INTERMEDIATE PART-II

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M. Hamza Faryad
Contact #: 0308-5095951
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﷽
Chapter 17

The branch of physics which deals with the structure and properties of solids, called solid state physics.

Classification of Solids
Depending upon the structure, order and nature of bonding solids are classified into three types:
1. Crystalline solids 2. Amorphous solids 3 . Polymeric solids
1. Crystalline solids:
"The solids in which atoms ,ions and molecules are arranged in a
regular manner, to give a particular shape, are called crystalline solids.
☻Examples: of these solids are;
• Metals: copper, zinc, iron etc.
• Ionic compounds: Sodium chloride (Na Cl) etc.
• Ceramics: Zirconia (Zirconium Oxide) etc.
• Semiconductors : Germanium and silicon .
☻Properties:
i. These solids show the phenomenon of X- ray diffraction.
ii. They have sharp melting and boiling point.
At a certain temperature, thermal vibrations of the crystal become so large that the
structure breaks and the solid melts.
2. Amorphous or Glassy solids:
The word amorphous means “shapeless”.
“The solids in which there is no regular arrangement of molecules, like that
in crystalline solids are called amorphous solids .
☻Examples: ordinary glass etc.
☻Properties:
i. They do not show the phenomenon of X-ray diffraction.
ii. They do not have sharp melting and boiling points.
e.g., A glass passes through a paste like state on heating and become a very viscous
liquid at almost 800 0C.
3. Polymeric Solids:
“The more or less solid materials with a structure which is
intermediate b/w order and disorder are called polymeric solids.”
These are formed by the polymerization reaction in which simple
molecules chemically combined to form long chain molecules.
☻Examples: Plastic, synthetic rubber, polythene and nylon etc
☻Properties:
i. They have low specific gravity.
ii. They exhibit good strength to weight ratio.
Unit cell:
A crystalline solid consists of a three dimensional pattern that repeat itself over and over again.
This, smallest three dimensional basic structure is called unit cell.
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Crystal lattice : “ The whole structure formed by the repetition of unit cell is known as Crystal lattice”
Deformation:
“Any change in shape, volume and in length of an object under the action of some external force,
is called deformation.”
• Deformation in crystalline solids;
In crystalline solids atoms are arranged in regular manner. When external force is applied on them
distortion takes place due to displacement of the atoms from their equilibrium position.
In deformed crystalline solids, the atoms return to their equilibrium position when external force
is removed. “This ability of a body to return to its original shape, is called elasticity.”
MACHANICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOLIDS
“The properties shown by the solid material under the action of external force are called
mechanical properties of the solids.”
To describe these properties, physical properties such as stress, strain and modulus of elasticity are used.
Stress
“The force applied on unit area to produce any change in shape, volume or length of a body is
called stress.”
Stress = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ⁄ 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑭
𝝈=
𝑨
Unit: Its SI unit is N m- 2 or Pascal.
Types of stress:
1. Tensile stress: When a stress changes the length of the body it is called tensile stress.
2. Volumetric stress: When a stress changes the volume of the body it is called volumetric stress.
occurs in solids, liquids and in gases.
3. Shear stress: When a stress changes the shape of the body it is called shear stress.
Strain
“The measure of deformation of a solid when stress is applied on it , is called strain.”
Strain has no units because it is the ratio of same quantities;
Types of Strain:
1. Tensile Strain: Fractional change in the length of the body it is called tensile strain.
∆𝒍
𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝒍
2.Volumetric Strain: Fractional change in the volume of the body it is called volumetric strain.
∆𝑽
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑽
3.Shear Strain: If the deforming force produces a change in shape of a body without changing its
volume then it is called shear strain.
∆𝒂
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝛾 ) = = 𝑻𝒂𝒏 𝜃
𝒂

Hook’s law: “Within elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain.”

Mathematically, Stress ∝ Strain

Stress = ( Constant ) Strain

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Constant =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
This constant is known as elastic constant or modulus of elasticity.
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Modulus of elasticity
“The ratio of stress to strain is constant for a given material, if the applied force is not too great.”
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝐌𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐄𝐥𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 =
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
Types of Modulus of Elasticity:
1.Young’s Modulus: In case of linear deformation, the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain is called
young’s modulus.
𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝐘𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐠 ′ 𝐬 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 = 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

𝐹/𝐴 𝐹𝑙
𝑌= =
∆𝑙/𝑙 ∆𝑙 𝐴
2. Shear modulus: The ratio of shear stress to shear strain is called shear modulus. It is also called
modulus of rigidity.
𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝐒𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 = 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

𝐹/𝐴
𝐺=
tan 𝜃
3.Bulk modulus: For three dimensional deformation, the ratio of volumetric stress to volumetric strain is
called bulk modulus.
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝐁𝐮𝐥𝐤 𝐦𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐥𝐮𝐬 =
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

𝐹/𝐴 𝐹𝑉
𝐾= =
∆𝑉/𝑉 ∆𝑉 𝐴

❖ Elastic Limits and Yeild Strength

In tensile stress , metal wire is extended at a specific deformation state.

The stresses generated in the wire during deformation continuously
measured by a suitable electronic device fitting in the mechanical testing
machine. Stress-strain curve is plotted automatically on X-Y chart
recorder. For a ductile material a typical stress-strain curve is shown:
At initial stage of deformation, stress is increased linearly with
strain till point A on stress-strain curve. This is called proportional limit.
Proportional limit ( Defination):
“The ability of a material to lose the straight line proportionality b/w stress and strain when a
great stress is applied ,is called proportional limit.”
From A to B the stress and strain are not proportional. If the load is removed at any point b/w O
and B , the curve will be retraced and the material will return to its original length. The point B is called
yield point and the value of stress at this point is called yield stress or elastic limit.
Yield Stress or Elastic Limit (Defination):
“Elastic limit is the greatest stress that a material can endure without any permanent deformation.”
If the stress is increased beyond elastic limit, the material become permanently deformed. This
behavior is called plasticity, represented by portion of the curve from B to C . The point C represents the
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS).
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) . (Defination):
“Ultimate Tensile Stress is the greatest stress that a material can withstand.”
When point C corresponding to UTS is crossed, material breaks at point D, responding to fracture stress.
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Ductile Substance: “The substances that undergo plastic deformation until they break are called
ductile substances.” ☻ e.g., Lead , copper, and wrought iron etc.
Brittle substances: “The substances which break just after the elastic limit is reached, are called
brittle substances.” ☻ e.g., Glass and high carbon steel etc.
STRAIN ENERGY
“ The amount of P.E. stored in a material due to displacement of its molecules from its
equilibrium position, under the action of stress, is called strain energy.”

➢ Derivation of the expression for strain energy:

Consider a wire, whose one end is attached to a fixed support, is stretched vertically by connecting a
weight at its lower end . The suspended weight act as a stretching force. The extension in the wire is
increased by increasing the stretching force. The graph plotted b/w extension l for different values of
stretching force is shown in figure:
It is clear from the figure that the force is constant in producing extension
l1 but is changing from 0 to F. In order to calculate the work done for extension l1
by force F1 , it is convenient to find the work done by graphical method.
The work done for extension l1 by force F1 will be equal to the area under
force- extension curve, which is equal to the area of the triangle OAB. Therefore,
Work Done = Area of triangle OAB
1
Work Done = (base)(altitude)
2

1
Work Done = (OA)(AB)
2

1
Work Done = ( l1 ) ( F1 )
2
This work done is appeared as a strain energy in the wire. So,
1
Strain Energy = ( l1 ) ( F1 ) (1)
2
Strain Energy in terms of Elastic Modulus:
If A is the cross-sectional area of the wire of length L, then elastic modulus of the wire will be:
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹1 /𝐴
Modulus of Elasticity = =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑙1 /𝐿

𝐹1 𝐿
E=
𝑙1 𝐴

𝐸𝐴𝑙1
𝐹1 = 𝐿
By putting value of F1 in equation (1);
1 𝐸𝐴 𝑙1
Strain Energy = ( l1 ) ( )
2 𝐿

𝟏 𝑬𝑨
Strain Energy = ( ) ( l12 )
𝟐 𝑳
If the extension is increased from l1 to l2 then, work done will be equal to the area of trapezium
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ABCD. This equation is valid for linear (elastic) as well as non-linear ( non-elastic ) part of the force-
extension graph.

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOLIDS.

The electrical properties of the solids determine its ability to conduct electric current. On
the basis of these properties solids are divided as;

Types of Solids Conductivity Range

1. Conductors: e.g., metals etc. 107 (Ω m)-1
2. Insulators: e.g., wood, plastic, glass, etc. 10-10 to 10-20 (Ω m)-1
3. Semiconductors: e.g., Si, Ge, etc. 10-6 to 10-4 (Ω m)-1

The conventional free electrons theory based on the Bohar’s Model failed to explain the
electrical behavior of solids. On the other hand , Energy Band Theory, based upon
wave mechanical model resolved this problem successfully

ENERGY BAND THEORY

Electrons of an isolated atoms are bound to the nucleus. They have distinct
energy levels i.e. E1, E2,------En .
Energy band:
When large number of atoms, say N, are brought closer to one another to form
a solid, they interact with one another. As a result, each energy level splits up into N
sub-levels, which are called energy bands or energy states. “The
energy states where an electron can exist, is called permissible energy state.” These
permissible states are;
➢ discrete
➢ closely packed to form a continuous energy band.
Forbidden band:
Between two consecutive energy bands, a range of energy states which can’t be occupied by
electrons. These are called forbidden energy states and its range is called forbidden bands.
Valance band:
The electrons in the outer most shell of an atom are called valance electrons. Therefore,
the energy band occupied by valance electrons is called valance band .It may be completely or partially
filled but can never be empty. It is the highest occupied band.
Conduction band:
The energy band above the valance band is called conduction band. The valance and conduction
bands are separated by forbidden energy gaps. The conduction band may be empty or partially filled.
“The electrons in this band can move freely and conduct electric current. That’s why they are
called free or conduction electrons. ”
In electrical conduction, only valance and conduction bands take part. The bands below the are
normally completely filled and take no part in conduction process.
• Difference b/w insulator Conductors, and Semiconductors on the basis of Energy Band Theory:
The width of forbidden energy gap b/w valance and conduction band decided whether material
is insulator conductor, or a semi-conductor.
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Insulators:
Insulators are those materials in which valance electrons are tightly bonded to
their atoms and are not free. So, in terms of energy bands insulators have:

➢ An empty conduction band (no free electrons)

➢ A full valance band
➢ A large energy gap (of several eV) b/w them.

Conductors:
Conductors are those materials which have plenty (excess) of free electrons for
electrical conduction. In terms of energy band, conductors are those in which;

➢ Valance and conduction band largely overlap each other & they are
partially filled.
➢ There is no physical distinction b/w the two band which ensure the
availability of free electrons.
➢ No energy (forbidden) gap.

Semi-conductors:
In terms of energy bands, these are those materials which at room
temperature have;

➢ A partially filled conduction band

➢ A partially filled valance band
➢ A very narrow forbidden energy gap ( of order of 1 eV)

Variation in the conductivity of semi-conductors due to effect of temperature:

A pure semi-conductor behave as an insulator at 0 K, because there is
no free electron in their conduction band & their valance band is completely filled. It means, at 0 K , Si
or Ge are perfect insulators.

However, with the increase of temp. some electrons posses sufficient energy and jump from the
valance band to conduction band. This, transfers of electrons in the conduction band , vacancy of
electrons in the valance band, known as holes. It behaves like a +ve charge. Thus, at room temp. Ge or Si
crystals become a semi-conductor.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semi-Conductor
Intrinsic Semi-Conductor:
“A semi-conductor in its extremely pure form is known as intrinsic semi-conductor.”
Electrical behavior of semi-conductor is extremely sensitive to to the purity of the material. It changes on
adding a small amount of impurity into pure semi-conductor lattice.
Examples of pure semi conductor:
Pure elements of Si and Ge are intrinsic semiconductors. These elements
have four valance electrons. In solid crystalline form, their atoms arranged
themselves in such a pattern that atoms has four equidistance neighbors. Each atom
with its four valance electrons , shares an electron from its neighbor. This sharing
form a covalent bond. Due to which electrons bound to their respective shells
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.Doping :
“The process of mixing an impurity of an element into pure semi-conductor lattice.”
Impurity is into the ratio of 1 to 10 6 .
Extrinsic Semi-conductor:
“The doped semi-conductor materials are called extrinsic semi-conductor.”
Types of Extrinsic Semi-conductor:
1. N-Type semi conductors 2. P -Type semi conductors
1. N-Type Semi- Conductors:
When a Si or Ge crystal is doped with pentavalent element, e.g., arsenic,
antinomy or phosphorus etc. four valance electrons of impurity atom form covalent
bond with four neighboring Si atoms, while fifth electron is free, called free
electron.
Such a doped semi-conductor is called N-type semi-conductor. An N-type
semi-conductor with phosphorus as pentavalent impurity is shown.
2. P-Type Semi-Conductors:
When a Si or Ge crystal is doped with trivalent element, e.g., aluminum,
boron gallium and indium etc. Three valance electrons of impurity atom form
covalent bond with four neighboring Si atom. The one missing electron in the
covalent bond with the fourth neighboring Si atom, form a hole.
The hole is in fact a vacancy for an electron. Such a semi-conductor is
called P-type semi- conductor. Figure illustrates Si atom doped with aluminum.
Differences b/w Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semi-Conductors:

Intrinsic semi- conductors Extrinsic semi- conductors

i. It is a pure form of 4th group elements. i . It is obtained when an intrinsic semi-conductor is
ii. doped by 3rd or 5th group impurity.
ii. It has equal number of electrons and holes. ii. Number of electrons and holes never equal.
iii. Its conductivity is low. iii. Its conductivity is high.

Differences b/w N-type and P-type Semi-Conductors:

N-Type semi-conductors P-type semi-conductors

i . It is obtained when intrinsic semi-conductor is
doped by 5th group impurity.
ii. It has electrons as majority charge carriers.
iii. Each impurity atom provides an extra electron
to crystal, so called donor atom.
i . It is obtained when intrinsic semi-conductor is
doped by 3rd group impurity.
ii. It has holes as majority charge carriers.
iii. Each impurity atom creates a vacancy of
electron to crystal, so called acceptor atom.

Electrical conduction by Electrons and Holes in Semi-conductor:

Consider a semi-conductor crystal lattice, e.g., Ge, or Si. The circles represent
positive ion core of atom and blue dotes are valance electrons .
These electrons are bound by covalent bonds, however, at room temperature
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they have thermal motion. Some electrons break bonds and become free,
leaving vacant seat for an electron, i.e. a hole.
Explanation:

Consider a row of Si atoms in a crystal lattice. A hole is present in

the valance shell of atom A, so, core of atom would have net positive charge.
This attracts an electron from neighboring atom say B. Electron moves from
B to A and hole Shifts from A to B. Now electron is attracted C to B and
positive charge (hole) appears at C. This process is repeated b/w various atoms.
Conclusion:
Thus in a semi-conductor there are two kinds of charge carriers: a free electron (-e) and a hole (+e).
Effect of battery on the motion of charge carriers in a semi-conductor:

When a battery is connected to a semi-conductor, an electric field is

produced across it, due to which flow of electrons and holes takes place.
The electrons move towards the positive end whereas the holes move
towards the negative end of the semi-conductor. The current flowing
through the semi conductor is carried by both electrons and holes. It may be noted
that the electronic current and hole current add up together to give the current I.
I= Ie + Ih As the drift velocity of
electrons(-e) is greater
Super conductors: than holes (+e). so,
“The materials whose resistivity become zero below a certain Ie>Ih
temperature, are called super conductors.”

Critical Temperature: The temperature at which the resistivity of a material falls to zero is called critical
temperature.
Types of super conductors:
High temperature super conductors:
“Any super conductor having critical temperature above 77K, is called high temp. super
conductor.”
Low temperature super conductors:
“Any super conductor having critical temperature below 77K, is called low temp. super
conductor.”
Applications of super conductors:

i. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

ii. Magnetic Levitation trains
iii. Powerful but small electric motors
iv. Fast computer chips

Magnetic Properties of the Solids

Reasons of magnetic behavior of solids:

The magnetism produced by electrons in an atom arises from two motions:

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i. Electrons orbiting the nucleus behave like an atom sized loop of current that generate small
magnetic field.
ii. The spin motion of electrons also produce magnetic field.
The net magnetic field generated by the electrons in an atom, is due to combined field created by their
orbital and spin motion. This idea was introduced by Ampere.
Types of Magnetic Substances:
Para-magnetic substances:
The solids in which the orbital and spin axes of the electrons in an atom are so oriented that their
fields support each other are called paramagnetic substances. In these solids atoms behaves like a tiny
magnet.
Diamagnetic substance:
In diamagnetic substance, there is no resultant field as the magnetic field produced by both
orbital and spin motions of the electrons might add up to zero.
e.g., the atoms of water, copper, bismuth and antinomy are diamagnetic.
Ferro-magnetic substances:
In ferromagnetic substances, the atoms cooperate with each other to exhibit a strong magnetic
field. e.g., Fe, Co, Ni, Chromium dioxide and Alnico are ferro-magnetic materials.
Domains:
In ferro-magnetic materials there exists small regions called domains. Each domain contains 1012 to 1016
atoms. Within each domain, the magnetic fields of all spinning electrons are parallel to one another, i.e.,
each domain is magnetized to saturation act as a tiny magnet with its own north and south poles.
Types of ferromagnetic materials:
Soft ferromagnetic materials:
In soft ferro-magnetic materials, the domains are easily oriented on applying an external field
and also readily return to random positions when the field is removed. This is desirable in electromagnet
and transformers. Iron is a soft ferromagnetic material.
Hard ferro-magnetic material:
In hard ferro-magnetic materials, domains are not so easily oriented to order. They require very
strong external fields, but once oriented, retain the alignment. These solids are used to make permanent
magnet. Steel is an example of hard ferro-magnetic material.
Curie temperature:
The temperature at which materials begin to loss their orderliness, is called curie temperature. Above
curie temp. iron becomes paramagnetic but not ferromagnetic. The curie temperature for iron is 750 ℃ .

HYSTERESIS LOSS
“The graph b/w magnetic flux density B and magnetizing current I of a solenoid plotted by a
CRO for a ferro-magnetic material in a complete cycle of A.C. is called Hysteresis Loop.”
Explanation:
It explains different magnetic properties of ferro-magnetic materials.
To investigate a ferromagnetic material , a bar magnet of that material such as
iron ,is placed in a solenoid. The alternating current changes from its positive peak
value to its negative peak value and back to its positive peak value. The specimen
undergoes a complete cycle of magnetization.
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Main Features of Hysteresis Loop

Hysteresis:
The value of flux density for any value of current is always greater
when the current is decreasing than it is increasing, i.e., magnetism lags
behind the magnetizing current. This phenomenon is called hysteresis.
The portion OA of the curve is obtained when the current is
increases and AR is the portion when the current is decreasing.
Saturation:
“The point at which the maximum value of magnetic flux density is
obtained, called saturation.”
The magnetic flux density increases from zero to its maximum value. At this stage, the material
is said to be fully saturated.
Retaintivity or Remanence:
“The value of magnetic flux density, at which the current is zero is called remanence or
retaintivity” represented by point R. It is due to the tendency of domains to stay partially in line, once
they have been aligned.
Coercivity:
The value of reverse current at which the magnetic flux density
become zero is called coercivity, represented by point C on curve.
Coercivity of steel is more than iron as more current is needed to
demagnetize it.
Area of the loop:
The area of the loop is the measure of the energy needed to
magnetize and demagnetize the specimen during each cycle of the
magnetizing current.
This is the energy required to do work against internal friction of the
domains. This work is dissipated as heat . It is called hysteresis loss.
Examples:
Hard magnetic materials e.g., steel , cannot be magnetize and
demagnetize easily, so they have large loop area as compared to soft materials
e.g., iron which can be easily magnetize. Thus,
“ energy dissipated per cycle for iron is less than that of steel.”
Advantage of Hysteresis loss:

i. Suitability of magnetic material: can be studied easily by drawing the hysteresis loop.
A material with high retaintivity and large coercivity would be most suitable to make a
permanent bar magnet.
ii. Reducing the energy loss:
The cores of electromagnets used for alternating current should have narrow hysterisis
curve of small area to minimize the energy loss.

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