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Electric power distribution network have become more increasingly important and plays an
essential role in power system planning. This type of power systems has a major function to
serve distributed customer loads along a feeder line; therefore under competitive environment of
electricity market service of electric energy transfer must not be interrupted and at the same time
there must provide reliable, stable and high quality of electric power. To complete this challenge,
it requires careful design for power network planning.
There exist many different ways to do so. However, one might consider an additional
device to be installed somewhere in the network. Such devices are one of capacitor bank, shunt
reactor, series reactors, and automatic voltage regulators and/or recently developed dynamic
voltage restorers, distribution static compensator (DSTATCOM), or combination of them.
The DSTATCOM is a voltage source converter (VSC) based custom power technology
which can perform as a reactive power source in power systems. The D-STATCOM can regulate
magnitude of voltage at a particular AC bus, at the point where it is connected, via generating or
absorbing reactive power from the system. From D-STATCOM literature, a majority of research
works have been conducted in order to enhance electric voltage sags or swells. Apart from these
voltage variations, the D-STATCOM is capable to enhance steady-state performances such as
power factor and harmonic of a particular feeder portion. In this paper, a control scheme with
constant power and sinusoidal current compensation is exploited. In order to correct the power
factor additionally, a power factor control loop is required and therefore included in the control
block.
POWER QUALITY
The contemporary container crane industry, like many other industry segments, is often
enamored by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic displays, high speed performance, and
levels of automation that can be achieved. Although these features and their indirectly related
computer based enhancements are key issues to an efficient terminal operation, we must not
forget the foundation upon which we are building. Power quality is the mortar which bonds the
foundation blocks. Power quality also affects terminal operating economics, crane reliability, our
environment, and initial investment in power distribution systems to support new crane
installations. To quote the utility company newsletter which accompanied the last monthly issue
of my home utility billing: ‘Using electricity wisely is a good environmental and business
practice which saves you money, reduces emissions from generating plants, and conserves our
natural resources.’ As we are all aware, container crane performance requirements continue to
increase at an astounding rate. Next generation container cranes, already in the bidding process,
will require average power demands of 1500 to 2000 kW – almost double the total average
demand three years ago. The rapid increase in power demand levels, an increase in container
crane population, SCR converter crane drive retrofits and the large AC and DC drives needed to
power and control these cranes will increase awareness of the power quality issue in the very
near future.
For the purpose of this article, we shall define power quality problems as:
‘Any power problem that results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment, manifests
itself as an economic burden to the user, or produces negative impacts on the environment.’
When applied to the container crane industry, the power issues which degrade power quality
include:
• Power Factor
• Harmonic Distortion
• Voltage Transients
• Voltage Sags or Dips
• Voltage Swells
The AC and DC variable speed drives utilized on board container cranes are significant
contributors to total harmonic current and voltage distortion. Whereas SCR phase control creates
the desirable average power factor, DC SCR drives operate at less than this. In addition, line
notching occurs when SCR’s commutate, creating transient peak recovery voltages that can be 3
to 4 times the nominal line voltage depending upon the system impedance and the size of the
drives. The frequency and severity of these power system disturbances varies with the speed of
the drive.
Harmonic current injection by AC and DC drives will be highest when the drives are
operating at slow speeds. Power factor will be lowest when DC drives are operating at slow
speeds or during initial acceleration and deceleration periods, increasing to its maximum value
when the SCR’s are phased on to produce rated or base speed. Above base speed, the power
factor essentially remains constant. Unfortunately, container cranes can spend considerable time
at low speeds as the operator attempts to spot and land containers. Poor power factor places a
greater kVA demand burden on the utility or engine-alternator power source. Low power factor
loads can also affect the voltage stability which can ultimately result in detrimental effects on the
life of sensitive electronic equipment or even intermittent malfunction. Voltage transients created
by DC drive SCR line notching, AC drive voltage chopping, and high frequency harmonic
voltages and currents are all significant sources of noise and disturbance to sensitive electronic
equipment
It has been our experience that end users often do not associate power quality problems
with Container cranes, either because they are totally unaware of such issues or there was no
economic Consequence if power quality was not addressed. Before the advent of solid-state
power supplies, Power factor was reasonable, and harmonic current injection was minimal. Not
until the crane Population multiplied, power demands per crane increased, and static power
conversion became the way of life, did power quality issues begin to emerge. Even as harmonic
distortion and power Factor issues surfaced, no one was really prepared.
Even today, crane builders and electrical drive System vendors avoid the issue during
competitive bidding for new cranes. Rather than focus on Awareness and understanding of the
potential issues, the power quality issue is intentionally or Unintentionally ignored.
Power quality problem solutions are available. Although the solutions are not free, in
most cases, they do represent a good return on investment. However, if power quality is not
specified, it most likely will not be delivered.
In many cases, those involved with specification and procurement of container cranes
may not be cognizant of such issues, do not pay the utility billings, or consider it someone else’s
concern. As a result, container crane specifications may not include definitive power quality
criteria such as power factor correction and/or harmonic filtering. Also, many of those
specifications which do require power quality equipment do not properly define the criteria.
Early in the process of preparing the crane specification:
• Consult with the utility company to determine regulatory or contract requirements that must be
satisfied, if any.
• Consult with the electrical drive suppliers and determine the power quality profiles that can be
expected based on the drive sizes and technologies proposed for the specific project.
• Evaluate the economics of power quality correction not only on the present situation, but
consider the impact of future utility deregulation and the future development plans for the
terminal
THE BENEFITS OF POWER QUALITY
Power quality in the container terminal environment impacts the economics of the
terminal operation, affects reliability of the terminal equipment, and affects other consumers
served by the same utility service. Each of these concerns is explored in the following
paragraphs.
1. Economic Impact
The economic impact of power quality is the foremost incentive to container terminal operators.
Economic impact can be significant and manifest itself in several ways:
The power distribution system design and installation for new terminals, as well as
modification of systems for terminal capacity upgrades, involves high cost, specialized, high and
medium voltage equipment. Transformers, switchgear, feeder cables, cable reel trailing cables,
collector bars, etc. must be sized based on the kVA demand. Thus cost of the equipment is
directly related to the total kVA demand. As the relationship above indicates, kVA demand is
inversely proportional to the overall power factor, i.e. a lower power factor demands higher kVA
for the same kW load. Container cranes are one of the most significant users of power in the
terminal.
Since container cranes with DC, 6 pulse, SCR drives operate at relatively low power
factor, the total kVA demand is significantly larger than would be the case if power factor
correction equipment were supplied on board each crane or at some common bus location in the
terminal. In the absence of power quality corrective equipment, transformers are larger,
switchgear current ratings must be higher, feeder cable copper sizes are larger, collector system
and cable reel cables must be larger, etc. Consequently, the cost of the initial power distribution
system equipment for a system which does not address power quality will most likely be higher
than the same system which includes power quality equipment.
2. Equipment Reliability
Poor power quality can affect machine or equipment reliability and reduce the life of
components. Harmonics, voltage transients, and voltage system sags and swells are all power
quality problems and are all interdependent.
Harmonics affect power factor, voltage transients can induce harmonics, the same
phenomena which create harmonic current injection in DC SCR variable speed drives are
responsible for poor power factor, and dynamically varying power factor of the same drives can
create voltage sags and swells. The effects of harmonic distortion, harmonic currents, and line
notch ringing can be mitigated using specially designed filters.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is the most effective means to achieve constant voltage
battery charging by switching the solar system controller’s power devices. When in PWM
regulation, the current from the solar array tapers according to the battery’s condition and
recharging needs Consider a waveform such as this: it is a voltage switching between 0v and 12v.
It is fairly obvious that, since the voltage is at 12v for exactly as long as it is at 0v, then a
'suitable device' connected to its output will see the average voltage and think it is being fed 6v -
exactly half of 12v. So by varying the width of the positive pulse - we can vary the 'average'
voltage.
Similarly, if the switches keep the voltage at 12 for 3 times as long as at 0v, the average
will be 3/4 of 12v - or 9v, as shown below
And if the output pulse of 12v lasts only 25% of the overall time, then the average is
By varying - or 'modulating' - the time that the output is at 12v (i.e. the width of the
positive pulse) we can alter the average voltage. So we are doing 'pulse width modulation'. I said
earlier that the output had to feed 'a suitable device'. A radio would not work from this: the radio
would see 12v then 0v, and would probably not work properly. However a device such as a
motor will respond to the average, so PWM is a natural for motor control.
The triangle waveform, which has approximately equal rise and fall slopes, is one of the
commonest used, but you can use a saw tooth (where the voltage falls quickly and rinses slowly).
You could use other waveforms and the exact linearity (how good the rise and fall are) is not too
important.
Traditional solenoid driver electronics rely on linear control, which is the application of a
constant voltage across a resistance to produce an output current that is directly proportional to
the voltage. Feedback can be used to achieve an output that matches exactly the control signal.
However, this scheme dissipates a lot of power as heat, and it is therefore very inefficient.
A more efficient technique employs pulse width modulation (PWM) to produce the
constant current through the coil. A PWM signal is not constant. Rather, the signal is on for part
of its period, and off for the rest. The duty cycle, D, refers to the percentage of the period for
which the signal is on. The duty cycle can be anywhere from 0, the signal is always off, to 1,
where the signal is constantly on. A 50% D results in a perfect square wave. (Figure 1)
A solenoid is a length of wire wound in a coil. Because of this configuration, the solenoid
has, in addition to its resistance, R, a certain inductance, L. When a voltage, V, is applied across
an inductive element, the current, I, produced in that element does not jump up to its constant
value, but gradually rises to its maximum over a period of time called the rise time (Figure 2).
Conversely, I does not disappear instantaneously, even if V is removed abruptly, but decreases
back to zero in the same amount of time as the rise time.
Therefore, when a low frequency PWM voltage is applied across a solenoid, the current
through it will be increasing and decreasing as V turns on and off. If D is shorter than the rise
time, I will never achieve its maximum value, and will be discontinuous since it will go back to
zero during V’s off period (Figure 3).* In contrast, if D is larger than the rise time, I will never
fall back to zero, so it will be continuous, and have a DC average value. The current will not be
constant, however, but will have a ripple (Figure 4).
At high frequencies, V turns on and off very quickly, regardless of D, such that the
current does not have time to decrease very far before the voltage is turned back on. The
resulting current through the solenoid is therefore considered to be constant. By adjusting the D,
the amount of output current can be controlled. With a small D, the current will not have much
time to rise before the high frequency PWM voltage takes effect and the current stays constant.
With a large D, the current will be able to rise higher before it becomes constant.
Why the PWM frequency is important:
The PWM is a large amplitude digital signal that swings from one voltage extreme to the
other. And, this wide voltage swing takes a lot of filtering to smooth out. When the PWM
frequency is close to the frequency of the waveform that you are generating, then any PWM
filter will also smooth out your generated waveform and drastically reduce its amplitude. So, a
good rule of thumb is to keep the PWM frequency much higher than the frequency of any
waveform you generate.
Finally, filtering pulses is not just about the pulse frequency but about the duty cycle and
how much energy is in the pulse. The same filter will do better on a low or high duty cycle pulse
compared to a 50% duty cycle pulse. Because the wider pulse has more time to integrate to a
stable filter voltage and the smaller pulse has less time to disturb it the inspiration was a request
to control the speed of a large positive displacement fuel pump. The pump was sized to allow full
power of a boosted engine in excess of 600 Hp.
At idle or highway cruise, this same engine needs far less fuel yet the pump still normally
supplies the same amount of fuel. As a result the fuel gets recycled back to the fuel tank,
unnecessarily heating the fuel. This PWM controller circuit is intended to run the pump at a low
speed setting during low power and allow full pump speed when needed at high engine power
levels.
Motor Speed Control (Power Control)
Typically when most of us think about controlling the speed of a DC motor we think of
varying the voltage to the motor. This is normally done with a variable resistor and provides a
limited useful range of operation. The operational range is limited for most applications
primarily because torque drops off faster than the voltage drops.
Most DC motors cannot effectively operate with a very low voltage. This method also
causes overheating of the coils and eventual failure of the motor if operated too slowly. Of
course, DC motors have had speed controllers based on varying voltage for years, but the range
of low speed operation had to stay above the failure zone described above.
Additionally, the controlling resistors are large and dissipate a large percentage of energy
in the form of heat. With the advent of solid state electronics in the 1950’s and 1960’s and this
technology becoming very affordable in the 1970’s & 80’s the use of pulse width modulation
(PWM) became much more practical. The basic concept is to keep the voltage at the full value
and simply vary the amount of time the voltage is applied to the motor windings. Most PWM
circuits use large transistors to simply allow power On & Off, like a very fast switch.
This sends a steady frequency of pulses into the motor windings. When full power is
needed one pulse ends just as the next pulse begins, 100% modulation. At lower power settings
the pulses are of shorter duration. When the pulse is On as long as it is Off, the motor is
operating at 50% modulation. Several advantages of PWM are efficiency, wider operational
range and longer lived motors. All of these advantages result from keeping the voltage at full
scale resulting in current being limited to a safe limit for the windings.
PWM allows a very linear response in motor torque even down to low PWM% without
causing damage to the motor. Most motor manufacturers recommend PWM control rather than
the older voltage control method. PWM controllers can be operated at a wide range of
frequencies. In theory very high frequencies (greater than 20 kHz) will be less efficient than
lower frequencies (as low as 100 Hz) because of switching losses.
The large transistors used for this On/Off activity have resistance when flowing current, a
loss that exists at any frequency. These transistors also have a loss every time they “turn on” and
every time they “turn off”. So at very high frequencies, the “turn on/off” losses become much
more significant. For our purposes the circuit as designed is running at 526 Hz. Somewhat of an
arbitrary frequency, it works fine.
Depending on the motor used, there can be a hum from the motor at lower PWM%. If
objectionable the frequency can be changed to a much higher frequency above our normal
hearing level (>20,000Hz) .
Progressive control is commanded by a 0-5 volt input signal. This starts to increase PWM
% from the low speed setting as the 0-5 volt signal climbs. This signal can be generated from a
throttle position sensor, a Mass Air Flow sensor, a Manifold Absolute Pressure sensor or any
other way the user wants to create a 0-5 volt signal. This function could be set to increase fuel
pump power as turbo boost starts to climb (MAP sensor). Or, if controlling a water injection
pump, Low Speed could be set at zero PWM% and as the TPS signal climbs it could increase
PWM%, effectively increasing water flow to the engine as engine load increases. This controller
could even be used as a secondary injector driver (several injectors could be driven in a batch
mode, hi impedance only), with Progressive control (0-100%) you could control their output for
fuel or water with the 0-5 volt signal.
Progressive control adds enormous flexibility to the use of this controller. Hi Speed is
that same as hard wiring the motor to a steady 12 volt DC source. The controller is providing
100% PWM, steady 12 volt DC power. Hi Speed is selected three different ways on this
controller: 1) Hi Speed is automatically selected for about one second when power goes on.
This gives the motor full torque at the start. If needed this time can be increased ( the
value of C1 would need to be increased). 2) High Speed can also be selected by applying 12
volts to the High Speed signal wire. This gives Hi Speed regardless of the Progressive signal.
When the Progressive signal gets to approximately 4.5 volts, the circuit achieves 100%
PWM – Hi Speed.
The Space Vector PWM generation module accepts modulation index commands and
generates the appropriate gate drive waveforms for each PWM cycle. This section describes the
operation and configuration of the SVPWM module.
A three-phase 2-level inverter with dc link configuration can have eight possible
switching states, which generates output voltage of the inverter. Each inverter switching state
generates a voltage Space Vector (V1 to V6 active vectors, V7 and V8 zero voltage vectors) in
the Space Vector plane (Figure: space vector diagram). The magnitude of each active vector
(V1to V6) is 2/3 Vdc (dc bus voltage).
The Space Vector PWM (SVPWM) module inputs modulation index commands
(U_Alpha and U_Beta) which are orthogonal signals (Alpha and Beta) as shown in Figure. The
gain characteristic of the SVPWM module is given in Figure . The vertical axis of Figure
represents the normalized peak motor phase voltage (V/Vdc) and the horizontal axis represents
the normalized modulation index (M).
The inverter fundamental line-to-line Rms output voltage (Vline) can be approximated (linear
range) by the following equation:
………….. (1)
This document is the property of International Rectifier and may not be copied or
distributed without expressed consent
Transfer Characteristics
The maximum achievable modulation (Umag_L) in the linear operating range is given
by:
………….. (2)
Over modulation occurs when modulation Umag > Umag_L. This corresponds to the
condition where the voltage vector in (Figure: voltage vector rescaling)increases beyond the
hexagon boundary. Under such circumstance, the Space Vector PWM algorithm will rescale the
magnitude of the voltage vector to fit within the Hexagon limit. The magnitude of the voltage
vector is restricted within the Hexagon; however, the phase angle (θ) is always preserved. The
transfer gain (Figure: transfer characteristics) of the PWM modulator reduces and becomes non-
linear in the over modulation region.
This document is the property of International Rectifier and may not be copied or
distributed without expressed consent.
PWM Operation
Upon receiving the modulation index commands (UAlpha and UBeta) the sub-module
SVPW M_Tm starts its calculations at the rising edge of the PWM Load signal. The SVPWM
_Tm module implements an algorithm that selects (based on sector determination) the active
space vectors (V1 to V6) being used and calculates the appropriate time duration (w.r.t. one
PWM cycle) for each active vector. The appropriated zero vectors are also being selected. The
SVPWM _Tm module consumes 11 clock cycles typically and 35 clock cycles (worst case Tr) in
over modulation cases. At the falling edge of nSYNC, a new set of Space Vector times and
vectors are readily available for actual PWM generation (PhaseU, PhaseV, PhaseW) by sub
module Pwm Generation. It is crucial to trigger PwmLoad at least 35 clock cycles prior to the
falling edge of nSYNC signal; otherwise new modulation commands will not be implemented at
the earliest PWM cycle.
The above Figures voltage vector rescaling illustrates the PWM waveforms for a voltage
vector locates in sector I of the Space Vector plane (shown in Figure). The gating pattern outputs
(PWMUH … PWMWL) include dead time insertion
3-phase Space Vector PWM
Input variable PwmCval controls the duration of a PWM cycle. It should be populated
by the system clock frequency (Clk) and Pwm frequency (PwmFreq) selection. The variable
should be calculated as:
……….. (3)
The input resolution of the Space Vector PWM modulator signals U_Alpha and U_Beta is
16-bit signed integer. However, the actual PWM resolution (PwmCval) is limited by the system
clock frequency.
Dead time Insertion Logic Dead time is inserted at the output of the PWM Generation
Module. The resolution is 1 clock cycle or 30nsec at a 33.3 MHz clock and is the same as those
of the voltage command registers and the PWM carrier frequency register.
The dead time insertion logic chops off the high side commanded volt*seconds by the
amount of dead time and adds the same amount of volt*seconds to the low side signal. Thus, it
eliminates the complete high side turn on pulse if the commanded volt*seconds is less than the
programmed dead time.
The dead time insertion logic inserts the programmed dead time between two high and
low side of the gate signals within a phase. The dead time register is also double buffered to
allow “on the fly” dead time change and control while PWM logic is inactive.
There are two modes of operation available for PWM waveform generation, namely the
Center Aligned Symmetrical PWM (Figure) and the Center Aligned Asymmetrical PWM
(Figure)The volt-sec can be changed every half a PWM cycle (Tpwm) since Pwm Load occurs
every half a PWM cycle (compare Figure :symmetrical pwm and Figure :asymmetrical PWM).
With Symmetrical PWM mode, the inverter voltage Config = 0), the inverter voltage can be
changed at two times the rate of the switching frequency. This will provide an increase in voltage
control bandwidth, however, at the expense of increased current harmonic
Asymmetrical PWM Mode
Three-phase and two-phase Space Vector PWM modulation options are provided for the
IRMCx203. The Volt-sec generated by the two PWM strategies are identical; however with 2-
phase modulation the switching losses can be reduced significantly, especially when high
switching frequency (>10Khz) is employed. Figure: three-phase and two phase modulation
shows the switching pattern for one PWM cycle when the voltage vector is inside sector 1
Three Phase and Two Phase Modulation
The field Two Phase PWM of the PWM Config write register group provides selection of
three-phase or two-phase modulation. The default setting is three-phase modulation. Successful
operation of two-phase modulation in the entire speed operating range will depend on hardware
configuration. If the gate driver employs a bootstrap power supply strategy, disoperation will
occur at low motor fundamental frequencies (< 2Hz) under two-phase modulation control.
In many industrial applications, Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM), also called
Sine coded Pulse Width Modulation, is used to control the inverter output voltage. SPWM
maintains good performance of the drive in the entire range of operation between zero and 78
percent of the value that would be reached by square-wave operation. If the modulation index
exceeds this value, linear relationship between modulation index and output voltage is not
maintained and the over-modulation methods are required
The reference space vector V* is given by Equation (1), where T1, T2 are the intervals of
application of vector V1 and V2 respectively, and zero vectors V0 and V7 are selected for T0.
Fig. below shows that the inverter switching state for the period T1 for vector V1 and for
vector V2, resulting switching patterns of each phase of inverter are shown in Fig. pulse pattern
of space vector PWM.
Comparison
In Fig: comparison, U is the phase to- center voltage containing the triple order
harmonics that are generated by space vector PWM, and U1 is the sinusoidal reference voltage.
But the triple order harmonics are not appeared in the phase-to-phase voltage as well. This leads
to the higher modulation index compared to the SPWM.
Comparison of SPWM and Space Vector PWM
As mentioned above, SPWM only reaches to 78 percent of square wave operation, but the
amplitude of maximum possible voltage is 90 percent of square-wave in the case of space vector
PWM. The maximum phase-to-center voltage by sinusoidal and space vector
This means that Space Vector PWM can produce about 15 percent higher than
Sinusoidal PWM in output voltage.
SVM PWM Technique
The Pulse Width modulation technique permits to obtain three phase system voltages,
which can be applied to the controlled output. Space Vector Modulation (SVM) principle differs
from other PWM processes in the fact that all three drive signals for the inverter will be created
simultaneously. The implementation of SVM process in digital systems necessitates less
operation time and also less program memory.
The SVM algorithm is based on the principle of the space vector u*, which describes all
three output voltages ua, ub and uc :
u* = 2/3 . ( ua + a . ub + a2 . uc ) ………(5)
Where a = -1/2 + j . v3/2 We can distinguish six sectors limited by eight discrete vectors
u0…u7 (fig:- inverter output voltage space vector), which correspond to the 23 = 8 possible
switching states of the power switches of the inverter.
Space vector Modulation
The amplitude of u0 and u7 equals 0. The other vectors u1…u6 have the same amplitude
and are 60 degrees shifted.
By varying the relative on-switching time Tc of the different vectors, the space vector u*
and also the output voltages ua, ub and uc can be varied and is defined as:
ua = Re ( u* )
ub = Re ( u* . a-1)
uc = Re ( u* . a-2) …………(6)
During a switching period Tc and considering for example the first sector, the vectors u0,
u1 and u2 will be switched on alternatively.
Depending on the switching times t0, t1 and t2 the space vector u* is defined as:
u* = 1/Tc . ( t0 . u0 + t1 . u1 + t2 . u2 )
u* = t0 . u0 + t1 . u1 + t2 . u2
u* = t1 . u1 + t2 . u2 ………….. (7)
Where
t0 + t1 + t2 = Tc and
t0 + t1 + t2 = 1
t2 = m . sin a
t0 = 1 - t1 - t2
Their values are implemented in a table for a modulation factor m = 1. Then it will be
easy to calculate the space vector u* and the output voltages ua, ub and uc. The voltage vector
u* can be provided directly by the optimal vector control laws w1, v sa and vsb. In order to
generate the phase voltages ua, ub and uc corresponding to the desired voltage vector u* the
following SVM strategy is proposed.
FACTS
Flexible ac transmission systems, called facts, got in the recent years a well known term
for higher controllability in power systems by means of power electronic devices. Several facts-
devices have been introduced for various applications worldwide. A number of new types of
devices are in the stage of being introduced in practice.
In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or landscape
requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or additions of substations and
power lines. Facts-devices provide a better adaptation to varying operational conditions and
improve the usage of existing installations.
• Voltage control,
• Stability improvement,
• Power conditioning,
• Flicker mitigation,
Figure 1.1 shows the basic idea of facts for transmission systems. The usage of lines for
active power transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits. Voltage and stability limits
shall be shifted with the means of the several different facts devices. It can be seen that with
growing line length, the opportunity for facts devices gets more and more important.
The influence of facts-devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt
compensation, series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work electrically as fast
current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic allows very short reaction times
down to far below one second.
The development of facts-devices has started with the growing capabilities of power
electronic components. Devices for high power levels have been made available in converters for
high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network elements
influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part of the power system. Figure 1.2 shows
a number of basic devices separated into the conventional ones and the facts-devices.
For the facts side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some explanation.
The term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of facts-devices provided by the
power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors from the conventional devices.
The term 'static' means that the devices have no moving parts like mechanical switches to
perform the dynamic controllability. Therefore most of the facts-devices can equally be static and
dynamic.
The left column in figure 1.2 contains the conventional devices build out of fixed or
mechanically switch able components like resistance, inductance or capacitance together with
transformers. The facts-devices contain these elements as well but use additional power
electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in smaller steps or with switching patterns
within a cycle of the alternating current. The left column of facts-devices uses thyristor valves or
converters. These valves or converters are well known since several years. They have low losses
because of their low switching frequency of once a cycle in the converters or the usage of the
thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves.
The right column of facts-devices contains more advanced technology of voltage source
converters based today mainly on insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) or insulated gate
commutated thyristors (IGCT). Voltage source converters provide a free controllable voltage in
magnitude and phase due to a pulse width modulation of the igbts or IGCTS. High modulation
frequencies allow to get low harmonics in the output signal and even to compensate disturbances
coming from the network. The disadvantage is that with an increasing switching frequency, the
losses are increasing as well. Therefore special designs of the converters are required to
compensate this.
Configurations of facts-devices:
Shunt devices:
The most used facts-device is the svc or the version with voltage source converter called
statcom. These shunt devices are operating as reactive power compensators. The main
applications in transmission, distribution and industrial networks are:
• Reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore reduced network losses.
• compensation of consumers and improvement of power quality especially with huge demand
fluctuations like industrial machines, metal melting plants, railway or underground train systems.
Almost half of the svc and more than half of the statcoms are used for industrial
applications. Industry as well as commercial and domestic groups of users require power quality.
Flickering lamps are no longer accepted, nor are interruptions of industrial processes due to
insufficient power quality. Railway or underground systems with huge load variations require
svcs or statcoms.
Svc:
Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the transmitted load
varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power balance in a grid varies as well.
The result can be unacceptable voltage amplitude variations or even a voltage depression, at the
extreme a voltage collapse.
A rapidly operating static var compensator (svc) can continuously provide the reactive
power required to control dynamic voltage oscillations under various system conditions and
thereby improve the power system transmission and distribution stability.
1. In transmission systems
2. In traction systems
A. To balance loads
3. In hvdc systems
Installing an svc at one or more suitable points in the network can increase transfer
capability and reduce losses while maintaining a smooth voltage profile under different network
conditions. In addition an svc can mitigate active power oscillations through voltage amplitude
modulation.
Svc installations consist of a number of building blocks. The most important is the
thyristor valve, i.e. Stack assemblies of series connected anti-parallel thyristors to provide
controllability. Air core reactors and high voltage ac capacitors are the reactive power elements
used together with the thyristor valves. The step up connection of this equipment to the
transmission voltage is achieved through a power transformer.
In principle the svc consists of thyristor switched capacitors (TSC) and thyristor switched
or controlled reactors (TSC/TSR). The coordinated control of a combination of these branches
varies the reactive power as shown in figure.
The first commercial svc was installed in 1972 for an electric arc furnace. On
transmission level the first svc was used in 1979. Since then it is widely used and the most
accepted facts-device.
Svc
In this arrangement, two or more fc (fixed capacitor) banks are connected to a TCR
(thyristor controlled reactor) through a step-down transformer. The rating of the reactor is chosen
larger than the rating of the capacitor by an amount to provide the maximum lagging vars that
have to be absorbed from the system.
By changing the firing angle of the thyristor controlling the reactor from 90° to 180°, the
reactive power can be varied over the entire range from maximum lagging vars to leading vars
that can be absorbed from the system by this compensator.
Svc of the FC/TCR type:
The main disadvantage of this configuration is the significant harmonics that will be
generated because of the partial conduction of the large reactor under normal sinusoidal steady-
state operating condition when the svc is absorbing zero MVAR. These harmonics are filtered in
the following manner. Triplex harmonics are canceled by arranging the TCR and the secondary
windings of the step-down transformer in delta connection.
The capacitor banks with the help of series reactors are tuned to filter fifth, seventh, and
other higher-order harmonics as a high-pass filter. Further losses are high due to the circulating
current between the reactor and capacitor banks.
Comparison of the loss characteristics of TSC-TCR, TCR-FC compensators and
synchronous condenser. These svcs do not have a short-time overload capability because the
reactors are usually of the air-core type. In applications requiring overload capability, TCR must
be designed for short-time overloading, or separate thyristor-switched overload reactors must be
employed.
When large disturbances occur in a power system due to load rejection, there is a
possibility for large voltage transients because of oscillatory interaction between system and the
svc capacitor bank or the parallel. The LC circuit of the svc in the fc compensator. In the TSC-
TCR scheme, due to the flexibility of rapid switching of capacitor banks without appreciable
disturbance to the power system, oscillations can be avoided, and hence the transients in the
system can also be avoided. The capital cost of this svc is higher than that of the earlier one due
to the increased number of capacitor switches and increased control complexity.
Statcom:
In 1999 the first svc with voltage source converter called statcom (static compensator)
went into operation. The statcom has a characteristic similar to the synchronous condenser, but as
an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to the synchronous condenser in several
ways, such as better dynamics, a lower investment cost and lower operating and maintenance
costs. A statcom is build with thyristors with turn-off capability like GTO or today IGCT or with
more and more IGBTS. The static line between the current limitations has a certain steepness
determining the control characteristic for the voltage.
The advantage of a statcom is that the reactive power provision is independent from the
actual voltage on the connection point. This can be seen in the diagram for the maximum
currents being independent of the voltage in comparison to the svc. This means, that even during
most severe contingencies, the statcom keeps its full capability.
In the distributed energy sector the usage of voltage source converters for grid
interconnection is common practice today. The next step in statcom development is the
combination with energy storages on the dc-side. The performance for power quality and
balanced network operation can be improved much more with the combination of active and
reactive power.
Statcoms are based on voltage sourced converter (VSX) topology and utilize either gate-
turn-off thyristors (GTO) or isolated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) devices. The statcom is a
very fast acting, electronic equivalent of a synchronous condenser. If the statcom voltage, vs,
(which is proportional to the dc bus voltage vc) is larger than bus voltage, ES, then leading or
capacitive vars are produced. If vs is smaller than ES then lagging or inductive vars are
produced.
6 pulses statcom
The three phases statcom makes use of the fact that on a three phase, fundamental
frequency, steady state basis, and the instantaneous power entering a purely reactive device must
be zero. The reactive power in each phase is supplied by circulating the instantaneous real power
between the phases. This is achieved by firing the GTO/diode switches in a manner that
maintains the phase difference between the ac bus voltage ES and the statcom generated voltage
vs. Ideally it is possible to construct a device based on circulating instantaneous power which has
no energy storage device (i.e no dc capacitor).
Several different control techniques can be used for the firing control of the statcom.
Fundamental switching of the GTO/diode once per cycle can be used. This approach will
minimize switching losses, but will generally utilize more complex transformer topologies. As an
alternative, pulse width modulated (pwm) techniques, which turn on and off the GTO or IGBT
switch more than once per cycle, can be used. This approach allows for simpler transformer
topologies at the expense of higher switching losses.
The 6 pulse statcom using fundamental switching will of course produce the 6 n1
harmonics. There are a variety of methods to decrease the harmonics. These methods include the
basic 12 pulse configuration with parallel star / delta transformer connections, a complete
elimination of 5th and 7th harmonic current using series connection of star/star and star/delta
transformers and a quasi 12 pulse method with a single star-star transformer, and two secondary
windings, using control of firing angle to produce a 30phase shift between the two 6 pulse
bridges. This method can be extended to produce a 24 pulse and a 48 pulse statcom, thus
eliminating harmonics even further. Another possible approach for harmonic cancellation is a
multi-level configuration which allows for more than one switching element per level and
therefore more than one switching in each bridge arm. The ac voltage derived has a staircase
effect, dependent on the number of levels. This staircase voltage can be controlled to eliminate
harmonics.
Substation with a statcom
Series devices:
Series devices have been further developed from fixed or mechanically switched
compensations to the thyristor controlled series compensation (tcsc) or even voltage source
converter based devices.
• Reduction of series voltage decline in magnitude and angle over a power line,
• Reduction of voltage fluctuations within defined limits during changing power transmissions,
The tcsc's high speed switching capability provides a mechanism for controlling line
power flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission lines, and allows for rapid
readjustment of line power flow in response to various contingencies. The tcsc also can regulate
steady-state power flow within its rating limits.
From a principal technology point of view, the tcsc resembles the conventional series
capacitor. All the power equipment is located on an isolated steel platform, including the
thyristor valve that is used to control the behavior of the main capacitor bank.
Likewise the control and protection is located on ground potential together with other
auxiliary systems. Figure shows the principle setup of a tcsc and its operational diagram.
The firing angle and the thermal limits of the thyristors determine the boundaries of the
operational diagram.
Advantages
Local mitigation of sub synchronous resonance (ssr). This permits higher levels of
compensation in networks where interactions with turbine-generator torsional vibrations
or with other control or measuring systems are of concern.
Damping of electromechanical (0.5-2 hz) power oscillations which often arise between
areas in a large interconnected power network. These oscillations are due to the dynamics
of inter area power transfer and often exhibit poor damping when the aggregate power
tranfer over a corridor is high relative to the transmission strength.
SHUNT AND SERIES DEVICES
A new device in the area of power flow control is the dynamic power flow controller
(DFC). The DFC is a hybrid device between a phase shifting transformer (PST) and switched
series compensation.
A functional single line diagram of the dynamic flow controller is shown in figure 1.19.
The dynamic flow controller consists of the following components:
• a mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC). (This is optional depending on the system
reactive power requirements)
Based on the system requirements, a DFC might consist of a number of series TSC or TSR The
mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC) will provide voltage support in case of overload
and other conditions.
Normally the reactance of reactors and the capacitors are selected based on a binary basis to
result in a desired stepped reactance variation. If a higher power flow resolution is needed, a
reactance equivalent to the half of the smallest one can be added. The switching of series reactors
occurs at zero current to avoid any harmonics. However, in general, the principle of phase-angle
control used in tcsc can be applied for a continuous control as well. The operation of a DFC is
based on the following rules:
• The relieve of overload and work in stressed situations is handled by the TSC/TCR.
• The switching of the PST tap-changer should be minimized particularly for the currents higher
than normal loading.
• The total reactive power consumption of the device can be optimized by the operation of the
MSC, tap changer and the switched capacities and reactors.
In order to visualize the steady state operating range of the DFC, we assume an
inductance in parallel representing parallel transmission paths. The overall control objective in
steady state would be to control the distribution of power flow between the branch with the DFC
and the parallel path. This control is accomplished by control of the injected series voltage.
The PST (assuming a quadrature booster) will inject a voltage in quadrature with the
node voltage. The controllable reactance will inject a voltage in quadrature with the throughput
current. Assuming that the power flow has a load factor close to one, the two parts of the series
voltage will be close to collinear.
Operation in the first and third quadrants corresponds to reduction of power through the
DFC, whereas operation in the second and fourth quadrants corresponds to increasing the power
flow through the DFC. The slope of the line passing through the origin (at which the tap is at
zero and TSC/TSR is bypassed) depends on the short circuit reactance of the PST.
Starting at rated current (2 ka) the short circuit reactance by itself provides an injected
voltage (approximately 20KV in this case). If more inductance is switched in and/or the tap is
increased, the series voltage increases and the current through the DFC decreases (and the flow
on parallel branches increases).
The operating point moves along lines parallel to the arrows in the figure. The slope of
these arrows depends on the size of the parallel reactance. The maximum series voltage in the
first quadrant is obtained when all inductive steps are switched in and the tap is at its maximum.
Now, assuming maximum tap and inductance, if the throughput current decreases (due e.g. To
changing loading of the system) the series voltage will decrease. At zero current, it will not
matter whether the TSC/TSR steps are in or out, they will not contribute to the series voltage.
Consequently, the series voltage at zero current corresponds to rated PST series voltage.
Next, moving into the second quadrant, the operating range will be limited by the line
corresponding to maximum tap and the capacitive step being switched in (and the inductive steps
by-passed). In this case, the capacitive step is approximately as large as the short circuit
reactance of the PST, giving an almost constant maximum voltage in the second quadrant.
The upfc is a combination of a static compensator and static series compensation. It acts
as a shunt compensating and a phase shifting device simultaneously.
The UPFC consists of a shunt and a series transformer, which are connected via two
voltage source converters with a common dc-capacitor. The dc-circuit allows the active power
exchange between shunt and series transformer to control the phase shift of the series voltage.
This setup, as shown in figure 1.21, provides the full controllability for voltage and power flow.
The series converter needs to be protected with a thyristor bridge. Due to the high efforts for the
voltage source converters and the protection, an upfc is getting quite expensive, which limits the
practical applications where the voltage and power flow control is required simultaneously.
OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF UPFC
The basic components of the upfc are two voltage source inverters (vsis) sharing a
common dc storage capacitor, and connected to the power system through coupling transformers.
One vsi is connected to in shunt to the transmission system via a shunt transformer, while the
other one is connected in series through a series transformer.
The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage system
(VSC), of controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to control active and
reactive power flows on the transmission line. So, this inverter will exchange active and reactive
power with the line. The reactive power is electronically provided by the series inverter, and the
active power is transmitted to the dc terminals. The shunt inverter is operated in such a way as to
demand this dc terminal power (positive or negative) from the line keeping the voltage across the
storage capacitor vdc constant. So, the net real power absorbed from the line by the upfc is equal
only to the losses of the inverters and their transformers.
The remaining capacity of the shunt inverter can be used to exchange reactive power
with the line so to provide a voltage regulation at the connection point. The two vsi’s can work
independently of each other by separating the dc side. So in that case, the shunt inverter is
operating as a statcom that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the voltage magnitude
at the connection point. Instead, the series inverter is operating as sssc that generates or absorbs
reactive power to regulate the current flow, and hence the power low on the transmission line.
The upfc has many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt inverter is operating
in such a way to inject a controllable current, ish into the transmission line. The shunt inverter
can be controlled in two different modes:
The reference input is an inductive or capacitive var request. The shunt inverter control
translates the var reference into a corresponding shunt current request and adjusts gating of the
inverter to establish the desired current. For this mode of control a feedback signal representing
the dc bus voltage, vdc, is also required.
The series inverter controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in series with
the line to influence the power flow on the line. The actual value of the injected voltage can be
obtained in several ways.
Direct voltage injection mode: the reference inputs are directly the magnitude and phase
angle of the series voltage. Phase angle shifter emulation mode: the reference input is phase
displacement between the sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage. Line impedance
emulation mode: the reference input is an impedance value to insert in series with the line
impedance Automatic power flow control mode: the reference inputs are values of p and q to
maintain on the transmission line despite system changes.
DISTRIBUTION STATIC COMPENSATOR (DSTATCOM)
Here, such device is employed to provide continuous voltage regulation using an indirectly
controlled converter.
Figure- the shunt injected current Ish corrects the voltage sag by adjusting the voltage drop across
the system impedance Zth. The value of Ish can be controlled by adjusting the output voltage of the
converter.
The shunt injected current Ish can be written as,
The complex power injection of the D-STATCOM can be expressed as,
It may be mentioned that the effectiveness of the D-STATCOM in correcting voltage sag
depends on the value of Zth or fault level of the load bus. When the shunt injected current Ish is
kept in quadrature with V L, the desired voltage correction can be achieved without injecting any
active power into the system. On the other hand, when the value of I sh is minimized, the same
voltage correction can be achieved with minimum apparent power injection into the system. The
control scheme for the D-STATCOM follows the same principle as for DVR. The switching
frequency is set at 475 Hz.
TEST SYSTEM
Figure shows the test system used to carry out the various D-STATCOM simulations.
DSTATCOM is a shunt device which hast the capability to inject or absorb both active
and reactive current. The reactive power output of a D-STATCOM is proportional to the system
voltage rather than the square of the system voltage, as in a capacitor. This makes DSTATCOM
more suitable rather than using capacitors. Though storing energy is a problem for long term
basis, considering real power compensation for voltage control is not an ideal case. So most of
the operations considered is steady stat only and the power exchange in such a condition is
reactive. To realize such a model, it can be said that a DSTATCOM consists of a small DC
capacitor and a voltage source converter
Basic circuit of a DSTATCOM integrated with energy storage Various types of energy
storage technologies can be incorporated into the dc bus of the DSTATCOM, namely
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), super capacitors (SC), flywheels and battery
energy storage systems (BESS), among others. However, lead-acid batteries offer a more
economical solution for applications in the distribution level that require small devices for
supplying power for short periods of time and intermittently. Moreover, BESS can be directly
added to the dc bus of the inverter, thus avoiding the necessity of an extra coupling interface and
thus reducing investment costs.
The integrated DSTATCOM/BESS system proposed in Fig. 2 is basically composed of
the inverter (indistinctly called converter), the coupling step-up transformer, the line connection
filter, the dc bus capacitors, and the array of batteries. Since batteries acts as a stiff dc voltage
source for the inverter, the use of a conventional voltage source inverter appears as the most cost-
effective solution for this application. The presented VSI corresponds to a dc to ac switching
power inverter using Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT). In the distribution voltage level,
the switching device is generally the IGBT due to its lower switching losses and reduced size. In
addition, the power rating of custom power devices is relatively low. As a result, the output
voltage control of the DSTATCOM/BESS can be achieved through pulse width modulation
(PWM) by using high-power fast-switched IGBTs. This topology supports the future use of
PWM control even for higher power utility applications.
The VSI structure is designed to make use of a three-level pole structure, also called
neutral point clamped (NPC), instead of a standard two-level six-pulse inverter structure This
three-level inverter topology generates a more sinusoidal output voltage waveform than
conventional structures without increasing the switching frequency. The additional flexibility of
a level in the output voltage is used to assist in the output waveform construction. In this way, the
harmonic performance of the inverter is improved, also obtaining better efficiency and reliability
respect to the conventional two-level inverter.
A drawback of the NPC inverters is that the split dc capacitor banks must maintain a
constant voltage level of half the dc bus voltage. Otherwise, additional distortion will be
contributed to the output voltage of the DSTATCOM/BESS. In this work, the use of battery
energy storage in an arrangement with neutral point (NP) permits to independently contributing
to the charge of the capacitors C1 and C2, and thus to maintain the voltage balance of the dc
capacitors without using additional control techniques.
The connection to the utility grid is made by using low pass sine wave filters in order to
reduce the perturbation on the distribution system from high-frequency switching harmonics
generated by PWM control. The total harmonic distortion (THD) of the output voltage of the
inverter combined with a sine wave filter is less than 5 % at full rated unity power factor load.
Typically, leakage inductances of the step-up transformer windings are high enough as to build
the sine wave filter simply by adding a bank of capacitors in the PCC.
In this way, an effective filter is obtained at low costs, permitting to improve the quality
of the voltage waveforms introduced by the PWM control to the power utility and thus meeting
the requirements of IEEE Standard 519-1992 relative to power quality.
The D-STACOM employs an inverter to convert the DC link voltage Vdc on the
capacitor to a voltage source of adjustable magnitude and phase. Therefore the DSTATCOM can
be treated as a voltage-controlled source. The D-STATCOM can also be seen as a current-
controlled source. Figure shows the inductance L and resistance R which represent the equivalent
circuit elements of the step-down transformer and the inverter will is the main component of the
D-STATCOM.
The voltage Vi is the effective output voltage of the D-STATCOM and δ is the power
angle. The reactive power output of the D-STATCOM inductive or capacitive depending can be
either on the operation mode of the D-STATCOM. Referring to figure 1, the controller of the D
STATCOM is used to operate the inverter in such a way that the phase angle between the inverter
voltage and the line voltage is dynamically adjusted so that the D-STATCOM generates or
absorbs the desired VAR at the point of connection. The phase of the output voltage of the
thyristor-based inverter, Vi, is controlled in the same way as the distribution system voltage, Vs.
Figure 2 shows the three basic operation modes of the DSTATCOM output current, I, which
varies depending upon Vi. If Vi is equal to Vs, the reactive power is zero and the D-STATCOM
does not generate or absorb reactive power.
When Vi is greater than Vs, the DSTATCOM shows an inductive reactance connected at
its terminal. The current, I, flows through the transformer reactance from the D-STATCOM to
the ac system, and the device generates capacitive reactive power. If Vs is greater than Vi, the D-
STATCOM shows the system as a capacitive reactance. Then the current flows from the ac
system to the D-STATCOM, resulting in the device absorbing inductive reactive power.
No-load mode (Vs = Vi)
FIG shows the three basic operation modes of the DSTATCOM output current, I, which
varies depending upon Vi. If Vi is equal to Vs, the reactive power is zero and the D-STATCOM
does not generate or absorb reactive power. When Vi is greater than Vs, the D-STATCOM shows
an inductive reactance connected at its terminal. The current I, flows through the transformer
reactance from the D-STATCOM to the ac system, and the device generates capacitive reactive
power. If Vs is greater than Vi, the D-STATCOM shows the system as a capacitive reactance.
Then the current flows from the ac system to the D-STATCOM, resulting in the device absorbing
inductive reactive power.
Applying the symmetrical components method transfers the three-phase load currents to
positive- and negative-sequence components, as shown the linnet- line voltages are assumed
equal to simplify the derivation of the compensation scheme.
The detection of the load power can be obtained via two wattmeter method, as shown in,
the positive- and negative-sequence load currents are represented with line-to-line active and
reactive powers, as shown
For fast load compensation, the DSTATCOM should compensate the imaginary part of
the positive-sequence load current and the entire negative-sequence load current in as soon as
possible. In this way, the power source supplies only real part of the positive-sequence load
current. Since no zero sequence component appears in three-phase three-wire system, the
compensation current can be derived from. Finally, the needed compensation current of the
DSTATCOM for load compensation is obtained, as shown
According to, the DSTATCOM is now treated as a current-controlled source to locally
supply the needed compensation current for on-site load compensation. In the implementation, a
current-regulated PWM (CRPWM) inverter is used as the power stage of the DSTATCOM for
generating the compensation current, as shown in Fig. 1.
In order to keep the dc-link voltage of the inverter in the DSTATCOM at an assigned
level during operation, the DSTATCOM needs to absorb active power from the power source to
supply the power losses and charge the dc-link capacitor in the DSTATCOM. Hence, use of a P-I
type feedback controller in the DSTATCOM controller regulates the active current | Ir| of the
DSTATCOM, as shown in (12). The overall compensation scheme of the DSTATCOM is now
completed.
For fast real-time compensation, the DSTATCOM needs to detect the line-to-line power
data very quickly to calculate the needed compensation current, as shown in (8). The needed
line-to-line power data are A fast detection method for these power data
is described in. Moreover, the three-phase power data measurements can also be incorporated in
the controller of the DSTATCOM.
With a high performance DSP-based system, the compensation scheme and other
necessary functions regarding power detections can be implemented very easily. In this way, the
necessity for measuring instruments is reduced. This significantly reduces the constructing cost
of the DSTATCOM and enhances the system reliability
Figure shows the block diagram of the proposed DSTATCOM controller for the
DSTATCOM. According to (11), the DSTATCOM controller calculates the compensation current
The internal level is responsible for generating the switching signals for the twelve valves
of the three-level VSI, according to the control mode (sinusoidal PWM) and types of valves
(IGBTs) used. Fig. 3 (right side) shows a basic scheme of the internal level control of the
DSTATCOM/BESS. This level is mainly composed of a line synchronization module and a
three-phase three-level PWM firing pulses generator for the DSTATCOM VSI. The line
synchronization module consists mainly of a phase locked loop (PLL).
This circuit is a feedback control system used to automatically synchronize the
DSTATCOM/BESS device switching pulses; through the phase S of the inverse coordinate
transformation from dq to abc components, with the positive sequence components of the ac
voltage vector at the PCC (vq). The design of the PLL is based on concepts of instantaneous
power theory in the dq reference frame. Coordinate transformations from abc to dq components
in the voltage and current measurement system are also synchronized through the PLL.
In the case of the sinusoidal PWM pulses generator block, the controller of the VSI
generates pulses for the carrier-based three-phase PWM inverter using three-level topology.
Thus, the expected sinusoidal-based output voltage waveform Vabc* of the DSTACOM/BESS,
which is set by the middle level control, is compared to two positive and negative triangular
signals generated by the carriers generator for producing three state PWM vectors (1, 0, -1).
These states are decoded by the states-to-pulses decoder via a look-up-table that relates each
state with the corresponding firing pulse for each IGBT of the four ones in each leg of the three-
phase three-level VSI.
MODELLING OF CASE STUDY
DESCRIPTION OF D-STATCOM OPERATION
A D-STATCOM is a shunt device that regulates the system Voltage by absorbing or
generating reactive power at a point of Coupling connection. The schematic diagram of a
DSTATCOM. Is shown in Fig 1. The D-STATCOM is a solid State DC/AC power switching
converter that consists mainly Of a three-phase PWM voltage source converter (VSC) bridge
Having six igbts with associated anti-parallel diodes. It is Connected to the distribution network
via the impedance of the Coupling transformer. A DC-link capacitor provides constant DC link
voltage.
……………. (1)
………………… (2)
In three-phase, three-wire systems, there is no zero sequence components. If 0 v and 0 i are both
neglected, instantaneous voltage, v, and current phasors, i, can be defined from their
corresponding instantaneous α and β components as follows
……….. (3)
………. (4)
From (3) and (4), instantaneous complex powers, s, can be defined as the product of the
instantaneous voltage phasor and the complex conjugate of the instantaneous current phasor
given in (5).
…………… (5)
Where,
…………… (6)
…………… (7)
………………. (8)
……………….. (9)
Fig. 2. Concept of shunt current compensation
Fig. 3. Control block of shunt current compensation based on the instantaneous power theory
These two powers can be separated into average components ( and ) and oscillating
components ( and ) as shown in (8) and (9). The average values of both p and q agree with
conventional real and reactive powers in AC circuits. The oscillating terms that naturally produce
a zero mean give additional oscillating power flow without contribution of the energy transfer
neither from the source to the load nor from the load to the source.
One important application of the instantaneous power theory is the shunt current
compensation as shown in Fig. 2. To achieve the compensation, the oscillating components of p
and q must be eliminated. The powers to be compensated can be simply determined by
eliminating the oscillating real and reactive power components. Assume that the instantaneous
powers of load and line current are calculated.
The instantaneous current references to minimize the oscillating terms can be established
with some efficient concepts. Fig. 3 shows a general idea of shunt current compensation based on
the instantaneous power theory described in this section.
Power factor
Three phase Active power and reactive power
Dc voltage
D-STATCOM CASE II:
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