UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 1 of 12

NAME: NUMBER:

1) The divergence speed is...

 Independent of the load factor Nz
 Linearly decreasing with the dynamic pressure
 Linearly increasing with Mach number
 Dependent on mass location Xcg
 No one of the above statements is correct
2) 2D unsteady aerodynamics. Explain why the Wagner function and the Küssner function are
different between them (especially for small values of travelled semi-chords).

Wagner function represents the build of lift due to sudden increase of angle of attack. The entire airfoil
exhibits immediately the increase of angle of attack. The vortex released from the trailing edge is
responsible that at =0 the increase of lift is only 0.5 and subsequently, for large travelled semi-chords,
the increase of lift tends asymptotically to 1.0 once the released vortex is far downstream.

Küssner function represents the build of lift due to airfoil penetration in a step gust. The airfoil is
entering the gust progresively. Just after =0 only a very small portion of the airfoil is inside the gust,
therefore, there is no significant increase of lift yet. This is why the Küssner function starts at 0.0. When
the entire airfoil is inside the step gust, the Küssner function value is 0.55 (A similar value 0.55 is
obtained with the Wagner function with 2 semi-chords (=c) travelled.)
UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 2 of 12
NAME: NUMBER:

3) Control effectiveness. Assuming (qdiv >> qreversal) then the relationship between the Lift induced
by a control surface deflection in the flexible versus rigid cases (Lflex/Lrigid) is...
 Dependent of the load factor Nz and mass location Xcg
 Linearly decreasing with the dynamic pressure
 Linearly increasing with Mach number
 Independent of CLA
 No one of the above statements is correct
4) Why qreversal is not dependent on e?
(Note e=distance from aerodynamic center and elastic axes)
Control surface reversal happens because there are two effects that compensate each other. On
one hand, the increase of lift due to control surface deflection (that is proportional to e) and on
the other hand the decrease of lift produced by negative twist (that is also proportional to e).
When equalling these effects, e is eliminated from the equations.
KT  CL 
The formula of the reversal is –as expected- not dependent on e: qR     
ScCL  CM 
  

5) Describe the coupling between bending and torsion in a swept-back wing. Evolution of swept-
back wing bending mode frequency with flight speed.
UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 3 of 12
NAME: NUMBER:

6) Dynamic Model reduction. The Guyan approach to reduce the dynamic FEM model size from
the G-set to the A-set.
The idea is to make a partitioning of the dynamic equation between A-set and O-set. All grid points
with mass or applied forces (note that points with mass may be interpreted as points where inertia
forces will be applied)+ some more needed for other reasons: aero...etc. will constitute the Analysis set
= A-set. Most of the grid points with no applied forces: Omitted set = O-set

7) The value of the first wing bending modal frequency of a military transport aircraft would be in
the neighbourhood of...
 0.5 Hz
 4.0 Hz
 10.0 Hz
 15.0 Hz
 No one of the above statements is correct
8) Describe the mode shape shown below. Identify the normal mode.
- It is antisymmetric
- The maximum displacements seems to be in X direction
at the wing tip. It has anti-symmetric wing chordwise
mode.
- It has inboard wing torsion and outboard wing bending.
- It has horizontal tail displacements likely due to rear
fuselage torsion
Therefore a suitable identification that combines all above
features could be: anti-symmetric chordwise & torsion mode
with rear fuselage torsion contribution.
UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 4 of 12
NAME: NUMBER:

9) A dynamic FEM model has as basic units: (mm, Newton, second). What are the density units in
this FEM model?
 Kg/m3
 Tons/m
3

 Kg/mm3
 Tons/mm
3

 No one of the above statements is correct

10) Assume that you have to perform an aeroelastic in-flight test using accelerometers...
 10a) provide a physical explanation of what the aliasing effect is and why you may need
an anti-aliasing filter for this test.
Aliasing is a numerical problem in digital signal
processing (DSP) that arises when there is a
high frequency contents in the signal but the
signal is unduly sampled at low sampling ratio.
The high frequency signal sampled at too low
sampling ratio, appears as a spurious low
frequency mode.
An anti-aliasing filter is a low-pass filter that
eliminates high frequencies in the signal and
prevents the appearance of aliasing.
 10b) if the sampling ration of the test is 512 Hz. What is the Nyquist frequency and what
would be a suitable cut-off frequency of the anti-aliasing filter to obtain good results in
this test.
Nyquist frequency=256 Hz. A suitable anti-aliasing filter would be 60-80% of Nyquist
frequency, (i.e. anyone in the range 150Hz-200 Hz)
11) Describe the current preferred approach by industry for dynamic FEM model updating to match
GVT results. Explain why this option is better than the others.
The preferred approach for dynamic FEM model updating to match GVT is the “delta-stick” approach”.
 Typically the conservative assumptions embodied in the checkstress model (like
minimum thickness in plates instead of the layers reflecting chemical milling) make the
checkstress model slightly less stiff than reality.
 The missing stiffness can be added to the mode as a stick model acting as a backbone of
the checkstress model.
 The stick models runs along the elastic axis of wing, HTP, VTP and fuselage
This way allows keeping the checkstress model (typically validated by stiffness tests) as it is, while the
delta stick adds (or remove) the stiffness in the components that need to be updated.
 UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 5 of 12
NAME: NUMBER:

c
12) Define reduced frequency k. k
V

13) 3D Unsteady Aerodynamics. Doublet Lattice method (DLM). Explain briefly how the aircraft
shape is modelled and were the singularities and control points are located.

3D cases should be solved by using FEM technique (with “strong”

assumptions like: linearity, small motions, harmonic motion,
neglect viscosity and thickness effects, subsonic, etc…)
 The aircraft shape is modeled using flat thin panels
subdivided in trapezoidal boxes.
 Singularities are located in the ¼ quarter chord line with
collocation points at ¾ quarter chord of each box.
 The steady part is solved by using the Vortex Lattice
method (VLM). Singularities are horseshoe vortices. The
unsteady part is solved by using the Doublet Lattice
Method (DLM). Singularities are pressure doublets.

14) Describe a process to update DLM model to match CFD or test data
 The DLM model of the wing is divided in spanwise strips. The total aerodynamic Lift and
total aerodynamic Moment of each strip is obtained by both, the DLM method and the
CFD or test (Aerodynamic Data base ADB) and compared between them.
 In the process to update DLM model, Each box of the DLM model strip will have a
pondering factor ai
 An optimisation loop is performed to obtain the set of pondering factors ai such that the
DLM strip Lift and Moment match ADB strip data. The additional optimisation constraint
is to select the pondering factors ai as close to 1.0 as possible.
UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 6 of 12
NAME: NUMBER:

15) Flutter Sensitivities. Explain why control surfaces must be massbalanced in an aircraft with
manual controls.
In an aircraft with manual controls, a control surface rotation mode is a mechanism at almost cero
frequency. (It is not exactly cero due to friction). The frequency of this mode increases with flight speed.
On the other hand, the lifting surface bending mode frequency has a smooth evolution with flight speed,
(almost constant in a straight wing). Therefore, there is a range of velocities in which there is a
coalescence of frequencies between the control surface rotation mode and the lifting surface bending
mode.
If the control surface is not massbalanced, the control surface center of gravity lies well behind the
hinge line. An up movement of the lifting surface will generate a positive rotation on the control surface
due to inertia coupling by the rear c.g. position. This will create a curvature in the airfoil that will create
additional positive lift that in turn will tend to increase the movement. Similarly, a down movement of
the lifting surface will generate a negative rotation of the control surface. This creates a curvature in the
airfoil that will generate negative lift again tending to increase the movement. This is an unstable
behaviour: flutter.
In the plot showing the damping evolution with flight speed, the mode corresponding to the control
surface will be always well damped but the mode corresponding to the lifting surface will exhibit flutter
in the same velocity range of frequency coalescence.

The stability situation of the system can be

reversed by massbalancing the control surface.
If weigh is added ahead of the hinge line, the
coupling between control surface and bending will
be progressively removed.
If the control surface c.g. lies ahead of the hinge
line, the physical behaviour of the control surface
following a movement of the lifting surface will be
exactly the opposite as the one described above,
and therefore, the effect of the resulting airfoil
induced curvature will always have a stabilizing
effect.
UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 7 of 12
NAME: NUMBER:

16) Aeroservoelasticity. Describe a physical example of anti-symmetric FCS coupling.

17) Describe different techniques for Flight Flutter Test (FVT) excitation.
 Natural turbulence (controlled excitation?)
 Bonkers (pyrotechnic devices)
 External aerodynamic vanes (located at wing tip)
 Oscillatory vanes
 Aerodynamic vanes with slotted Trailing Edge
 The same control surfaces of the aircraft
 In aircraft with manual controls,
 Stick raps
 In aircraft with actuators and FCS,
 Pulses
 Sine sweeps
The preferred option is logically the use of the same control surfaces of the aircraft: in this way, the
configuration of the aircraft being tested in FVT is identical to the series aircraft.
 In the flight points that the aircraft can fly at stabilized conditions; both, sweeps and pulses are
performed
 In the flight points that can only be achieved by diving, only pulses can be performed when the
aircraft crosses exactly the flight point conditions.
 For the final –and most risky- point at Vd/Md the aircraft is excited only with natural turbulence.

18) In what situations the Flight Flutter Test (FVT) is required by the Airworthiness Regulations in
CS25.629?

Flight Flutter Test is always mandatory:

 for new type designs and
 for all design modifications unless the effect is insignificant
UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 8 of 12
NAME: NUMBER:

19) Aeroelastic model validation flowchart.

20) Explain why static loads are different from dynamic loads.
The difference is mainly due to the
inertia forces. Example: exiting a
clamped beam with a transient input
force at the free end.

In case of an applied static load at the beam tip, inertia forces do not play any role in static
deformation nor in the distribution of internal forces (shear, bending). On the other hand, when
the applied load is a transient excitation, depending on the frequency and shape of the dynamic
excitation, inertia forces may be determinant in the subsequent response of the dynamic system
completely changing the internal loads distribution.
If the frequency of the excitation is close to the first
beam bending mode, the response will be close to
this first bending mode. The evolution of shear force
along the beam will be always positive (like in the
static case) but larger than the static case because
of the dynamic amplification
On the other hand, if the frequency of the excitation
is close to the second bending mode, the response
will be in the second bending mode, very different
from a static solution. The evolution of shear force
along the beam may even change of sign (not
intuitive if compared with a static solution)
UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 9 of 12
NAME: NUMBER:

21) Explain the landing gear “spin-up” and “spring-back” effects in a dynamic landing
When the landing gear hits the ground, the tire is
not rotating yet. Therefore there is a difference in
speed between the ground and the tire. This
creates a very large friction force in the contact
point that deforms the flexible landing gear: this is
the spin-up effect that takes place in a very short
period of time 0.1 sec.
The friction force accelerates the wheel that very soon gets the needed rotation speed and the friction
force almost vanishes. Then the flexible landing gear returns to its neutral position: this is the spring-
back effect.
Due to the spin-up and spring-back effects, the forces at the pintle points are not pure vertical (Z)
forces: there are significant fore-and-aft (X) forces that must be taken into account in the dynamic
landing simulation

22) What parts of the aircraft structure that are dimensioned (sized, structural thickness...) by the
dynamic ground loads (dynamic landing and taxi) scenarios?
 Fuselage in symmetric bending cases
 Fuselage in antisymmetric bending cases
 Wing up bending cases
 Tailplane
 No one of the above statements is correct
23) Description of a complete Discrete Tuned Gust (DTG) loads loop
A complete DTG loop requires covering:
 Enough gust lengths between 30 ft and 350 ft
 Enough flight points in the aircraft flight envelope:
 At Vc: at least sea level and the kink at the highest Mach number.
Sometimes intermediate values and high altitude cases
 At Vd: at least sea level and the kink at the highest Mach number
 Enough mass configurations in the aircraft weight envelope
 Operational empty weight
 Maximum Zero Fuel Weight (MZFW), including several payload
configurations covering all possible centers of gravity.
 Maximum Take Off Weight (MTOW), both with low fuel and with max fuel,
including several payload configurations covering all possible centers of
gravity.
 Symmetric (vertical gust) and anti-symmetric (lateral gust) cases.
 In summary: a typical complete DTG loop would require considering several thousands of
cases.
UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 10 of 12
NAME: NUMBER:

24) Current civil requirements for Discrete Tuned Gust (DTG) analyses (qualitative description only)
Current civil regulations for DTG require:
 The use of a full aeroelastic model made of:
 A dynamic model, properly representing the rigid body modes (RBM) and
the flexible modes of the structure.
 An unsteady 3D Doublet Lattice Model (coupled with the dynamic model)
 The gust excitation is represented with (1-cos) shape gust. The analysis should consider
enough gust lengths between 30 ft. and 350 ft.
 Gust intensity (at Vc, sea level) will be 56 fps (for long gust lengths). The gust intensity will
be reduced for shorter gust lengths.
 Gust intensity is also reduced for altitudes higher than sea level.

25) With respect to the discrete tuned gust analysis and continuous turbulence analysis…
Discrete gust provides limit loads. On the other hand, continuous turbulence only
 provides r.m.s. values but not peak values.

They are equivalent and the manufacturer can chose one or the other in the
 aircraft design.

They represent different scenarios aimed to different frequency ranges and

 should be covered separately.

 Discrete tuned gust always provides larger loads than continuous turbulence.
 No one of the above statements is correct.
26) Definition of Power spectral Density (PSD)
 26a) Definition (text). PSD is the Fourier Transform of the Autocorrelation Function
 26b) Mathematical expression(s) of PSD

S yy ( )   Ryy ( )e  i d


T T
S yy ( )  (Y ( )*)Y ( )  Y ( ) 2
2 2
 26c) Why PSD is useful in solving dynamic problems?
Because there is a direct relationship between PSD output and PSD input thru the transfer
function:
PSDOutput ( )  H ( ) PSDinput ( )
2
UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 11 of 12
NAME: NUMBER:

27) Name and qualitatively describe the PSD excitation requested by current airworthiness
regulations for continuous turbulence analysis.
The PSD excitation requested by current airworthiness regulations for continuous turbulence analysis is
the von-Karman spectrum.
The von-Karman spectrum VonKarman atmospheric turbulence model
concentrates most of the Example
excitation at very low 10

frequencies
1

PSD VG (m/s)2/Hz
0.1

0.01

0.001

0.0001
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Frequency (Hz)

28) What is the shape of a 2D continuous turbulence load envelope?

An ellipse.

29) Difference between Flutter and Buffet

UC3M AEROELASTICITY 20-Jan-2014 Page 12 of 12
NAME: NUMBER:

30) Buffet analysis flowchart highlighting the application of the PSD technique to solve the buffet
problem (in the structural side) using flight test data.

31) Optional. Explain using very simple words what FLUTTER is, in such a way that it could be
understood by a non technical person (your mother –for instance-)...