f 88 surannc Gordon

ever imagined that I could save Ella, prol'ide round-the-clock assistance Chapter l2
to her aná her family, or erase her physical and emotional pain. Because
of rhis freedom of movement, I could utilize my int]mate knowledge of T\aro Stories of Caring in Teaching
|he sYstem in which Profe§sionals cleliver care to hopefully help
them
deliver it. James G. Henderson
Ella rcmains for me a Iiving Presence, She rn'as not a friend. The im-
perarives of her conclition made imPossible the kind of reciprocity
and
I.,lr,tr*l sl'raring of his.tory upon which friendships a¡e based' What I
krrrtw of her lif'e is how she lived her illness and her death' l\'trat I know
<'¡[herhistory'Ilearnedwhenshelavdyingoraftershewasdead.She
wa.snor a subiect, a family member, the object of the charity of a devoted
v,lunreer, Siie inhabirs the world of care-a space which can accom-
moclate relarionships thar defy rhe conventional categories to which we
In üe following stories, we hear lhe voices of carlng teach-
assign and .ut.go.ir. our human encounters and connections. In her
Ed.itors' not¿.
avl"¡g, for *", .t. lived o* a vast, horizonless plain that allows one the ers. Readers will be impres.sed again by the competence that accomPa-
frl..do* ro be hurnan for and with another. Now that she is gone , she nies genuine caring. Wú". *. care, we work hard [o meet our profes-
resicles in that sa¡ne limitless and impossible-to-chart territory of joV, sionJ and personal responsibiiities. Both lvls. Callahan a1d '\.fr, lvleyers
sorror,v, and compassion-onlv this time in memory a¡e reflecrive problem-solvers. Indeed, the author of the book in which
these srories ipp.ur emphasizes the reachers' compe[ence as inquirers
Caring is manifésred in many ways, bur cle;rr1y, it always involves direct,
....p,-ir. artention to the recipients of care and reflective attention lo
one's own attemPts to meet their needs.

lntroduction
r\fauua Callah¿Ln and Eugene lv[eyers exemplify the inquiring, reflective
teaching model. Borh teachers fit Noddings's (1984) description of the
caring reacher. They talie rhe time ro diaiogue with their studenrs; they
*ork*coope.atively wirh rhem; and they help each individual discover
his or her besr self. Eugene lvleyers's description of how he teaches the
concepr. of point of view and Maura cailahan's technique for teach"
ing pCrsuasive writing are examples of applied constructivist learning
theory. When problems arise in lhe ciassroom, these teachers invest the
time and energy necessary to find the solution that is best for the stu-
dent, nor just for themselves. Finally, both" rcachers are questioning,
challenging, probing individuals who seek personal professional growth
for themselves and intellectual, emotional, and social growth for their
students through üe process of inquiry.

A¡ earlier version"of this essay appeared in Henderson, fuf.eaiae Teaching (New York
Vfacmillan, 1992), pp. I-25. Reprinted by permission.

llr0 Jámes G, Henderson
Masra Callahan: Unless lt3 Me in That Worl«,
What Good ls lt?
Nlaura callahan has been teaching elementary school chilclren fbr
6 r'ears. sn'e began teaching in a catholic school on the northwesr siclr:
ol chicago. Later she raught behaviorallv disturbed preadolescenr h.vg
in an urban residential laqilir,r-. Now she teaches in a combinarit-¡. lcl¡.n-
ing disabilitvfbehirvior disorde¡ first-grade classroom. she also (:o()r(li-
natcs a holistic reading and langr-rage arrs program fbr the ñrst rhr.rlrrglr
ñli h grrrdcs.
Building on Her Past Experiences
,\.s a beginning ¡eacher lVfaura Callahan was unsure r:l hr,tr^.six-yt,;rr.-,rl<l
students' deveiopm.enral levels and interests. she ur¿.s srrlc, lrr)rvcvcr., ,¡l'
her c¡wn basic philosophv of lt':arning: "Unless iL wls rut: irr tlr;rr u,¡.k,
what go,:cl is iti" She explains, "Learning is.ot g.ing t, l-rt:;'tv f'Ltn
unless it's abr:ut me. Ancl if it's not anv [u¡r, it's nor. {.irrg t. ht.rv.l.l }r
anvrh ing."
N[s. Callrrha''s philosophy grew out of, her own 1e;rrning cx¡_rt-rit.rrr:r"s.
she recalls her elementary school education as cllc¡rilirl, blclk, ;rrlrr
boring. I-ler reachers were impersonal and disr;rnt.. "¡"obodv r.arrghr r;lll-
drtn, thev t:rughr subiect' ro children," she observcs. !\'helr lvfs. (,a)llliirrr
began te:lching she was de¡ermined tr: make a ber-rer impressiorr r¡n h.r
owlt students. Frr:m the st.art she felt ¡ sr.rong sensc r)f irlcnrilir::rr.ro¡r
¡ith rhem:
I r:or¡ld have i¡een that child sitting in that class¡oom. I reallv wtnrccl to lcl tl]('¡l
knr>rv thar I was a human being, and I was a kicl once roo. It's harcl ro ht: ;r kirl.
and I a)ways rold them that.
As a college art student Callahan had realized that she achieved llt:r
b,est resu'lt^s when she saw a connection between herself and hr:r wr¡r.k.
When her work was not tied to her orvn cxperiences in soole wav, she
was not motivated to learn. "Itwould have no meaning for me," shc re-
calis. Today all trer teaching decisions are gr_rided l¡v that nne prernise:
thirr ni: matrer horv old stud.ents ¡rre or what their abilities, each stlrdenr
rnusr. find something of "me"-somerhing of rhar student's self*in the
clrrriculum.
Confirmation ¿nd Dialogue
-\ls. Call"llrrn's rccollectit-¡ns ol her orvn ea.¡ lv sch<¡ol experiences macic
her sensitir,e tr: her students'neecls. For example, she remembered rlrilt
\
T\i/o Stor¡es of Caring ln Teachlng 191
she h:.rrl tlillir:rrlty each ¡nornir^rg getting focuserl on schoo[. ,,I remenr-
ber nryscli," slre savs, "coming frr:m a rather stormy home, the lack of
corrc:rnt|irrion. thinking about what went on at home. I couldn't liar..e
carc(l lclis ;rlt<irrr capitalizing the pronoun 'L"'
Tt¡ t'us. sturle¡rts'transition from home tr: schr¡ol, lvfs. callahan in-
vites thr:r¡t t.() (liscr.rs.s, ¡lrivirtely and in conñdence, anything they want tc)
talk lb<.rrrt, rlrrring ir rlai11'session she calls "talk time." shc knorvs thiir ail-
dressirrg.srrrrit'nt.s'concerns early in the clay en¡rbles thcm to turn thr:ir
atrenlio¡l rrrorc qrriclilv tr'l the tasks at hand. The riLr-ral of ralk time scr.s
[he stug. t:rrr'1r cla], lor nreaningful studcnt learrring. callahan's carint
Irllpr',,:r('lr 1,,\vil¡rl lt(.t slrl(icnl,s is r rc;rr.tir¡n t(, r,cg.lLi\.c esperiences in
lrcl r¡wrr.lrilrlh«rr"lrl. r¡hcn teachers t¿r]kec1 to her i, an inrusive, con-
t¡'ivt'ri l:r;rnlrt,r.'li,ri:rr slit.conscir)ltsl\ \rr.i\('i [,r¡ ,r l,,,sirirc. sr-rppr¡¡¡i1¡.
anrl g,,rrrritrr: r.L,lltirirrsitip rvirh her strrdents.
N[s, (l:rl]rrlrrrn ht'lit'r'cs r.hnI fr:crrsing on ench inrli.,,ic-lr.ral's talents help.s
str,trlt'tlts Ijrrrt thr'jr ()!\'¡ l)csL sclves. Slre allcl hrr sIrrr]ents olten cli.scuss
tllt'n t.rl,'nrr:
"l tlrink I )rirv. t:rl.lrr irr ¿rt." lnli, l rlirl sr:ch and srrt:h;lt llc¡rne,,,or.,,I en-
]ovcrl tltcst' tr'¡rls of l)iclrrres thrr r,',rrr rhorver-i nrr,:.' h'e grr ll it ['r-or:r rh:rt;lngle,
Ilcr:ltr¡s. rllt'r k¡r.rv tlr.rr'r rlir:;rnglc Inrn srressing irr rhtl classroorn. Appaleiirl.
iL clir:ks rvitil tllr'rrr rlrr'r.'l-her, lr¡ok rvirhin thornsehr:s ro sce t,h;,¡r cheii r¡lenrs
are, u,ll;rt Iltr',,, lrktt t() (l¡), irnd rviiirt t.llr.]r'n§:eci to dO ru gcr sorne hell: [o do some
nlr.rrc. Ilr¡rlrlitig:trtists (:{)r¡, tr) r.rlk t,r rnc bet:.rr.lsc t,}rt:r,knolr,thai I rvls in al.t
bcti:rrr' (rrrllrilrg "I')rr'r' rhink rhlr is rerliv nc.:rt. thirt l rcircher lvho isrr'I. in rhe ar.r
rc r¡ltt r:lri t1¡'lrv,
\ls. (.,ril.rll:rn rlics t,, lr,:111 c:r, lr sLu,Icrll i¡l lrcr cl.issr.,)()lrt 'Lo filLrl hinr-
self ol lrr:r'sr'll in ltllrs r:1 r.r,h:rr rhev're ab<¡rir, lr,l¡lt thel're good a¡, what
thev r:an rlr, iirrrl ,n'h.rt's irnp()r'tlrnr. ro rhem." She has nevcr haci a seL for-
muia firr irclping slrrr'lt:¡rrs fintl Lht:ir best scl,,es. Rarher, she encor:ragcs
them to lollow rhcir clreum.s. Shc-: rclls them th:rt thcv can do :rnd have
tirings irr lili: that rhr^v mav rhink :lre nor pnssiblr:.
Whilc licl¡:ing l)ei srudcnr"s ro ñnci rhc,:ir besr selves. IVIs. Callahan
sha.res hcr owtr sclf n,ith tl'rem, Shc tclls them aborrr Ir(jr L,xPcri(lnces;ls
a child ¡ncl lrs a cr.lnrmcrci¿rl artist., al;out. her tllen[s lL¡rd int.r:rests, ¡¡lrl
abor¡t r.hc pr:t:ple wlro ht:lped her clrrrins vari¡lrs st:iges of her life. Bv
confirJing in trer str-rrlents, ñf.s. (lallahan encoLrrages rhenr ro conllde in
her. She ho¡.res her studenrs pcrceirre her ¿Ls l pcrson whorn thcv can
talk to ancl a person iv'ho rvill reaily listen.
Constructivist Te:c. inq
Ill hcr' first retr oI tr':tt lrrrig \l:. ( .lri]allan consirlerecl r..rr ir¡ris esrabli.hrcl
mcth.c'ls ol ¡eaching vorrng chi)tlren ro r.r-ire. such as rot.e learning,

192 Jam€s G. Henderson
copying, dictarion, and sounding our lerrers, Guided by her philosophy
of "unless it's me in that work, what good is ir?" she rejected all these
nrethods. She chose instead to have frrst-grade students write about the
bal.¡r'ish things they used to do.
The students generarcd their own ideas following her examples. Each
stucient gathered ideas, and she helped them v"ith writing and speiling.
'l hey lealne<1 how ro write a rough draft and proofread one another's
prpers. Using samples from the library, r\Is. Callahan showed them dif-
lerent rvays to make a book containing rheir own texrs ancl illustrations.
They had a vehicle fbr srrucrure in which thev could srarr ro write, plus they
.o.rÍ.:1 b.irrg in their own experience. Because I felt if we were nor trliing about
orLrselvcs, who would care to write?
)Is. Callahan recalis some of her srudenrs' wrirings: "I used to think
babies f'ell oL.rt of the air. I used ro rhink thar God was sneezing when
rhel'e rvas rhunder. I usecl to tirink there was a little man in the rad.io talk-
ing." The class deiighred in rhc fact rhat one idea was funnier fhan the
other. The students ¡n,ere excired about rheir initial wriring experiences
because "these were all things thar came our of their 1ives." lvls. Caila-
l-ran haci founcl a'c,rnncction bcnveen thc school's curriculum a¡rd each
srudent'.s self.
.\[aura Callahan has often had ro c]roose between reaching in a "book-
istr iormat" ancl teaching 'rvithi, rhe rerlm rrf rhe worid rhaithev know."
She stea<lIastlv has chosen rhe larter.
Anvthing that I ever taLrght, I've alw'avs rried to see rvher it would mean in rerms
ol' the ir dav-ro-day lifr. B«:cause I really don't be lieve that it wouici mean anv-
thrng to []teln unless il wirs cr)nn(rtcd.
'lhe
rvav she accompiishes this is "totailv mv own way" and never through
prepackaged matcrials. When she teaches rhyming couplets, for ex-
arnple; "there I am. wrrh the kids, a hu¡rk of paper, and a bag of markers.l,
Together they create couplers using the srudent'' suggestions. ,A lot of
it is f¡om rheir da,v-to-dal' lives," Nfs. Callahan nores, ,,and [hat's thar.,,
As a reuer--tive rcacher \Is. cailahan relates subject marter to her sru-
dent's experiences, needs, and inreresrs. in her ñfrh-grade language arts
class she draws on her students' famiiiarity wi¡h commerciJ advertis-
ing to teach persuasive writing techniques. hirst .he asks stud.enrs to list
their favorire televisron commercials. she selecr a few examples to ana-
l1,ze wirtr rhe class. lv{s.tlallahan descnbes their reaction:
It's averv intere strng experience, because they are extremelv enthusiastic about
this. !!e talk abour what it actuarlv means ro'persuade soáebody to do some-
L
TWo Storles of Carlng lñ Teachlng 19,
i
iL
rhing. I have them bring in rhe ads bccause rhis is one of rlrc most ob,,ious l
forms of persuasion. I have rhem think about how vou explarn ro your morher
why you need to buy a certain thing, or why she shoulcl drive you to a baseball
game. What you're trving to do is to change somebodv's mind. They acrually
anahze their own kind ofstraregies in conversations that way.Then I say, "how
would you like to rnake your o!!Tr commercia.l?" They get very excited, because I
chis is one thing thev've never done.
\ls. Callahan encourages her srudenu [o crcate an innovarive prcrd.uct
of their own. Students analyze and carry out a.ll the steps of a presenra-
rion to make people want the product.'Ihey ñrite scripts and work or_rt
illustrations. Then Ms. Caliahan guides rhem in purring it all rogerher.
They deliver the presentation themselves, on tape, so rhat they learn
about voiee, inflection, and how to address a group. "lVe end up with
the most wonderlul back-to-back ads sirolv rhar you would ever wanr ro
see," deciares NIs. C¿rllahan.
To judge the effectiveness of her merirods, NIs. Callahan observes sru-
dents'reacdons in class. Her class is always noisy, filled wirh laughter
ald fun. It is loud "with a purpose," she explains. "I'm always looking
lor something I can make their own."
I used to see in our reading lab situations with teachers who ¡re verv rnuch bv
thc bo<¡k and lbr the bt¡ok. Tlre kids used ro sit rhere like burnps on a 1og. Ce t
soorebodv with a rnore creative bent, who connecrs the learning experience to
the kids'real iives, a¡d vou'd have the same kids literally jumping on desks-
much to the chagrin ol those other teachers, who w.ould complain abour the
noise. But thar's horv I've alwavs judged ir.
NIs. C¿Lllahan makes a distinction between teaching mcrhods rhar are
both iun and meaninglul and those thar involve "puiling a rabbit oLrt of
a hat," or fun rhat does nor sustain anv meaning{ul learning. Examples
of the latter include such activities as work sheeb or games [har kccp
kids br-rsy bur don'r help them learn.
I've seen children dance , clap, and jump up and dow¡ wirh te¡chcrs who pull
rabbirs out of hats. Those are the types of lessons and experiences in scliool
that may be tun for awhile, bur it's norhing rhar continues on, or realiy reaches
anything in a meaningful wa1,.
NIs. C¿ülahan notes that many new teachers have learned ptenty of
"rabbit-out-of-the-har rechniques" in their methods classes. She sug-
gests lhat teachers need to evaluate the purpose of such acriüties be[ore
using rhem.
 \
Two Storie¡ of Caring ln Teaching I
194 Jame¡ G' HenderSoñ
the i¡ltt'tltt tiorl with llarents, :rnd. trving to look at chilrlrc¡l holistir allr"
Aft istic Problem-solving was scr:orrrl nrt.ure t() me, t¡ecause this is rvhat happens in:r private
rnanY nt¡dt:
Her 6 years of teaching have not been wirhout challenges. lfs. Cali:rlr;rn schr:()1,"'l'lrt" ¡rarenrs rvantecl rheir cirildren tc¡ be there, and
ñrr;rncilrl sur:rifices tr: enabie tirem to.att.end thar schor:l Teachers ancl
recalls ilfark, her first learning disabted student to be mainstreamt:cl fr>r
Dal.(:rrts slr;r¡'r.ri tltc cr:tTlnlr¡n goal of ecluczrti¡g t|e chil{lcn ln tirc prrb-
reacling. Even though he did well in thc reading grouP, he would re'
turn to class emotionally drained, and he sometimes became vir:lcnt. i,¡,;6fror:1, sr)r'n('(-()l)('.rgr.tes lotttld \ls, Callah¡rn's lr:c-us on ¡:lrrent-teachc'r
jvfs. Callahan spoke to the reading teacher and to lvlark, brrt w¿r.s t.rnable relltt i,,trslril rs I tttttstt:tl
to idenrif_v rhe problem. She therr contacted Nfark's mother. wlto rlt:-
Buf ltxrkirr¡¡;rt rlie.hil,-ll-r,il lltrl therl'll,'t:<ls. I rtalizt'cl in¡mecliatelvtirethat
I
siribecl ivlark's Lrnusual behavior at home. Every morning lvfark rvorrlrl ][osr of
.,r,irAr'', rl,,'tlris jr ¡ wiilr,rrrr tiic help ol'a1l oI fhosu ¡lrrc:nts. kic]s
srare at himsell in the bath¡or¡m mirror and say he hated school, Ilis (arne [j"0t¡r sirrglc-J:lrrL,ilt lt()rn(:s, I got to knr¡r-v ¿ Iot:r])ot.t[ \\'h:Lt wcnt oll ortt
appetite was decreasing and his temper tantrums at home wcrtl growitrg áf'sr:h,t,,1. I kr.,ri* rlh,,r,,r!..rs nó wa.\'"¡1.¡ si'fiooi crttlcl Irtearl eity'rhrng
uttless w,:
more frequenc. !vrr(: rtll itt llris togr'tltr:r
c)n tire basis o[ whar she had learned, Nfs. caliaharr clt:r.:iricrrl l.() t.r1kc
a lou,-kev apprr:ach ar school. one day when sl're Ic¡rrnt:] Nfuk hitrirrg I.',¡r.:J,tlrg ¡¡¡ tUrtr'lt 11¡rr1 {lt¡tlr'l)lt It'llt'lrls ii ll/)l r''rs\' \l'' ¡ '1ll'¡11 1¡¡
rrliItr
another stuclent. during recess, lts. Callahan eml¡rlcecl hinl arlci srlicl, Sttvi ill ¡¡.l1r,rl l¡tlil t) {)() p.rrr. llrrrl iiivirfs pilri:rtt.s l'ilr'iltfitlrt¡:ri ntt:tltinq\,
,,I know thar yr:u're real1y hurting inside, lvfark. sor¡cthing is br¡lhcr-
Slrit is lorrvirrt:t rl tltlit tltt' cxtr'.i r,'l'l-rit t- is \\rr)l th it \!'irlt pirrctlts' c()opilrli-
ing vou, arrcl I',m nor sure wt:ar it is." she conlilrlrc(i this srtppcirtirt:, Iir.rtt, sltc lrclicvr's, ;rttr ¡troble tl-t t ln bc ¡'esr¡lvt¡tl'
nonjlrclgrne¡tal approacir ancl consulted freqr-renrly rvith Nlark's t-rlolher.
Eveitu;rliy tl-rey riiscovered that Mark was upseI bcclluse sLucicnrs in tlle I «rl1 t.lrr: l),ll('rlt5. "\irrt ¡L: hr:re lttrt.l l ln llt:rt, rr.tl t-lt¡t rtork rhis oLrt.
\\'c c;rn tl¡;
rrainstream class hacl ridiculecl him for his weight and his clltmsilress iL." lt rcrlirir','s g('ltinf{ to kllotv r}tc prtrents ar.rri btriltiil.rg l Llrstinq r,rletiorrslt i1r

in gym class. N[;rrk feared he would never.have an' frierrcls in tht' nt'w willt tllt'r¡1.
classroom.
Relieved that studenls were not stigmatizing him because oL his learn- NIs. (llrllrrltlilt not(r(I t.hlt plrt:ncs citgernc-ss Io Providc the best' filr'
ing clis;rbilities, NIs. cail¿rhan continued to of[er iv-lark hcr strpport. she thtir r:lrilrlt.l,n srtmr:lirttt:s sc(lms to backfire. Ntrmerotts prlrenrs htlld ser--
helpeci him realize ttrat his violent reactions would noI nrakc stuclent"s ond.j()hs t() lr,tl¡t ¡lur, i"Or nrrrsir: lesso¡rs, §p()rls erirripmctrt, fashionlhlt:
cl«rthcs, irtrrl tlrtr iikc. \\'itil all thc rr:r'ivitit:" ancl.lol:s, horvr:ver'
sonle f:rtrri-
tiUe nim berter. In time, Mark was able to make friends in the new class.
lies ¡lv(.f l¡¡,c ¡h,: Iilltc ¡o eat ír lne:ll ¡ogetl'l.l'. !;lmilit:s are phvsical]\'
once he knew that his classmares really dici ca-re ¿rboLIt him, his aggrcs- no onc thev i'ee1 tiiev
elt)()t.i()¡rllv [i.a¡,;rrtr:nt(r(1, ¡.11d soñte kids have
sive hehaüors ceased.
'tncl
can rcirllv r:orrfirlc ilt. In aclcliri()11, \Is. c¿rlllh:ln lvirtrics thitL consIitl'tl
A less caring teacher might have handled this situation qi-rite c1iffer- L-r'eativitl''
orgirüized act-ivitiL:s stiflt.:s st.r.tdcrl[s'IlaItlrirl
enrLv. Insteacl of looking for the cause of Nfark's problern, she. n.right shutrling lrurotrll
have punished him fo|the svmptom-aggressive behavior*and ostra-
Srrrr:, rht'y rrtight bt: l,'lrruilig ho\\'(o clal)crl or srvinr' lrrLt i think rlle\ :rlt l(-'lltl-
cizeci him even further. Perhaps this situarion wr¡uld tr;rve clllnrin¿rted
i"g h.* rirrt ui'h:ive ()nr irnil;ine(jvt l¡r)rtc in rlrt,:i¡.ltodir's, or L() dreJnl, or to ltlil
in ltark's removal from the mainstrearn class. Such disciplinarv acti,rn .rianrl wnt,:h il L:krrui ¡;,, bvlikc I rrsed [o cir>. I rlli¡rk r"hc slltlt.t]irlg krnri r:f cirrils
wOulci have been easv and convenient for the Ceacher, but it w(¡uid have their al:ilitv t() gct in tir,.rctt tsith thrIt. crr-'ative palt' oI thcmselves'
been a ser.ious dissenice ro Mark. Instead !ls. caliahan gathered infor-
marion, reflected on rhe sirnarion, and made the decision to sl.lpport Siudents nre s() ilccL¡sl'omecl t.o strllctLlre ancl organization that thcv ilre
trer .srudent in overcr:ming his problem and moving one steP closer to unable t.o rcspond cr(latively when no sü"llcture is llrovirled. Insreacl,tllt-v
express ho.cáorn an(l r desire to be entertaint-:d. Fr¡rrLtnarcly' \[s.
his own best self. Cirll,-
han was surprised to cliscover. it is not. difhculr. to scinlulate rheir irllLli-
nir t iolls,
Coopeiative Practice
\ls. callrhan encoLlrages stronq parenr-tcacher rcl:rri,rlrships, r pr'.rcricc I think eve¡-r'thing I d,r and rhc rr':l I r1o it. rs so diflere¡1¡ [i'rlfi anvthing t]re\'
she esta)¡lisired during her eartv vears iu the Catholic school. "Il.rvirrq h;rve seell rr ¡ sr^ñr¡,-)il,¡r¡nl t.hlr I..tm rtltv appeelirlg to lhem \\rith votrng chil-

lqtb James G. Henderson
rlrcn, if rhe,v like the teacher, they'll go al,)ng with vou. Once they're in your
por!e r you can turn them on to the Power within themseives'
l_ventuall,v studen[s carry their excitement abour classroom learning to
rheir out-of-sc}"r,¡t¡i lives. They begin to talk about school wiilr enthusi-
¿rsrrl and share tireir schoolwork with their parents. In turn, Parents visit
lhc classrooü1 to see why their chilclren are so exci[ed about school.
Sertrng and Achieving Personcll-Professional Goals
I-lorv ditl NIs. Callahan develop the agiiitv to meet administrative criterla
rvithout sacriiicing her owrr teachir.rg values and philosophv? She feels
thar cr..¡nfidence iri herself and hcr goais was the kev.
I know I altr a gc-r,.:cl reacirer, and I'm conliderlt about what I'm doing. If the
p|incipal walks to nry roort), I ;ur able to explain rhe rationale for what I am
iioir'rg. I'm not fearful. I'm no¡ fear-ful because I beiieve i.n mv teaching, and I
believe rhor I can provrde a r¿rtionale th¡t in sorrte way wili be compatible with
tlrc,'lbjr,'tives ot' tiLe district.
Shc aci¡nits thnr'riris confidence is not handed out along with your de-
gree. It requires hard rvork, careful self-evaluatron, and a willingness to
arlapt. Unlbrtunatelv many pre-service leacher education Programs lail
to ¡-lrovide students an opportrlnitv for reflection. She advocates a more
,liversirieLl rpproa( l).
lVe may have to tlirorv out (he teacher manual and lr:ok for each Person'§ "raw
material." We need to recognize the people involved ere lhe Primary source, not
so¡nc b<¡ok. A stlong sense of reflectit¡n within one s own experiences, within
one's own curriculum. is what brings a person to the retüizaüon that "unless I
am m thi-s, it's not going to have any significant value to me at all." tf anything
is re:r111- going to stick or take piace or have an effect, then it has to come from
within. Th¿¡¡'s a beiiel a tcacher must have. ,{nd unlcss that belief is conscious,
there will be no eviclence r:f it in practice.
'fhe structure of'rnany educarional institutions does not encourage re-
flccrion. Instearl, Nfs. Callahan note§, the institutions require peoPle to
play garnes-"games within classrooms at school, games to obtain cre-
dentia"ls, and ga.mes to satisfy the expectations of rhe district." Having
to play such games clouds a person's own philosophy.
lVe walrz around in this cloud of denial, in this cloud of artiñciality that is not
as passive a thing as we rhink it is. It's destrr:ying the chance to really speak the
truth, an<i t<¡ iderrrifv the problenr, as we pretend that it doesn't e;xist.
Two Storles of Carlng in Tcachlng lg7
lv{s.callahan §trives for a return to reality. "I"think thal more kids can
be reacheci bv getting down to the nuts and bolts ' ' to
what really is
last-whenwe learn anything in
goirlg to matiei whal really is going to
many school districts, ho*eutr, teachers are exPected to simply
ilL.':t.,
own. In
follow the p'nitosoptry imposed from above rathel than their
(tblS) book Tñ¿ t)[an i'n the Pnncipal's Ofice he states'
Harr,v Wolcott's
,,There are no individual philosophies i¡r a school district, there is only
one ltop-down] phiiosopt]y, the rest are merely attitlrdes"'
Whenareacher'sownphiiosophv,whichlbeheveshouldbetheguidingfr:rce'
i, redrc.¿ to a mere attitude,'wé have a very serious prob-lem l've seen lt' oc-
many
to death bv an atti.¡rde' When I read that s[atement'
food teache.s pr.rt
attemPt has been' in a sense' our own
Zurred to me that our organized learning
de:rth r.arr':Lnt. t ?9Ü,
!\:henteacherswhoknolvwhat,st.udent'sareinterestedinandwould
Iike to Pursue or teach something else instead' both teuchers
and stu-
denmendupleaciingadoubleliie.i\Is.Ca]Iahanadamantlyrefusestcl
of
do rhis. she a¡tributes her success as a leacher lo her philosophv
"always stnvrng fbr the realitv to come through" ln her classr<lr¡m'
Eugene Meyers: Celebrating Students, Friendt for Life
Eugene \levers is a veteran of 2l years o[ ieachirlg Hc teughr for
10]ears in primariiv black schools in Chicago' Eleven years ago he
rr,as reassignl¿ to his currenr locadon. a raclall,v balanced school
in
an inregra"red area. lvlr. Meyers teaches Engiish to academically tal-
enred sJrenrh- ancl eighth-gracte students. He also teaches independent
srudies in literature and c¡eative writing to juniors and seniors.
Consrructlng Personai-Professional KnowleCge
Llnlike lvfaura Callahan, who conscientiously applied her insights abor-rt
her own learning ro her teaching, Eugene lvleyers began teaching with-
our a clear idea óf rhe rype of reacher he wa.ted to become. At first, he
recalls, his greatesr concern was mainraining control of the class.
I always used ro chink my oprions wereeither to have ev€r,vone sitting behind a
desk ór to have C.liuenaire rods flying all over the place. I-ater I learne.d there
was a way for me to have sufficierit cóntrol over the dynamics to be able to go
where i *'urrted to go and teach my students in a much more real way'
Fie was insprred by visions of caring reaching pornaved in movres and
books froni ¡he 1960s, such as Sidney Poitier's character in To Sir uith

t98 James G. Henderson
L¿ru¿. Bnt he quickly discoverecl tliat it was impossible to emLLlarc sonrr,-
one else's stvie olr'eaching. "!'otL can'r be someb,rclv else." he says. lVhar
jvou.can do, however, is work on developing,vour orlTl personal teachirrg
quaJities, values, and be liefs.
Er-rgene Nfeyers struggled with the same issues you are mosr likcry
to strugule with, such as developing successful problerrr-solvi,rg, c,r,,l-
riculnm, and clas.srr¡om management strategies. I,.[e bcg.¡n his teaclrirrg
career w"irh the srandard knowledge of educatiolral rireor\, anci rl]t,rh-
ods, as rvell as his i¡wrr romanticized images of tc-aching. 1hr.r:uglr his
classroom experiences and interactir:ns with other rcachers, l\f r. \,[,.r,.r:r.s
began to clevelop approaches that rvorked,"ve-.ll for hirn. [[r,: consr.r.\]ct(.(i
his or,vn personal-prolessir:nal knowleclge as he wr:r'rri rhis rlcr.clo¡r¡rur.r-
tai process n,as slr rv and difficulr, [-o.king h¿rck hi: ohse^,t.s, "'li,ricliitrg
is a *onclerfi-il prof'ession, buL nr> wav is it easr.. \or¡ hrvc tr) ilr'r_.iril r,ll,it
ki^cl .f teacher vou rvant lo be, ancl then'orr ha'r,tr; rvrrrk:u ir."
Nlr-. Nlevers's te;rching strategies evolved over;t l0-,,.c:rr
¡:t:r.rrirl. [.'rrr
exarnple, in his earlv teacl-rirrg vears vfr. l\fr:r.'ers nn.l(lrnlv glrr..c vnn-
ous kinds r:f assignments. some of rhem worker.l, ilnrl sor-nc dirl not . Ile
beg:rn to r-rotice rhat certain kinds of assignrnenr.s \\,(:rc rrlr)rr t fli,criyr.r
tiran ochers. He also noticed that his obsen,ations.rbrrur erlcr:rivr::.r.ssisn-
menrs crrulcl l-reip him find better l\'ays tc) achieve ¡c¡dcnlic gi)nls.
lr.struck me Lhat, jr.rst as I likerl to t:rlk ebour mvseif, str.rclt:nis qer rnosl irlr,olycrl
when thev re talking abour themseives. lvriting makes one f eei uery r.:l¡reml¡le.
Thc:¡,rre involvecl Lhe writer is in the writing. tllc mor- rvilling h,:,)r slrc i\ ro
l(rlerarr th,rt rnrlnerairrlirr'.
Constr-crjvisr fe¿cning
Although ivlr. lvlevers sers traditional academic goars hrr his slr.rcienrs,
he acllieves rhose goals bv intcgraring his str-rrlentr'Iif,,"*p",.ienc.s inro
thc' classroorn. He conclurled long ago that if sclrooi is se parare c1 fri.rrn
a chiicl's 1ife, ir is pointless.
I think the reason schooling is sonterimes irrelevant to stucienrs is nr¡ r¡ne shor,¡s
them its inregration.The more we can integrate school and the rell rvorid, tlle
more learning will acruallv ger inside them. Through subject mzrtrer wc're help-
ing them '.rr:tr:.alize themseh,es. If drawing on these other aspects r:[, rheir lir,és
helps them ger the skills rhev need, then thev shoirld bring thr>se aspecrs i.tr)
the classror:m. we have to provide them wrth avenlles tri bring thenl into the
classrnom.
For exarñ¡:le. he reactie.s gramnl.tr in a pr:rctical. problcrrr-.sohing
sr¡lclerrts bring in what thev perr:ei'e as arvkr,r,¿rrc-l se nrenccs or g'ra¡nnl¿rii-
cei errors fiom newsp:rpers. teler.ision, or radio. The. rhr:n jrrsrif.'rhcrr
\
Two Storles ol Carlng in Teachlng t 99
per('rJ)ti()ils using exarnples frr¡m t-heir Orv¡r lvririrrg o| ()r..rtside solrr(:{:s,
Srrclr irrtr,:grirrion nrust t'.rke plar:e rvithin ar:¡dt'nric are¡s, ls lvr:ll.
Ri¡t.hcl than teach the traditior.ral com¡r<tnents ol English as .sep;rrarcr
strrrtt.ls, lVf r. Meyt'rs combines thern to shorv thc irrterrelationslr rps
arlt()rlg l{r'ammar, writrn¡;, and lirerature. For examplc, }re nses a wrir.-
ing lssigrrment to help stuclents grasp thc literary corlcept oi'point
o['vicrv.'lht:n strulents rewrite it as an atrtobioeraphical storl, frorn a
first-pt'rson point,rf vierv. Strrdents erpericrrcc ñrsl-hand the strengrhs
anti li¡rritrrtiotts of narrativc pelspcctivc, -l-hcv llso begirr to ciclclo¡:
;ut lll¡rlt'r'i:itiotr rrt llsvcholr>gir:ll elcnrc¡lt.s srrc:h a-s cnloti()nel c"list¿rnce,
Krr,ru,irt( ho.,v llrrrlJuage w',rrk.s in cert:rin sitrnrtiLrns ¡rllolvs strrdents tr¡
re:rrl in il lll{)r'c irtvrlllcrl rr.'1v..\nd irrvr¡ivcrl reirrl(:rs usrrrllv beci¡mc lifit-
lortg r',';r,llr'i,
T(¡;ral l, ,r ', ,l¡rJ :)f L rr.l(tnlS Peri.-.n.--¡l Plrpcsr:s
Rr'rrrlirrg, rlist:trssilr{, lrrtrl triring lb,-,ttt. lrt,:rattrlc h:rr.'r: ¡rlr'¡ti.icr beric'fit.
l,rr¡4lislr is;t srrlrjt:r't tllrt,rsks us l'ir,rt. ir r-n¡l¡rs io l-;t: hrrni:rn. If it s tlLrgitt rv,'ll,
il.'s rt t'r'rl irrlitirtg srrirjrrr:t. lt rtsks trs u,lrilt il ¡nr:tns to lte.rlir,e, ro ilt,)urst'hrts. l1
lrllows tts to fl.cr.,lrr t:rik:rbr ut things likrl oLrr 1e:rr i:1 dc:tt lr, orrr litrr oi llrlliltq irr
lrrvr:, thrr r:onljrsiorr rt bt:ing in lt¡r,c, in the t:onrexr L¡l lfanicl¡r llonuo ui.fulirt.
In on(] scils0 it t)(..ollt{tri vr:rv riskv rvhen vorr'::e n'r'iring:¡bolrt it, bnt in lnot}¡cr
sertsc it's kind of prrirectir,e, l¡ecatLsr': you're relking eb,'rrrtvours.:lf lhrotrgir rrt1t,'r,
¡lt',i¡rlr:.
Cleltt.ive,"vritlrrg of li',rs stucle rtts:tttt)ther oPpcirtrtnirr tr-r t:ilk ¡br-rr,it tlrtlnr-
sr:lr,rs. Nfr'. i\[t':1'ers er-nphasizes to his.st.uclcnts t]r¡t thcv cre:r[e ¿]n .ltnl()-
siphcr'c orrt o{'t,heir olwr t.:xpt'r'icnr:es. "Y<lu're thc go<1 of your o\!'n st()r\/,"
he tclls thern. Tht'r,,rvri¡e lilr thc¡nselves ani] firr cat:h orhcr, nor )usr t.()
conr pl('l (: :i r'llr'srr,, )rr ) :.rss i,Jn nr,"n r.
;\lthr;rrgl-r his students illrv not l<;ve Ilnglislr,lle is r.:r:nficlcrlt thut f I1r\,
fcel r:loscr t.rl ir tr,:causc tlrev appr,:,ach it thr-orrfh th,'ir r¡wn Iifc ex-
pericnces. "ll l'orL givt: srrrritnls a.ssignrncnts rhat lt:t thcnr talk el¡tltrt
thcrtsclvcs," hc cxplains, "thc kirls fbcl molc nf l c,rnltrritnrcnt t() tilc
assignmt:nt, to vor-r, l¡rd to t,h¡t vou'rc tczrchirrg."
Ir.ncouraging str.Ldcnts to express thcir irlea.s abr¡rrt rvhat. thcv rt:ad
helps thern beconre lil'elons reraclers. "'I'trev rrrlk abor.rt idces," he savs.
"bec:trrse I llake i.le¡s erciring tr.l r:r)k ehorit.' J{,t»tl,;t. for txurrtp),:. is
not a work rnost tr'enagers come to eagerly, hrrt he enables t.hem t() §ee
of thenrselves in the pro[agonist. \[r, \fevers leca]ls a dis-
sonret.l-ring
,,i,ar.. cussion abor-rt Flarrlet l>elieving in lhe ider r:f ¡rlor.icicnce anrl oI Cori.
One stlrtlenl trrnrcrl to hinl antl asked plairrtir"clv. '\!'e11. do ),()tl believe
in then¡?"
2OO James G. Henderson
I think he didn't want Flarnlet to have such ¡n easv answer, because he himself
d.idn'r believe in it. I said to him, "No, I don't. I'm n,:t that happy a person that
I think there's a fi¡ture that God has planned out. I don't see life as that orga-
nized and that wonderful, but I'd be verv happv if I did." I thought it was loveiy
lhat he was able to ask me that in that kind o1 a voice. This kid was really think-
in¡J, "Cec, I hope that therc's somebod¡' out rhere who's as hopelessly lost as I
:L¡n." And of course I was. So it was a relief lor him.
Educarronal lnquiry
lc¡ enrich his teaching lvlr. Ivleyers turns to his owr-r interesls in literature,
nrr-rsic, art, ancl theater fbr inspiratir:n. He designed a course, lbr ex-
.'rnrple, that lbcuscs on holr, iiterarv patterns change in different media.
S[uilents study a literary work that has been m¿rde into a movie, tele-
visit-,n prograrn, ba1let, opera, or svmphonv. The students themselves
are a great resource as rveil.
This kind of energv and experiences and irrlormation that students bring is phe-
nomenal. If you wrre to read the str:ries. . . thcir knr:wiedge of m¿rterial that is
not tanghr in school, cuirural things, like iif'e in other countries, what it's iike
[o bc a darrcer, what it's like to plav the hlrp. I don t rnean naturallv be good
¡t bascbiril and piik LrD a telrn. J'lieir sense o1'cor:rr:ritme rrt to :rctrvitv is more
extensive tharr nrc¡sr childrcn I ve taught elscrvhere, bec.ruse thev have experi-
.-nced the emolir:nal co¡n¡nitntent to doing something over an extended period
,;f ti¡ne. \Vhether it's a balier class or s\v1m [eafll or choir. thev're more in rouch
wrth their own eüorions. I think rhev tencl tt¡ understand iiterature better, and
in ther¡'orvn writing tirey porrrilv enrotions morc üvid11,.
Áftrstrc Prcblem Solving
\iost students like the reacher more than the subject matrer, iVIr. lvleyers
suspecrts. "If vou knert thar your teacher c'.rred about you, you would
iike his class, and hinl." Occasionaily he encoun[ers a student who does
n()t easil_v accept hirn or the class. A vorlngster in his class a [ew years
dgr: was aJiaid ro'participate in class discussions, but did average work
on his inclivici.ual wr'ittcn assignments. He couldn'r talk abour himself
;rloud, but he bcgan to do so through his w'riring. lv{r. lvleyers's accep-
turce and support enabled this studenr ro express in w.riting his feelings
abr:ut a lirer ary work. 1¡r turn, this student had a profound influe nce on
\fr'. \[evcrs.
NL>r€ than arrv studenr i've ever had, this was /¡¡) chilci. I really seemed to have
nrrrtuled somerhinB goocl, something important in him. There's more to the
world than just marh and science, and I mea¡ math and science as a metaphor
fur this sort of right worid ol rules. One of mv besr experiences was with this kid.
TWo Storles ol Carlng ln Teaching 2ol
lvfr. Nfeyers continues to help those students who are more vulner.able
bring sámerhing of themselves into their work. "They sometimes don't
do ii exactlv the way you would expect them to, or the way everyone
else does, but they do it, in their own way," he said'
Caring
As a veteran teacher Mr. lvleyers continues to reflect on how he
inter-
acts w.ith his stuclents. He conclud.es, "I do a lot of metaphorical
sr¡rt of
he hopes they
hugging with the kinds." when stuclents leave his class,
[ake awa]'more than ju§t an appreciation of literature'
I really care abo-ut.them.. I reaily
I rhink they also iake away rhe feeling that
hop. th.y i.a.n ,,r,rrerhing about tn§Usfi. I rhink they do. I think they also
i.r'.r, so,r-r.thing about ideás, rhat ideás a:'e exciting, and thinking about ideas
is exciring.
NIr. lvfeyers rhinks rhat being a friend lo your students is worth the effort
it rakes ro cultivate that friendship while maintaining mutual resPect.
Through reflection I discovered how much mv students mean to me, as per:ple.
t spená nlv enril.e day with them. I have an investmenr in beiievrng that mv
,,ri.r.,,u are valuable, becaur. my closest co-workers in this process a¡e the chil-
dren.The relarionship you have wirh your students is yours elone.The.9 months
vou sh¿re can be an lntimatc, unique. and caring experience. Somedmes chil-
dren feel frustrared, rhere's tension, and disagree men¡, bLrt mv kid.s knorv that I
iove rhem. .tnd I love rherrr educationally, constructiveiy, and by rving t() help
them becorne more successful learners. ivly studenu know when t.hev leave mv
class that they have a friend for Iü'e.
Service
It is a misrake, Nfr. lvleyers believes, to reward ¡eachers professir:nally
and monerarilv by moving rhem inlo nonteaching, administrative posi-
tions. AlthougL he's cerrtn he would be a good administrator, he would
rather clevore his life to teaching. LIe also beliéves veteran teachers
should contribure to rhe profession by menroring novice teachers.
Mrntoring allows peopie who come our of the universitv to have somebody
there to h"elp them'witñ the whole process of acculturation into a school. lt also
allows the ,"t.."r, teachers to have contact with the university. Thel- can be in-
volved in making the study of the process of e ducation be ¡ter'
In particular, Ivfr. Ivleyers wan[s ro help beginni.ng teachers develop
child-centered classrooms, in which chiidren are involved in both the
curriculunt and the Process of educatir:n.
2O2 Jame¡ G- Hender¡on
Sonte teachers rhink ir's okay to rhrow in some occasional studenr parriciparion,
just a few crumbs. !!har I'rn saying is that rhe srudent has to be fuilv integrated
into rhe process, even into the goals of rhe process. I teach English, and mygoals
ale Engiish goals. But I know that my students want ro communicare e ffectivelv.
Once thev aámit rhat they want to communicate effectively, I trv to suggest waís
rn whicir rhey can do ¿har. Bur rhev srart out by be lieving ín thargoal, and they're
inv,::lved in the process. That's the only way rhey're going to learn anvthing.
Getting more schools ro pracrice child-centered eclucarir¡n is ciifliculr.
Institutic¡ns want to maintain the .status quo, leachers believe what they
are cloing is adequare, and boards of eclucation mistakenly think ecluca-
tional reform mllsr mean more money and smaller classes. "The1, have
to think abr:ur student involvement in the classroom and in their orrm
education," lvfr. \f eyers contends. Teachers must make stucl<,:nts' ecirrc¡r-
tion :rn integral part of their lives, nor somerhing rher's sep:rrare frorn
their real world.
Think about whv you \vant to become an eclucalor, lvlr. !leyers suq-
gests. Education is exciting, jor.fr-rl, and lulñlling. T<¡o rnanv pcr()ple enr.er
the ñeld of educarion for the wrong reasons. !\'llr:r'r rhcv cncoLutt.er
the bright studenis who are excited, rhey think r.h¡: s[rrclents arc trcirrs
trnruly, or talking back, c¡r getring off task. "lo be a goocl tc.::ichr:r,
Ivlr. N[eyers believes,.vou have to be excited ;Lbout education.
References
Noddings, Nel. i984, Caring: t\ Fnninine ,\.pproaclt. to [:th.tc.s a nd N[r¡rnl L]dura,l,it¡n.
Bcrkelev: L'nive¡sirv of Caiifr¡rnia Press.
Wolcott, I-{arrv F. 19i3. The tVan in tht Prinal:al.'s O.ffirt: \n Ethn.agraphl. New
V¡rk: Holr. Rineharr, and Wins¡on.
Chapter l3
The Phenornenology of l(nowing
the Patient
Christine A. Tanne[ Patricia Benner;
Catherine Cl-lesla, and De[:orah GorCon
Rcst:rLr«:ir t:n clirlir:;rl.jttclc..rttertt rrr rtrrlsittg has {crlt:rallv lssrtrrled tll¡t
nrlrscs lr:riuirc oltjt.rttir,'e fact.s iib<.rul rhr:it pali¿,:trLs rvcll-llr:ilrg, as rveLl a-r
obtlin spt:cific itrlirr nrirtio¡r ¡b,rrrt their pltri.-'nts' s,lcial ¡rlil flLrlilv hisrr:-
rit:s, lvli,s rrl crl¡rinu u'ith rrrtd rrr:rnagirrg tirtrir illlress. irnr:l sr) on (Telrncr
19ii7l Cot'cr>r'¡n l98ri). T"his firrrn¡ljzr:cl ;rrrrl rx¡:lir:it irt.firrnt¿ltir¡tr is tts¡:rl
lhrr:rrf¡h cr,rrn¡:1ex t('us()ninq processes tr) i(1er1til'\' proitlcrrts ancl is.sut':s'
ilrrrl,i tlr t,¡ clcl'ei9il :r plan of crre, In r¡tlr early pilrlt rr'¡r'k cln the rr:ie ¡l'
ilrtrritiorr i¡r r:linical ;rrrlgrrent lBet-inct'auci Il:t¡rcr lg87). \vc nt tict:r-l'.1
reCrrrr'i:tg rliSCr¡ttrSt: attl()ng nttrses abottt "knr¡r.'ing tl'tC p:rticltt"*:r rtll"-
eren(te [() ll()w the',,unric'rsto,;d the plliertt, graspcrl llte nlcaning oi "r
sittrati<>n ii¡r the palient, or recogttizeci Ircecl firr n plrticttllr actirlll. 1n
expert rrursirrg pra( tice, this kinci 9f kn6u'irrq is verv diffi:rr:nt llorn the
forrnlrlized. explicit. rlccorttextlLlrliz-et1, rlata-biLsed kllcilvleclge thlrt con-
Stitutcs tbrrlal :rssessmenls, yet it is central to skilled clrnical .judgmcni
I¡r our C:LtrreÍtt strrrlv of the cler.'eloprnenI Of expert.ist-'irl cl'itic¡l cll¡e
br: ¡ celtlrlil
nursing practice. knoruing rhe patitlnL h¡s cr¡rllitltteci to -Ilre
thenrc in nurScS ercrvday clisct¡urse irhrluI t[rcit pracr.icc. ¡lrrpostr
ot this ;trricle is tr¡ clescribe anahses related to two qrleslions: (ll lVh"r¡
Thiscss¡v,slrascciñr,r,.ir,.trrh\.irrIr:.1 .)rrr .rr rh(. l)r(:I,1uI{,-.rlthS,itlteei(.lri.(r:rl .
ürh 11¿ra i¡r*rpreted L¡r sheih Kodlcir:li, \lllth;r H¡vlor, Pcggv \Vros, [)arttl D¡rrrrrii:h.
Yr:kc¡ Nakavanta, ¡ncl \f <¡nic;r Dostll. .\n e.lrlv version oi rirc u'ork rves prescnte d h! I"":lBl
wros ¡t rhc wesrern.sor:iet1.fbr Rcsearr:h irr Nursing \nuual scierrtific \lccting, lfly l9|]l
-fln¡rr:r, Bencl.-r, ( llrcsl:r, ¿rnd corclort, "l')lt:
,\n clrrlir.r vr:tsion of th,.r c jsly rpptrrecl ,ls
Phenonrenology ¡f Knor,'inq lhc Prtic]nr,' htuty: Journttlry'\irrsin¿§c/rolanhip25, { (1993):
.J73-, sup¡rorrecl b1.r grnrtr ilont lhr' Hr'ler)( li,.rl.l i ic;rlrlr J¡rtst. Rcprinted hv permission r,f
l»t,tg". f'.t.tttttt {.\l¿r\¿ ¡t' \¡-ht)1 1'\l'ti'