Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
E. Fred Schubert
The Future Chips Constellation
Department of Electrical, Computer, and Systems Engineering
Department of Physics, Applied Physics, and Astronomy
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180
Phone 518-276-8775 EFSchubert@rpi.edu www.LightEmittingDiodes.org
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Quantification of Solid-State Lighting Benefits
Energy benefits*
• 22 % of electricity used for lighting
• LED-based lighting can be 20 × more efficient than
incandescent and 5 × more efficient than fluorescent lighting
• Annual electrical energy savings 1.20 PWh (Peta = 1015)
• Alleviate need for 133 power stations
Environmental benefits*
• Reduction of CO2 emissions, 952 Mtons, global warming gas
• Reduction of SO2 emissions, acid rain
• Reduction of Hg emissions by coal-burning power plants
• Reduction of hazardous Hg in homes
Economic benefits*
• A 10% improvement of luminous efficiency could result in
financial savings of $ 20.0 Billions per year
(*) 1.0 PWh = 11.05 PBtu = 11.05 quadrillion Btu “=” 0.1731 Pg of C = 173.1 Mtons of C
1 kg of C “=” [(12 amu + 2 × 16 amu) / 12 amu] kg of CO2 = 3.667 kg of CO2
OIDA and DOE predictions for US by 2025, see also R. Haitz et al. Adv. in Solid State Physics, Physics Today 2001
Economic benefits were detailed by M. S. Shur, tutorial on solid-state lighting, 2004
Information on mercury from Associated Press article, March 15, 2005 “EPA targets utilities’ mercury pollution”
1.20 PWh energy savings and alleviated need for 133 power stations are extrapolated data for year 2025
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Solid-state lighting
Inorganic devices:
• Semiconductor plus phosphor illumination devices
• All-semiconductor-based illumination devices
Organic devices:
• Remarkable successes in low-power devices (Active matrix OLED
monitors, thin-film transistors, TFT-LCD monitors)
• Substantial effort is underway to demonstrate high-power devices
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Smart Lighting – A New Dimension
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History of LEDs
Henry J. Round
(1881 – 1966)
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Light emission in first LED
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One of the first application of LEDs
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Application for GaP:N green LEDs
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LEDs in calculators
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History of GaN blue, green, and white light emitters
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High-brightness
LEDs for outdoor
applications
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History of AlGaInP visible LEDs
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Radiative and nonradiative recombination
R=Bnp
where
• B = bimolecular recombination coefficient
• n = electron concentration
• p = hole concentration
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n = n0 + ∆n and p = p0 + ∆ p
dn dp
R = − =− = Bn p
dt dt
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Carrier decay (low excitation)
∆n(t ) = ∆n0 e − B( n0 + p0 )t
τ = [ B (n0 + p0 ) ] −1
τ carrier lifetime
B bimolecular recombination coefficient
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Radiative recombination for low-level excitation
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Recombination mechanisms
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Visualization of defects
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Shockley-Read recombination
p0 ∆n + n0 ∆p + ∆n ∆p
RSR =
(N t vpσp )−1 (n0 + n1 + ∆n) + (N t vn σn )−1 ( p0 + p1 + ∆p )
1 p0 + n0 + ∆n
=
τ (N t vpσp )−1(n0 + n1 + ∆n) + (N t vnσn )−1( p0 + p1 + ∆p )
⎛ p +n ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ E − EFi ⎞ ⎤
τi = τn0 ⎜⎜ 1 + 1 1 ⎟⎟ = τ n ⎢ 1 + cosh ⎜ T
0
⎟⎥
⎝ 2ni ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ kT ⎠⎦
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• Surface
recombination
• Surface
recombination
velocity
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Surface recombination
⎡ τ S exp (−x / L n ) ⎤
n(x) = n0 + ∆n(x) = n0 + ∆n∞ ⎢ 1 − n ⎥
⎣ Ln + τ nS ⎦
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Competition: radiative & nonradiative recombination
τ −1 = τ r −1 + τ nr −1
τ r −1
ηint =
τ r −1 + τ nr −1
τ carrier lifetime
τnr nonradiative carrier lifetime
τr radiative carrier lifetime
ηint internal quantum efficiency
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I =
⎛ Dp
eA ⎜
⎜ τp
pn 0 +
Dn
τn
⎞
⎟
(
np0 ⎟ e eV kT – 1 )
⎝ ⎠
=
⎛ Dp
eA ⎜
⎜ τp
ni2
ND
+
Dn
τn NA ⎟
(
ni2 ⎞⎟ eV kT
e –1 )
⎝ ⎠
= Is ( eeV kT – 1 )
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P-n junction band diagram
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Diode forward voltage
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eV (nideal kT)
I = Is e
V − I Rs
I − = I s e e (V − I Rs ) ( nideal kT )
Rp
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Non-ideal I-V characteristics and critical points
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I-V “Doctor”
Shockley
equation
Real diode
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I-V “Doctor”
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Carrier distribution in pn homo- and heterojunctions
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Saturation of output power due to leakage
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Electron
blocking
layer
Hole
blocking
layer
Which of
the two
would be
more
effective?
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Diode forward voltage
V = h ν / e ≈ Eg / e
Eg ∆EC − E0 ∆EV − E0
V = + I Rs + +
e e e
I Rs resistive loss
∆EC – E0 electron energy loss upon injection into quantum well
∆EV – E0 hole energy loss upon injection into quantum well
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Temperature dependence of diode voltage
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Drive circuits
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LED basics: Optical properties
number of photons emitted from active region per second Pint /(hν)
ηint = =
number of electrons injected into LED per second I /e
P
ηpower =
IV
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Emission spectrum
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Emission spectrum
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Light escape in planar LEDs
Pescape 1 ⎡ ⎛ φ 2 ⎞⎤ 1
≈ ⎢1 − ⎜ 1 − c ⎟ ⎥ = φ 2
Psource 2 ⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎦ 4 c
Pescape 1 nair 2
=
Psource 4 ns 2
Above equation gives less than 10 % extraction efficiency for typical III-V
semiconductors
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Psource nair 2
Iair = cos Φ
4π r 2 ns 2
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Far-field patterns
Die shaping
can change
emission
pattern
“Natural” LED
has a planar
surface
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Effect of epoxy
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Temperature dependence of emission intensity
Double heterostructures
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Homostructures versus double heterostructures
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Why is there a lower limit and an upper limit of the active-layer thickness
for high efficiency?
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Doping of active region
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Lattice matching
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Lattice matching
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Pseudomorphic layers
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Lattice matching
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High extraction efficiency structures
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Double heterostructures
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Shaping of LED dies
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Shaping of LED dies
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Truncated inverted pyramid (TIP) LED
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Current-spreading layer
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Current-spreading layer
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Current-spreading layer
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Current-spreading layer
Why is there a lower limit and an upper limit for the optimum thickness
of the current-spreading layer?
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Theory of current spreading
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t nideal k T
Ls =
ρ J0 e
e
t = ρ Ls2 J0
nideal kT
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Current crowding in LEDs on insulating substrates
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J ( x) = J (0) exp (− x / Ls )
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Experimental evidence of current crowding
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Transparent substrate technology
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AS versus TS technology
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Table: Refractive
TiO2 (Titania) 2.50 > 0.35 µm
index and
transparency range
Si3N4 2.00 > 0.25 µm
of common
dielectrics suitable as
anti-reflection (AR) ZnS 2.29 > 0.34 µm
coatings (after Palik,
1998) CaF2 1.43 > 0.12 µm
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LED with DBRs
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DBRs
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DBRs
Material system Bragg Transparency
wavelength range
Al0.5In0.5P / GaAs 590 nm 3.13 3.90 0.87 > 870 nm
(lossy)
Al0.5In0.5P / Ga0.5In0.5P 590 nm 3.13 3.74 0.87 > 649 nm
(lossy)
Al0.5In0.5P / 615 nm 3.08 3.45 0.37 > 592 nm
(Al0.3Ga0.7)0.5In0.5P
Al0.5In0.5P / 590 nm 3.13 3.47 0.34 > 576 nm
(Al0.4Ga0.6)0.5In0.5P
Al0.5In0.5P / 570 nm 3.15 3.46 0.31 > 560 nm
(Al0.5Ga0.5)0.5In0.5P
AlAs / GaAs 900 nm 2.97 3.54 0.57 > 870 nm
Table 7.2. Properties of distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) materials used for visible and
infrared LEDs. DBRs marked as ‘lossy’ are absorbing at Bragg wavelength (data after
Adachi, 1990; Adachi et al., 1994; Kish and Fletcher, 1997; Babic et al., 1999; Palik, 1998).
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Current blocking layers
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Packaging
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Power package
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Thermal resistance
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Visible-spectrum LEDs
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GaAsP
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GaAsP
Summary: The GaAsP, GaP, GaAsP:N and GaP:N material system has
the fundamental problem of lattice mismatch and is not suitable for high-
power LEDs
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AlGaAs/GaAs
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AlGaAs/GaAs
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The AlGaInP/GaAs material system
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AlGaInP/GaAs
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AlGaInP/GaAs
Summary: The AlGaInP material system is suited for IR, red, orange,
and amber high-power LEDs. Efficiency decreases for yellow, yellow-
green, and green LEDs.
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Summary: The
GaInN material
system is suited for
UV, violet, blue,
cyan and green
high-power LEDs.
Efficiency
decreases in the
green spectral
range.
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Progress in luminous efficiency of LEDs
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Comparison: Light bulb versus LED
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Light output power (LOP) versus current
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Temperature dependence
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Electrical characteristics of high-brightness LEDs
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Resonant-cavity light-emitting diodes
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Cavity modes
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First RCLED
First RCLED had GaInAs active region and AlGaAs confinement layers
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RCLED spectrum
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RCLED performance
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Reduced material dispersion with RCLEDs
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Spectrum of RCLEDs for POF communication
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Commercial RCLEDs
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Human vision
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Eye sensitivity function and luminous efficacy
Visible range:
390 – 720 nm
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Photopic:
• CIE 1931
• CIE 1978
Scotopic:
• CIE 1951
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History of photometric units
Definitions
Luminous flux: A light source with a luminous intensity of 1 cd emits a
luminous flux of 1 lm into a solid angle of one steradian
• An isotropic light source with a luminous intensity of 1 cd emits a total
luminous flux of 4π lm = 12.56 lm
• Green light (555 nm) with power 1 W of has luminous flux 683 lm
Illuminance: If a 1 m2 surface receives a luminous flux of 1 lm, then the
illuminance of the surface is 1 lux
• Example: Moonlight 1 lux; reading light 102 – 103 lux; surgery light 104 lux;
direct sunlight 105 lux
Luminance is the luminous intensity emitted per unit area of a light
source.
• Luminance is a figure of merit for displays. Typical displays have a luminance
of 100 – 500 cd/m2.
Efficacy of radiation gives number of lumens per optical Watt
Efficiency of source gives number of lumens per electrical Watt
• Amongst LEDs with same output power, green LEDs are brightest
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Luminous flux and efficiency
⎛
Luminous efficacy = Φ lum / P = ⎜ 683
⎝
lm
W ∫λ
⎞
V (λ) P(λ) dλ ⎟
⎠
( ∫ P(λ) dλ )
λ
• The color matching functions are similar (but not identical) to the spectral
sensitivity of the cones
• Caution: There are different standards for the color matching functions
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Color matching functions and chromaticity
X Y
x = y =
X + Y + Z X + Y + Z
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Color Temperature
As temperature
increases, hot
objects sequentially
glow in the red,
orange, yellow,
white, and bluish
white
red, 1000 K ≈ 730 °C
orange, 1300 K
MacAdam ellipses
x, y diagram u’, v’ diagram
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Color purity and dominant wavelength
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White illuminant – the solar spectrum
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Color gamut
Gamut of Red-Green-Blue light source has triangular shape
Area of gamut matters for displays, color printers, etc.
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Example of color mixing
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Color rendition
Î Î
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Example of color rendition
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Color rendition
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Sample objects
(Fruit, wood, etc.)
8 standard objects
(Î General CRI)
6 additional objects
(Î Special CRIs)
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Color rendering index (CRI)
• The reference objects are then illuminated with test light source. As a
result, object will have a certain, but different, color.
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Color rendering
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Color render index examples
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Converters
Semiconductors and dyes have been used as converters but are not
very common
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Wavelength converter materials – dyes
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Simplest approach: Dichromatic sources
Fundamentally
the most
efficient way to
create white
light
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White LEDs based on phosphor converters
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Measured in 2002
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Phosphor distributions
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Photon recycling LED (PRS-LED)
Calculation of luminous
efficiency of PRS-LED
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Spectrum of PRS-LED
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Multi-LED white light sources
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Demonstration of trichromatic source
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Luminous efficacy and CRI of tri-chromatic source
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The Future: Smart Sources
Smart light sources can be controlled and tuned to adapt to different
requirements and environments
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Smart light sources will enable a wealth benefits and new functionalities
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The Future: Smart Sources
Bio-imaging systems Communications systems
New modes of
No phototoxicity! communication!
Fast recognition!
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