COMPUTER

A computer is a machine or device that performs processes, calculations and

operations based on instructions provided by a software or hardware program. It
is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions by
combining integrated hardware and software components. It is made up of
multiple parts and components that facilitate user functionality.

Four Functions about computer are:

 accepts data  Input

 processes data  Processing

 produces output  Output

 stores results  Storage

 Input (Data):
Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input
devices. It is collection of letters, numbers, images etc.

 Process:
Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is totally
internal process of the computer system.

 Output:
Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing.
Output is also called as Result. We can save these results in the storage
devices for the future use.

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 COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of

sharing resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the
Internet. Other shared resources can include a printer or a file server. A computer
network is a set of connected computers. Computers on a network are
called nodes. The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most
commonly the Ethernet cable, or wirelessly through radio waves. Connected
computers can share resources, like access to the Internet, printers, file servers,
and others. A network is a multipurpose connection, which allows a single
computer to do more.

Types of Computer Networks:

1) LAN: A local area network (LAN) has several benefits such as: you can
share peripherals like expensive laser printers. A fileserver can be used to
store and share documents and files centrally. It is a group of computers
and associated devices that share a common communications line or
wireless link to a server. Typically, a LAN encompasses computers and
peripherals connected to a server within a distinct geographic area such as
an office or a commercial establishment. Computers and other mobile
devices use a LAN connection to share resources such as a printer or
network storage. LAN networks can be implemented in multiple ways,

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 for example twisted pair cables and a wireless Wi-Fi.

2) MAN: A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that

interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic area or
region larger than that covered by even a large local area network (LAN)
but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN). The
term is applied to the interconnection of networks in a city into a single
larger network (which may then also offer efficient connection to a wide
area network).
It is also used to mean the interconnection of several local area networks
by bridging them with backbone lines. The latter usage is also sometimes
referred to as a campus network.
Examples of metropolitan area networks of various sizes can be found in
the metropolitan areas of London, England; Lodz, Poland; and Geneva,
Switzerland.
Large universities also sometimes use the term to describe their networks.
A recent trend is the installation of wireless MANs. A Metropolitan Area
Networks bridges a number of ‘Local Area Networks’ with a fiber-
optical links which act as a backbone, and provides services similar to
what Internet Service Provider (ISP) provide to Wide Area Networks
and the Internet.

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3) WAN: A wide area network (WAN) is a geographically distributed
private telecommunications network that interconnects multiple local area
networks (LANs). In an enterprise, a WAN may consist of connections to
a company's headquarters, branch offices, company location facilities,
cloud services and other facilities.

Typically, a router or other multifunction device is used to connect a LAN

to a WAN. Enterprise WANs allow users to share access to applications,
services and other centrally located resources. This eliminates the need to
install the same application server, firewall or other resource in multiple
locations, for example:

WAN is made up of two or more Local Area Networks (LANs) or

Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) that are interconnected with each
other, thus users and computers in one location can communicate with

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 users and computers in other locations.

INTERNET

Internet is a global network of inter-connected computers, where one computer

can be connected to any other computer (or computerized device) in any portion
of the world.
Internet surfing is very easy. Internet is available in all major villages,
towns, cities of almost every country. It is possible to surf through Internet with
the help of internet browsers such as Windows explorer, Google chrome, etc.
Uses of Internet:

The key to success of Internet is the information. The better the quality, the more
usage of Internet operations.

Large volume of Information: Internet can be used to collect information from

around the world. This information could relate to education, medicine, literature,

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software, computers, business, entertainment, friendship, tourism, and leisure.
People can search for information by visiting the home page of various search
engines such as Google, Yahoo, Bing, etc.

Teaching (Virtual classes): Internet has completely changed the way of teaching.
Instead of physically going to the classroom, students can study at the comfort of
their home. They simply need to either subscribe to a teacher for a fee or watch
educational lectures that are available free on internet.

News and Journals: All the newspapers, magazines and journals of the world are
available on the Internet. With the introduction of broadband and advanced
mobile telecommunication technologies such as 3G (third generation), 4G (fourth
generation), and VoLTE (voice over Long Term Evaluation), the speed of internet
service has increased tremendously.

Read books: We can buy e-books and read online. There is no need to earmark
large wardrobes for keeping books. Nor, do we need to visit library. A single
Mobile device such as tablet can make available thousands of books at fingertip.

Electronic Mode of Communication: Internet has given the most exciting mode
of communication to all. We can send an E-mail (the short form of Electronic
Mailing System) to all the corners of the world.

Chatting: There are many chatting software that can be used to send and
receive real-time messages over the internet. We can chat with our friend and
relatives using any one of the chatting software.

Social Networking: People can connect with old friends on social networking
sites. They can even chat with them when they are online. Social networking sites
also allow us to share pictures with others. We can share pictures with our loved
ones, while we are on a vacation. People are even concluding business deals over
these social networking sites such as Facebook.

Online Banking (Net-Banking): The use of internet can also be seen in the field
of banking transactions. Many banks such as HSBC, SBI, Axis Bank, Hdfc Bank,
etc. offers online banking facilities to its customers. They can transfer funds from
one account to another using the net-banking facility.

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E-commerce: Internet is also used for carrying out business operations and that
set of operations is known as Electronic Commerce (E-commerce). Flipkart is the
largest e-commerce company in India. The rival, Amazon, is giving stiff
competition to Flipkart.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.)
of a communication network. Network topology is the topological structure of a
network and may be depicted physically or logically. Physical topology is the
placement of the various components of a network, including device location and
cable installation, while logical topology illustrates how data flows within a
network. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates,
or signal types may differ between two networks, yet their topologies may be
identical.
Different types of network topologies are:

1) BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is
called Linear Bus topology.

It transmits data only in one direction. Every device is connected to a single cable
Advantages of Bus Topology:

 It is cost effective.

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 Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
 Used in small networks.
 It is easy to understand.
 Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 Cables fails then whole network fails.

 If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network
decreases.
 Cable has a limited length.
 It is slower than the ring topology.

2) RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbors
for each device. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large
number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in
the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes
to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by
having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring
Topology.

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Advantages of Ring Topology

 Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes,

as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
 Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

 Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
 Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

3) STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the
central node. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub. Hub acts as
a repeater for data flow. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fiber or coaxial
cable.

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Advantages of Star Topology

 Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

 Hub can be upgraded easily.
 Easy to troubleshoot.
 Easy to setup and modify.
 Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 Cost of installation is high.

 Expensive to use.
 If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
 Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

4) MESH Topology

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It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes
are connected to each other. Mesh has n (n-1)/2 physical channels to
link n devices. It is a fully connected topology.

Types of Mesh Topology:

1) Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are

connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only
connected to two or three devices.

2) Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to
each other.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

 Each connection can carry its own data load.

 It is robust.
 Fault is diagnosed easily.
 Provides security and privacy.

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Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 Installation and configuration is difficult.

 Cabling cost is more.
 Bulk wiring is required.

5) TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is
also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the
hierarchy. Ideal if workstations are located in groups. It is used in Wide Area
Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

 Extension of bus and star topologies.

 Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
 Easily managed and maintained.
 Error detection is easily done.

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Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 Heavily cabled.
 Costly.
 If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
 Central hub fails, network fails.

NETWORKED ECONOMY

Network economy is the economic order within the framework of the

technological information society. Unlike economies inspired by the Industrial
Revolution, the network economy utilizes technological advances like the
information market and social networking platforms to establish the value of
goods and services. There are several chief aspects of the network economy: its
inherent structural differences from industrial economies, the role of the digital
revolution, value networks, and intellectual property rights.

There are three elements in networked economy that work together:

1. Computers
2. Connectivity

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 3. Knowledge.

Threats to Privacy in Networked Economy:

1. Information Exposure: means opening of the secret information
accidentally or intentionally.

2. Data Surveillance: means the systematic use of information technology to

investigate the actions of two or more people.

3. Identity theft: through ATM PINs, Credit card numbers, etc.

4. Junk E-mail: is cheaper to send and receive the data. When someone
wants to advertise to sell products with e-mail process is called junk e-
mail.

Protection of Privacy in Networked Economy:

1. Notice/Awareness
2. Choice/Consent
3. Integrity/Security
4. Access/Participation
5. Enforcement/Redress.

Ethical issues in Networked Economy:

1. One should not use a computer or network to harm other people.

2. One should not interfere with other people’s work.

3. One should not use a computer to steal.

4. One should not use a computer or network to bear false witness.

5. One should not use or copy proprietary software for which not paid.

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 6. One should not use other people’s computer resources without proper
authorization.

7. One should not snoop around in other people’s files.

Social and Economic Issues in Networked Economy:

While the network economy is becoming part of human economic and social life,
it is also giving rise to ethical problems. The development of networks, as a
common universal phenomenon, makes the main and decisive aspects of
economic power more and more associated with the ability to control and handle
information.
The digital revolution has become the driver of world development. However, it
has given rise to a number of concerns of an ethical nature. These include
challenges to privacy, the protection of copyright, problems of cultural
imperialism, effects on social and family life, the monopolization of information,
the pollution of information, informational cheating and the vulnerability to
viruses and hackers. The article suggests that ethicists must think seriously about
ways by which ethical consciousness can be raised and ethical behaviors
encouraged in the network economy.

DATA TRANSMISSION

Data transmission is the process of sending digital or analog data over a

communication medium to one or more computing, network, communication or
electronic devices. It enables the transfer and communication of devices in a
point-to-point, point-to-multipoint and multipoint-to-multipoint environment.
Data transmitted may be digital messages originating from a data source, for
example a computer or a keyboard. It may also be an analog signal such as a
phone call or a video signal, digitized into a bit-stream for example using pulse-
code modulation (PCM) or more advanced source coding (analog-to-digital

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conversion and data compression) schemes. This source coding and decoding is
carried out by codec equipment.

A duplex communication system is a point-to-point system composed of two

connected parties or devices that can communicate with one another in both
directions. Duplex systems are employed in many communications networks,
either to allow for a communication "two-way street" between two connected
parties or to provide a "reverse path" for the monitoring and remote adjustment of
equipment in the field. There are three types of duplex communication systems:
full-duplex (FDX), half-duplex (HDX) and Simplex.
Simplex Mode:

Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only

one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce
input; the monitor can only give the output.

Half-Duplex Mode

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice

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versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for
communication in both directions at the same time. The entire capacity of the
channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are
sent in both the directions.

Full Duplex Mode:

A full-duplex (FDX) system, or sometimes called double-duplex, allows
communication in both directions, and, unlike half-duplex, allows this to happen
simultaneously. Land-line telephone networks are full-duplex, since they allow
both callers to speak and be heard at the same time, with the transition from four
to two wires being achieved by a hybrid coil in a telephone hybrid. Modern cell
phones are also full-duplex.
A good analogy for a full-duplex system is a two-lane road with one lane for each
direction. Moreover, in most full-duplex mode systems carrying computer data,
transmitted data does not appear to be sent until it has been received and an
acknowledgment is sent back by the other party. In this way, such systems
implement reliable transmission methods.

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 OSI MODEL

In the beginning the development of networks was chaotic. Each vendor had its
own proprietary solution. The bad part was that one vendor’s solution was not
compatible with another vendor’s solution. This is where the idea for the OSI
model was born, having a layered approach to networks our hardware vendors
would design hardware for the network, and others could develop software for the
application layer. Using an open model which everyone agrees on means we can
build networks that are compatible with each other.

To fix this problem the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

researched different network models and the result is the OSI-model which was
released in 1984.

Layer 1: The Physical Layer

1. Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI Model.

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2. It activates, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
3. It is responsible for transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data
over network.
4. It converts the digital/analog bits into electrical signal or optical signals.
5. Data encoding is also done in this layer.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

1. Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over

the physical layer.
2. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from
one node to another, over the physical layer.
3. Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4. This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent
respectively.

Layer 3: The Network Layer

1. Network Layer routes the signal through different channels from one node to
other.
2. It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
3. It decides by which route data should take.
4. It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming
packets into messages for higher levels.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

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1. Transport Layer decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or
single path.
2. Functions such as Multiplexing, Segmenting or Splitting on the data are done
by this layer
3. It receives messages from the Session layer above it, convert the message into
smaller units and passes it on to the Network layer.
4. Transport layer can be very complex, depending upon the network
requirements.

Layer 5: The Session Layer

1. Session Layer manages and synchronizes the conversation between two

different applications.
2. Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are
marked and are resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages are
not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.

Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

1. Presentation Layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the
receiver will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the
data.
2. While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready
for the application layer.
3. Languages can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this
condition presentation layer plays a role of translator.

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4. It performs Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.

Layer 7: Application Layer

1. Application Layer is the topmost layer.

2. Transferring of files disturbing the results to the user is also done in this layer.
Mail services, directory services, network resource etc are services provided
by application layer.
3. This layer mainly holds application programs to act upon the received and to
be sent data.

The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the

network model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set
of rules which govern every possible communication over a network. These
protocols describe the movement of data between the source and destination or
the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

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The features that stood out during the research, which led to making the TCP/IP
reference model were:

 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network was

easy.
 The network was robust, and connections remained intact until the source and
destination machines were functioning.

Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model:

Layer 1: Network Access Layer

1. Lowest layer of the all.

2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless

internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.

Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.

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2. Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by
transport layer.
3. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
4. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
5. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are
handled more efficiently by the network layer.
6. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting to a

remote machine and run applications on it.
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, which allows File transfer amongst
computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to
transport electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via a
route.
4. DNS (Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual address for
Hosts connected over a network.
5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.

Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.
3. Client/server architecture.

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4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Demerits of TCP/IP

1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

HYPER TEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE (HTML)

HTML is the standard markup language for creating Web pages.

 HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language

 HTML describes the structure of Web pages using markup
 HTML elements are the building blocks of HTML pages
 HTML elements are represented by tags
 HTML tags label pieces of content such as "heading", "paragraph",
"table", and so on
 Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to render the
content of the page

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Short for Hyper Text Markup Language, the authoring language used to create
documents on the World Wide Web. HTML is similar to SGML, although it is not
a strict subset. HTML defines the structure and layout of a Web document by
using a variety of tags and attributes.

HTML features which are useful right now include:

 Web Workers: Certain web applications use heavy scripts to perform

functions. Web Workers use separate background threads for processing
and it does not affect the performance of a web page.
 Video: You can embed video without third-party proprietary plug-ins or
codec. Video becomes as easy as embedding an image.
 Canvas: This feature allows a web developer to render graphics on the fly.
As with video, there is no need for a plug in.
 Application caches: Web pages will start storing more and more
information locally on the visitor's computer. It works like cookies, but
where cookies are small, the new feature allows for much larger files.
Google Gears is an excellent example of this in action.

HTML Tags

 HTML tags are element names surrounded by angle brackets:

 HTML tags normally come in pairs like <p> and </p>
 The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the second tag is the end tag
 The end tag is written like the start tag, but with a forward slash inserted
before the tag name

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The purpose of a web browser (Chrome, IE, Firefox, Safari) is to read HTML
documents and display them.

The browser does not display the HTML tags, but uses them to determine how to
display the document.

HTML tags are the hidden keywords within a web page that define how your web
browser must format and display the content. Most tags must have two parts, an
opening and a closing part. For example, <html> is the opening tag and </html> is
the closing tag.

1. HTML: The <html> tag tells the browser that this is an HTML document.
The <html> tag represents the root of an HTML document. The <html>
tag is the container for all other HTML elements.

2. HEAD: The <head> element is a container for all the head elements. The
<head> element can include a title for the document, scripts, styles, meta
information, and more.

3. TITLE: The <title> tag is required in all HTML documents and it defines
the title of the document. The <title> element:

 defines a title in the browser toolbar

 provides a title for the page when it is added to favorites
 Displays a title for the page in search-engine results.

4. BREAK: The <br> tag inserts a single line break. The <br> tag is an
empty tag which means that it has no end tag.

5. BODY: The <body> tag defines the document's body. The <body>
element contains all the contents of an HTML document, such as text,
hyperlinks, images, tables, lists, etc.

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6. CENTER: The <center> tag is used to center-align text.

7. EMPHASIZE: The <em> tag is a phrase tag. It renders as emphasized

text.

8. FONT: The <font> tag specifies the font face, font size, and color of text.

9. FORM: The <form> tag is used to create an HTML form for user input.

10. INPUT: The <input> tag specifies an input field where the user can enter
data. <input> elements are used within a <form> element to declare input
controls that allow users to input data. An input field can vary in many
ways, depending on the type attribute.

11. LIST: The <li> tag defines a list item. The <li> tag is used in ordered
lists(<ol>), unordered lists (<ul>)

12. LINK: The <link> tag defines a link between a document and an external
resource. The <link> tag is used to link to external style sheets.

13. PARAGRAPH: The <p> tag defines a paragraph. Browsers automatically

add some space (margin) before and after each <p> element. The margins
can be modified with CSS (with the margin properties).

14. HEADING: The <h1> to <h6> tags are used to define HTML headings.
<h1> defines the most important heading. <h6> defines the least important
heading.

15. TABLE: The <table> tag defines an HTML table. An HTML table
consists of the <table> element and one or more <tr>, <th>,
and <td> elements. The <tr> element defines a table row, the <th> element
defines a table header, and the <td> element defines a table cell.

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16. HORIZONTAL LINE: The <hr> tag defines a thematic break in an
HTML page (e.g. a shift of topic). The <hr> element is used to separate
content (or define a change) in an HTML page.

17. ITALICS: The <i> tag defines a part of text in an alternate voice or
mood. The content of the <i> tag is usually displayed in italic. The <i> tag
can be used to indicate a technical term, a phrase from another language, a
thought, or a ship name, etc. Use the <i> element only when there is not a
more appropriate semantic element.

18. IMAGE: The <img> tag defines an image in an HTML page. The <img>
tag has two required attributes: src and alt.

19. SUBSCRIPT: The <sub> tag defines subscript text. Subscript text
appears half a character below the normal line, and is sometimes rendered
in a smaller font. Subscript text can be used for chemical formulas, like
H2O.

20. SUPERSCRIPT: The <sup> tag defines superscript text. Superscript text
appears half a character above the normal line, and is sometimes rendered
in a smaller font. Superscript text can be used for footnotes, like WWW.

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 HTML Tags and their respective outputs

1. Basic HTML Tags:

Output:

29
 2. Underline tag:

Output:

30
 3. Bold Tag:

Output:

31
 4. Italics tag:

Output:

32
 5. Break tag(br):

Output:

33
 6. Paragraph Tag(p):

Output:

34
 7. Font and color tags:

Output:

35
 8. Horizontal Line Tag(hr):

Output:

36
 9. Emphasize(em) & strikethrough(s):

Output:

37
 10. Superscript & Subscript Tags:

Output:

38
 11. Ordered(ol) & Unordered(ul) Lists:

Output:

39
 12. Heading & its alignment(h1-h6):

Output:

40
 13. Tables:

Output:

41
 14. Marquee with different behaviors:

Output:

42
 15. Links:

Output:

43
 16. Form:

Output:

44
 17. Multimedia Document in HTML:

Output:

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