1

Chapter 11 Mechanical Vibration

9 Any motion which repeats itself after an interval of time is called vibration.

9 Machines with repetitive power sources, such as engine, motor, turbine, often
have vibration problems.

9 Vibration will cause uncomfortable feeling or noise. Serious vibration

problems may cause malfunctions or failure.

9 Three major components in a vibration system: mass, spring, and damper.

9 Spring is to temporarily store energy during vibration, and damper is to

consume the energy.
K

M
C
 2

Type of Springs

9 In mechanical systems, springs are often used to absorb impact energy, to

store energy, to provide restoring forces, and to measure force.

9 From the way the springs are loaded, there are 4 major types of springs:
compression springs, extension springs, torsion springs, and radial springs.

garter spring
 3

Compression Spring – Terminologies (I)

Dw
9 Dm: mean diameter

9 Dw: wire diameter

9 Outside Diameter:

OD = Dm + Dw (1)
ID
9 Inside Diameter: Dm
OD
ID = Dm – Dw (2)

9 Free length

9 Install length

9 Operating length

9 Solid length
 4
Compression Spring – Terminologies (II)

9 For assembly needs, the ends of the

compression spring are often grounded
and closed.

9 Number of active coils, Na = N – 2 (3)

9 Pitch, p: distance between each coil.

9 Pitch angle:
λ
⎛ p ⎞
λ = tan ⎜⎜
−1
⎟⎟ (4)
⎝ πDm ⎠
L f = p × N a + 2 Dw (5) P πDm

Dm
 5
Compression Spring – Stress Analysis (I)
F
9 When a spring is in compression or tension, the
wire itself is twisted.
9 The torsional shearing stress:
Tr FDm 2 ⋅ Dw 2 8FDm
τ= = = (6) FDm/2
J πDw 32
4
πDw3
8KFDm
τ= (7)
πDw3 F

9 Wahl factor K is a stress concentration factor caused by bending the wire

into a spring.
9 Spring Index: C = Dm Dw (8)
 6
Compression Spring – Stress Analysis (II)
4C − 1 0.615
K= + (9)
4C − 4 C

1.4

1.35

1.3
Wahl Factor, K

1.25

1.2

1.15

1.1

1.05

1
0 5 10 15 20
Spring Index, C
 7
Compression Spring – Spring Constant
9 Strain energy when the spring wire is twisted:

θ=
TL ⎛ GJ ⎞
T = Kθ θ = ⎜ ⎟θ
GJ ⎝ L ⎠
2
1 1 ⎛ GJ ⎞ 2 1 ⎛ GJ ⎞⎛ TL ⎞ T 2L
U = Kθ θ = ⎜
2
⎟θ = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = (10)
2 2⎝ L ⎠ 2 ⎝ L ⎠⎝ GJ ⎠ 2GJ

T=
FDm πDw4
J= L = πDm N a
2 32
4 F 2 Dm3 N a 1 2 F 2
U= 4
= kδ = (11)
GDw 2 2k
GDw4
⇒k = (12)
8 Dm3 N a
9 Spring constant depends on wire diameter, mean diameter, number of active
coils, and modulus of elasticity in shear, among which wire diameter and
mean diameter have the greatest influence.
 8
Free Vibration of an Undamped, Translational System (I)

9 Free vibration and forced vibration.

9 Undamped vibration and damped vibration.
9 Free Vibration of an Undamped, 1 DOF System

m&x& + k (δ + x ) = mg (13)
mg = kδ

m&x& + kx = 0 (14) kδ
k
x = ce st mcs 2 e st + kce st = 0
ms 2 + k = 0 δ x=0 m
m

⇒ s = ± − k = ± iω n
mg
m
(a) (b)
ωn = k m

is called the natural frequency of the vibration system.

 9
Free Vibration of an Undamped, Translational System (II)

9 Homogenous solution:
iω n t − iω n t
x(t ) = A1 cos ωn t + A2 sin ωn t (17)
x = c1e + c2 e (15)

iω n t
t = 0, x( 0 ) = A1 , x& (0) = A2ωn
⎧ e = cos ωn t + i sin ωn t
⎨ −iωnt (16) x&0
⎩e = cos ωn t − i sin ωn t x(t ) = x0 cos ωn t + sin ω n t (18)
ωn
9 Equivalent stiffness:

m
δ = fl 3 3EI
x=0 k e = f x = 3EI l 3
l
ω n = k e me

9 Natural frequency is an important index of stiffness of the system.

 10
Free Vibration of an Undamped, Torsional System
9 If a rigid body oscillates about a specific reference axis, the resulting motion is
called torsional vibration.
9 The displacement of a body is measured in terms of an angular coordinate, and
the restoring moment may be due to the torsion of an elastic member or to the
unbalanced moment or force.

J oθ&& + ktθ = 0 (19)

J 0 : polar moment of inertia with respect to point O

kt
ωn =
l
rad/sec (20)
Jo

θ = Tl GJ s , T = K tθ ⇒ K t = GJ s l O

θ
J o = ∫ r dA
2
 11
A Solid Pendulum Experiment to Calculate the Polar
Moment of Inertia
9 It is difficult to calculate JO for objects with complicated shapes.
9 The solid pendulum experiment:
J oθ&& + mgr sin θ = 0 (21) O

For smallθ , sin θ ≈ θ

C
J oθ&& + (mgr )θ = 0
r
(22)

ω n = mgr J o

If we measure the frequency of the solid pendulum θ

mgr
f = ωn 2π ⇒ Jo = (23) mg
4π 2 f 2
From theory of parallel axis: J c = J o − mr 2 (24)
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Example 1. Piano Metronome
9 The polar moment of inertia with respect to point O
(
J o = Ml 2 + mx 2 ) (25)

9 Moment equilibrium: m
x
− Mgl sin θ + mxg sin θ = (ml 2 + Mx 2 )θ&& (26)

( )
Ml + mx θ&& + (Ml − mx )gθ = 0
2 2
(27)
轉軸
pivot

O l
9 Natural frequency:
θ
ωn =
(Ml − mx )g (28)
Ml 2 + mx 2 M

9 The frequency will be small if m is moved away from the pivot. When Ml=mx,
there will be no vibration.
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Free Vibration with Viscous Damping (I)
9 A vehicle suspension system usually consist of a spring, a shock absorber,
and a set of linkages. The shock absorber is a typical viscous damping.
裝置於車體
to vehicle

活塞桿
piston rod
避震筒壁 防塵套筒

活塞 液壓油
hydraulic fluid
piston
基閥
fluid passage
活塞
piston

液壓油
hydraulic fluid

車軸
to wheel
 14
Free Vibration with Viscous Damping (II)
9 The viscous damping force F is proportional to the speed and can be expressed as
F = −cx& (29)
where c is the damping constant or coefficient of viscous damping.
9 The equation of motion:
m&x& + cx& + kx = 0 (30)

9 Let x=cest ms 2 + cs + k = 0

⇒s= − c ± c
2m
2
− 4mk = − c ±
2m
( )
c −k
2m m
2
(31)

9 Define a “critical damping constant” Cc, and damping ratio ζ

c
Cc = 2 mk = 2m k = 2mωn (32) ζ = (33)
m Cc

c
=
c Cc
⋅
2 m Cc 2 m
= ζω n (34) ( )
s = − ζ ± ζ 2 − 1 ωn (35)
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Free Vibration with Viscous Damping (III)

9 Homogeneous solution of
⎛⎜ −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ⎞⎟ωn t ⎛⎜ −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ⎞⎟ω t
Equation (30): x(t ) = c1e⎝ ⎠
+ c2 e ⎝ ⎠ n
(36)
臨界阻尼系統與過度阻尼系統運動狀態
9 Critically damped system
(ζ=1) and overdamped
ζ >1
Overdamped
過度阻尼
system(ζ>1
system( ) Î The
solution does not have
imaginary part, thus no
Criticallyζ damped
臨界阻尼 =1
oscillation. X(t)

9 Underdamped systems are

more commonly seen in
practice.

t
 16
Underdamped System
9 Eq.(36) can be re-arranged as follows:

x (t ) = x0 e −ζω nt cos( 1 − ζ 2 ω n t + φ0 ) (37) x (t )

where x0 is the initial displacement
and φ is the phase angle. x0 e −ζω nt

9 Vibration frequency is: ωd = 1 − ζ 2 ω n (38)

O
The vibration frequency approaches
φ
natural frequency as ζ approaches 0.
−ζω t
9 x(t ) = x0e n determines the
“envelope” of the vibration amplitude.
The amplitude decreases faster as ζ
approaches 1.
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Coulomb Damping
9 Coulomb friction arises when bodies
slide on dry surfaces.
x , x& , &&
x
m&x& + kx = − μN
N = mg
m&x& + kx = μN (39) k
m
9 Particular solution:

μN
xp = m (40)
k f = μN
μN
x(t ) = A cos ω n t + B sin ω n t −
k
μN
x(t ) = A cos ωn t + B sin ωn t + (41)
k
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Example 2. Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping (I)
9 x0=0.06m, and m=15kg , k=1800N/m, μ=0.1, N=mg=147N, μN/k=8.17×10-3m.
9 The first half cycle (0≦ωnt≦π), when t=0, x0=0.06m:
A1 = x0 − μN k B1 = 0
μN
x(t ) = A cos ωn t + B sin ωn t + = ( x0 − μN k ) cos ωn t + μN k
k

9 At the ωnt= π, the displacement is 2 μN k − x0

9 The other half cycle (π ≦ωnt≦2π), when ωnt= π, x = 2 μN k − x0
A2 = x0 − 3 μN k B2 = 0
μN
x(t ) = A cos ωn t + B sin ωn t − = ( x0 − 3μN k ) cos ωn t − μN k
k

9 At the ωnt=2 π, the displacement isx0 − 4 μN k

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Example 2. Free Vibration with Coulomb Damping (II)
9 The amplitude decreases by 2μN/k each half cycle. The motion stops at the
4th half cycle.
有庫倫阻尼的振動系統運動時間對位移圖
X

μN
+
k
μN
π 2π ωt
3π ωnt
−
k
 20
Free Vibration with Hysteretic Damping

9 The damping caused by the friction between

internal planes that slip or slides as deformation f
takes place is called hysteretic damping.
f = kx + (kβ ω )x& (42)

9 β is called the hysteretic damping constant, which

is determined by
ΔE E = 2πβ x

ΔE is the energy loss (area of the loops).

9 Hysteretic damping has similar behavior as
viscous damping, and is often treated the same
way as viscous damping.
 21
Harmonically Excited Vibration of Rotating Machinery (I)

9 The centrifugal force caused by unbalance

in mass distribution will generate f sin θ
harmonically excited vibration. y

f = mo eω 2 (43) f = m o eω 2
f cosθ

f x = f sin θ = f sin ωt (44)

M θ
f y = f cos θ = f cos ωt (45)
e
9 The magnitude of this centrifugal force x
depends on the mass, the amount of O
eccentricity, and the rotational speed.
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Harmonically Excited Vibration of Rotating Machinery (II)

e
9 Equations of motion:
m&x& + kx = f cos ωt (46) x , x& , &&
x
O
9 The homogeneous solution is the same as
Eq.(17), and particular solution is:
m
f
xp = cos ωt (47)
k −mω 2 k, c

9 General solution is:

x&0
x(t ) = x0 cos ωn t +
f
sin ωn t + cos ωt (48)
ωn k − mω 2
 23
Harmonically Excited Vibration of Rotating Machinery (III)

9 There are two frequencies: the natural x&0

x(t ) = x0 cos ωn t +
f
sin ωn t + cos ωt
frequency ωn, and the frequency of ωn k − mω 2

harmonic vibration ω.
9 When ω → ω n = k , f x(t)
X(t)
→∞
m k −mω 2
which means that the vibration amplitude ω
approaches infinity. This is called <1
ωn
resonance.
t
t
9 For machinery with reciprocating power 0
source, the frequency of the power source x(t)
X(t)
should avoid the natural frequency to
prevent the whole system from resonance.

ω
>1
0
ωn tt
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Harmonically Excited Vibration of Rotating Machinery (IV)
9 If we consider the damping effect on the e
bushing, Eq.(46) becomes:
x , x& , &&
x
m&x& + cx& + kx = f cos ωt (49) O
9 For steady state, the homogeneous solution
will approach zero and we can only focus on
m
the particular solution:
x p = X cos(ωt − φ ) (50) k, c

where X(amplitute) and ψ(phase difference)

can be expressed as follows:

X=
f ⎛ cω ⎞
[(k − mω ) + (cω ) ] φ = tan −1 ⎜
(51)
2 ⎟
1 (52)
2 2 2 2
⎝ k − mω ⎠
f f
9 When ω → 0 , X = ; when ω → ω n X =
k cω
9 Vibration can be reduced if we add bushing
at proper positions.
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Vibration Analysis for Multiple DOF System (I)

roll y
9 There are four independent mass x bounce
nodes: body, two front tires, and
rear tires. pitch

9 Body DOF: bounce(translational z

DOF), pitch, and roll (rotational shock
減震筒 absorber
DOF).
懸載彈簧
spring
9 Front tire DOF: bounce
9 Rear tires DOF: bounce, roll.
9 There are 7 DOF in the system.
Considering only bounce, it can be 輪胎彈簧
tire spring
simplified into a 2 DOF system. 輪胎阻尼
tire damping
 26
Vibration Analysis for Multiple DOF System (II)

ms

cs z1
ks
9 Equation of motion: mus
ms &z&1 = k s ( z 2 − z1 ) + cs ( z&2 − z&1 ) (53) kt ct
z2
mus &z&2 = k s (z1 − z 2 ) − kt z 2 + cs (z&1 − z&2 ) − ct z&2 + F (t ) (54)

9 Rearrange Eq. (53) and (54): Road

路面
⎡ms 0 ⎤ ⎡ &z&1 ⎤ ⎡ cs − cs ⎤ ⎡ z&1 ⎤ ⎡ k s − k s ⎤ ⎡ z1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢0 + + =
mus ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣&z&2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− cs cs + ct ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z&2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− k s k s + kt ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ F (t )⎥⎦
(55)
⎣
M&x& + Cx& + Kx = F(t ) (56)
9 M is the mass matrix of this system, C is the damping matrix and K is the stiffness matrix.
 27
Vibration Analysis for Multiple DOF System (III)
9 Considering undamped, free vibration:
⎡ms 0 ⎤ ⎡ &z&1 ⎤ ⎡ k s − k s ⎤ ⎡ z1 ⎤ ⎡0⎤
⎢0 + =
mus ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣&z&2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− k s k s + kt ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0⎥⎦
(57)
⎣
9 Assume solution is in the following form:
z1 = Z1 cos ω nt &z&1 = −ω n2 Z1 cos ωn t (58)
z2 = Z 2 cos ω nt &z&2 = −ω n2 Z 2 cos ω n t (59)

⎡− msωn2 0 ⎤ ⎡ Z1 ⎤ ⎡ k s − k s ⎤ ⎡ Z1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ =
k s + kt ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Z 2 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0⎥⎦
(60)
⎣ 0 − musωn2 ⎦ ⎣ Z 2 ⎦ ⎣− k s

⎡− msωn2 + k s − ks ⎤ ⎡ Z1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ (61)
⎣ − ks − musωn + k s + kt ⎦ ⎣ Z 2 ⎦ ⎣0⎦
2

⎡ ks ks ⎤
⎢m − ω 2
n − ⎥ ⎡ Z1 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
ms
⎢ s
⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ (62)
⎢ − ks k s + kt 2 ⎥ ⎣Z 2 ⎦ ⎣0 ⎦
− ωn
⎢⎣ mus mus ⎥⎦
 28
Vibration Analysis for Multiple DOF System (IV)

⎡ ks ks ⎤
⎢ m −
ms ⎥
−1
M K=⎢ s ⎥
k s + kt ⎥
(63) ( )
⇒ M −1K − ω n2 I Z = 0 (64)
⎢− k s
⎢⎣ mus mus ⎥⎦

9 ωn2 are the eigen values of M-1K. The corresponding eigen vectors represent the
mode shape.
9 Assume ms=2000kg, mus=200kg, ks=80kN/m, kt=800kN/m, two eigen values of M-1K
are 8.45rad/sec=1.34Hz and 66.62rad/sec=10.60Hz. They are called the first natural
frequency and second natural frequency, respectively.
9 The corresponding eigen vectors are:

⎡ Z1 ⎤ ⎡− 0.9792⎤ ⎡ 0.0207 ⎤
⎢ Z ⎥ = ⎢− 0.2027⎥, ⎢− 0.9998⎥ (65)
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

9 They are called the first mode and the second mode.
 29
Mode Shapes

9 Three mode shapes of a cantilever

beam obtained from finite element
analysis: two bending modes and
a twisting mode.
9 The natural frequency is a good
index for the stiffness of a
structure. The mode shapes often
indicates the DOF that has lower
stiffness.