1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

Air pollution has been aggravated by developments that typically

occur as countries become industrialized. The high influx of population to
urban areas, increase in consumption patterns and unplanned urban and
industrial development has led to the problem of air pollution. Currently, in
India, air pollution is widespread in urban areas where vehicles are the major
contributors and in a few other areas with a high concentration of industries
and thermal power plants. Vehicular emissions are of particular concern
since these are ground level sources and thus have the maximum impact on
the general population. Also, vehicles contribute significantly to the total air
pollution load in many urban areas thereby leading to pollution problems.

Urban air pollution, in turn, is the source of a range of problems,

including health risks with inhalation of gases and particles, accelerated
corrosion and deterioration of materials, damage to historical monuments
and buildings, and damage to vegetation in and near the city. About 25 per
cent of the urban population (80 million poor people) spend a considerable
part of their working day in roadside settings where air quality standards are
most likely to be exceeded.

Road transport contributes, on an average, more than half of the

nitrogen oxides emissions, particulate matter, and about 35 per cent of
volatile organic compounds (VOC) emissions. In contrast to stationary,
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industrial and domestic sources which are decreasing, traffic generated

emissions show a continuous increase in most areas.

1.2 AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is a phenomenon by which particles (solid or liquid)

and gases contaminate the environment. Such contamination can result in
health effects on population, which might be either chronic (arising from
long-term exposure), or acute (due to accidents). Other effects of pollution
include damage to buildings (e.g., the marble statues on the Parthenon in
Athens and Taj Mahal in Agra are corroded as a result of air pollution),
agricultural damage (such as reduced crop yields and tree growth),
impairment of visibility (tiny particles scatter light very efficiently), and
even climate change (certain gases absorb energy emitted by the earth,
leading to global warming).

Air pollution is defined in Indian Standards Institution IS 4167,

2003 as “The presence of substances in ambient atmospheres, generally
resulting from the activity of man, in sufficient concentration, present for a
sufficient time and under circumstances such as to interfere with comfort,
health or welfare of persons or with reasonable use or enjoyment of
property”.

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Not all pollutants are a result of human activity. Natural pollutants

are those that are found in nature or are emitted from natural sources. For
example, volcanic activity produces sulfur dioxide, and particulate pollution
may derive from forest fires or windblown dust. Anthropogenic pollutants
are those that are produced by humans or controlled processes. For example,
sulfur dioxide is produced by fossil fuel combustion and particulate matter
comes from diesel engines.
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1.3.1 Sources of air pollution

Air pollutants are wastes generated by different natural and human

activities that take place in living environments. Intensity of concentration of
those discharges is usually higher in urban areas because of the higher rate
of discharge generated by high intensity of activities when compared to rural
areas. Therefore it is important to identify the sources of discharge in order
to mitigate their impacts. Literature classifies air pollutant generation
activities into two types:

1. Natural activities - Volcanoes, tornadoes, earthquakes,

typhoons, microscale wind blown dust in deserts and dried
areas etc.

2. Anthropogenic activities - Burning fossil fuels (vehicles,

power plants, factories etc.), burning biomasses (agricultural
and animal wastes, fire wood etc.), manufacturing and
industrial activities, construction, domestic activities etc.

Unlike natural activities, anthropogenic activities are controllable.

In urban areas, anthropogenic activities are unavoidable due to urbanization
process with increasing population densities and high rate of emissions
within limited land areas. In both developed and developing countries,
automobiles, industrial activities and power generation plants cause a large
percentage of air pollutant emissions. Table 1.1 presents the two most
commonly accepted classifications for sources of air pollution due to
anthropogenic activities.

Out of two classifications WHO (1998) is based on ‘type of air

pollution sources’ in macro/global scale and Manins (1998) classification is
based on place of origin. LUTE model classification (Manins et al 1998) is
location oriented and WHO classification is sources oriented. However the
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basis is the spatial aspect. The above classifications also reveal that location
or land-use is an important determinant for identifying sources of air
pollution and type of pollutants in an area. Apart from the above,
classification presented by Central Pollution Control Board in India (CPCB
2002) is based on anthropogenic activities such as transportation (all
vehicles), industrial processes and miscellaneous (such as agriculture and
waste burning, domestic activities etc). Based on these classifications we can
conclude that air quality has always been associated with location and its
activities and sources.

Table 1.1 Classifications for Sources of Air Pollution

Source type Descriptions

WHO i. Stationary Agriculture production, mining and quarrying
classification sources Industrial sources – manufacturing of chemical,
(1997) mineral, metal, power etc.
Community sources – building heating/ cooling,
cooking, incinerators and other service facilities
ii. Mobile Combustion engine vehicles – ranging from
sources motor cycles to air crafts
iii. Indoor Tobacco smoking, biological sources (pollens, pet
sources allergens etc) and other indoor materials and
substances/ activities (carpets, joysticks)
LUTE i. Area base Activities of industrial/ residential/ commercial
model sources areas/ zones
classification Activities of mining and quarrying areas
Manins et al. ii. Point Industrial sites – factories, power plants,
(2000) sources incinerators etc
iii. Link All types of vehicles – air, road, rail and sea
sources

Source: WHO Air Quality Standards (WHO 1998) and (Manins 1998)
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Air pollutants are also classified as primary or secondary

pollutants. Primary pollutants are those that are emitted directly into the
atmosphere from an identifiable source. Examples include carbon monoxide
and sulfur dioxide. Secondary pollutants are those that are produced in the
atmosphere by chemical and physical processes from primary pollutants and
natural constituents. For example, ozone is produced by hydrocarbons and
oxides of nitrogen (both of which may be produced by car emissions) and
sunlight.

The first six criteria pollutants were carbon monoxide (CO),

nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), total suspended particulate
matter (TSPM), hydrocarbon (HC), and photochemical oxidants. Lead was
added to the list in 1976. In 1979 the HC standard was dropped altogether.
In 1987 TSPM was changed to PM10, and in 1997 PM2.5 was added to the
official list and the ozone standard was revised.

1.3.2 Types of air pollutants

Theoretically the content of pure or unpolluted air consists of 21

per cent of Oxygen (O2), 78 per cent of Nitrogen (N2), 0.03 per cent of

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and other gases like Argon (Ar), Neon (Ne), Helium

(He), up to 4 per cent of water vapour (H2O) etc., (Kirby 1995). Impure

atmospheric condition is interpreted as “air pollution”. Though traces of gas

are inevitable, Gary et al (2000) defined it as “the presence of substances in
air at concentrations, duration and frequencies that adversely affect human
health, human welfare or environment”. In scientific terms, it is interpreted
as “air pollution” caused by “air pollution agents” or “chemical attributes”
generated due to natural and anthropogenic activities. These agents or
chemical attributes are usually referred as “air pollutants” in the air volume
and they consist of ‘gaseous pollutants’; Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen
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Dioxide (NO2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ozone (O3), Lead (Pb), and

particulate matters (PM) or fine dust. Concentrations of both gaseous and

particulates pollutants in air is commonly measured as “mass per unit air
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volume” in milligrams or micrograms per meter cube (mg/m or μg/m ),
under standard condition of temperature and atmospheric pressure (293K or
o
20 C and 1,013 mb). For gaseous air pollutants, another system is also used;
‘volume mixing ratio’ or the ratio between polluting gas and its volume
(Kirby 1995) measured in parts per billion (ppb) or million (ppm).

World Health Organization (WHO 1998) identifies six most

harmful air pollutants which are termed as “six classical air pollutants”.
These air pollutants are grouped into two main categories based on their
emission status of the source or origin and their state of existence in the air:

1. Primary Air Pollutants– emitted directly from identifiable

sources {SO2, NOx, CO, SPM (suspended particulate matters

or fine particulates which is smaller than 10 micrograms),

VOC, Lead (Pb)}

2. Secondary Air Pollutants– produced in the atmosphere due

to chemical reactions take place among primary pollutants
{e.g.; Smog = smoke + fog (due to photochemical reactions
and Ozone is a major component of smog), CO + O2 = CO2,

NO + O2 = NO2}

In addition to above classification, the other most accepted air

pollution classification is based on physical and chemical behaviour of air
pollutants; ‘particulate matters’ and ‘gaseous pollutants’. Table 1.2 shows
the diversity of air pollutants and their classifications.
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Table 1.2 Classifications of Air Pollution Agents

Classification Agent types Agents

Suspended Dusts/fumes/mists/ RSP - (Respirable Suspended
Particulate Matters smokes Particulates) Particulate Matters
(SPM) (PM) less than 10 micro meter
(PM10 and PM2.5 )
TSP - (Total Suspended
Particulates) PM more than 10
micro meter
Gaseous Pollutants Gases and vapors So2, No2, Co2, Co, O3, Pb, NH3
(Ammonia)
Organic and Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOC)
Odors Smelling chemical Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S),
agents Carbon Disulphide (CS2) and etc.
Source: WHO classification (WHO 1998)

In order to determine status of impurity and its impacts in an area,

it is important to identify sources of pollutants, pollutant agents and rate of
emission.

1.4 VEHICULAR POLLLUTION

Besides substantial CO2 emissions, significant quantities of CO,

HC, NOx, SPM and other air toxins are emitted from the motor vehicles into
the atmosphere, causing serious environmental and health impacts. Like
many other parts of the world, air pollution from motor vehicles is one of the
most serious and rapidly growing problems in urban centers of India (CRRI
1998). The problem of air pollution has assumed serious proportions in some
of the major metropolitan cities of India and vehicular emissions have been
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identified as one of the major contributors in the deteriorating air quality in

these urban centers (CPCB 1999). Although, recently, improvement in air
quality with reference to the criteria pollutants (viz. NOx, SO2, CO and HC)
have been reported for some of the cities, the air pollution situation in most
of the cities is still far from satisfactory (CPCB 2000). The problem has
further been compounded by the concentration of large number of vehicles
and comparatively high motor vehicles to population ratios in these cities
(CRRI 1998). In India, the number of motor vehicles has grown from 0.3
million in 1951 to approximately 50 million in 2000, of which, two wheelers
accounts for 70 per cent of the total vehicular population. Two wheelers,
combined with cars account for approximately four fifth of the total
vehicular population. Vehicles in major metropolitan cities are estimated to
account for 70 per cent of CO, 50 per cent of HC, 30-40 per cent of NOx, 30
per cent of SPM and 10 per cent of SO2 of the total pollution load of these
cities, of which two third is contributed by two wheelers alone. These high
level of pollutants are mainly responsible for respiratory and other air
pollution related ailments including lung cancer, asthma etc., (CPCB 2002)

1.5 AIR POLLUTANTS AND THEIR IMPACT

Particulate matter (PM) is the term used to describe solid or liquid

particles that are airborne and dispersed (i.e., scattered, separated). PM
originates from a variety of anthropogenic sources, including diesel trucks,
power plants, wood stoves, and industrial processes. These particles, known
as "fine" particles, a significant fraction of which is secondary in nature, are
especially detrimental to human health because they can penetrate deep into
the lungs. Scientific studies show a link between PM2.5 (alone, or combined
with other pollutants in the air) and a series of significant health effects. Fine
particles are the major cause of reduced visibility. Also, soils, plants, water,
or materials are affected by PM. For example, particles containing nitrogen
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and sulfur that are deposited as acid rain on land or water bodies may alter
the nutrient balance and acidity of those environments so that species
composition and buffering capacity changes. PM causes soiling and erosion
damage to materials, including culturally important objects such as carved
monuments and statues (Boubel et al 1994).

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odourless, and at high

levels a poisonous gas that is fairly unreactive. It is formed when carbon in
fuels is not burned completely. The major source of CO is motor vehicle
exhaust. In cities, as much as 95 per cent of all CO emissions result from
vehicular emissions. Other sources of CO emissions include industrial
processes, non-transportation related fuel combustion, and natural sources
such as wildfires. CO has serious health effects on humans. An exposure to
50 ppm of CO for eight hours can cause reduced psychomotor performance,
while CO is lethal to humans when concentrations exceed approximately
750 ppm. Hemoglobin, the part of blood that carries oxygen to body parts,
has an affinity for CO that is about 240 times higher than that for oxygen,
forming carboxyhemoglobin, (COHb). Moreover, the release of oxygen by
hemoglobin is reduced in the presence of COHb. However, the effects of CO
poisoning are reversible once the CO source has been removed (Gary et al
2000).

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colourless, nonflammable, non explosive

gas. Almost 90 per cent of anthropogenic SO2 emissions are the result of
fossil fuel combustion (mostly coal) in power plants and other stationary
sources. A natural source of sulfur oxides is volcanic activities. In general,
exposure to SO2 irritates the human upper respiratory tract. The most serious
air pollution episodes occur when there is synergistic effect of SO2 with PM
and water vapor (fog). Because of this, it is difficult to isolate the effects of
SO2 alone. SO2 is one of the precursors of acid rain. Also, SO2 is the
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precursor of secondary fine sulfate particles, which in turn affect human

health and reduce visibility. Prolonged exposure to SO2 and PM causes
serious damage to materials such as marble, limestone, and mortar. The
carbonates (e.g., limestone, CaCO3) in these materials are replaced by
sulfates (e.g., gypsum, CaSO4) that are water-soluble and may be washed
away easily by rain. This results in an eroded surface (Cooper and Alley
2002).

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a reddish-brown gas. It is a lung irritant

and is present in the highest concentrations among other oxides of nitrogen
in ambient air. Nitric oxide (NO) and NO2 are collectively known as NOx.
Anthropogenic emissions of NOx come from high-temperature combustion
processes, such as those occurring in automobiles and power plants. Natural
sources of NO2 are lightning and various biological processes in soil. The
oxides of nitrogen, much like sulfur dioxide, are precursors of acid rain and
visibility-reducing fine nitrate particles (Nazaroff and Alvarez-Cohen 1999)

Ozone (O3) is a secondary pollutant and is formed in the

atmosphere by the reaction of molecular oxygen, O2, and atomic oxygen, O,
which comes from the photochemical decomposition of NO2. Volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) are also present if O3 is accumulated in the
atmosphere. O3 occurs naturally in the stratosphere and provides a protective
layer from the sun's ultraviolet rays high above the earth. However, at
ground level, O3 is a lung and eye irritant and can cause asthma attacks,
especially in children or other susceptible individuals. O3, being a powerful
oxidant, also attacks materials and has been found to cause reduced crop
yields and stunt tree growth ( De Nevers 2000).

The major sources of lead (Pb) in the atmosphere are industrial

processes from metals smelters. Thirty years ago, the major emissions of Pb
resulted from cars burning leaded gasoline. In 2002 only aviation fuels
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contain relatively large amounts of Pb. Lead is a toxic metal and can
accumulate in the blood, bones, and soft tissues. Even low exposure to Pb
can cause mental retardation in children.

Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), commonly referred to as air

toxics or toxic air pollutants, are pollutants known to cause cancer or other
serious human health effects or damage the ecosystem. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA 1999) lists 188 HAPs and regulates sources
emitting significant amounts of these identified pollutants. Examples of
HAPs are heavy metals (e.g., mercury), volatile chemicals (e.g., benzene),
combustion by-products (e.g., dioxins), and solvents (e.g., methylene
chloride). HAPs are emitted from many sources, including large stationary
industrial facilities (e.g., electric power plants), smaller-area sources (e.g.,
dry cleaners), mobile sources (e.g., cars), indoor sources (e.g., some building
materials and cleaning solvents), and other sources (e.g., wildfires). Potential
human health effects of HAPs include headache, dizziness, nausea, birth
defects, and cancer. Environmental effects of HAPs include toxicity to
aquatic plants and animals as well as the accumulation of pollutants in the
food chain. The EPA (1999) regulates HAPs by requiring each HAP
emission source to meet Maximum Achievable Control Technology
(MACT) standards. MACT is defined as "not less stringent as the emission
control that is achieved in practice by the best controlled similar source,"
(Wark et al 1998).

Air pollution levels should be within the limits that are harmless
to human living. Levels beyond these limits are considered as harmful that
create impacts to health, buildings, flora and fauna, and affect the economy.
Therefore it is important to identify these desirable levels. Table 1.3 explains
the adverse impact of air pollution. According to many previous researchers,
health impacts are mostly associated with the level of air pollution
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concentration (intensity) and the duration of exposure to both indoor and

outdoor micro/local environments.

Table 1.3 Air Pollution Impacts and Consequences

Impacts Consequences Affected groups

i. Aggravation of respiratory or Young infants and
cardiovascular diseases like cancer, children
heart disease, influenza, asthma,
lung damages, coughing, wheezing,
irritation of nose/throat etc.
ii. Increased mortality and morbidity Pregnant women
Health including abortions.
iii Impaired visibility, eye irritation, Elderly people
headaches and fatigues.
iv Impaired liver and kidney functions Workers in certain
and causes neuro damages industries - road
construction, postmen,
hawkers
i. Deterioration of colour –Blackening Regular and high cost for
of building facades maintenance and coloring
Buildings
ii. Damages to materials - decaying Decaying, monuments and
and corrosion archeological artifacts
Flora and i. Yellowing of leaves Crop losses
Fauna ii. Reduce growth Forest damages
i. Reduced work capacity Reduce productivity
Economic
ii. Reduction in tourism Effect on national income
i. Diffusing direct sunlight into Reduce solar access and
scatter light visibility
ii. Long range transportation, acid Drinking-water/food
Others rains and acidifications of fresh contamination
water and soil
iii. Impact on urban micro climate High temperature
inversions, humidity level

Source: WHO 1998

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In cold climates, most people spend 90 per cent of their time in

indoors, whereas in warm climates, most occupational, recreational and
leisure activities occur in outdoors. Therefore, the exposure to outdoor air
pollution in warm climates is higher and hence the health impacts to the
people in such climate are higher. Past researches report that indoor air
quality is highly affected by outdoor pollution (Lee et al 1999). Compared to
other environmental externalities such as solid waste, wastewater, e-waste
etc., the consequences of air pollution is difficult to be traced. Therefore, the
real impacts could be much more serious than that we could expect or
imagine.

1.6 METEOROLOGICAL ASPECTS

Any study of air pollution should include a study of the weather

patterns (meteorology) of the local area because the fate of air pollutants is
influenced by the movements and characteristics of the air mass into which
they are emitted. If the air is calm and pollutants cannot disperse then the
concentration of these pollutants will build up. Conversely, if a strong,
turbulent wind is blowing, any pollution generated will be rapidly dispersed
into the atmosphere and will result in lower concentrations near the pollution
source. The measurements of wind speed and direction, temperature,
humidity, rainfall and solar radiation are important parameters used in the
study of air quality monitoring results and to further understand the chemical
reactions that occur in the atmosphere. Meteorological monitoring is used to
predict air pollution events such as inversions, high pollutant concentration
days and to simulate and predict air quality using computer models.

1.6.1 Temperature

Temperature and sunlight (solar radiation) play an important role

in the chemical reactions that occur in the atmosphere to form
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photochemical smog from other pollutants. Favorable conditions can lead to

increased concentrations of smog. Temperature measurements are recorded
as part of air quality monitoring to support assessment, air quality modeling
and forecasting.

1.6.2 Wind speed and direction

Wind speed and direction measurements are important for air

quality monitoring. If high pollutant concentrations are measured at a
monitoring station the wind data recorded at the station can be used to
determine the general direction and area of the emissions. Wind speed is
measured using anemometer. The EPA also uses sonic anemometers at
some stations. Sonic anemometers operate on the principal that the speed of
wind affects the time it takes for sound to travel from one point to another.
The measurement of meteorological parameters is important to gain an
understanding of the impacts of a region's meteorology on air pollutant
concentrations, the prediction of inversions, and for the study of wind field
and dispersion modeling.

1.6.3 Humidity

The water vapour content of air is generally measured as a

percentage of the saturation vapour pressure of water at a given temperature
and is called relative humidity (RH). The amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere is highly variable; it depends on geographic location, the
nearness of water bodies, wind direction and ambient air temperature. RH is
generally higher during summer when temperature and rainfall are also at
their highest. Water vapour plays an important role in many thermal and
photochemical reactions in the atmosphere. As water molecules are small
and highly polar, they can adsorb to many substances. If attached to particles
suspended in the air they can significantly increase the amount of light
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scattered by the particles. If the water molecules attach to corrosive gases

such as sulfur dioxide the gas will dissolve in the water and form an acid
solution that can cause damage to health and property.

1.6.4 Rainfall

Rain has a scavenging effect when it washes particulate matter out

of the atmosphere and dissolves gaseous pollutants. Reduced particle
concentrations after rain improves visibility. Rain acts as a solvent for
gaseous pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide, forming acid rain resulting in
potential damage to materials or vegetation where it falls. Certain
geographic areas or particular times of the year, with frequent high rainfall
are likely to have improved air quality.

1.6.5 Solar radiation

The intensity of sunlight is an important influence on the rate of

the chemical reactions that produce photochemical smog in the atmosphere.
The intensity of sunlight can be affected by the cloudiness of the sky, time
of day and geographic location. Therefore it is important to monitor solar
radiation for use in modeling photochemical smog events.

1.7 AIR QUALITY MODELLING

Air quality dispersion models consist of a set of mathematical

equations that interpret and predict pollutant concentrations due to plume
dispersal and impaction. These models incorporate the dispersion estimates
and various meteorological conditions including temperatures, wind speeds
and directions, stabilities, and topography. There are four generic types of
models: Gaussian, numerical, statistical, and physical. The Gaussian models
use the Gaussian distribution equation and are widely used to estimate the
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impact of non reactive pollutants. Numerical models are more appropriate

than Gaussian models for area sources in urban locations that involve
reactive pollutants, but numerical models require extremely detailed source
and pollutant information and are not widely used. Statistical models are
used when scientific information about the chemical and physical processes
of a source is incomplete and therefore, the use of either Gaussian or
numerical models becomes impractical. Lastly, physical models require fluid
modeling studies or wind tunneling. This approach involves the construction
of scaled models and observing fluid flow around these models. This type of
modeling is very complex and requires expert technical support. However,
for areas with complex terrain, stack downwash, complex flow conditions,
or large buildings, this type of modeling may be the best choice.

Selection of an air quality model for a particular air quality

analysis is dependent on the type of pollutants being emitted, the complexity
of the source, and the type of topography surrounding the facility. Some
pollutants are formed by the combination of precursor pollutants. For
example ground-level ozone is formed when VOCs and NOx react in the
presence of sunlight. Models to predict ground-level ozone concentrations
would use the emission rate of VOCs and NOx as inputs. Also, some
pollutants readily react once emitted into the atmosphere. These reactions
deplete the concentrations of these pollutants and may need to be accounted
for in the model. Source complexity also plays a role in model selection.
Topography plays a major role in the dispersal of plumes and their air
pollutants and must be considered in the selection of an air quality model.
Elevated plumes may impact areas of high terrain. Elevated terrain heights
may experience higher pollutant concentrations since they are closer to the
plume centerline. A model which considers terrain heights should be used
when elevated terrain exists.
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1.8 AIR POLLUTION MAPPING USING GIS

Air pollution shows marked variation in spatial distribution

especially in urban areas where the air pollution is mainly due to automobile
emissions from large number of road links. The air quality is expected to be
worse near roadways and traffic intersections than in many sub urban areas.
Geographical Information system (GIS) is a powerful tool for air pollution
mapping and provides a clear picture of the pollution levels in the entire
area, and hence it is very much helpful for the environmental planners and
policy makers to formulate appropriate action plans to control the pollution
levels. Dispersion modelling techniques have been normally used in air
pollution mapping. This method mainly utilizes the dispersion model to
predict the air pollution levels and to create air pollution maps. Given the
emission, meteorological and site geometry details, the dispersion model can
predict the concentration of pollutants at various receptor points located in
the study area. By the results obtained from the dispersion models for the
various receptors, air pollution can be created using statistical interpolation
and rule based techniques available in the GIS software such as ARCVIEW,
ARCGIS, MAPINFO, etc. This method is becoming more attractive for
creating urban air pollution maps.

Urban environmental management must integrate the spatial,

structural features of a city, typically captured in GIS, and the dynamics of
environmental quality indicators that can be obtained by monitoring. Urban
environmental management addresses problems that are spatially distributed
as well as dynamic.

Most urban environmental problems do have an obvious spatial

dimension that can be addressed by GIS; GIS are tools to capture,
manipulate, process, and display spatial or geo-referenced data. They
contain both geometry data (coordinates and topological information) and
 18

attribute data, i.e. information describing the properties of geometrical

spatial objects such as points, lines, and areas (Fedra 1999).

1.9 INTERNATIONAL EMISSION STANDARDS

International emission standards for vehicular emission fall into

three categories, viz; European System (EURO SYSTEM), Japanese
Emission system and American Emission system. The European Union (EU)
Regulation Emission standards are followed by most of the countries,
including India.

EURO-I is those that should have been applicable from year 2000.
EURO-IV is these that will be applicable from the year 2005. Compared
with EURO norms, separate limits are given for gasoline and diesel fuel
vehicles in India. These represent respective reduction of 30 per cent CO, 55
per cent HC and NOx for gasoline cars and 68 per cent CO, 38 per cent HC
and NOx and 55 per cent particulate emission for diesel engines
respectively.

India introduced emission norms for vehicles for the first time in
1991. Indian norms are behind EURO norms by eight years although effort
is being made to narrow the gap between EURO standard and Indian
emission norms.
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Table 1.4 Indian and EURO norms for petrol driven passenger cars

INDIAN EURO
YEAR CO HC NOx HC+NOx CO HC NOx HC+NOx
g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km g/km

1991- 14.3-27.1 2.0-2.9 - - 2.72 - - 0.97

1992

1996 14.3-27.1 - - 3.4-4.36 2.2 - - 0.57

1998 4.34-6.30 - - 1.5-2.18 - - - -

2000 2.72 - - 0.97 1.3 0.20 0.15 -

2005 - - - - 1.0 0.1 0.08 -

1.10 AIR QUALITY STANDARDS

As a measure of mitigation of air pollution, air quality standards

have been framed by different organisations at global, regional and country
levels. In many instances, these standards may not be effective to suppress
emission levels. In these tables, concentration levels are spelled out as
individual values per agent or air pollutant, yet their aggregated effect could
be much higher. Therefore, real impacts of air on human, buildings, plants
etc. are not properly reflected from these standards. This suggests that these
standards cannot be regarded as safer standards for human health or urban
living. Compliance with these standards alone may not be adequate in some
cases and it may be necessary to reduce air pollution concentration to very
low levels in order to reduce real impacts.
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Table 1.5 Comparisons of Air Pollution Standards, Guidelines and

Objectives

Pollution Different Pollution Concentration μg/m3

Standards/Objectives periods RSP SO2 NO2 CO O3
1 hour - 500 200 30,000 -
WHO 8 hours - - - 10,000 120
Air Quality Guidelines 24 hours 150 125 - - -
1 year 50 50 40 - -
1 hour - 350 200 - -
EU 8 hours - - - 8,600 120
Air Quality Directives 24 hours 50 125 - - -
1 year 40 20 40 - -
1 hour - 350 200 - -
UK
8 hours - - - 11,600 100
National Air Quality
24 hours 50 125 - - -
Strategy
1 year 20 - 40 - -
1 hour - - 35,000 235
USA - EPA
National Ambient Air 8 hours - - 9,000 157
Quality Standards 24 hours 150 365 - -
(NAAQS)
1 year 50 80 100 -
1 hour - 440 300 24,000 200
Australian
8 hours - - - 10,000 100
Ambient Air Quality
24 hours 50 160 120 - -
Standards
1 year - 40 - - -
Hong Kong Air 1 hour - 800 300 30,000 240
Quality Objectives 8 hours - - - 10,000 -
(AQO’s)
24 hours 180 350 150 - -
1 year 55 80 80 - -

Source: WHO 1998

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Table 1.6 National Ambient Air quality Standards (NAAQS)

Pollutants Time Concentration of Ambient Air

Weighted Industrial Residential Sensitive
Average Area Rural and area
µg/m 3 other area µg/m3
µg/m3
Sulphur Dioxide Annual 80 60 15
(SO2) Average 120 80 30
24 hours
Oxides of Nitrogen Annual 80 60 15
(NO2) Average 120 80 30
24 hours
Suspended Annual 360 140 70
Particulate Matter Average 500 200 100
(SPM) 24 hours
Respirable Annual 120 60 50
Particulate Matter Average 150 100 75
(size Less than 24 hours
10µm) RPM
Lead as Pb Annual 1.0 0.75 0.50
Average 1.5 1.0 0.75
24 hours
Carbon Monoxide 8 hours 5000 2000 1000
1 hour 10,000 4000 2000

A nation-wide programme was initiated in 1984 in India. As on

March 31, 1995, the network comprised 290 stations covering over 90
towns/cities distributed over 24 States and 4 Union Territories. The National
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) network is operated through the
respective States Pollution Control Boards, the National Environmental
Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur and also through the
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The pollutants monitored are
Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and Suspended Particulate
Matter (SPM) besides the meteorological parameters, like wind speed and
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direction, temperature and humidity. In addition to the three conventional

parameters, NEERI monitors special parameters, like Ammonia (NH3),
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S), Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM)
and Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH).

Based on annual mean concentration (µg/m3of ambient air) of

SO2, NO2 and SPM and the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, the
Ambient Air Quality Status is described in terms of Low (L), Moderate (M),
High (H) and Critical (C) for Industrial (I), Residential and mixed use (R)
areas of Cities/Towns in different States or Union Territories.

1.11 OBJECTIVES OF THE PRESENT STUDY

Due to industrialization and urbanization Coimbatore city’s air

quality is worsening. The ambient air quality of Coimbatore has been
deteriorated with an increase in the number of vehicles and industrial
pollution. Hence this study was undertaken to monitor the air quality of
Coimbatore city.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the study are:

 To study the seasonal variation in pollutants concentration

along with traffic activities by monitoring the concentration
of the various pollutants like particulate matter, CO, SO2 and
NOx using high volume sampler .

 To validate the monitored data using regression analysis and

to find the influence of the meteorological parameters on the
concentration of pollutants using Response Surface
Methodology.
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 Interpreting the monitored values using Geographical

Information System (GIS) maps to provide an Air quality
management system of the major air pollutants for the entire
city.

 To conduct a traffic survey and to find out the concentration

of the pollutants using California Line Source (CALINE4)
model.

 To use mathematical modeling like General Finite Line

Source Model (GFLSM), Delhi Finite Line Source Model
(DLFSM) and IIT Line Source Model (IITLS) to model the
air pollutants from the observed vehicular and
meteorological data.

 To calculate the air quality Index (AQI) and represent it as

GIS maps.