrolled in computer training courses. These courses would teach basic use of
the operating system or specific application software. Because the abstractions governing the user's interactions with a
PC were so new, many people who had been working white-collar jobs for ten years or more eventually took such
training courses, either at their own whim (to gain computer skills and thus earn higher pay) or at the behest of their
managers.

In the United States and many areas in Canada, a more general example is when adults who dropped out of high
school return to school to complete general education requirements. Most upwardly mobile positions require at the
very least a high school diploma or equivalent. A working adult is unlikely to have the freedom to simply quit his or her
job and go "back to school" full-time.

Public school systems and community colleges usually offer evening or weekend classes for this reason. In Europe this
is often referred to as "second-chance", and many schools offer tailor-made courses and learning programs for these
returning learners. Furthermore, adults with poor reading skills can obtain help from volunteer literacy programs.
These national organizations provide training, tutor certification, and accreditation for local volunteer programs.
States often have organizations which provide field services for volunteer literacy programs.

The purpose of adult education in the form of college or university is distinct. In these institutions, the aim is typically
related to personal growth and development as well as occupation and career preparedness. Another goal might be to
not only sustain the democratic society, but to even challenge and improve its social structure.[1]

A common problem in adult education in the US is the lack of professional development opportunities for adult
educators. Most adult educators come from other professions and are not well trained to deal with adult learning
issues. Most of the positions available in this field are only part-time without any benefits or stability since they are
usually funded by government grants that might last for only a couple of years.

However, in Canada, professional development is available in all provinces and territories through postsecondary
institutions and most Provinces also provide professional development through their ministry of education or school
boards and through nongovernmental organizations.[12] In addition, there are programs about adult education for
existing and aspiring practitioners offered, at various academic levels, by universities, colleges, and professional
organizations.[13]

Types
Continuing education can help adults maintain certifications, fulfill job requirements and stay up to date on new
developments in their field. Also, the purpose of adult education can be vocational, social, recreational or for self-
development.[14] One of its goals may be to help adult learners satisfy their personal needs and achieve their

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professional goals.[15] Therefore, its ultimate goal might be to achieve human fulfillment. The goal might also be to
achieve an institution's needs. For example, this might include improving its operational effectiveness and
productivity. A larger scale goal of adult education may be the growth of society by enabling its citizens to keep up with
societal change and maintain good social order.[1]

One fast-growing sector of adult education is English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), also referred to as
English as a Second Language (ESL) or English Language Learners (ELL).[16] These courses are key in assisting
immigrants with not only the acquisition of the English language, but the acclimation process to the culture of the
United States as well as other English speaking countries like Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.[17]

Principles
The principles of andragogy flow directly from an understanding of the characteristics of adults as learners and can be
recognized when we understand the characteristics of adults, and see the way those characteristics influence how
adults learn best.[18] Teachers who follow the principles of andragogy when choosing materials for training and when
designing program delivery, find that their learners progress more quickly, and are more successful in reaching their
goals.[18] The Canadian Literacy and Learning Network outlines the 7 key principles of adult learning. In other words,
these 7 principles distinguish adult learners from children and youth.

1. Adults cannot be made to learn. They will only learn when they are internally motivated to do so.
2. Adults will only learn what they feel they need to learn. In other words, they are practical.
3. Adults learn by doing. Active participation is especially important to adult learners in comparison to children.
4. Adult learning is problem-based and these problems must be realistic. Adult learners like finding solutions to
problems.
5. Adult learning is affected by the experience each adult brings.
6. Adults learn best informally. Adults learn what they feel they need to know whereas children learn from a
curriculum.
7. Children want guidance. Adults want information that will help them improve their situation or that of their
children.[19]
Malcolm Knowles introduces andragogy as the central theory of adult learning in the 1970s, defining andragogy as
“the art and science of helping adults learn” (Knowles, 1980, p43; Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007).

Andragogy proposes the following six main assumptions about adults as learners: 1) As a person matures, his or her
self-concept moves from that of a dependent personality toward one of a self-directing human being. Adults, thus,
make decisions themselves and manage their lives as they think they are able to do and they are autonomous. 2) An
adult has rich experiences that accumulated through family responsibilities, work-related activities, and prior
education. Experiences of an adult can contribute to his or her learning, as well as support co-learners. 3) The
readiness of an adult to learn is closely connected to the developmental tasks of his or her social role. Thus, adults are
relevancy oriented. It means that when adults see any reason that closely related their social roles (work or family,
etc.), they are ready to learn. 4) As a person matures, he or she refers to immediacy application of knowledge rather
than the future application of knowledge which used to have occurred in his or her childhood. Thus, an adult tends to
refer problem-centered than subject-centered in learning. In other words, an adult refers to involve in any form of
learning to solve their life problems. Adults, therefore, are very eager to learn and immediately want to apply new
knowledge and skills to their life situation. 5) An adult is motivated to involve in any form of learning based on his or
her internal drives rather than external ones. 6) Adults need to know why they need to learn something (Knowles,
1980, p43; Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007).

Further, Knowles suggests that these characteristics should be taken into consideration when designing programmes
for adults as well as facilitating their learning process.

Even though the theory has been questioned, it is still helpful for adult learning practitioners to understand the
learning characteristics of adults (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007).

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Challenges and motivating factors

Adults have many responsibilities that they must balance against the demands of learning. Because of these
responsibilities, adults have barriers and challenges against participating in learning and continuing their education.
The barriers can be classified into three groups including institutional, situational and dispositional.[20]

Some of these barriers include the lack of time balancing career and family demands, finances and transportation. As
well, things such as confidence, interest, lack of information about opportunities to learn, scheduling problems,
entrance requirements and problems with child care can be barriers in learning.[21] Distance and/or online learning
can address some problems with adult education that cause these barriers.[22]

Understanding what motivates adult learners and what their barriers are, can assist in enrolling more adult learners.
When adult learners clearly know the benefits of their continuing education, such as getting promotions or better job
performance, they are more likely to be motivated to attend.[23] When teachers are aware of the student's
characteristics, they can develop lessons that address both the strengths and the needs of each student.[24] Adults that
are motivated have confidence and positive self-esteem are more likely to develop into lifelong learners.[25]

Characteristics of non-participating adults in education Previous research findings suggest that as adults get
older, they are less likely to participate in AE. The International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS), nationally
representative samples of adults aged 16-65 in 23 OECD countries, has found that older age groups had lower
participation rates than younger age groups (Tuijnman & Boudard, 2001, p23). Particularly, adults aged 16 to 25 were
on average about three times more likely to participate than older adults aged 56 to 65. Eurobarometer survey,
national representative samples of adult aged 15 to 65 of European Union countries, also revealed that adults in the
three youngest age groups examined (ages 15-24, ages 25-39, and ages 40-54) were more likely to participate in AE
than age group of 55+ (Chisholm, Larson & Mossoux, 2004, p72). Moreover, the Eurobarometer survey shows that
participation rate declined from younger to older adults. Participation rate of European countries was 59% for adults
aged 15-24. The rate began to decline 38% for adults aged 25-39 and it also fell down to 31% for adults aged 40-54.
Participation rate was 17% for adults above 55 (Chisholm, Larson & Mossoux, 2004, p72). Reason of why older adults’
participation declined relates mainly to lack of promotion and support. When people get old, their chances to take
promotion for any AE programs are reduced. In many OECD and European countries, employers often support their
workers to attend in AE programs since they consider that workers with higher-educated and skilled are crucial
indicators of development for companies (UIL, 2010, pp49-55). Therefore, older adults cannot get promotions from
their employers because of the gradual loss of seniority, learning ability and performance (Desjardins, Rubenson &
Milana, 2006, p63). Since older adults are rarely offered a promotion from their employers, and the cost would be an
obstacle for participation, they are unable to take the courses even if they wanted to take part in programmes.
Moreover, lack of motivation and unavailability of learning opportunities could be additional reasons of older adults’
low-participation (Desjardins, Rubenson & Milana, 2006, p64).

Findings of previous research are quite mixed when participation in AE comes to gender. According to the IALS
(Tuijnman & Boudard, 2001, p22), there is no a statistically significant difference between men and women in AE.
However, the average participation rate of men was a bit higher than women (Tuijnman & Boudard, 2001, p52). It was
38.7% for men and 37.9% for women. The Eurobarometer survey shows a similar result to the IALS data. Specifically
the average participation of males was 35%; while, it was 30% for females (Chisholm, Larson & Mossoux, 2004, p72).
Women’s low participation is mainly resulted from family burdens and lack of financial support (Desjardins,
Rubenson & Milana, 2006, p65). However, an opposite tendency can be observed in the US. A study based on National
Household Education Survey [NCES] in 2001 revealed that although gender difference did not exist much, females
were more likely to participate in AE than males in the US (Kim, Hagedorn, Williamson & Chapman, 2004, p12). The
participation rate was 49% for women and 43% for men.

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Educational attainment is determined as the most important factor in predicting participation in AE. It is known that
those with higher levels of educational attainment participate more in AE programs. The IALS showed that there was a
clear relationship between previous educational attainment and participation in AE (Tuijnman & Boudard, 2001,
p20). The data found those with low educational background were less likely to participate in OECD countries.
Specifically, the participation rate was 57.6% for adults who completed college or university education; while, it was
15.5% for adults who did not complete high school (Tuijnman & Boudard, 2001, p51). The Eurobarometer survey also
showed that 87% of low-educated people belonged to the non-participant group (Chisholm, Larson & Mossoux, 2004,
p72). Reason of low or non-participation of the less-educated can be explained from perspectives of individual and
employers, according to Desjardins, Rubenson and Milana (2006, p68). Individual point illustrated that low self-
confidence regarding the learning, which mainly derived from previous bad educational experiences, could be a major
obstacle for the less-educated. Apart from low self-confidence, those less-educated might not perceive their need of
participation or might actually not have a need to participate. Yet, employers’ view was apparent that they tended to
support high-educated because they were more trainable than the low-educated. Therefore, the participation of the
less-educated was low since they could not get promotions from their employers.

At last, adults who come from a better socio-economic background tend to participate more in AE programs. The
OECD data showed that higher the parents’ educational level could produce the higher participation rate (OECD, 2003
as cited in Desjardins, Rubenson & Milana, 2006, p66).

Summarizing above findings, people, those are young and men, with high levels of education, high-status of jobs are
more likely to take part in any form of education and training. On the contrary, typical non-participants tend to be
women, older, less educated, and coming from poor socio-economic backgrounds. In addition, less-skilled,
unemployed, immigrants, language minorities, and rural residents are less likely to participate in AE programmes.

Deterring factors for participation in education Deterrents are characteristics that explain why adults respond
in negative manners to participate in education and learning. Deterrents faced by adults are multifaceted, including
both external and internal factors. However, cost and time have been remained as the most frequently reported
deterrents (Bariso, 2008; Boeren, 2009; 2011; Chang & Lin, 2012; Chisholm, Larson & Mossoux, 2004; Raghavan &
Ismail, 2009; Kim, Hagedorn, Williamson & Chapman, 2004; Malhotra, Shapero, Sizoo & Munro, 2007; Rubenson &
Desjardins, 2009; Tuijnman & Boudard, 2001). Large sampled (nationwide and international) surveys on barriers to
participation such as a study of National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) of the US (Kim, Hagedorn,
Williamson & Chapman, 2004), IALS (Tuijnman & Boudard, 2001) and Eurobarometer (Chisholm, Larson &
Mossoux, 2004) indicated that time and cost were the main deterrents for adults. Moreover, some empirical studies
(Chang & Lin, 2012; Bariso, 2008; Malhotra, Shapero, Sizoo & Munro, 2007) discovered time and cost as the most
cited deterrents through studying various groups of adults. Cost includes tuition fee of a programme as well as extra
expenditures for learning such as clothes, food, transportation and other school necessities (textbooks and
stationaries). It is well known that adults those less educated, low skilled and unemployed are less likely to participate
in education/learning. For the unemployed, it is obvious that cost can hinder their participation in education. And
people those lacking education and skills must be paid low salaries. In this way, cost could be the most influential
deterrent. Even employed adults seem not wanting to invest money for a course, but they could attend if their
employers supported them financially. For the time barrier, most adults those involved in above mentioned studies
reported that they could not participated in educational activities because due to lack of time. Adults tended to say that
they were busy with their daily routines. Apart from cost and time deterrents, family and job commitments are other
most commonly cited deterrents. The large sampled surveys and empirical studies as mentioned earlier revealed that
adults tended to report family and job responsibilities as deterrents and rated right after the cost and time deterrents.
However, Desjardins, Rubenson, and Milana (2006) suggested that busy workload and family responsibilities can be
associated with the time barrier, otherwise time barrier itself is a vague concept. Adults feel they do not have time to
learn because they are busy at work and home. Thus, the time barrier should be considered in line with family and job
commitments. After above-mentioned deterrents, another mostly reported deterrent is irrelevant and inadequate

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supplies of trainings/activities. In other words, AE programs and courses do not always suit the needs of adult learners
(Desjardins, Rubenson & Milana, 2006). It, therefore, is also important for educational planners to recognize that AE
opportunities available may not always suit the learner’s need.

Deterrents related to an individual’s internal issues tend to be reported in lowest rate. For example, the IALS showed
that the least deterrent was lack of self-confidence (Tuijnman & Boudard, 2001). Also, the Eurobarometer survey
indicated that adults’ perception of being too old to learn was the least significant deterrent (Chisholm, Larson &
Mossoux, 2004).

Moreover, perceived deterrents are differentiated into social groups. According to Merriam, Caffarella and
Baumgartner (2005), Johnstone and Rivera (1965) found that older adults faced more dispositional barriers such as
low self-confidence and too late for being learners. Also, younger adults and women were more experienced with
situational barriers such as cost and child care arrangements. Among the less educated, one’s low-confidence
regarding the learning ability could be the main deterrent (Desjardins, Rubenson & Milana, 2006; Illeris, 2006).

Benefits
Adult education can have many benefits ranging from better health and personal well-being to greater social inclusion.
It can also support the function of democratic systems and provide greater opportunities for finding new or better
employment. Adult education has been shown to have a positive impact on the economy.[26]

Adult education provides opportunities for personal growth, goal fulfillment and socialization. Chris McAllister's
research of semi-structured interviews with older adult learners shows a motivation to communicate with people and
to get out of the house to keep mentally active.[27] Researchers have documented the social aspects of older adult
education.[28] Friendship was described as important aspects of adult learning and the classroom was seen as an
important part of their social network. The development of social networks and support was found to be a key
motivation of adult learners. As editor of a book entitled Adult Education and Health, Leona English claims that
including health education as part of adult education makes for a healthier community.[29]

When surveying adult education programs in Japan, Nojima (2010) found that classes focusing on hobbies and very
specific recreational activities were by far the most popular. The author noted that more time, money and resources
needed to be in place so participants would be able to take advantage of these types of activities. Withnall (2006)
explored the influences on later life learning in various parts in the U.K. Results were similar in that later in life
education afforded these older adults opportunities to socialize.

Some experts claim that adult education has a long-term impact on the economy and that there is a correlation
between innovation and learning at the workplace.[26]

Monitoring

Global Reports on Adult Learning and Education (GRALE)

Global Reports on Adult Learning and Education (GRALE) are a series of reports that monitor progress on Adult
Learning and Education (ALE), promote action, identify trends in the field of ALE, and explore solutions to challenges.
GRALE play a key role in meeting UNESCO's commitment to monitor and report on countries’ implementation of the
Belém Framework for Action. This Framework was adopted by 144 UNESCO Member States at the Sixth International
Conference on Adult Learning and Education (CONFINTEA VI), which was held in Belém, Brazil, in 2009. In the
Belém Framework for Action, countries agreed to improve ALE across five areas of action: policy; governance;
financing; participation, inclusion and equity; and quality.[30][31]

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See also
Adult high school
Andragogy
Autodidacticism, also known as Heutagogy
Bullying of students in higher education
Community college in parts of Canada and the United States
Community education
Continuing education – Education after high school, apart from university
Dialogue education
Distance education
Educational technology – Use of technology in education to improve learning and teaching (the use of electronic
educational technology is also called e-learning)
Environmental adult education
Folk high school, in Scandinavia and Germany
Folkbildning, community education through learning circles in Scandinavia
International Society for Comparative Adult Education
Life skills
Lifelong learning
Literacy
Open University
Open university (general concept)
Part-time learner in higher education
Popular education
Remedial education
Scuola serale, in Italy

By geographic region
Adult education in Africa

Educators
Paulo Freire
Malcolm Knowles
Everett Dean Martin
Eduard C. Lindeman
Albert Mansbridge
John Dewey
Julius Nyerere
Anna J. Cooper

Historical
Chautauqua
Lyceum movement
Mechanics' Institutes
London Institution
The New School

Organizations
European Association for the Education of Adults (EAEA)
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International Council for Adult Education (ICAE)

Workers' Educational Association
Association for Talent Development
College Board, New York, U.S.

Sources
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0 License statement (htt
p://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=245917&set=005900B4F3_0_40&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1): 3rd global
report on adult learning and education: the impact of adult learning and education on health and well-being,
employment and the labour market, and social, civic and community life (http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/
002459/245913e.pdf), 19, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles,
please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.

Notes
McAllister, Chris, 2010. "'This is the beginning of my life educationally': (50+ years) working class adults’
participation in higher education in Scotland, through the lens of critical educational gerontology". International
Journal of Lifelong Education, 29 (5), 547-563
Naruushima, Miya, 2008. "More than nickels and dimes: the health benefits of a community-based lifelong
learning programme for older adults". International Journal of Lifelong Education, 27 (6), 673-692
Nojima, Masaya, 2010. "Japan’s Approach to Continuing Education for Senior Citizens". Bunkyo University, 463-
471
Sloane-Seale, Atlanta; Kops, Bill, 2010. "Older Adult’s Participation in Education and Successful Aging:
Implications for University Education in Canada". Canadian Journal of University Continuing Education, 36 (1), 1-
29
Withnall, Alexandra, 2006. "Exploring influences on later life learning". International Journal of Lifelong Education,
25 (1), 29-49

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Education of Adults (EAEA). Mundo-J. Retrieved 15 November 2017.
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class adults' participation in higher education in Scotland, through the lens of critical educational gerontology".
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Knowles, M. S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. New-Jersey:
Cambridge. Ahl, H. (2006). Motivation in adult education: A problem solver or a euphemism for direction and
control? International Journal of Lifelong Education, 25(4), 385-405. DOI: 10.1080/02601370600772384. Bariso, E.
U. (2008). Factors affecting participation in adult education: A case study of participation in Hackney and Waltham
Forest, London. Studies in the Education of Adults, 40(1), 110-124. Boeren, E. (2011). Participation in adult education:
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Education, 25(1), 15-28. DOI: 10.1080/02601370500309451. Kim, K., Hagedorn, M., Williamson, J., & Chapman, C.
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External links
The Council for Adult and Experiential Learning (USA) (http://www.cael.org/)
UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (http://www.unesco.org/uil/) (UIL)
National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy (http://ncsall.net/) (NCSALL U.S.)
BBC Adult Learners resources (http://www.bbc.co.uk/learning/adults/)
"Equipped for the Future - EFF Fundamentals" (http://eff.cls.utk.edu/fundamentals/eff_standards.htm).
eff.cls.utk.edu. Retrieved 3 November 2015.
The Profession and Practice of Adult Education: An Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id=zXqMBvxZV
zcC&pg=PR9)

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