Review

Reviewed Work(s): Islam by Fazlur Rahman

Review by: John Burton
Source: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol.
31, No. 2 (1968), pp. 392-395
Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African
Studies
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/610697
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 392 REVIEWS

the subjective historical interests of

survey of the particular civilization
Differing created by the Muslims, and to attempt
communities, having to
ests, express assess, from his vantage-point in the
different mid-
conce
business of the student who wishes to under- twentieth century how far the Islamic
stand the range of the ethical concepts ofcontributions
the in the various fields of its
Qur'dn, to analyse the interests of the society
endeavours have truly represented the esse
in which it appeared. Know the outlookof of the message implicit in Islam's origin
any people, and you will know the concepts Muhammad and the Qur'dn, and may thus
they favour, and this knowledge will in turn confidently embraced by the bewildere
identify the meanings of the individual units contemporary faithful. In the event, th
in their vocabulary. The author's aim, author has written an almost superb accou
therefore, is an analytical study of the ethical of the Islamic development, the 'almost'
terms of the Qur'dn that will be as little representing serious reservations about the
prejudiced as possible by any theoretical reliability of his handling of the earliest period.
position on moral philosophy. This is an His intention, he says, has been to attempt ' to
exhilarating prospect and it is in the highestdo justice to both historical and Islamic
degree regrettable to have to report its failure, demands '-surely a self-contradictory, and
a failure made all the more bitter because hence impossible programme. Historiography
totally unnecessary. The cause of the failure
respects none save objective historical stan-
can be identified precisely in the instruments dards and can enter into no alliances. The
which the author has selected as representative author rightly proclaims that the Muslim ne
of the Weltanschauung of the Arabs. He not fear the historical approach to the availa
explains his selection in the following principle: materials, yet, regrettably, fails to apply
'classical Arabic is one of the best-known the religious circumstances of the first th
languages in the world, explored to the centuries the test of social and political
minutest detail of both grammar and vocabu-conditions, which he so brilliantly exploits
lary. We have good dictionaries; much to bring out, with admirable clarity, the role
philological work has been done, and in theof concomitant circumstances in the condition-
domain of Qur'An exegesis, in particular, we
ing of some later, apparently cultural solutions,
are provided with many authoritative oldsuch as the doctrine of determinism in theology.
commentaries '. With such presuppositions,
This failure goes to its extreme points in the
who could hope to understand the Qur'dn ? treatment of the historical situation of
Muhammad himself, and of the central
But the problems have been stated, and it is
to be hoped that some future scholar, making problem of the historicity of the Sunna, the
use of the abundant materials now available prop of the shari'a.
on so many aspects of the sociology and anthro-On the question of the historical setting of
pology of the Arabs, and especially the desert
Muhammad and the Qur'an, Western scholar-
Arabs, the nearest contemporary relatives ship isof
accused of exaggerating the role of
the Qur'dn's first audience, together with Medinan
the Jewry in the early development, but
wealth of information on Arab dialects while asserting, without evidence, that the
collected over the past century, will Jerusalem
take up qibla seems to have been instituted
the task of collating this mass of at Mecca, before the Hijra, the author fails
knowledge
with the text of the Qur'&n. to evince curiosity on the possible role in this
regard of Meccan Jewry. Similarly, although
JOHN BURTON
he notes the temporal proximity of the
establishment of the Meccan qibla (the cause
of a serious crisis in the early community)
FAZLUR RAHMAN: Islam. (History ofof the political unreliability
to the accusation
Religion.) xi, 271 pp., 24 plates. of the Medina Jews at the battle of Badr, the
London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, author does not consider that this raises
[1967]. 55s. questions and demands closer collation of t
political with the religious facts than has y
At a moment in its history, when political been attempted. He notes it as remarkabl
decline has led to the fragmentation of Islam, that after every major conflict with the
the anxious believer, reviewing present Meccans, the prophet ordered operations
conditions against the long perspective of theagainst Medinan Jewry, without, however
Muslim record of great cultural achievements, suggesting that valuable clues might exist
in the fields of social, philosophical, and here for the elucidation of the Qur'dn, as a
religious construction, finds an otherwise political document. Later Muslim scholarship
depressing scene relieved by signs of the self- had powerful religious motives for dis-
revitalization of Islam as a religious force. sociating the developing Islam from both
Dr. Rahman's aim is to present a broad Judaism and the merely human politics of

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 REVIEWS 393

western Arabia,
had observedand thus
that the corpus th
of the hadith
continued to swell in each succeeding
practice of interpreting the genera- Q
tion, and concluded
stridency against the that since, in each genera-
opponen
as basically theological in
tion, the material runs parallel to and i
reflects
is, however,various,
an and interpretat
often contradictory doctrines of
sustained solely the Muslim theological
by applyin schools, the final
consistently atomistic
recorded products of the tafsfr badith which date
regarding every from the third century, 5ya as as
must be regarded a
theological statement abstracted from its being, on the whole, unreliable as a source for
contextual environment. Western scholars, the Prophet's own teaching and conduct. The
generally, have meekly submitted to theconcept of sunna (with a small s) on the other
Muslim dismemberment of the texts, and, hand, considerably pre-dates Islam, but,
mesmerized by the banal pedantries of asbdb inevitably, with the coming of Islam, and
al-nuzijl, which makes a chaos of the Qur'dn, especially with its later development in the
have failed to observe much that is glaringly territories of the former Roman and Persian
obvious. Read on the assumption that it isEmpires, at the hands of vast converted
the coherent whole, which it undoubtedlypopulations, the content of sunna will alter.
always has been, Sirat al-baqara, for example,Goldziher's discovery was that sunna and
Sunna sometimes not only clashed, but were
renders an entirely novel light on the political
situation at Medina. As the author says, in admitted to do so. The former Goldziher
another connexion, ' the later Muslims did notdefined as the actual practice, things as the
watch the guiding lines of the Qur'dn, and in are; the latter, as the normative practice,
fact, thwarted its intentions '. things as they should be. Schacht has pointe
out that even the former contains a theoretical
Despite the sentiment expressed in this last
statement, the weakest aspect of Dr. Rahman'sor ideal element. But it was the latter exclu-
treatment of the early developments, is his sively which, as the result of powerful pressures
operating in the late first and early second
handling of the problem of the direct historical
connexion of the second-third century hadWth centuries, which have not yet been clearly
identified, came to be regarded as the subject-
with the generation of the Prophet, or indeed,
with the person of MuIhammad himself. This matter of the badith, which was then placed
applies particularly to only one category in of opposition to the former, as the normative
badith-the shar'i or religio-legal hadith, and sought to overthrow the actual. Both were
stands in sharpest contrast to the near- speculative, but, as the normative became
abandon with which he is prepared to jettisonnormative by being placed under the aegis
any other type of hadith with which he finds of the Prophet, it was bound, in the logic of
himself in disagreement, in, for example, thethe situation to prevail. Realizing that this
fields of theological speculation, or certain must happen, the champions of the actual,
types of Siifistic spirituality, no better, in his in their attempt to retrieve the situation by
view than spiritual delinquency. Dr. Rahman'splacing their doctrine also under the aegis of
final conclusions on adith are a cautionary the Prophet, have made the situation intoler-
exemplification of the dangers inherent in the ably complicated. Thus, as between lower-case
failure to define an unambiguous terminology, and upper-case, Dr. Rahman by failing to
in the absence of which, the discussion grasp the theses of Goldziher and Schacht has
degenerates into an elaborate linguistic riddle. unwittingly misrepresented them. His own
This whole question of sunna reduces itself to
attempted solution of the problem is far from
one of source, and to one of typographysatisfactory.: of Adopting a technique perfected
whether there is, or is not a balance of only in the second century by Shifi'i, he
probabilities in favour of a factual historical employs the Qur'dn to establish that there
connexion between the Sunna (with a capital always was a prophetic Sunna alongside the
S) [as this concept was understood by Shdfi'i, Qur'&n. While it is true that this may avoid
the first scholar to introduce the concept of
creating unnecessarily insoluble problems for
the Sunna of the Prophet as a systematic the religious history of Islam, it surely
element into legal discussions, insisting that unnecessarily raises insoluble problems for
it must be accepted along with the Qur'dn theashistorical history of Islam. How, for
a source of the doctrine], and the historical example, does one now explain the career of
Prophet. It must follow from Shifi'i's priority Shdfi'i, or the appearance of numerous
in this respect, as Professor Schacht has Aadiths threatening dire punishments for those
shown, as also from Shifi'i's tedious insistencewho knowingly project their ideas falsely back
upon the point in his voluminous polemics, that to the Prophet, or remarks such as that in the
what was later to become a truism for the introduction to Muslim's Sahi4: 'We were
classical theory of Muhammedan lawofcould
the view that the God-fearing were in
nothing more mendacious than they were in
not yet have been so in Shifi'i's day. Goldziher

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 394 REVIEWS

currently
relation to the held view that if the Sunna
badWth '. isFurth
given
up, the assertions of historical
of the case forbids us Islam from stand c
wise than thatexposed to
to question.
hisThis viewcompan
is itself well-
life was a religious paradigm
founded. But to question the assertions of
normative, then the scholars of the third historical Islam is not at all the same as
century are as justified in arguing what Dr.
questioning the historical assertions of Islam
Rahman does not care to accept, that his Thus,
life it is not at all clear how rejection o
is also legally and socially normative. Whereas
much of the badith, or even all of it, woul
he recognizes that the practice in the early
lead, as he asserts, to rejection of the historici
of the Qur'dn. What more than anything
schools differed on most points, and that each
region defended its particular usus by calling
speaks for the historicity of the Qur'dn is th
it Sunna, basically he has failed to face serious
the embarrassment it has consistentl
distinction between the concept and the represented for Muslim scholars. Because,
content of Sunna. Although he will concede,
from the earliest times, it has been impossible
under Western pressure, that what the later
to reconcile it with the formulations of his-
tradition attributed to the Prophet does torical
not Islam, it has, at best, been consistently
verbally belong to him, he yet insists that ignored,
the or subjected to intolerable indignities
living tradition, which he recognizes is of tafsir and ta'wil, at worst, traduced, set
constantly bound to change and is continuously aside by the doctrine of the abrogation of the
subject to modification through additions, Qur'an by the Sunna-a doctrine on which
may legitimately call itself Sunna because the author is curiously silent. Rejection of
these later views were somehow seen to be much of, or all of the Sunna would liberate
implicit in the practice and conduct ofthethe
Qur'dn from the limbo of neglect in which
Prophet. Thus, the later usage of the itterm
has lain for 14 centuries. Dr. Rahman is the
Sunna is made to appear the derivative first
of anmodern writer to have realized and to
alleged earlier usage, although Schacht has
have clearly expressed the fundamental
made it incontrovertibly clear that the reverse
inalienable difficulty that besets the historical
critic of the Wadith : that at some stage he
is the case, by exploiting the abundant histori-
cal evidence of change in the content of the
must assume the truth of certain statements
Sunna to challenge the essentially religious
on the strength of which to try to judge others.
proposition that the Sunna was, from the Perhaps a more satisfactory method of hand-
earliest beginnings, directed towards the ling the hadith would be to expose the indi-
apostolic model, and has had no difficulty in vidual statements, not to other hadiths,
demonstrating that this was a second-century which, it must be admitted, is a technique that
response to a novel demand. The author, causes not a little intellectual discomfort, but
seeking to explain what might tend to contra-to the Qur'&n, which is a constant, and of
dict his thesis-the opposition of the ancient
certain date and provenance. This has never
been systematically attempted, and indeed,
schools to the massive introduction of hadiths-
alleges that this was due to their realization
the hadith which recommended this procedure,
that the reference of every theological, was itself rejected by Shdfi'i on the grounds of
dogmatic, or legal doctrine to the authority weakness in the isnad. Why does the author
of the Prophet, as was demanded by the logic limit his accusation of' theoretical conspiracy '
only to orthodoxy's eagerly embracing the
of the
end .adith
of the free phenomenon, would
and creative process of lead to thedemoralizing doctrine of determinism ? Why
interpre-
tation. This is a rationalization that is possible not extend it to orthodoxy's pushing the
only on the basis of hind-sight. The ancients Qur'dn behind its back, and preferring to
protested because the hadiths represented replace it with the Sunna ?
alien doctrines in opposition to those of the No reservations limit one's admiration of
schools, and threatened the existing situation the second and third sections of this book.
which they found, however, could be partially In the first of these, the author, who is clearly
safeguarded by calling the system the Sunna. very much at home in the realm of medieva
The alternative noted by the author: that if metaphysics, traces the ceaseless intellectual
the creative process were to continue, a ferment in the speculative sciences, in both
massive and incessant fabrication of hadith their 'official' and Sfifistic manifestations,
would be necessary, was precisely the factor
surveying as far beyond the days of Ghazzll
which alerted Goldziher's attention. That and R~zi as the state of present research
permits.
such fabrication was not incessant is He displays a rare ability to demon-
explained
by Schacht on the grounds of the early strate with illuminating clarity the three-
restriction of the demands of the hadith by the cornered dialectic between the upholders of
controlling doctrine of ijm&'. Dr. Rahman's Reason, Revelation, and Intuition in the
attitude to this question of the historicity of struggle between speculative extravagance
the Sunna is explained by the common and unimaginative sobriety for the soul of

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 REVIEWS 395

Islam, without and matured in the faith of Islam, his

losing and the fe
arguments and principles,
author is doubtless right in the view that for p
stage to stage the
this to appear, more time continua
for unhurried
orthodox formulation reflection is needed. This points up asthe need it e
unbroken stream ofof challen
in the Islamic nation-states the slow
which it successively distillation plant of a matured meets, education
process of modification, adaptation, and structure. But still he has not defined what
absorption. The Islam thus portrayed, as should be taught, for he keeps tripping over
growing out of conditions of constant change the one solid obstacle standing in the way of a
and movement in a dynamic process of self modern Islamic self-definition-the hadith. He
identification and definition should have little realizes that this represents the sanctification
to fear from its contemporary situation in ofa the early centuries as part of the Faith,
largely hostile environment. The world has rather than of the history of the community,
for centuries been inimical, but to-day, and the yet will not let it go, owing to some vague
threats are radically different in nature, with fear that with it the Prophet and the Qur'an
Islam caught in the snare of political national- will go too. But does this fear have any
ism. In the history of the West, the Renais- substance ? Certainly, as long as Muslims
sance, leading to the Reformation, forced continue
the to eternalize the Islam of a given age,
separation of state and church, which latter, say the third century, and to identify Islam
however, did not require as a guarantee of with its the contingent and the accidental, they
intellectual survival the continuation of its will never come to terms with the twentieth
right to rule, which, in its historical century. origins,
it had not possessed, and by resigning which, The plates, illustrating various styles of
it slipped away, by its absence from the Islamic architecture of different periods and
political scene, from the resentment of its regions, and some lovely artifacts, are un-
opponents. But Islam, since its inception, has related to the text, but beautifully printed and
been the identification of church and state, and, their inclusion is self-justified.
when this unity is broken, Islam seems cut JOHN BURTON

at its very roots. The central historical

tragedy in Islam is that whereas the scholarsSEYYED HOSSEIN NASR: Ideals and
of the Middle Ages could still display a
remarkable freedom in philosophical and
realities of Islam. 184 pp. London:
theological speculation on the nature of the George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1966
28s.
Law, and the relations of its rational, moral,
and spiritual bases to the other sciences, they This book is based on the first six of 15
were unable to effect any development in the public lectures given in Beirut by Professo
content of the Law, which, in the interests of Naqr in 1964-5 when he was the first occupan
stability, had been fixed and sealed by ijma'of the Aga Khan Chair of Islamic Studies
when the other sciences were still in their the American University, and is now' launche
as the
infancy. The islamization of the Law hadfirst written contribution from that
chair to the outside world '. From its situation
proceeded at too early a stage in the evolution
of the entire system for it to keep pace in the Lebanon, the home of so many varied
with
and benefit from the advances in its sister religious traditions, Islamic and Christian, the
new chair is strategically placed for the
sciences. This was inevitable, in view of the
conduct of a dialogue with its numerous
fundamental demand that the Law be a
moral rather than a legal science.neighbours.
Yet the Another function for which it is
happily
contradiction between the specificness oflocated
the is the task of meeting and
Law and the generalness of moralgiving
principles
the Islamic answer to the many pseudo-
was never solved. The Law is to Islam whatintellectual fads-materialism, scientism,
theology is to Christianity and it is the existentialism,
easiest and historicism-which the
authorof
thing in the world to pass from the stolidity sees parading as the truth, under the
the conservative 'ulam&' to the allegationcomprehensive
that banner of modernism. Perhaps
Islam is the enemy of progress. Wahhdbism the greatest danger he apprehends is the spread
and Salafism, although they swept away of many
the modern style in education which denies
the young
illegitimate accretions, offer no solution, for the knowledge of the intellectual
and spiritual aspects of Islam as a total
their cries of back to the Qur'dn and the hadWith
merely tighten the noose of the shari'a civilization,
on the and, since it is the young, rather
neck; modernism, even when it does not than the traditional intelligentsia of the
Muslims that he is addressing, the language and
merge into pure secularism, has generally been
line of argument have been modified to appeal
in too much of a hurry and has paid the price
toin
in superficiality. What is so far lacking and be understood by Muslims educated in
modern Islam has been a liberalism nurtured Western norms of thought. The work seeks,

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