Introduction

In geometry, the tangent line to a plane curve at a given point is the straight
line that "just touches" the curve at that point. Informally, it is a line through a pair
of infinitely close points on the curve. More precisely, a straight line is said to be a
tangent of a curve y = f(x) at a point x = c on the curve if the line passes through the
point (c, f(c)) on the curve and has slope f'(c) where f' is the derivative of f.

In this report, some methods of finding tangents to the curves have been
discussed prior to the discovery of derivatives. One of these methods of finding
tangents was discovered by Pierre Fermat (1601–1665), known as Fermat’s method.
The other was found by Newton’s mentor at Cambridge, Isaac Barrow (1630–1677).
These two methods have been discovered and used even before Sir Isaac Newton
formulated Calculus. In fact, they played a major role in the formulation of Calculus by
Newton.

Fermat anticipated the calculus with his approach to finding the tangent line to a
given curve. To find the tangent to a point P (a,b), he began by drawing a secant line
to a nearby point P’ (a + E, b’). For small E, the secant line PP’ is approximately equal
to the angle PAB at which the tangent meets the x-axis. Finally, Fermat allowed E to
shrink to zero, thus obtaining a mathematical expression for the true tangent line.

Isaac Barrow was a teacher of Newton at Cambridge. Taking Fermat's

discoveries into consideration (though indirectly because supposedly he didn’t know the
Fermat’s discovery till the time he created his own method) , Barrow's realized that
finding the "run" (change in x along x-axis) of the tangent line would help give you the
slope of the tangent.

An example curve y = x^3 + 2x has been taken to illustrate the tangent finding
procedure used in modern days and those used by Fermat and Barrow. The tangent is
being found at a point (1,3) of the said sample curve.
 Finding Tangents using the method of Fermat

Let’s say there is a point P on the curve y = f(x) as shown below. The
coordinates of P are (a,b) and a tangent at this point P of the given curve is desired.
We can think of a point on this curve which is very close to P. Let’s name this point as
P’. The coordinates of P’ are assumed to be x = a+E and hence y=f(a+E). Since P’ lies
so close to P that it can be assumed to be lying very closely to the tangent at P.
Therefore, P’ can approximately be taken to be lying on the tangent.

In that case, triangle TPQ and triangle TP’Q’ would be similar. Here, TQ is the
subtangent at point P. Suppose TQ = c. Since tangent is determined by the location of
T so it is sufficient to find c (= TQ) in order to find out the tangent line at P. The
similarity of two triangles will give:

PQ/TQ = P’Q’/TQ’

 TQ’^2/TQ^2 = P’Q’^2/PQ^2 ----------------(1)

But, following the properties of parabola we obtain

P’Q’^2 /PQ^2 = OQ’/OQ ------------------------ (2)

From (1) and (2) we get

TQ’^2/TQ^2 = OQ’/OQ
 (TQ + E)^2 / TQ^2 = (OQ + E)/OQ

 2E OQ TQ + E^2 OQ = TQ^2 E
 2 OQ TQ + E OQ = TQ^2 E -----------------(3)

We need to think about what “close enough" means. Fermat handled this
situation by setting E = QQ’, and then regarding E as a number with special arithmetic
properties. Specifically we are to think of E as a small positive number insofar as
toallow all reasonable multiplicative cancellations of E’s in whatever equations
theymight appear. Then, after these cancellations have taken place, one is to regard E
as zero.

Hence, regarding E as 0, the equation (3) reduces to

2 OQ TQ = TQ^2

 TQ = 2OQ
 c = 2a

Hence, the Fermat’s method correctly concluded that in case of tangent at a point of a
parabola c = 2a.

Once c is obtained, the slope of the tangent can be found as f(a)/c and hence the
equation of the tangent.

Comparison of the Fermat’s method to modern methods

Observe that the Fermat’s method is quite general. Fermat's method indicates
that the subtangent c corresponding to the point (a,b) is given by solving as follows:

 b/c = f(a+E)/c+E
 b(c+E) = c f(a+E)
 f(a) (c+E) = c f(a+E) Since b = f(a)
 c f(a) + Ef(a) = c f(a+E)
 c (f(a+E) – f(a)) = E f(a)
 c = E f(a) / (f(a+E) – f(a))
 1/c = (1/f(a)) (f(a+E) – f(a))/
 f(a)/c = (f(a+E) – f(a)) / E

Since he set E = 0 and f(a)/c is the slope of the tangent so slope equals
And, this is exactly the modern way of evaluating slope of the tangent. What Fermat
was missing at that time was the concept of limit. That’s it.

Finding Tangents using the method of Barrow

Barrow went on to explain the method of finding tangents that is

virtuallyidentical with the one used in the differential calculus. It is much likethat of
Fermat, but it makes use of two quantities—instead of Fermat’ssingle letter E—
quantities that are equivalent to the modern Δx and Δy.

If M is apoint on a curve y = f(x) and if T is the point of intersection of the

desired tangent MTwith the x-axis, then Barrow marked off “an indefinitely small arc,
MN,of the curve.” He then drew the ordinates at M and N and through M aline MR
parallel to the x-axis. Then, designating by m the known ordinate at M, by t the desired
subtangent PT, and by ‘a’ and ‘e’ the vertical and horizontal sides of the triangle MRN,
Barrow pointed outthat the ratio of ‘a’ to ‘e’ is equal to the ratio of ‘m’ to ‘t’. As we
should now express it, the ratio of ‘a’ to ‘e’ for infinitely close points is the slope of the
curve. To find this ratio, Barrow proceeded much as Fermat had. He replaced x and y in
y = f(x) with ‘x+e’ and ‘y+a’, respectively; then, in the resulting equation, he
disregarded all terms not containing ‘a’ or ‘e’ (because these by themselves equal zero)
and all terms of a degree higher than the first degree in a and e, and, finally, he
replaced a with ‘m’ and ‘e’ with ‘t’. From this, the subtangent is found in terms of ‘x’ and
‘m’, andif x and m are known, the quantity t is determined.

Barrow’s is a generalmethod that works not onlyfor polynomialsin x, butfor

polynomialsin xand y; sort oflike implicit differentiation.

Comparison of the Barrow’s method to modern methods

Observe that Barrow’s method is, essentially the extension of the Fermat’s
method, is hence in resemblance with the modern methods. Barrow’s assumption of
small Δx and Δy is no different than modern day’s dx/dy to finding the slope of the
tangent at a point.
 Finding the tangent at (1, 3) on y = x^3 + 2x

1) Using the modern method

We have to find out the tangent the line at the given point (1, 3) of the
sample curve y = x^3 + 2x. For this our approach would be as follows:

Step1: find the slope of the tangent line at (1, 3). The required slope is
obtained by finding derivative of the curve y = x^3 + 2x and then substituting 1
for x and 3 for y.

y = x^3 + 2x

 dy/dx = 3x^2 + 2
 slope = m = dy/dx (1,3) = 3(1)^2 + 2 = 3+ 2 = 5
 Step 2: find the equation of a straight line which has slope 5 and which
passes through (1, 3). This is the desired tangent line.

(y-y1) = m(x-x1)

 (y-3) = 5(x-1)
 y-3 = 5x-5
 y = 5x - 2

Hence, the tangent line is y = 5x – 2.

2) Using the method of Fermat

We have to find out the tangent the line at the given point (1, 3) of the
sample curve y = x^3 + 2x using Fermat’s approach. For this lets draw the two
lines on the curve where P and P’ are close enough.
Let’s suppose that TQ’ = TQ + E and OQ’ = OQ + E.

As the triangles TPQ and TP’Q’ are similar so

TQ’/TQ = P’Q’/PQ ------------------------ (1)

But since P and P’ lie on the curve so P’Q’ = OQ’^3 + 2OQ’ and PQ = OQ^3 + 2OQ

Hence, (1) reduces to

TQ’/TQ = (OQ’^3 + 2OQ’)/ (OQ^3 + 2OQ)

 (TQ+E)/TQ = ((OQ+E)^3 + 2(OQ+E))/ (OQ^3 + 2OQ)

 (TQ+E) (OQ^3 + 2OQ) = TQ((OQ+E)^3 + 2(OQ+E))
 TQ(OQ)^3 + 2(TQ)(OQ) + E (OQ)^3 + 2E(OQ) = TQ(OQ)^3 + E^3(TQ) +
3E(OQ)^2(TQ) + 3E^2(OQ)(TQ) + 2(OQ)(TQ) + 2E(TQ)
 E (OQ)^3 + 2E(OQ) = E^3(TQ) + 3E(OQ)^2(TQ) + 3E^2(OQ)(TQ) +
2E(TQ)
 (OQ)^3 + 2(OQ) = E^2(TQ) + 3(OQ)^2(TQ) + 3E(OQ)(TQ) + 2(TQ)

Now put E = 0 (as P and P’ are close enough) and OQ = 1

 1^3 + 2(1) = 0 +3(1)^2(TQ) + 0 + 2TQ

 3 = 5TQ
 TQ = 3/5

Slope of the tangent line, m = PQ/TQ = 3/(3/5) = 5

And hence the equation of the tangent line:

(y-3) = 5(x-1)

 y = 5x - 2

3) Using the method of Barrow

We have to find out the tangent the line at the given point (1, 3) of the
sample curve y = x^3 + 2x using Barrow’s approach. For this let’s take a very
small arc MN of the curve and draw the lines as shown below.
 Let’s assume that NR = a, MR = e, TP = t and MP = m.

As M and N lie on the curve so

Y = x^3 + 2x and

(y+a) = (x+e)^3 + 2(x+e)

 x^3 + a = x^3 + e^3 + 3xe^2 + 3x^2e + 2x + 2e

 a = e^3 + 3xe^2 + 3x^2e + 2e

And as Barrow did, let’s remove all those terms which include higher than 1 degree of a
or e. so, e^3 = 0, 3xe^2 = 0

 a = 0 + 0 + 3x^2e + 2e

Put a = m= 3, x = 1 and e = t
  3 = 3t + 2t
 t = 3/5

Hence, slope = m/t = 3/(3/5) = 5

And, therefore the equation of the tangent line:

(y-3) = 5(x-1)

 y = 5x – 2

Observations about the methods:

1) The modern method is the straight forward application of derivative to find
the slope of the tangent.
2) The Fermat’s and as well as Barrow’s methods take advantage of the
geometry of the curve and the concept of indefinitely small.
3) Both the old methods choose two points very close on the curve and operate
normally and algebraically and in the end use the fact that that indefinitely
small distance between the two points can and should be substituted by
exact 0.

Conclusion

Both the discussed methods of finding the tangents have very contrast
similarities at the conceptual level. While, at those times, the concept of limit and
differentiability was not known, yet these methods inherently followed these concepts
only without formally naming them. Modern day’s methods of finding tangent lines rely
entirely on the discovery of calculus by Newton & Leibnitz. However, the concept used
to find the approximate value of the tangent slope by adjusting/cancelling the terms
algebraically/geometrically in Fermat’s method and the concept of Δx and Δy used by
Barrow in his method carry great significance.