Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Residual mechanical properties of polypropylene fiber-reinforced

concrete after heating
Javad Eidan, Iraj Rasoolan ⇑, Abbas Rezaeian, Davood Poorveis
Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran

h i g h l i g h t s

 In high temperature, 12-mm fibers have a better performance than that of 6-mm fibers.
 Fibers cannot prevent loss of modulus of elasticity after heating to 600 °C.
 Critical temperature for the effect of fibers on residual strength of concrete is 400 °C.
 The effect of polypropylene fiber on residual ultrasonic pulse velocity is negligible.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper presents results from experimental studies on residual mechanical properties of fiber-
Received 12 August 2018 reinforced concrete specimens exposed to elevated temperatures. Seven series of concrete mixes, includ-
Received in revised form 13 November 2018 ing six series of polypropylene fiber-reinforced concrete and one series of plain concrete specimens, were
Accepted 23 November 2018
tested after exposure to various heating temperatures and cooled down. The residual mechanical prop-
Available online 4 December 2018
erties including compressive and tensile strengths, modulus of elasticity and cracking modes, as well
as ultrasonic pulse velocity of fiber-reinforced and plain concretes are evaluated after heating-cooling
Keywords:
cycle. The effect of temperature level, length and amount of polypropylene fibers content on residual
Concrete
Polypropylene fiber
mechanical properties is studied. Results from the experiments show that polypropylene fiber-
Mechanical properties reinforced concrete exhibit better performance compared to plain concrete. Different strategies, through
Post-fire varying amount of polypropylene fiber content (1–2 kg/m3) and fiber length, proposed to enhance resid-
Temperature ual compressive and tensile strengths and also minimize the splitting and cracking in concrete after expo-
sure to fire.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction in deterioration of thermal, mechanical and deformation proper-

Fire safety is an essential part of the design of concrete struc-
tures that has to be paid attention to, in order to avoid structural
damage or even collapse of the structure in fire [1]. Concrete is well
known as a fire-enduring material due to its low thermal conduc-
tivity and high specific heat. However, the degradation of concrete
strength is rapid when exposed to high temperatures [2]. The
behavior of concrete at elevated temperature is affected by several
factors such as the materials properties, heating rate, maximum
temperature and exposure time, cooling method and load level at
the time of cooling [3–5]. In building fires the temperature range
is enough to cause physiochemical changes in concrete, that result
⇑ Corresponding author at: Civil Engineering Department, Shahid Chamran
University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran.
E-mail address: i.rasoolan@scu.ac.ir (I. Rasoolan).
ties as well as spalling in high strength concrete [5].
Higher strength in high strength concrete is usually obtained by
the use of a low water to cement ratio, which eventually results in
lower porosity. Therefore, in comparison with normal strength
concrete, high strength concrete is more brittle and prone to lose
its ability to withstand fire because of spalling phenomenon and
easier cracking at elevated temperatures [6–12]. Spalling is mainly
attributed to two mechanisms: the temperature gradient and
increase of pore pressure in concrete at elevated temperature
[12–19]. According to the first mechanism, which is known as
thermo-mechanical process, the difference in thermal expansion
coefficient of cement matrix and aggregate results in thermal stres-
ses and internal cracking [13,16,17], The later one, which is known
as thermo-hydral process, is related to direct mass transfer of
vapor, water and air in pores. According to this theory, inner mois-
ture of concrete leads to dramatic increase in vapor pressure and

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.209
0950-0618/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
196 J. Eidan et al. / Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206
thus spalling of concrete at high temperatures [12–13,18,19]. In
most cases, explosive spalling is a result of combination of both
mechanisms [12,18,19].
One of the pioneer studies reported in the literature addressing
the performance of polypropylene (PP) fiber reinforced concrete
when subjected to elevated temperatures is that of Kalifa et al.
[18]. This work contributes both to the understanding of the way
in which fibers act and to optimizing the fiber dosage. The role of
fibers was discussed through the analysis of concrete microstruc-
ture and fiber-matrix interactions as function of heat treatment.
The fiber dosage ranged from 0 to 3 kg/m3. The concrete used
was C110 (compressive strength of 110 MPa) with water to binder
ratio of 0.3. All tests were carried out at heater temperature of
600 °C during 6 h. This temperature was reached in a very short
time. Evolution of temperature with time show that the tempera-
ture rose from ambient temperature to 300 °C in 60 min in the
depth of 2 mm from heated face. Results of this research showed
that increasing of fiber dosage from 0 to 3 kg/m3 results in reduc-
ing peak pore pressure built up in the porous network during heat-
ing by a factor of 4 and reducing pressure gradients by a factor of 2.
Bilodeau et al. [12] conducted an experimental study on the opti-
mum amount of PP fibers to be used in lightweight high-strength
concrete to prevent spalling when exposed to hydrocarbon fire,
taking into consideration the characteristics of the lightweight
aggregate, the water-to-cement ratio of the mixtures, and the
length and thickness of the fibers. The amount of fibers ranged
from 1.5 to 3.5 kg/m3 and two water to cement ratios of 0.33 and
0.42 were used. The compressive strength of cylindrical specimens
at 28 days was ranging from 62.0 to 67.9 MPa. Fire-resistance tests
were performed by exposing the concrete blocks to hydrocarbon
fire for a period of 2 h in accordance with ISO 834 standard. Results
showed that 3.5 kg/m3 of the 20-mm PP fibers is required to pre-
vent the spalling of a low W/C lightweight concrete made with a
silica fume-blended cement when subjected to hydrocarbon fire
but that only 1.5 kg/m3 of the finer 12.5-mm fibers is sufficient.
Han et al. [20] performed an experimental study on the spalling
resistance of high performance concrete (with 0.3 and 0.4 water
to binder ratio) with PP fibers (19 mm in length) and lateral con-
finement. The specimens were cured in water for 27 days, the kept
in air for 1 day before being subjected to standard heating in accor-
dance with heating curve of KS F 2257-1 (ISO 834-1) (the temper-
ature raised from ambient temperature to 850 °C) for 40 min.
Spalling occurred on all specimens that did not contain PP fiber
in the concrete mixture. However, spalling did not occur on spec-
imens containing PP fibers above 0.05% by volume. Spalling did
not occur on all specimens in which PP fibers and metal fabric were
applied at the same time. Xiao and Falkner [21] made an investiga-
tion on residual strength of high-performance concrete (HPC) with
and without PP fibers at elevated temperatures. The PP fiber used
were 15 mm in maximum length. After 28 days of curing, the high
performance concrete of 50, 80 and 100 MPa compressive strength
were heated in an electric furnace, approximately following the
curve of ISO-834, with a series of target temperatures ranging from
20 to 900 °C. No explosive spalling was observed during the fire
test on HPC specimens with PP fibers, whereas some spalling
occurred for HPC specimens without PP fibers. Finally, a fire-
resistance design curve relating the residual compressive strength
to temperature, as well as a design curve relating the residual flex-
ural strength to temperature, was proposed based on the statistical
analysis of the test data. Heo et al. [22] investigated the synergistic
effect of some particular combination of fibers that can provide sig-
nificantly better spalling protection of concrete in a fire than single
fiber by themselves at the same fiber content level. Compressive
strength of plain concrete was 56.2 MPa in 28 days. Various combi-
nations of PP, polyvinyl alcohol, cellulose and nylon fibers were
investigated. Fire tests were conducted in accordance with ISO-
834. The combination of nylon (9 mm length) and PP (19 mm
length) fibers found to provide the most optimum results. By com-
bining these two fibers, the same level of spalling protection was
achieved by three times less fiber content than the single type of
0.10% PP fiber commonly prescribed.
Pliya et al. [23] performed an investigation on the influence of a
PP and/or steel fibers and cocktail of them on the behavior of high
strength concretes subjected to high temperatures. The amount of
6-mm PP fibers were 1 and 2 kg/m3, and water to cement ratio was
0.3. The concrete specimens were subjected to four heating-cooling
cycles carried out in an electric furnace from the room temperature
up to 150 °C, 300 °C, 450 °C or 600 °C. According to this research,
PP fibers have no significant effect on residual mechanical proper-
ties after heating to 600 °C, while specimens containing 1 kg/m3 PP
fiber showed higher residual compressive and tensile splitting
strength after heating to 300 °C. Behnood and Ghandehari [24]
investigated the effect of PP fibers on compressive and splitting
tensile strength of high-strength concrete. The compressive
strength of tested concrete ranged from 60 to 85 MPa. PP fibers
with 12 mm length and 1, 2, and 3 kg/m3 contents as well as 0.3,
0.35, and 0.4 water to cement ratios were used in this research.
The specimens were heated to the target temperature (100, 200,
300, or 600 °C) at an average rate of 3 °C per minute. Based on
the results of this research, PP fibers enhance the residual mechan-
ical properties of high-strength concrete after heating, while the
effect of fibers is more pronounced for compressive strength rather
than splitting tensile strength. Ding et al. [10] analyzed the effect of
different fibers on the residual compressive strength, the ultimate
load and flexural toughness, the failure pattern and the fracture
energy of self-compacting high performance concrete after expo-
sure to 300, 600 and 900 °C, for 3 h; in a heating rate of 6 °C per
minute. PP fibers of 15 mm length and 64 MPa compressive
strength in 28 days concrete with water to binder ratio of 0.37
were used. The results showed that PP fibers has a significant effect
in mitigating the spalling, but no clear effect on mechanical prop-
erties of concrete. Serrano et al. [25] analyzed the fire resistance of
concrete with PP (12 mm in length) or steel fibers after exposure to
direct fire at 400 °C maximum temperature. They concluded that
concrete with addition of PP fibers or steel fibers are a good alter-
native to traditional concrete, because both its strength and its
behavior in case of fire were improved. Yermak et al. [26] investi-
gated the influence of steel and/or PP fibres on the behavior of con-
crete at high temperature. They concluded that PP fibres prevent
any macroscopic damage of steel fibre concretes during ISO fire.
In this study, high strength concrete of 70 MPa compressive
strength and PP fibers of 6 and 12 mm length and dosage ranging
from 0.75 to 1.5 kg/m3 was used. Rudnik and Drzymała [27] stud-
ied the influence of PP fibers on thermal behavior of concrete at
elevated temperatures with focus on PP fiber-reinforced concrete
behavior at elevated temperatures. Monofilament 12-mm fibers
and fibrillated 19-mm fibers were applied in dosages of 1.8 and
3 kg/m3. The specimen were cured for 27 days in water, then they
were maintained in a chamber for 60 days at a temperature of
20 °C. After that, the specimen were subjected to different heat
treatment temperatures, i.e., 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 and 600 °C.
It was concluded by the authors that the influence of the kind
and the amount of PP fiber on the thermal stability of concrete
samples was not significantly pronounced.
The research of Nováka and Kohoutková [1] focused on observ-
ing the behavior of hybrid fiber reinforced concrete under ambient
and elevated temperature with the aim to determine the mechan-
ical properties of the material. In this research, the heat transport
test was performed on a few specimens to determine the time
required for uniform heating the specimens up to 400 °C and
600 °C. In the last phase the conventional testing methods were
undertaken to determine the mechanical properties of the concrete
 J. Eidan et al. / Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206 197

composite at ambient and elevated temperature. Compression and 2.2. Materials

split tension tests were conducted on the 150 mm cubes. The peak
and residual strength of the material were determined for various In current study, following materials were used for preparation
temperature levels. of concrete mixture:
Based on this premise, application of PP fibers has been found Commercially available ASTM Type V Portland cement [28] with
very effective in enhancing fire performance of concrete at ele- 32.5 MPa characteristic strength (in 28 days) as cementitious
vated temperatures through reducing pore pressure and spalling material.
hazard. However, the most of concentration has been given to high High performance polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer (pH
contents (more than 1% of concrete volume) of PP fibers, and the of 6.5, and specific gravity of 1.07 at 25 °C) was used to achieve
effect of addition of low quantities of micro PP fibers (less than good workability in the batches.
1% of concrete volume) to concrete batch on its post-fire mechan- Coarse aggregate crushed limestone with the maximum size of
ical properties has not been fully investigated, in previous studies. 19 mm, specific gravity of 2.73, and water absorption of 0.81%.
To overcome these limitations, the effect of addition of low quan- Fine aggregate was natural river sand with the maximum size of
tities of micro PP fibers to the batch on residual compressive 9.5 mm, specific gravity of 2.63, water absorption of 1.63%, and
strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity of con- fineness modulus of 3.70. According to Fig. 1, both the coarse
crete after exposure to elevated temperatures is experimentally and fine aggregates met the requirements of ASTM C 33 [29].
investigated. The test variables included heating level, PP fiber Polypropylene fibers with fibrillated shape (Fig. 2). The charac-
dosage and PP fiber length. Data from the tests were utilized to teristics of the fibers are presented in Table 1.
characterize the contribution of fibers to enhance post-fire perfor-
mance of concrete and also to find the critical temperature at
which the behavior of fiber reinforced mixes obviously overcome 2.3. Mixing and specimen preparation
that of reference plain concrete.
The concrete mix design is given in Table 2. The strength of
52.5 MPa was reached by limiting the ratio of water to cement
2. Experimental program (w/c) to 0.3 and employing superplasticizer to improve the work-
ability of batches. The testing program consisted of seven mix-
2.1. Program outline tures; in the first one, 42 specimen of plain concrete were made.
Within each of other six mixtures, 42 specimens of fiber-
Seven series of concrete were considered in the current test pro- reinforced concrete were made by adding polypropylene fiber to
gram. The first one was reference plain concrete with a 28-day
cylindrical compressive strength of 52.5 MPa. The reason for using
this class of concrete is this fact that the concrete must be high-
strength enough to fulfill the purpose of the research (being prone
to spalling when subjected to high temperatures). On the other
hand, it should be practical and easy to reach by available materials
and with no added admixtures. The other six series were fiber-
reinforced concrete mixes. These mixes were produced by combin-
ing monofilament PP fibers of various dosages and lengths with
plain reference concrete. The contents of utilized PP fibers were
1, 1.5 and 2 kg/m3 for both 6 mm (PP6) and 12 mm (PP12) fibers
which are equivalent to about 0.1, 0.15 and 0.20 percent of con-
crete volume. These amounts are common dosages for fibers in lit-
erature. In total, 294 cylindrical specimens, 100 mm in diameter
and 200 mm in height, were tested. Fig. 2. Polypropylene fibers shape.

Fig. 1. Aggregate size grading accordance with ASTM C33 limits.

198 J. Eidan et al. / Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206

Table 1
Physical characteristics and abbreviation of polypropylene fibers.

Length (l) (mm) Diameter (d) (mm) Abbreviation Aspect Ratio (l/d) Tensile Strength (MPa) Melting Temperature (°C) Specific Gravity (gr/cm3)
6 0.078 PP6 77 300–400 162 0.91
12 0.078 PP12 154 300–400 162 0.91

Table 2
Mixture proportions of plain reference concrete.

Material Superplasticizer (lit/m3) Cement (kg/m3) Water (kg/m3) Coarse aggregate (kg/m3) Fine aggregate (kg/m3)
Content 6 500 150 780 980

Table 3
Abbreviations of mixes.
Mix ID Description
P0 Plain concrete
L6P10 PP61 fiber reinforced concrete with fiber dosage of 1 kg/m3
L6P15 PP6 fiber reinforced concrete with fiber dosage of 1.5 kg/m3
L6P20 PP6 fiber reinforced concrete with fiber dosage of 2 kg/m3
L12P10 PP122 fiber reinforced concrete with fiber dosage of 1 kg/m3
L12P15 PP12 fiber reinforced concrete with fiber dosage of 1.5 kg/m3
L12P20 PP12 fiber reinforced concrete with fiber dosage of 2 kg/m3
1
6 mm in length polypropylene fiber (Table 2).
2
12 mm in length polypropylene fiber (Table 2).
batches. The abbreviation used in classification of specimens is
summarized in Table 3.
The mixtures were made in three steps. First, the cement and
aggregates were mixed in dry form for one minutes. The fibers
were added in this step for fiber-reinforced mixtures. Then half
of the water containing the whole superplasticizer was poured
and mixed for three minutes. Following that, one minute rest
was allowed and finally the rest of the water was added to the mix-
ture and mixed for another five minutes. After the materials were
mixed, the slump test was performed on fresh concrete to deter-
mine the workability of the mixture as per ASTM C143 [30]. The
results of slump test are presented in Table 4. Immediately after
the completion of slump test, the fresh concrete was poured into
the oiled molds to form 100  200 mm cylinders as per ASTM C
192 [31]. The samples were de-molded after 24 h and then cured
in a water tank (at 23 ± 2 C) for 28 days.
2.4. Heating
According to RILEM (MHT-129) [32], non-standard test condi-
tions may substitute standard ones when information is required
for specific applications. As the objective of this research differs
from that of standard test conditions, the heating process used in
[10,33] was adopted with some brief modifications.
After the completion of 28-day curing period, the specimens left
to dry in natural air, 24 h before heating. A gas fire furnace, with
ceramic fiber blanket side walls and refractory bricks in floor was
used for heating the specimens. Then, the specimens were heated
from ambient temperature to specific target temperatures (Tu) at a
rate of 6 °C/min. Fig. 3 shows a view of specimens within the
furnace.
Six target temperatures (Tu), of 100 °C, 200 °C, 300 °C, 400 °C,
500 °C and 600 °C were selected for heating. The heating-cooling
temperature regime used in the tests is shown in Fig. 4.
This range of target temperatures was selected in order to sim-
ulate the conditions for which concrete and fibers experience sig-
nificant changes in mechanical behavior [34]. Once the specimen
were heated to the target temperature, it was stabilizes to a period
of 150 min to ensure uniform temperature distribution through
the concrete specimens. Then, the specimens left to cool down nat-
urally. During heating phase, the temperature of specimens was
monitored using K-type thermocouples, mounted on the concrete
specimens and also by the aid of an infrared thermometer.
Fig. 5 shows a view of test specimens after cooling down from
target temperature. Following air cooling, mechanical tests were
performed on concrete specimens at ambient temperature.
2.5. Performed tests
In order to investigate the behavior of the concrete specimens,
four type of experimental tests were performed on both heated
and non-heated specimens in the age of 28 days: 1) Compressive
strength test (according to ASTM C39 [35]) (Fig. 6); 2) splitting ten-
sile strength test (ASTM C496 [36]) (Fig. 7); and 3) static modulus
of elasticity test (ASTM C469 [37]) (Fig. 8). These tests were carried
out 3 days after heating.
A hydraulic jack with a maximum test load of 500 KN and a dig-
ital indicator was used to perform the tests.
In order to carry out the compression test, specimens were
placed in the universal press, where a preload of 10% of the maxi-
mum test load was applied, so that the top plate would be uni-
formly supported on the upper face of the test piece. At that
moment, the rate of loading was set to 0.25 MPa/second. The load-
ing was continued until the failure of the specimen. Maximum
applied load indicated by the testing machine was recorded as
the ultimate load.
Splitting tensile strength test method consists of applying a dia-
metrical compressive force along the length of a cylindrical con-
crete specimen failure occurs. Thin, plywood bearing strips were
used to distribute the applied load along the length of the
specimen.
The setup of modulus of elasticity test is similar to that of com-
pressive strength test. The displacement values needed for calcu-

Table 4
Results of slump test.

Mix ID1 P0 L6P10 L6P15 L6P20 L12P10 L12P15 L12P20

Slump (mm) 185 180 175 170 175 165 155
1
According to abbreviations of Table 3.
 J. Eidan et al. / Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206
Fig. 3. View of specimens in furnace.
Fig. 4. Heating-cooling cycle for specimens.
lating modulus of elasticity were obtained using a compressometer
device connected to the specimens and a dial gage of 0.002 mm
accuracy.
Fig. 5. View of specimens after heating-cooling cycle.
199
Three repeated tests were conducted for each concrete speci-
men under the same conditions to ensure reproducibility of
results.
In order to evaluate the capability of non-destructive proce-
dures as indirect characterization methods in the extent of
in situ surveys of fire-damaged structures [38], all concrete speci-
mens used for compressive strength test were subjected to the
ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test (ASTM C597 [39]). UPVs were
measured using a Prodeq-Pundit Lab + portable ultrasonic non-
destructive digital indicating tester with an associated transducer
pair, through a direct transmission mode (Fig. 9). The transducers
had a nominal frequency of 54 kHz. UPV measurement involves
sending a wave pulse into concrete and measuring the travel time
for the pulse to propagate through the specimen. The concrete sur-
face was prepared in advance to ensure a proper acoustic coupling.
A light pressure was exerted to ensure firm contact of the trans-
ducers against the concrete surface.
3. Experimental results and discussion
The measured values of the compressive strength (F), splitting
tensile strength (S), static modulus of elasticity (E) and UPV tests
of all mixes; before and after heating were summarized in Table 5.
Each of the represented values is the average of data resulting from
three tests at each target temperature.
It should be noted that, performing the modulus of elasticity
test on plain concrete specimens was not possible, when heated
to temperatures above 500 °C. This was because of significant
propagation of cracks in specimens. Also the UPV test was not car-
ried out on specimens heated to 600 °C.
3.1. Effect of fibers in ambient temperature
The effect of fibers on mechanical properties of concrete in
ambient temperature is summarized in Table 6. The obtained val-
ues presented indicate the variation (in percent) of mechanical
properties of fiber-reinforced concretes in comparison to corre-
sponding values of plain concrete. Positive and negative values
mean increase and decrease in mechanical parameters of concrete,
respectively.
As can be seen in Table 6, the effect of considered amounts of
fibers on mechanical properties of concrete in ambient tempera-
200 J. Eidan et al. / Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206
Fig. 6. Compressive strength test setup.
Fig. 7. Splitting tensile strength test setup.
ture is noticeable. Although the maximum loss of 4.17 MPa of com-
pressive strength, maximum loss of 4.92 GPa of modulus of elastic-
ity, as well as maximum decrease of 283 m/s in UPV values, seem
to be insignificant. On the other hand, splitting tensile strength,
was the most affected parameter by addition of PP fibers. The
reduction of this parameter in PP12 fiber-reinforced concrete was
Fig. 8. Specimen prepared for modulus of elasticity test.
extensively significant and reached maximum loss of 1.08 MPa.
This phenomenon could be attributed to this fact that in the case
of tensile strength of fibers, the number of fibers is dominant,
rather than their weight. In the other word, the tensile strength
produced by PP fibers, is the sum of tensile strength produced by
every single PP fiber. For a specific weight of fibers, the number
of 6-mm fibers is twice that of 12-mm fibers; therefore, tensile
strength produced by them is greater than that of 12-mm fibers.
3.2. Visual observation
General appearance of plain and fiber-reinforced specimens
after 600 °C heating-cooling cycle are presented in Fig. 10. As it is
evident, plain concrete suffered severe cracking after heating, in
addition to partial spalling. The cracks were deep and extended
all around the surface of the plain concrete specimens. As shown
in Fig. 10, fiber-reinforced specimens experienced less cracking.
The cracks were shallower and shorter than that of plain concrete.
This observation proves the effect of PP fibers in cracking preven-
tion. Also, an increase of PP fiber dosage from 1 kg/m3 (L6P10) to
2 kg/m3 (L6P20) resulted in drastic decrease in cracking. This indi-
cates that the amount of fibers has a significant effect on cracking
prevention. In the case of PP fiber length effect, L6P10 specimens
experienced more cracking than L12P10 one, as shown in Fig. 10.
This means that longer fibers (PP12) has a better effect in cracking
prevention in comparison with PP6 ones. This could also be veri-
fied by comparing the form of cracks in L6P20 specimen with
L12P20 one. The later phenomenon could be attributed to this fact
that PP12 fibers leave longer micro channels in concrete, after
melting. Therefore it’s more probable for these channels to connect
to each other and make it easier for vapor pressure to relieve.
3.3. Residual compressive strength
Compressive strength of concrete is critical for evaluating post-
fire response of concrete structures. In the present study, compres-
sive strength tests were carried out by loading the heated-cooled
concrete specimens to failure. Reduction factors for compressive
strength of plain and fiber-reinforced concrete specimens are given
 J. Eidan et al. / Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206 201

200 °C is more sensible in PP6 fiber-reinforced mixes (Fig. 11a) in

Fig. 9. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity test setup.
and compared in Fig. 11 in term of peak heating temperature (Tu)
up to 600 °C. The reduction of compressive strength when the
specimens exposed to peak heating temperature (Tu) up to
comparison to PP12 fiber-reinforced ones (Fig. 11b). In these tem-
peratures, the rate of reduction of compressive strength in PP12
fiber-reinforced mixes reduces with the increase of PP fibers
amount. The heating temperature of 300 °C is a critical tempera-
ture for all of fiber-reinforced mixes. Because the residual com-
pressive strength of all fiber-reinforced mixes is lower than that
of plain concrete mix, at 300 °C heating cycle. This could be
explained by this fact that the matrix has not affected by temper-
ature till 300 °C heating cycle, or the pore pressure has not reached
its critical level. While, the fibers has been already melt and left
microscopic channels within the matrix of fiber-reinforced con-
crete this eventually results in reduction in compressive strength.
Beyond 400 °C heating cycle, the effect of PP fibers on compressive
strength is significant, such the trend of fiber-reinforced mixes lay
above that of plain concrete mix, as shown in Fig. 11. This could be
interpreted that, the effect of PP fibers neutralizes the effect of
physiochemical degradation of cement when heating level is above
400 °C. The influence of PP fiber on residual compressive strength
of fiber-reinforced mixes is more pronounced beyond 500 °C of
heating. Favorable effect of PP12 fibers on compressive strength
after heating to 100 and 300 °C is consistent with the research of

Table 5
Summary of tests results.

Mix Temperature F1 (MPa) S2 (MPa) E3 (GPa) UPV4 (m/s) Mix Temperature F (MPa) S (MPa) E (GPa) UPV (m/s)
P0 T20 52.50 ± 2.11 3.97 ± 0.32 46.40 ± 3.24 5102 ± 141
T100 44.58 ± 1.01 3.77 ± 0.35 41.11 ± 2.35 4810 ± 120
T200 40.69 ± 1.21 3.12 ± 0.22 28.36 ± 2.28 4091 ± 89
T300 35.56 ± 0.98 2.49 ± 0.19 20.03 ± 1.50 3305 ± 98
T400 21.67 ± 1.14 1.64 ± 0.11 10.56 ± 1.41 2895 ± 92
T500 8.47 ± 0.42 0.59 ± 0.06 – 1895 ± 102
T600 6.67 ± 0.22 0.39 ± 0.05 – –
L6P10 T20 50.56 ± 1.03 3.87 ± 0.34 46.78 ± 3.53 5076 ± 99 L12P10 T20 50.42 ± 3.54 3.08 ± 0.22 44.56 ± 3.05 5115 ± 120
T100 34.58 ± 1.10 3.53 ± 0.39 36.42 ± 3.36 4651 ± 110 T100 34.17 ± 3.12 2.74 ± 0.26 40.23 ± 2.42 4690 ± 118
T200 32.92 ± 0.46 2.49 ± 0.24 32.11 ± 3.12 4494 ± 94 T200 33.06 ± 2.14 2.20 ± 0.15 23.7 ± 1.87 4264 ± 99
T300 25.83 ± 0.61 2.00 ± 0.12 25.92 ± 2.19 3745 ± 78 T300 22.64 ± 2.14 2.03 ± 0.16 17.71 ± 1.39 3802 ± 102
T400 19.86 ± 0.15 1.61 ± 0.14 10.41 ± 1.63 2770 ± 91 T400 19.44 ± 1.98 1.38 ± 0.11 11.18 ± 0.86 2670 ± 95
T500 13.75 ± 0.23 1.54 ± 0.10 3.15 ± 0.93 2424 ± 88 T500 11.39 ± 0.75 1.15 ± 0.08 3.54 ± 0.25 2262 ± 89
T600 10.97 ± 0.22 0.82 ± 0.04 1.86 ± 0.15 – T600 11.11 ± 0.62 0.69 ± 0.03 1.91 ± 0.16 –
L6P15 T20 50.97 ± 4.21 3.94 ± 0.13 48.69 ± 4.11 5038 ± 132 L12P15 T20 49.17 ± 3.82 2.99 ± 0.19 49.15 ± 4.21 4819 ± 112
T100 36.81 ± 3.11 3.12 ± 0.10 36.34 ± 3.63 4819 ± 90 T100 38.33 ± 3.81 2.79 ± 0.16 37.19 ± 3.57 4866 ± 120
T200 33.33 ± 2.21 2.66 ± 0.12 29.28 ± 2.84 4082 ± 93 T200 32.22 ± 3.03 2.46 ± 0.10 26.74 ± 2.18 3766 ± 98
T300 24.03 ± 1.89 1.87 ± 0.05 21.96 ± 2.12 3503 ± 109 T300 21.81 ± 2.14 2.17 ± 0.13 17.63 ± 1.49 3724 ± 105
T400 20.56 ± 1.67 1.35 ± 0.03 10.72 ± 1.02 2670 ± 89 T400 19.86 ± 1.55 1.35 ± 0.11 10.87 ± 1.03 2519 ± 99
T500 13.75 ± 0.88 1.28 ± 0.05 4.83 ± 0.44 2105 ± 91 T500 13.89 ± 1.02 1.25 ± 0.06 3.88 ± 0.25 2100 ± 92
T600 10.28 ± 0.90 0.79 ± 0.02 1.90 ± 0.17 – T600 11.53 ± 0.60 0.75 ± 0.02 2.05 ± 0.14 –
L6P20 T20 50.83 ± 3.29 3.58 ± 0.12 41.48 ± 2.13 5011 ± 108 L12P20 T20 48.33 ± 3.35 2.89 ± 0.21 42.06 ± 2.54 5013 ± 131
T100 41.25 ± 2.97 2.72 ± 0.10 36.66 ± 2.72 4454 ± 141 T100 37.92 ± 3.11 2.82 ± 0.16 39.29 ± 3.23 4717 ± 96
T200 36.81 ± 2.85 2.46 ± 0.11 28.74 ± 1.71 4040 ± 113 T200 32.92 ± 2.59 2.46 ± 0.15 32.65 ± 2.41 4107 ± 112
T300 25.28 ± 2.19 2.13 ± 0.08 25.83 ± 1.59 3876 ± 120 T300 23.61 ± 2.21 2.20 ± 0.12 22.63 ± 1.61 4057 ± 100
T400 20.97 ± 1.65 1.48 ± 0.09 10.95 ± 0.94 2797 ± 91 T400 21.67 ± 2.03 1.31 ± 0.09 10.75 ± 0.95 2404 ± 89
T500 12.64 ± 1.12 1.15 ± 0.05 4.90 ± 0.33 1994 ± 97 T500 13.75 ± 1.13 0.85 ± 0.05 3.66 ± 0.56 1959 ± 102
T600 10.83 ± 0.86 0.98 ± 0.06 1.87 ± 0.15 – T600 11.81 ± 0.89 0.82 ± 0.04 1.95 ± 0.18 –
1
Compressive strength of concrete.
2
Splitting tensile strength of concrete.
3
Static modulus of elasticity of concrete.
4
Ultrasonic pulse velocity in concrete.

Table 6
Deviation from plain concrete properties in ambient temperature.

Mix ID Compressive strength (MPa) Splitting tensile Strength (MPa) Modulus of elasticity (GPa) Ultrasonic pulse velocity (m/s)
L6P10 1.94 0.10 +0.38 26
L6P15 1.53 0.03 +2.29 64
L6P20 1.67 0.39 4.92 91
L12P10 2.08 0.89 1.84 13
L12P15 3.33 0.98 +2.75 283
L12P20 4.17 1.08 4.34 89
202 J. Eidan et al. / Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206
Fig. 10. Density of cracks in specimens after 600 °C heating-cooling cycle.
Behnood and Ghandehari [24], where the specimens containing
2 kg/m3 of 12 mm in length PP fibers recovered higher compressive
resistance than those of specimens containing 1 kg/m3 PP fibers
and non-fiber specimens after heating to 100 and 300 °C. As to
200 and 300 °C, higher residual factors could be attributed to the
amount of water vapor escaping throw the pathways formed by
the melting of PP fibers. Generally, these results do not match with
Fig. 11. Reduction factor for residual compressive strength of plain and fiber-reinforced mixes: a) PP fiber length of 6 mm, b) PP fiber length of 12 mm.
the results of Pylia et al [23], where it was observed that PP6 fibers
have an adverse effect on residual compressive strength after heat-
ing to 600 °C.
In the case of PP fiber length, PP12 fiber-reinforced mixes show
better performance than that of PP6. As can be seen in Fig. 11 a, the
residual compressive strength of PP6 fiber-reinforced mixes show
negligible sensitivity to the amount of fibers. Whereas in the case
of PP12 fiber-reinforced mixes, this effect is sensible. L12P20 mix
shows the highest residual compressive strength among other
mixes. At least 25% of compressive strength is recovered after
600 °C heating-cooling cycle in L12P20 mix.
3.4. Residual splitting tensile strength
Results obtained from residual splitting tensile strength tests on
plain and fiber-reinforced concrete specimens after cooling down
from various target temperatures (Tu) are presented and compared
in Fig. 12. A review of results indicate that higher the heating tem-
perature, the lower is the residual tensile strength in all specimens.
As shown in Fig. 12a, PP6 fiber-reinforced mixes experience more
drop in residual strength than that plain concrete mix, until
 J. Eidan et al. / Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206
Fig. 12. Reduction factor for residual splitting tensile strength of plain and fiber-reinforced mixes: a) PP fiber length of 6 mm, b) PP fiber length of 12 mm.
400 °C heating-cooling cycle. PP6 fiber-reinforced mixes when
heated beyond 400 °C heating, lose residual tensile strength at a
slower pace than that of plain concrete and reach 27.5% of that
at ambient temperature. This trend is different for PP12 fiber-
reinforced mixes in which there is less loss of residual tensile
strength than that of plain concrete until 600 °C heating cycle. At
600 °C, the residual tensile strength in L12P20 mixes reach about
28% of that of in ambient temperature (without heating), which
is significantly higher than that of plain concrete (less than 10%).
Overall, the residual factors of splitting tensile strength of PP6
mixes is less than that of PP12 mixes (by about 5–20%) throughout
100–600 °C heating cycles. This is attributed to the difference in
the length of PP fibers used in fiber-reinforced mixtures. As can
be seen in Fig. 12a, the effect of fiber amount is less pronounced
in residual tensile strength of PP6 fiber-reinforced mixes. Whereas,
using higher amount of PP12 fiber (up to 2 kg/m3) lead to higher
residual tensile strength of PP12 fiber-reinforced mixes, through-
out 100–600 °C heating cycle (Fig. 12b). These findings are consis-
tent with that of [24]. According to Shah [40], presence of fibers
results in mitigation of crack growth by introducing additional
closing pressure and eventually higher splitting strength. As to
203
PP6 fibers, it seems that their length is not enough to provide such
closing pressure and therefore make no contribution to splitting
strength.
3.5. Residual static modulus of elasticity
Residual modulus of elasticity of plain and fiber-reinforced
mixes after various heating-cooling cycles is evaluated from corre-
sponding tests. The residual modulus factor is calculated as the
ratio of modulus after heating-cooling cycle to the initial modulus
at ambient temperature. It should be mentioned that the values for
plain concrete are presented until 400 °C heating cycle, after which
sever cracking has been occurred in specimens and hence the
results were not reliable and omitted.
Residual modulus factors for plain and fiber-reinforced mixes
are plotted in Fig. 13. As can be seen all, groups of mixes lost most
of their elastic modulus until 400 °C heating-cooling cycle, and
reach about 25% of that at room temperature (without heating).
The effect of PP fiber on residual elastic modulus is negligible for
L6P10 and L6P15 mixes (Fig. 13a). Also, L12P10 and L12P15 mixes
204 J. Eidan et al. / Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206
Fig. 13. Reduction factor for residual static modulus of elasticity of plain and fiber-reinforced mixes: a) PP fiber length of 6 mm, b) PP fiber length of 12 mm.
experience more reduction in elastic modulus than that of plain
concrete through 100 – 400 °C heating cycle (Fig. 13b).
Through 400–600 °C heating cycles, the effect of fiber amount
on residual elastic modulus decrease in a reasonable rate. At
600 °C heating-cooling cycle, the effect of fiber’s amount and
length vanishes and the trends converge to about 10% of the initial
modulus at ambient temperature. This is completely consistent
with the results of Pylia et al. [23], where they reported that in
the temperature of 600 °C, the residual modulus of elasticity is
almost the same for fiber-reinforced and non-fiber concretes. Over-
all, residual modulus of elasticity of L6P20 and L12P20 mixes is
more than that of plain concrete. Hence it could be concluded that
using 2 kg/m3 of PP fiber can noticeably enhance the residual elas-
tic modulus of fiber-reinforced concrete mixes, up to 600 °C
heating-cooling cycle.
3.6. Ultrasonic pulse velocity
Fig. 14 shows the results obtained from the UPV measurements
of all the concrete specimens subjected to different high tempera-
tures. The residual UPV factor is calculated as the ratio of UPV after
heating-cooling cycle to the initial UPV at ambient temperature. It
should be mentioned that the values for plain concrete are pre-
sented until 500 °C heating cycle, after which sever cracking in
specimens disturbs the transmission of pulses and hence the
results were not reliable and omitted.
As can be seen in Fig. 14, the UPV of heated concrete decreases
with an increase in target temperature. For specimens of plain con-
crete a notable reduction in UPV observed shortly after subjecting
to 400 °C heating cycle. In fiber-reinforced mixes, the UPV residual
factor reduces gradually with increase in heating temperature up
to 300 °C heating cycle. This reduction rate accelerated beyond
300 °C heating cycle, reaching about 0.45 at 500 °C. It could be con-
cluded from this observation that the critical heating temperature,
after which the residual factor for UPV reduces notably, is different
for plain and fiber-reinforced concrete. Based on this observation
the critical temperature for UPV are 400 °C and 300 °C for plain
concrete and fiber-reinforced concrete, respectively. This is
because above 300 °C heating cycle, the PP fibers melt and leave
microscopic channels within the concrete that result in less density
of concrete and hence lower UPV.
It is also obvious from Fig. 14 a and b that in heating tempera-
ture of 300 °C, the UPV residual factors for all fiber-reinforced
mixes are greater than that of plain concrete. While in 400 °C heat-
 J. Eidan et al. / Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206
Fig. 14. Reduction factor for residual ultrasonic pulse velocity in plain and fiber-reinforced mixes: a) PP fiber length of 6 mm, b) PP fiber length of 12 mm.
ing cycle, the residual factor of plain concrete is equal to or greater
than those of fiber-reinforced mixes.
In general, the results of UPV tests show a slight sensitivity to
the amount of PP fibers. However, the existence of PP fibers, appar-
ently modifies the reduction trend in UPV in fiber-reinforced con-
crete, after heating-cooling cycle.
4. Conclusions
Following conclusion can be extracted from the experimental
program conducted:
1. PP fiber with dosage of 0.1% by concrete volume is effective to
reduce cracking of tested concrete after heating-cooling cycle,
up to 600 °C. PP12 with 0.2% dosage showed the best perfor-
mance in cracking prevention after exposure to 600 °C heating
cycle.
2. At ambient temperature PP fiber with dosage of 0.1% to 0.2%
have a slight effect on compressive strength, static modulus of
elasticity and UPV. In this case, the most affected parameter is
splitting tensile strength (27% reduction), resulted by addition
of 2 kg of PP12, to plain concrete.
205
3. PP fibers enhance compressive strength of concrete after
heating-cooling cycles of target temperatures of 400 and
600 °C. Concrete containing PP12 with 0.2% dosage recovered
25% of its initial compressive strength, after exposure to
600 °C heating-cooling cycle. After this cycle, the residual factor
for compressive strength of PP6 fiber-reinforced and plain con-
crete is 21% and 12%, respectively.
4. PP12 fiber with dosage of 0.1–0.2% by concrete volume result in
higher residual factors for splitting tensile strength than that of
plain concrete, after exposure to heating-cooling cycles. The
mix containing PP12 with dosage of 0.2% recovered 27% of its
initial splitting strength after 600 °C heating-cooling cycle.
5. The effect of PP fiber dosage on residual modulus of elasticity
reduces after heating-cooling cycle of 500 °C target tempera-
ture. Beyond 500 °C heating cycle, the residual factor for
modulus of elasticity of all fiber-reinforced mixes converge
to 10%.
6. The temperature of 400 °C is a critical heating level for residual
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and modulus of
elasticity of fiber-reinforced concrete. When heating level is
above 400 °C, the residual factors for fiber-reinforced concrete
are higher than that of plain concrete.
206 J. Eidan et al. / Construction and Building Materials 198 (2019) 195–206
7. PP fiber with dosage of 0.1–0.2% have a negligible effect on
residual factor for UPV up to 500 °C heating-cooling cycle. How-
ever, the existence of PP fibers modifies the trend of UPV reduc-
tion over heating temperature.
Conflict of interest
None.
References
[1] J. Novák, A. Kohoutková, Fire response of hybrid fiber reinforcedconcrete to
high temperature, Proc. Eng. 172 (2017) 784–790.
[2] K.S. Al-Jabri, M.B. Waris, A.H. Al-Saidy, Effect of aggregate and water to cement
ratio on concrete properties at elevated temperature, Fire Mater. 40 (7) (2016)
913–925.
[3] D.N. Crook, M.J. Murray, Regain of strength after firing of concrete, Mag. Concr.
Res. 22 (72) (1970) 149–154.
[4] A. Petzold, M. Rohrs, Concrete for High Temperatures, Maclaren and Sons,
London, 1970, p. 190.
[5] V. Kodur, Properties of concrete at elevated temperatures, ISRN Civ. Eng. 13
(2014) 15 p.
[6] C.S. Poon, Z.H. Shui, L. Lam, Compressive behavior of fiber reinforced high-
performance concrete subjected to elevated temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 34
(2004) 2215–2222.
[7] Q. Ma, R. Guo, Z. Zhao, Z. Lin, K. He, Mechanical properties of concrete at high
temperature – A review, Constr. Build. Mater. 93 (2015) 371–383.
[8] Y.S. Heo, C.G. Han, K.M. Kim, Combined fiber technique for spalling protection
of concrete column, slab and beam in fire, Mater. Struct. 48 (10) (2015) 3377–
3390.
[9] Y. Ding, Y. Wang, Y. Zhang, P. Paulini, Investigation of the stress and strain state
of clay pipes under fire condition, Ceram. Int. 35 (1) (2009) 63–67.
[10] Y. Ding, C. Azevedo, J.B. Aguiar, S. Jalali, Study on residual behaviour and
flexural toughness of fibre cocktail reinforced self compacting high
performance concrete after exposure to high temperature, Constr. Build.
Mater. 26 (1) (2012) 21–31.
[11] O. Düğenci, T. Haktanir, F. Altun, Experimental research for the effect of high
temperature on the mechanical properties of steel fiber-reinforced concrete,
Constr. Build. Mater. 75 (2015) 82–88.
[12] A. Bilodeau, V. Kodur, G.C. Hoff, Optimization of the type and amount of
polypropylene fibres for preventing the spalling of lightweight concrete
subjected to hydrocarbon fire, Cem. Concr. Compos. 26 (2) (2004) 163–174.
[13] N. Toropovs, F.L. Monte, M. Wyrzykowski, B. Weber, G. Sahmenko, P. Vontobel,
R. Felicetti, P. Lura, Real-time measurements of temperature, pressure and
moisture profiles in high-performance concrete exposed to high temperatures
during neutron radiography imaging, Cem. Concr. Res. 68 (2015) 166–173.
[14] X. Liu, G. Ye, G. De Schutter, Y. Yuan, L. Taerwe, On the mechanism of
polypropylene fibres in preventing fire spalling in self-compacting and high-
performance cement paste, Cem. Concr. Res. 38 (4) (2008) 487–499.
[15] G. Ye, X. Liu, G. De Schutter, L. Taerwe, P. Vandevelde, Phase distribution and
microstructural changes of self-compacting cement paste at elevated
temperature, Cem. Concr. Res. 37 (6) (2007) 978–987.
[16] M. Ozawa, S. Uchida, T. Kamada, H. Morimoto, Study of mechanisms of
explosive spalling in high-strength concrete at high temperatures using
acoustic emission, Constr. Build. Mater. 37 (2012) 621–628.
[17] S. Bratina, B. Čas, M. Saje, I. Planinc, Numerical modelling of behaviour of
reinforced concrete columns in fire and comparison with Eurocode 2, Int. J.
Solids Struct. 42 (21) (2005) 5715–5733.
[18] P. Kalifa, G. Chene, C. Galle, High-temperature behaviour of HPC with
polypropylene fibres: from spalling to microstructure, Cem. Concr. Res. 31
(10) (2001) 1487–1499.
[19] G.F. Peng, W.W. Yang, J. Zhao, Y.F. Liu, S.H. Bian, L.H. Zhao, Explosive spalling
and residual mechanical properties of fiber-toughened high-performance
concrete subjected to high temperatures, Cem. Concr. Res. 36 (4) (2006) 723–
727.
[20] C.G. Han, Y.S. Hwang, S.H. Yang, N. Gowripalan, Performance of spalling
resistance of high performance concrete with polypropylene fiber contents
and lateral confinement, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (9) (2005) 1747–1753.
[21] J. Xiao, H. Falkner, On residual strength of high-performance concrete with and
without polypropylene fibres at elevated temperatures, Fire Saf. J. 41 (2)
(2006) 115–121.
[22] Y.S. Heo, J.G. Sanjayan, C.G. Han, M.C. Han, Synergistic effect of combined fibers
for spalling protection of concrete in fire, Cem. Concr. Res. 40 (10) (2010)
1547–1554.
[23] P. Pliya, A.L. Beaucour, A. Noumowé, Contribution of cocktail of polypropylene
and steel fibres in improving the behaviour of high strength concrete
subjected to high temperature, Constr. Build. Mater. 25 (4) (2011) 1926–1934.
[24] A. Behnood, M. Ghandehari, Comparison of compressive and splitting tensile
strength of high-strength concrete with and without polypropylene fibers
heated to high temperatures, Fire Saf. J. 44 (8) (2009) 1015–1022.
[25] R. Serrano, A. Cobo, M.I. Prieto, M. de las Nieves González, Analysis of fire
resistance of concrete with polypropylene or steel fibers., Constr. Build. Mater.
122 (2016) 302–309.
[26] N. Yermak, P. Pliya, A.-L. Beaucour, A. Simon, A. Noumowé, Influence of steel
and/or polypropylene fibres on the behaviour of concrete at high temperature:
spalling, transfer and mechanical properties, Constr. Build. Mater. 132 (2017)
240–250.
[27] Ewa Rudnik, Tomasz Drzymała, Thermal behavior of polypropylene fiber-
reinforced concrete at elevated temperatures, J. Therm. Anal. Calorim. 131 (2)
(2018) 1005–1015.
[28] ASTM C 150/ C150M-12: Standard Specification for Portland Cement,
American Standards for Testing and Materials, 2012.
[29] ASTM C33-02: Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates, 2002.
[30] ASTM C143/C143M-10: Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement
Concrete, 2010.
[31] ASTM C192/C192M-06: Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test
Specimens in the Laboratory, 2006.
[32] T.C. Rilem, 129-MHT Compressive strength for service and accident conditions,
Mater. Struct. 28 (1995) 410–414.
[33] N. Anand, A. Godwin, Influence of mineral admixtures on mechanical
properties of self-compacting concrete under elevated temperature, Fire
Mater. 7 (40) (2016) 940–958.
[34] U. Schneider, Behaviour of concrete at high temperatures, Ernst (1982).
[35] ASTM C39/C39M-12: Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of
Cylindrical Concrete Specimens, 2012.
[36] ASTM C496/C496M-11: Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of
Cylindrical Concrete Specimens, 2004.
[37] ASTM C469/C469M-10: Standard Test Method for Static Modulus of Elasticity
and Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete in Compression, 2010.
[38] D.J. Martins, J.R. Correia, J. Brito, The effect of high temperature on the residual
mechanical performance of concrete made with recycled ceramic coarse
aggregates, Fire Mater. 40 (2) (2016) 289–304.
[39] ASTM C597-09: Standard Test Method for Pulse Velocity Through Concrete,
2009.
[40] S.P. Shah, Do fibers increase the tensile strength of cement-based matrix?,
Mater J. 88 (6) (1991) 595–602.