Higher dimensional charged black holes in Rastall gravity

Kai Lin1,2,5)∗ and Wei-Liang Qian2,3,4)†

1)
Institute of Geophysics and Geoinformatics, China University of Geosciences, 430074, Wuhan, Hubei, China
2)
Escola de Engenharia de Lorena, Universidade de São Paulo, 12602-810, Lorena, SP, Brazil
3)
Faculdade de Engenharia de Guaratinguetá, Universidade Estadual Paulista, 12516-410, Guaratinguetá, SP, Brazil
4)
School of Physical Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, 225002, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, P.R. China and
5)
Instituto de Fı́sica e Quı́mica, Universidade Federal de Itajubá, 37500-903, Itajubá, MG, Brasil
(Dated: Sept. 26, 2018)
The black holes surrounded by quintessence in higher-dimensional spacetimes, with the presence
of the non-linear electromagnetic field, are investigated in Rastall gravity. The obtained solutions
accommodate for spherical, planar and hyperbolic symmetries with the presence of the cosmological
constant. Besides, we show that several known black hole solutions in literature such as those for
arXiv:1809.10075v1 [gr-qc] 26 Sep 2018

linear Maxwell theory and BTZ black hole can be obtained as special cases. The implications of the
present study and the thermodynamics of the black hole solutions are discussed.

I. INTRODUCTION cosmological constant reads

One of the possible generalizations of the general rel-
ativity is to relax the constraint that the covariant di-
vergence of the energy-momentum tensor vanishes. In
1972, Peter Rastall [1] proposed that the divergence of
the energy-momentum tensor might be nonvanishing and
proportional to the gradient of the Ricci scalar. The the-
ory effectively implies that the curvature-matter coupling
is implemented for modified gravity in a non-minimal
fashion. In other words, the Lagrangian of the system
is not merely a summation of the Lagrangian of geom-
etry and that of the matter fields. Owing to the non-
minimal coupling, the geometry and matter fields are af-
fected by their mutual changes [2–6]. As a result, the or-
dinary energy-momentum tensor conservation becomes
invalid. By redefining the energy momentum tensor of
the matter field [7, 8], it is shown that the Rastall’s the-
ory is mathematically equivalent to Einstein’s gravity.
On the other hand, however, the theory can be viewed as
a phenomenological implementation of specific quantum
effects in a curved background [9]. Besides, in the context
of cosmology, the Rastall’s theory has been interpreted
as a gravitational theory with variable gravitational con-
stant [10, 11]. In this regard, the standard ΛCDM model
is consistently reproduced for the background as well as
at linear perturbation level, while additional effects are
further explored concerning nonlinear corrections [12].
Rastall’s theory assumes that [1]
ν II. CHARGED BLACK HOLE SOLUTIONS FOR
Tµ;ν = aµ , (1.1)
where aµ is related to the related to the gradient of the
Ricci scalar
ν
Tµ;ν = aµ = λR;µ . (1.2)
1
Rµν − gµν R + gµν Λ = κ (Tµν − λgµν R) (1.3)
2
In the vacuum, the only non-trivial static, spheri-
cally symmetric solution for the Einstein field equation
is the Schwarzschild one. When an additional scalar
field is coupled to the gravity sector, new exact solu-
tions may appear, related to specific Rastall parameter.
Recently, various static spherically symmetric solutions
of the Rastall field equations have been investigated by
several authors [7, 13–16]. For instance, a free or self-
interacting scalar field is included in the Rastall the-
ory [14]. It is found that certain exact solutions can
be obtained which are associated with k-essence theory.
The black hole solutions are also studied where it is sur-
rounded by a quintessence fluid [16]. The role of the
electromagnetic field has also been explored [15].
In this work, we aim to investigate the black hole
solutions for higher-dimensional spacetimes in Rastall
gravity. The black holes in question are surrounded by
quintessence, in the presence of the non-linear electro-
magnetic field. The present work is organized as follows.
In the following section, we derive the field equation and
present the analytic solutions. Then, the black hole ther-
modynamics is studied. Discussions and concluding re-
marks are given in the last section of the paper.
n + 1 DIMENSIONAL SPACETIME IN RASTALL
THEORY
Let us consider the following static spherically sym-
metric black hole metric in n + 1 dimensional spacetime

The corresponding field equation with the presence of the dr2

ds2 = −f (r)dt2 + + r2 dΣ2n−1 . (2.1)
f (r)

For charged black holes, we assume that the electromag-

∗ Electronic address: lk314159@hotmail.com netic field is also static as well as spherically symmetric.
† Electronic address: wlqian@usp.br This implies that the only non-zero component is the
 2

electric potential, which is given by Substituting the energy-momentum tensor as well as the
metric into the Rastall field equation Eq.(1.2-1.3), one
Aµ = δµt At (r). (2.2) finds the following black hole solutions. For s 6= n/2, one
finds
For the angular part, here we define
n(ω+1)(2κλ(n+1)−n+1) ρA (r)
 dθ2 + sin2 θdΩ2n−2 ρ(r) = Ca r− n(2κλ(ω+1)−1)+1 −

σ=1 ρB (r)
2
dΣn−1 = dxi dxi σ=0 , (2.3)
2Ma 2Λr2
dθ + sinh2 θdΩ2n−2 σ = −1
 2
f (r) = σ − n−2
+
r n(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1)
where dΩ2n−2 is a n − 2 dimensional unit sphere, and fA (r) fC (r)
− + (2.11)
σ = 1, 0, −1 correspond to solutions with spherical, pla- fB (r) fD (r)
nar and hyperbolical spacetime symmetries. It is worth
noting that for the (2 + 1) dimensional spacetime, where where
n = 2, Eq.(2.3) is only meaningful for the case of σ = 0.
As a generalization, we also consider the action for the ρA (r) = λ(n − 1)2s+1 e2iπs s(−n + 4s − 1)
electromagnetic field to have the following form 2(n−1)s
×Q2s ξ s (r(2s − 1)) 1−2s
s
LF = − (−ξF ) (2.4) ρB (r) = n((ω + 1)(2κλ + 1) + n(2κλ(ω + 1) + 2sω
−ω − 1) − 2s(4κλ(ω + 1) + ω − 1)) − 2s
where F = Fµν F µν and Fµν = Aµ;ν −Aν;µ is the Faraday
tensor. ξ and s are constants. For s = 1, the linear fA (r) = 2Ca κ(n(2κλ(ω + 1) − 1) + 1)2
(n−1)(n(ω+1)(2κλ−1)+2)
Maxwell field is restored. Also, as shown below, the BTZ- ×r− n(2κλ(ω+1)−1)+1
like Maxwell field corresponds to the case where s = n/2.
fB (r) = (n − 1)n(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1)
Subsequently, the field equation is given by
×((n − 1)ω − 2κλ(ω + 1))
√
−gF s−1 F µν = 0.


∂µ (2.5) 2(n−3)s+2
fC (r) = 2s (1 − 2s)2 Q2s ξ s r 1−2s (n((2s − 1)ω − 1)
It is straightforward to show that, the following form for 2iπs+ 2(n−1)s(log(r)−log(r(2s−1)))
+2s)e 2s−1

the only non-vanishing components of F µν indeed satisfy

fD (r) = (n − 2s) n2 [−2κλ(ω + 1) − 2sω + ω + 1]

Eq.(2.5):
+n[(ω + 1)(−2κλ − 1) + 2s(4κλ(ω + 1)
1−n
F tr = −F rt = Q (2sr − r) 2s−1 , (2.6) +ω − 1)] + 2s} (2.12)

and by integrating in r, it gives On the other hand, as discussed below, for s = n/2,
one obtains the BTZ-like solutions as follows
n−1
(
Q
A0 + 2s−n (2sr − r)1− 2s−1 s 6= n
2
At (r) = Q n
(2.7) ρ(r) = Cb r−
n(ω+1)(2κλ(n+1)−n+1)
n(2κλ(ω+1)−1)+1
A0 + n−1 ln r s= 2
(−1)n λ2n/2 (n − 1)ξ n/2 Qn
where Q represents the electric charge of the black hole, +
[2κλ(ω + 1) − nω + ω](nr − r)n
which is justified by comparing with the case where n = 3
and s = 1. For charged black hole, we choose A0 = 0. 2Mb 2Λr2
f (r) = σ − n−2 +
Subsequently, the energy momentum tensor of electro- r n(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1)
magnetic field is found to be (−1)n 2n/2 rωξ n/2 Qn (nr − r)1−n ln(r)
−
  2κλ(ω + 1) − nω + ω
ν s s−1 σν 1 ν
Eµ = −(−ξ) (F ) 2sFσµ F − δµ F . (2.8) 2Cb κ(n(2κλ(ω + 1) − 1) + 1)2
2 −
(n − 1)n(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1)
The total energy momentum tensor consists of those (n−1)(n(ω+1)(2κλ−1)+2)

of the electromagnetic as well as the quintessence field r− n(2κλ(ω+1)−1)+1

× (2.13)
surrounded the black hole (n − 1)ω − 2κλ(ω + 1)
∗
Tµν = Eµν + Tµν , (2.9) where Ma , Mb , Ca and Cb are constants, and their sub-
stantial physical interpretations will be studied in the
where the latter is characterized by its barotropic equa- next section. It is meaningful to express the above solu-
tion of state p = ωρ, subsequently it reads [16] tions regarding constants with straightforward physical
content. This will be carried out in the following section.
T ∗ tt = T ∗ rr = −ρ(r) In what follows, we will use the subscript a to indicate
1 solutions for the s 6= n/2 case, and b to represent those
T ∗ θθ11 = T ∗ θθ22 = ρ(r) (nω + 1) (2.10) for the s = n/2 case.
n−1
 3

III. BLACK HOLE THERMODYNAMICS
Black hole thermodynamics require that the mass,
temperature, entropy, electric charge and electrostatic
potential of the static black hole satisfy the first law
dM = Th dS + ΦdQ (3.1)
where M and Φ are the mass and electrostatic potential
of black hole. In this section, we focus on the property of
black hole thermodynamics at event horizon, where the
entropy and temperature for a static black hole are given
by
that the resultant relation can be used to further con-
strain the model parameters. As mentioned by the end
of the previous section, we now proceed to rewrite the
black hole solutions in terms of physical quantities such
as the electric charge Q, black hole mass M and the
radius of event horizon r0 . Besides, one also evaluates
quantities such as Φ, S, and Th in terms of the above
variables.
For s 6= n/2, one finds
Ca
ρa =
r rA
n−2s
n
8λπ 1− 2 Q2 (n − 4s + 1)(2s − 1) 1−2s −2 Γ n2


− 2(n−1)s
f ′ (r) 

A(r0 ) [n((2s − 1)ω − 1) + 2s]r 2s−1
S= , Th = (3.2)
4 4π r=r0 8Γ n Ma


2Λr2
fa = σ − n −1 2 +
where r0 is the radius of the event horizon which satisfies π 2 (n − 1)rn−2 n(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1)
n−2s 2(n−3)s+2
f (r0 ) = 0, and A(r0 ) is the area of the event horizon in 4Q2 Γ n2 (2s − 1) 1−2s r 1−2s


n + 1 dimensional spacetime, which is given in terms of + n
π 2 −1 (n − 1)s(n − 2s)
the Γ function
n 2κCa (n(2κλ(ω + 1) − 1) + 1)2
−
A = 2π n/2 r0n−1 /Γ (3.3) (n − 1)n(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1)
2
r−rB
Eq.(3.1) implies ×
(n − 1)ω − 2κλ(ω + 1)
  n−2s
∂M  ∂M  Q (r0 (2s − 1)) 1−2s
Th = , Φ= (3.4) Φa = −
∂S Φ ∂Q Th 2s − n
n/2 n−1
π r0
which can be used to obtain the masses of the black holes. Sa =
2Γ n2


In fact, it is not difficult to show that the black hole
2(n − 2)Γ n2 Ma


mass M is proportional to the constant of integration M . Λr0
To be more specific, one finds that the proportionality Th = +
πn(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1) (n − 1)π n/2 r0n−1
constant to be 1−n−1n
2 Γ( n )
, namely, 1−n
4π
2Q2 ((n − 3)s + 1)Γ n2 (r0 (2s − 1)) 2s−1


2
−
n−1 π n/2 (n − 1)s(n − 2s)r0n−2
Ma = n
Ma
4π 1− 2 Γ n
2 κCa r0rC
+
n−1 2πn(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1)
Mb = n n

Mb . (3.5)
4π 1− 2 Γ 2
(n(ω + 1)(2κλ − 1) + 2)(n(2κλ(ω + 1) − 1) + 1)
×
(n − 1)ω − 2κλ(ω + 1)
Moreover, the electrostatic potentials are found to be
(3.8)
n 2(n−1)s
(n − 1)π 2 −1 2s−2 e2iπs s(2s − 1)2− 2s−1 ϕa (r) with
Φa =
(2s − n)Γ n2 ̺a (r)


n(ω + 1)(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1)
n n rA =
(−1)n 2 2 −3 (n − 1)2−n nπ 2 −1 ωξ n/2 Qn−1 ln r0 n(2κλ(ω + 1) − 1) + 1
Φb = − ,
Γ n2 (2κλ(ω + 1) − nω + ω)


(n − 1)(n(ω + 1)(2κλ − 1) + 2)
rB =
(3.6) n(2κλ(ω + 1) − 1) + 1
(n − 1)(n(ω + 1)(2κλ − 1) + 2)
where rC = − − 1 (3.9)
n(2κλ(ω + 1) − 1) + 1
n−2s
ϕa (r) = Q2s−1 ξ s r01−2s (n((2s − 1)ω − 1) + 2s) On the other hand, for BTZ-like solutions with s =
̺a (r) = n2 [2κλ(ω + 1) + 2sω − ω − 1] n/2, we have
+n[(ω + 1)(2κλ + 1) Cb 8λQ2 Γ n2 ln (nr0 − r0 )


−2s(4κλ(ω + 1) + ω − 1)] − 2s. (3.7) ρb = rA + n n −1
r r π 2 (n − 1)2 nω ln r0
8Γ n Mb


Let’s compare the above form of electrostatic potentials 2Λr2
fb = σ − n −1 2 +
with Eq.(2.7) evaluated at event horizon r0 , one finds π 2 (n − 1)rn−2 n(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1)
 4
n
8π 1− 2 Q2 r2−n Γ n2 ln(r) ln (nr0 − r0 )


field is removed, the black hole solution in higher dimen-
−
(n − 1)2 n ln (r0 ) sional spacetime with the presence of quintessence fluid
2κCb (n(2κλ(ω + 1) − 1) + 1)2 has been investigated recently in [16]. It is readily to
− verify that the solutions presented in [16] are restored
(n − 1)n(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1) by taking s = 0 in Eq.(2.11). If one further considers
r−rB the case where n = 3, the results in [15] are reproduced.
×
(n − 1)ω − 2κλ(ω + 1) Also, the solution found in [17] is obtained in the limit
Q ln ((n − 1)r0 ) κλ → 0. Moreover, in (2 + 1) dimensional spacetime,
Φb = − only the planar black hole solutions persist, which corre-
n−1
n/2 n−1 sponding to take σ = 0 in the general solution Eq.(2.11)
π r0 and Eq.(2.13).
Sb =
2Γ n2


To summarize, in the present work, explicit forms of
2(n − 2)Mb Γ n2


Λr0 the black hole solutions are encountered where one con-
Th = + n/2 siders non-linear Maxwell field in an arbitrary n dimen-
πn(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1) π (n − 1)r0n−1
sional spacetime, surrounded by quintessence fluid. The
2Q2Γ n2 ln ((n − 1)r0 ) ln r0n−2 − 1




+ solutions with spherical, planar, as well as hyperbolical
π n/2 (n − 1)2 n ln (r0 ) r0n−1 spacetime symmetries are obtained and expressed in a
κCb r0rC compact form corresponding to σ = 1, 0, −1. In partic-
+ ular, a class of BTZ-like black hole solutions is found,
2πn(2κλ(n + 1) − n + 1)
which is associated with the BTZ black hole in (2+1) di-
(n(ω + 1)(2κλ − 1) + 2)(n(2κλ(ω + 1) − 1) + 1) mensional Anti-de Sitter spacetime. In regarding to the
× .
(n − 1)ω − 2κλ(ω + 1) black hole thermodynamics, we present the thermody-
(3.10) namic quantities in terms of those related to the hair of
the black hole. We found the constant of integration, M ,
We note that both Ma and Mb can be considered as the is proportional to the mass of the black hole, M, and
functions of r0 , which are determined by fa (r = r0 ) = 0 therefore carries the physical content of the latter. The
and fb (r = r0 ) = 0 respectively. present study may pave the way for futher investigation
on quasinormal modes as well as Hawking radiation of the
black hole solutions, especially for the case of higher di-
IV. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUDING mensional spacetimes, which is relevant to many related
REMARKS topics.

Now, let us discuss a few known black hole solutions

which can be obtained as special cases of the solution
found in this work, Eq.(2.11) and Eq.(2.13). First, we
note that owing to Eq.(2.6), s = n/2 is associated with
a distinct class of solutions. In particular, for the usual
four-dimensional spacetime with linear Maxwell theory,
namely, n = 2, s = 1, the BTZ black hole solution is
restored. Therefore the solutions satisfying s = n/2 are
referred to in the text as BTZ-like solutions. In (3 + 1)
asymptotic spacetime, the black hole solutions with lin-
ear Maxwell theory have been studied in Ref. [7] where
the surrounding fluid satisfies the barotropic equation of
state, p = ωρ. On the other hand, when the Maxwell
Acknowledgements
We are thankful for valuable discussions with Alan
B. Pavan. We gratefully acknowledge the financial sup-
port from Brazilian funding agencies Fundação de Am-
paro à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP),
Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientı́fico e Tec-
nológico (CNPq), Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de
Pessoal de Nı́vel Superior (CAPES), and National Natu-
ral Science Foundation of China (NNSFC) under contract
No.11805166.

[1] P. Rastall, Phys. Rev. D6, 3357 (1972).
[2] S. Nojiri and S. D. Odintsov, Phys. Lett. B599, 137
(2004), arXiv: astro-ph/0403622.
[3] G. Allemandi, A. Borowiec, M. Francaviglia, and S. D.
Odintsov, Phys. Rev. D72, 063505 (2005), arXiv: gr-
qc/0504057.
[4] T. Koivisto, Class. Quant. Grav. 23, 4289 (2006), arXiv:
gr-qc/0505128.
[5] O. Bertolami, C. G. Boehmer, T. Harko, and F. S. N.
Lobo, Phys. Rev. D75, 104016 (2007), arXiv: 0704.1733.
[6] T. Harko and F. S. N. Lobo, Galaxies 2, 410 (2014),
arXiv: 1407.2013.
[7] Y. Heydarzade, H. Moradpour, and F. Darabi, Can. J.
Phys. 95, 1253 (2017), arXiv:1610.03881.
[8] M. Visser, Phys. Lett. B782, 83 (2018),
arXiv:1711.11500.
[9] C. E. M. Batista, M. H. Daouda, J. C. Fabris, O. F.
Piattella, and D. C. Rodrigues, Phys. Rev. D85, 084008
(2012), arXiv:1112.4141.
[10] A. S. Al-Rawaf and M. O. Taha, Phys. Lett. B366, 69
 5

(1996). E. C. Santos, Gen. Rel. Grav. 48, 162 (2016),

[11] A. S. Al-Rawaf and M. O. Taha, Gen. Rel. Grav. 28, 935 arXiv:1606.06242.
(1996). [15] Y. Heydarzade and F. Darabi, Phys. Lett. B771, 365
[12] C. E. M. Batista, M. H. Daouda, J. C. Fabris, O. F. (2017), arXiv:1702.07766.
Piattella, and D. C. Rodrigues, Phys. Rev. D85, 084008 [16] J. P. Morais Graa and I. P. Lobo, Eur. Phys. J. C78,
(2012), arXiv:1112.4141. 101 (2018), arXiv:1711.08714.
[13] H. Moradpour, N. Sadeghnezhad, and S. H. Hendi, Can. [17] S. Chen, B. Wang, and R. Su, Phys. Rev. D77, 124011
J. Phys. 95, 1257 (2017), arXiv: 1606.00846. (2008), arXiv:0801.2053.
[14] K. A. Bronnikov, J. C. Fabris, O. F. Piattella, and