FYP Report Final PDF

OPTMIZATION OF WASTE HEAT
RECOVERY BOILER
Final Year Project Report
Group: 15 Batch: 2013-2014
Mohsin Ali Khan ME-13211

Muhammad Daniyal ME-13214
Syed Wajahat Hussain ME-13216
Syed Ahmed Hasan ME-13218
Internal Advisor: Mohammad Ehteshamul Haque

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Reference#: 15/2017
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
NED UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

CERTIFICATE
It is to certify that the following students have completed their project “Optimization
of Waste Heat Recovery Boiler” satisfactorily.
Group: 15 Batch: 2013-2014

Name Seat No.
Mohsin Ali Khan ME-13211
Muhammad Daniyal ME-13214
Syed Wajahat Hussain ME-13216
Syed Ahmed Hasan ME-13218
Internal Advisor
Mohammad Ehteshamul Haque
Assistant Professor
NED University of Engg. & Tech.
Projects’ Coordinator
Mr. Masood Ahmed Khan
NED University of Engg. & Tech.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NED UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to take this opportunity to thank Almighty Allah to whom we owe
everything. It is by the will of Almighty that we are finally able to complete this
project.
Extensive credit goes to Mr. Mohammad Ehteshamul Haque, (project internal

advisor) for providing the encouragement and helpful discussion throughout the
course of our project. His presence has been a source of knowledge, spirit,
encouragement and enthusiasm. His efforts steered us in fulfilling the arduous task of
meeting our project.
We would like to express our gratitude, appreciation and special thanks to Mr Masood
Ahmed Khan (project coordinator) for his time to time co-operation.
We would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of the
staff of Mechanical Engineering Department’s computer programming laboratory and
the Digital Library for their extended support, who gave the permission to use all
required software’s and the necessary material to complete the project.
II
ABSTRACT
Waste heat recovery is relatively better technology to improve the process in the plant
by extracting waste energy and utilizing it in the processing and power generation.
Waste heat boilers are the equipment that extract these energies and used for steam
generation which is used in various processes. In cement plant the waste heat is
recovered from Air quenched cooler (AQC) and Suspension Preheater (SP).
The primary of objective is to increase the efficiency of the Waste heat recovery
boilers which includes Boiler analysis, optimization of parameters, custom and design
of boiler.
Boiler analysis includes the energy balance for the all the equipment of the boiler at
actual data and heat transfer across the tubes.
Optimization of parameters includes the effect of Inlet temperature and flow rate of
exhaust gases on the boiler efficiency and life. Custom design of boiler includes the
changing tube materials, and tube area.
Estimation of boiler tube life is also analyzed and optimized through erosion theory
because the erosion is the most important parameter in defining the boiler tube life
III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 9
1.1 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY: .................................................................. 9
1.2 CYCLES FOLLOWED IN WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS .... 9
1.2.1 Simple Rankine cycle: ......................................................................... 10
1.2.2 Organic Rankine cycle: ........................................................................ 10
1.2.3 Kalina cycle: ........................................................................................ 11
1.3 CONCERNED INDUSTRY .................................................................... 11
1.4 BASIC OPERATIONS OF CEMENT PLANT: ..................................... 12
1.4.1 Sources of waste heat in a cement plant: ............................................. 13
1.5 PROJECT & BACKGROUND: .............................................................. 14
1.5.1 Pre-requisites: ...................................................................................... 14
1.6 OBJECTIVES OF PROJECT: ................................................................. 15
1.7 SCOPE OF PROJECT ............................................................................. 15
2. PROPERTIES OF FLUE GASES ............................................................ 16

2.1 CONSTITUENTS OF FLUE GASES: .................................................... 17
2.2 CALCULATIONS: .................................................................................. 17
2.2.1 Viscosity: ............................................................................................. 17
2.2.2 Specific heat: ........................................................................................ 19
2.2.3 Thermal conductivity: .......................................................................... 21
2.2.4 Prandtl number: .................................................................................... 22
3. DESIGN OF WASTE HEAT RECOVERY BOILER: .......................... 24

3.1 ECONOMIZER DESIGN:....................................................................... 24
3.1.1 Design considerations: ......................................................................... 25
3.1.2 Governing parameters: ......................................................................... 25
3.1.3 Heat balance: ........................................................................................ 25
3.1.4 Considerations and assumptions: ......................................................... 26
3.1.5 Economizer constraints: ....................................................................... 26
3.2 ECONOMIZER DESIGN CALCULATIONS: ....................................... 26
4
3.2.1 Estimating the overall heat transfer co-efficient: ................................. 32
3.3 EVAPORATOR DESIGN ....................................................................... 36
3.3.1 Design and operational criterion: ......................................................... 36
3.4 EVAPORATOR DESIGN CALCULATIONS: ...................................... 37
3.5 SUPER HEATER DESIGN..................................................................... 44
3.5.1 Design consideration:........................................................................... 44
3.5.2 Design aspects:..................................................................................... 44
3.5.3 Design assumptions: ............................................................................ 45
3.6 SUPERHEATER DESIGN CALCULATIONS: ..................................... 45
3.6.1 OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT OF PLAIN TUBES
50
3.6.2 TOTAL SURFACE AREA FOR HEAT TRANSFER ........................ 50
3.6.3 NUMBER OF TUBES WIDE ............................................................. 51
3.6.4 TOTAL AREA FOR MASS FLOW.................................................... 51
3.6.5 TRANSVERSE PITCH ....................................................................... 51
3.6.6 WIDTH OF SUPERHEATER ............................................................. 51
3.7 INDIRECT EFFICIENCY BOILER OLD CONDITION ....................... 52
4. OPTIMIZATION OF BOILER GAS SIDE PARAMETERS: .............. 54

4.1 Inlet gas temperature: ............................................................................... 54
4.2 Inlet gas flow rate: ................................................................................... 57
4.3 Constant Inlet energy: .............................................................................. 60
4.4 Conclusion: .............................................................................................. 61
5. MATERIAL OPTIMIZATION: .............................................................. 62

5.1 GENERAL CRITERIA FOR MATERIALS SELECTION: ................... 62
5.1.1 Properties of different Steel Grades ..................................................... 63
5.1.2 TREND OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ON ‘U’ VALUE:.......... 67
5.1.3 Overall heat transfer coefficient: ......................................................... 67
5.1.4 Evaluating U-value for mild steel: ....................................................... 67
5.1.5 CONCLUSIONS: ................................................................................ 72
5.1.6 EFFECT ON FINAL TEMPERATURES OF COLD FLUID: ........... 73
5.2 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF BOILER TUBE MATERIAL ................. 75
5.2.1 VOLUME OF MATERIAL USED IN HEAT EXCHANGERS
PIPING: ............................................................................................................. 76
5
5.2.2 TOTAL VOLUME .............................................................................. 77
5.2.3 MASS REQUIRED BY DIFFERENT GRADES ............................... 77
5.2.4 COST FOR EACH STEEL GRADE ................................................... 78
6. MATERIAL INSPECTION: .................................................................... 79

6.1 CORROSION CALCULATIONS ........................................................... 79
6.1.1 JUSTIFICATION OF USING AISI-1010 ........................................... 80
6.2 EROSION IN BOILER TUBES .............................................................. 83
6.2.1 THEORY ............................................................................................. 83
6.2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW: ................................................................... 84
6.2.3 CALCULATION ................................................................................. 87
6.2.4 WEAR RATE AND VOLUME REMOVED PER HOUR AT
DIFFERENT VELOCITIES ............................................................................. 90
 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………….. 90
 References ………………………………………………………………. 91
6
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-2: T-s diagram of Organo Cycle ................................................................... 10

Figure 1-1: T-s diagram of Rankine Cycle .................................................................. 10
Figure 1-3: T-s diagram of Kalina Cycle .................................................................... 11
Figure 1-4: Schematic of Cement Plant....................................................................... 13
Figure 3-1: Rough Schematic of Boiler ....................................................................... 24
Figure 3-2: Standard dimensions for steel tubes ......................................................... 28
Figure 3-3: Different tube arrangement ...................................................................... 31
Figure 3-4: Thermal circuit of a fouled heat transfer surface..................................... 32
Figure 3-5: Resistance to the flow of heat through pipe walls .................................... 32
Figure 3-6: Fouling factor for different fluids ............................................................. 34
Figure 3-7: Constants for Nusselt correlation............................................................. 40
Figure 3-8: Heat flow across In-line Arrangement (Heat and Mass Transfer by
Incopera ) ..................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 3-9: Table of constant for Nusselt correlation ................................................. 49
Figure 3-10: Indirect Method for Efficiency evaluation.............................................. 52
Figure 4-1: Temperature vs Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient for Economizer,
Evaporator and Superheater........................................................................................ 54
Figure 4-2: Effectiveness Vs Inlet Gas Temperature for Economizer, Evaporator and
Superheater .................................................................................................................. 55
Figure 4-3: Mass flow rate of gas Vs Overall Heat Transfer coefficient for
Economizer, Evaporator and Superheater .................................................................. 58
Figure 4-4: Mass flow rate of gas Vs Effectiveness for Economizer, Evaporator and
Superheater .................................................................................................................. 59
Figure 4-5: Mass flow rate Vs Effectiveness & Inlet Temperature Vs Effectiveness for
Economizer .................................................................................................................. 60
Figure 4-6: Mass flow rate Vs Effectiveness & Inlet Gas Temperature Vs
Effectiveness for Evaporator........................................................................................ 60
Figure 4-7: Mass flow rate Vs Effectiveness & Inlet Temperature Vs Effectiveness .. 61
Figure 6-1: T-s diagram of Rankine Cycle .................................................................. 81
7
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1: High Temperature Source for Waste Heat Recovery ................................... 9
Table 2-1: Weight Fraction and Molecular Weight of Flue gas constituents ............. 17
Table 2-2: Viscosity of Flue gas constituents at different temperatures ..................... 17
Table 3-1: Design specifications for Economizer ........................................................ 26
Table 3-0-3: Standard dimension for steel tubes ......................................................... 28
Table 3-4: Maximum Velocity Ranges ......................................................................... 30
Table 3-5: Tube Specifications for Economizer........................................................... 30
Table 3-7: Design specifications for Evaporator ........................................................ 37
Table 3-10: Design specifications for Super-heater .................................................... 46
Table 4-3: Heat Loss across the Outside Wall Vs Inlet Gas Temperature .................. 57
Table 4-4: Efficiency VS Temperature ......................................................................... 57
Table 5-1: Chemical composition of ASTM A36 ......................................................... 63
Table 5-2: Mechanical properties of ASTM A36 ......................................................... 63
Table 5-3: Chemical composition of AISI 1040 ........................................................... 64
Table 5-4: Mechanical properties of AISI 1040 .......................................................... 64
Table 5-5: Chemical composition of AISI 1010 ........................................................... 64
Table 5-6: Mechanical properties of AISI 1010 .......................................................... 65
Table 5-7: Chemical composition of Stainless Steel Grade 410.................................. 65
Table 5-8: Mechanical properties of Stainless Steel Grade 410 ................................. 65
Table 5-9: Chemical composition of Stainless Steel 316 ............................................. 66
Table 5-10: Mechanical properties of Stainless Steel 316 .......................................... 66
Table 5-11: Thermal conductivities of different steel grades ...................................... 67
Table 5-12: Overall Heat Transfer coefficient and Surface Area of economizer for
different materials ........................................................................................................ 69
Table 5-13: Overall Heat Transfer coefficient and Surface Area of evaporator for
different material ......................................................................................................... 70
Table 5-14: Overall Heat Transfer coefficient and Surfaces Area of Super-heater for
different material ......................................................................................................... 72
Table 5-15: Ranges of Price per Ton for different Steel Grades ................................. 75
Table 5-16: Mass required by boiler tubes for different material ............................... 78
Table 5-17: Cost of each steel grade ........................................................................... 78
8
CHAPTER #1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY:

Waste Heat as the name defines “The Unused Potential”. Process industries using
thermal energy may have this recovery option. Particular research shows that exhaust
gases above 250°F (=122°C) have potential to produce energy. In this way fuel is
economically utilized by not dumping the exhaust gases directly into the atmosphere.
Large, quantity, of, hot flue gases, is generated from boilers, kilns, ovens and
furnaces. The, essential, quality, of heat, is not its quantity but its quality. If some of
this waste heat, could, be recovered, a, considerable, amount, of, primary, fuel could
be saved. Although we cannot recover full energy from waste gases because there are
certain limitations.
The term Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) means reuse of the wasted potential other
than the process; therefore it must not affect the production capacity of the plant
anyhow.
Following are some high temperature sources for the waste heat recovery:
TYPES, OF, DEVICES TEMPERATURE, (°C)
Nickel, refining, furnace 1400-1650
Steel, heating, furnaces 925-1050
Cement, kiln, (dry process) 620-730
Hydrogen, plants 650-1000
Fume, incinerators 600-1450
Table 1-1: High Temperature Source for Waste Heat Recovery
1.2 CYCLES FOLLOWED IN WASTE HEAT RECOVERY

SYSTEMS
There are three basic cycles followed:
1. Simple Rankine, Cycle
2. Organic, Rankine, Cycle
3. Kalina, Cycle
9
1.2.1 Simple Rankine cycle:
There are four components:
Simple process is that, superheated

steams flow through the turbine
converting its energy (thermal) to shaft
power by expansion process, shaft
coupled with generator producing
electricity. The lower energy steam then
condenses in a condenser, and then this
water is pumped to boiler again for Figure 1-1: T-s diagram of Rankine
steam production. Cycle
1.2.2 Organic Rankine cycle:

In simple Rankine cycle there is a condition for the steam to be superheated otherwise
during expansion there could be high moisture content eroding the blades of the
turbine. Thus organic fluids are used i.e. below 400°C do not have to be overheated
resulting in an efficient cycle (fuel requirement of overheating discarded). The
working fluid superheats as pressure is reduced, as also they have low freezing point.
Figure 1-2: T-s diagram of Organo Cycle
10
1.2.3 Kalina cycle:
A recent development in power generation technology is the Kalina cycle, which
basically follows the Rankine cycle concept except that the working fluid is 70%
ammonia–water mixture. It has the potential to be 10–15% more efficient than the
Rankine cycle and uses conventional materials of construction, making the
technology viable.
Figure 1-3: T-s diagram of Kalina Cycle
1.3 CONCERNED INDUSTRY

Generally, a waste heat boiler costs too much
If waste heat is of low quality it can be difficult to efficiently utilize the low quality
contained by the waste heat medium
 WHRS may out-weight the benefit.
 Additional equipments required
 Complexity of the system increase
 Additional maintenance costs
So the waste heat recovery boilers (WHRB) are efficient but not useful for every
industry.
Industries like:
 Chemical industry
 Cement industry
 Sulphuric acid industry
 Coke dry quenching industry etc.
11
We have chosen Cement Industry as our primary focus, reasons are:
 Among energy-intensive industries, cement is the one where waste heat
recovery (WHR) has been most developed.
 Eligible for thorough learning.
 Ease of approach to learn.
1.4 BASIC OPERATIONS OF CEMENT PLANT:
1. The raw material required to manufacture cement are limestones and clay. Rocks
extracted from the quarry are routed to cement plant nearby.
2. The minerals from the quarry are routed to grinding plant where they undergo
initial milling before being reduced to fine powder. The raw material (80%
limestone and 20% clay) stored in pre homogenization pile. This mixture is called
the “raw meal”.
3. The raw mix is fed into pre-heating tower at 800 °C before returning to inclined
rotary kiln where it is heated to about 1450 °C. Combustion process causes de-
carbonization of limestone. The fired material take the form of hard granules
called “clinkers”.
4. Following the cooling, the clinker is stored in the silos then transformed into
cement according to the production requirement. At final stage, for increasing the
settling time gypsum is added to the clinker in proportion of 3-5% and mixture is
finely ground.
5. The cement is stored in silos before being delivered in bulk using trucks or packed
into for the shipment.
Generally, the processes can be summarized as:
 Blasting
 Crushing
 Grinding
 Pre-heating (suspension pre-heater)
 Combustion
 Cooling (Air Quenched Cooler)
 Fine grinding
 Packaging
12
Figure 1-4: Schematic of Cement Plant
1.4.1 Sources of waste heat in a cement plant:

Considering the kiln; generally twelve feet or more in diameter and length of around
500 feet made of steel lined with fire bricks, gradually slanted with intake end higher
than output end, mounted on roller bearings. In kiln burning of the blended material
take place. The burning zone can be heated up to 3000°F such that material turns its
color.
The combustion of the fuel takes place only in the kiln. From here the exhaust gases
enters in the suspension pre-heater through k-line where the pre-heating of the
blended material is done.
Afterwards, the clinker is send to grate cooler, where clinker is spread on perforated
moving bed where air is blown from the bottom to cool the clinker. This process is air
quenching, also called Air Quenched Cooling.
Therefore, the exhaust gases leaving the suspension pre heater and the hot air by the
quenching are the two major sources of heat recovery.
13
1.5 PROJECT & BACKGROUND:
The energy crisis is the concern that the world & demand on the limited natural
resources that are used to power the industrial sector as resources are limited and
demand is continuously increasing.
Natural resources may take hundred/ thousands of years to emerge out again to
replenish the stores.
 Causes of energy crisis are;
 Poor infrastructure of equipment.
 Over – population.
 Delay in commissioning of power plants.
 Wastage of energy.
Population is somewhat we can’t control.

Infrastructure and recovery of waste energy are the major ways to decelerate the
increasing demand shortages.
However, WHRvfsremainsehuneconomicvfincnumerousrcountries,bespeciallygcin
areasdwhereflowcelectricitydpricesedoenotcmakevthevconversioneofwwastenheatm
intowelectricityzofqinterest.qWherevelectricityvsupplywiswazproblemr(becauseecof
uncertaintiesxregardingwelectricityvvoltage),cevenbifstheqpricenofeelectricitynisslow
,qWHRqcanqbeqadvantageousqasqitqallowsqthe plant to be more self-sufficient.
1.5.1 Pre-requisites:
To accomplish the project in a right manner, there are several things to be fulfilled.
 Parametric analysis: EXCEL.

 General knowledge about the design of boiler.
 Fluid mechanics.
 Thermodynamics.
 Chemical stoichiometry.
14
1.6 OBJECTIVES OF PROJECT:
Performance evaluation and optimization of the waste heat recovery boiler by varying
different parameters.
1.7 SCOPE OF PROJECT
The scope of this report includes:

 Basic understanding of the operations of a Waste Heat Recovery System in a
cement plant.
 Boiler Analysis.
 Optimization of Boiler includes the effect of Inlet Temperature and flow rate of
exhaust gases on the boiler efficiency and life.
 Custom design of boiler includes the changing in the tube materials, and tube area.
 Efficiency enhancement of the accessories attached within the
Waste Heat Recovery System.
15
CHAPTER # 2
2. PROPERTIES OF FLUE GASES

In the design of waster heat recovery boiler properties of flue gases are required to
perform energy – balance calculation and heat transfer and pressure drop studies.
While applying energy – balance to calculate Heat content :
We will need (Specific Heat).
It can also be seen in the design calculations that we are interested in finding the
heating surface area of the tubes. Using formula:
In the above expression, for finding ‘U’, we have:
In order to find ‘ ’ (Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient), we must know the
following dimensionless numbers:

 Reynold Number
 Nusselt Number
And the formula for both Reynold and Nusselt we will be using are:
And,
Finally to calculate :
As we can see, in order to:
16
- Find we need (viscosity)
- Find , we need (Prandtl Number)
- Find , we need (Thermal Conductivity)
So we have to calculate these parameters first at average temperatures.

Here, we will be calculating all the flue gas parameters at average temperatures i.e.
333.45 and 280 .
2.1 CONSTITUENTS OF FLUE GASES:
MOLECULAR
CONSTITUENTS WEIGHT FRACTION
WEIGHT
CO2 0.22 44
H2 O 0.06 18
SO2 0.015 64
O2 0.02 32
NO2 0.67 46
Table 2-1: Weight Fraction and Molecular Weight of Flue gas constituents
2.2 CALCULATIONS:
2.2.1 Viscosity:
Temperature (℃)
μ of
380 300 245.5 219
CO2 0.1079 0.0953 0.0883 0.848
H2 O 0.087 0.074 0.067 0.0641
SO2 0.1002 0.0868 0.0796 0.076
O2 0.133 0.1207 0.1135 0.11
NO2 0.1264 0.1138 0.0891 0.1
Table 2-2: Viscosity of Flue gas constituents at different temperatures
17
- FOR TEMPERATURE = 380 ˚C
Gases . . .
(weight
(each)
frac. each)
CO2 0.22 0.1079 6.633249 0.15746 1.45931478
H 2O 0.06 0.087 4.24264 0.02215 0.2545584
SO2 0.015 0.1002 8 0.01202 0.12
O2 0.03 0.133 5.65685 0.02257 0.1697055
NO2 0.67 0.1264 6.78233 0.57438 4.5441611
Viscosity @ 380 (kg/m/hr) = 0.120435

Viscosity @ 380 (kg/m/sec) = 3.3454 E – 05
Gases . . .
(weight
(each)
frac. each)
CO2 0.22 0.0953 6.633249 0.13907 1.45931478
H 2O 0.06 0.074 4.24264 0.01884 0.2545584

SO2 0.015 0.0868 8 0.01042 0.12
O2 0.03 0.1207 5.65685 0.02048 0.1697055
NO2 0.67 0.1138 6.78233 0.51713 4.5441611
Viscosity @ 300 (kg/m/hr) = 0.10781354

Viscosity @ 300 (kg/m/sec) = 2.9948 E – 05
18
- FOR TEMPERATURE = 245.5 ˚C
Gases . . .
(weight (each)
frac. each)
CO2 0.22 0.0883 6.633249 0.12886 1.45931478
H 2O 0.06 0.067 4.24264 0.01706 0.2545584
SO2 0.015 0.0796 8 0.00955 0.12
O2 0.02 0.1135 5.65685 0.01284 0.113137
NO2 0.67 0.0891 6.78233 0.40488 4.5441611
Viscosity @ 245.5 (kg/m/hr) = 0.08852081
Viscosity @ 245.5 (kg/m/sec) = 2.45289 E – 05
Gases (weight frac. . . .

(each)
each)
CO2 0.22 0.0848 6.633249 0.12375 1.45931478
H 2O 0.06 0.0641 4.24264 0.01632 0.2545584
SO2 0.015 0.076 8 0.00912 0.12
O2 0.03 0.11 5.65685 0.01867 0.1697055
NO2 0.67 0.1 6.78233 0.45442 4.5441611
Viscosity @ 219 (kg/m/hr) = 0.09503597
Viscosity @ 219 (kg/m/sec) = 2.6399E – 05
2.2.2 Specific heat:
Formula:
Cp =
Cp=
19
FOR TEMP = 380 ˚C
Cp * weight
GASES Cp@380 kcal/kg ˚C weight fraction
fraction
CO2 0.2347 0.22 0.051634
H2O 0.4652 0.06 0.027912
SO2 0.1689 0.02 0.003378
O2 0.2301 0.03 0.006903
NO2 0.236 0.67 0.15812
FOR TEMP = 280 ˚C

Cp * weight
GASES Cp@280 kcal/kg˚C weight fraction
fraction
CO2 0.2266 0.22 0.049852
H2O 0.4585 0.06 0.02751
SO2 0.1641 0.02 0.003282
O2 0.2267 0.03 0.006801
NO2 0.2335 0.67 0.156445
FOR TEMP = 250 ˚C

Cp * weight
fraction
CO2 0.222 0.22 0.04884
H2O 0.4554 0.06 0.027324
SO2 0.1612 0.02 0.003224
O2 0.2251 0.03 0.006753
NO2 0.2331 0.67 0.156177
20
FOR TEMP = 219 ˚C
Cp * weight
fraction
CO2 0.22 0.22 0.0484
H2O 0.4545 0.06 0.02727
SO2 0.1599 0.02 0.003198
O2 0.224 0.03 0.00672
NO2 0.2312 0.67 0.154904
2.2.3 Thermal conductivity:
Formula:
FOR TEMP = 380 ˚C

Gases K@380 k.cal/m.hr.˚C
CO2 0.0348
H2O 0.0454
SO2 0.0257
O2 0.0434
NO2 0.0447
K=
FOR TEMP = 300 ˚C

Gases k@300 k.cal/m.hr.˚C
CO2 0.032
H2O 0.0372
SO2 0.0231
O2 0.0336
NO2 0.039
K=
21
FOR TEMP = 245.5 ˚C
Gases k@245.5 k.cal/m.hr.˚C
CO2 0.0287
H2O 0.0333
SO2 0.0198
O2 0.0337
NO2 0.0321
K=
FOR TEMP = 219 ˚C
Gases k@219 k.cal/m.hr.˚C
CO2 0.028
H2O 0.0315
SO2 0.085
O2 0.0339
NO2 0.035
K=
2.2.4 Prandtl number:
PRANDTL NUMBER =
FOR TEMP = 380 ˚C
(Sp.Heat (Thermal (Prandtl

(Viscosity)
Cap.) Cond.) Number)
1041.0000 3.345E-05 0.049 0.711
22
FOR TEMP = 300 ˚C
(Viscosity)
1024.0000 2.994 E – 05 0.043 0.713
FOR TEMP = 245.5 ˚C

(Viscosity)
1040.5800 2.457 E – 05 0.0364 0.706
FOR TEMP = 219 ˚C

(Viscosity)
1010.0000 2.63 E – 05 0.04 0.662
23
CHAPTER # 3
3. DESIGN OF WASTE HEAT RECOVERY BOILER:

 The design method of waste heat recovery boiler starts from data collection from
plant such as operating data, properties of flue gas, existing cement plant and
available space, water resources, etc.
 Identification of potential energy available from flue gas and usages.
 The main equipment in this system is a WHRG boiler that consist three heat
exchangers i.e. Economizer, Evaporator and Super-heater.
Traditionally, the heat exchanger performance analysis and simulation are performed
using steady-state energy balance across the heat exchanger. The energy balance on
the hot and cold fluids together with the heat-transfer equation constitutes the model
of heat exchangers. A simplified model generally uses an average driving force such
as log mean temperature difference (LMTD) and assumes uniform properties of the
fluids along the length of the heat exchanger to determine the overall heat-transfer
coefficient. Under the assumption that there is no heat loss to the surroundings, the
heat lost by the hot fluid stream shall be equal to the heat gained by the cold fluid
stream.
Waste heat recovered in cement plant is gases with high dust content, which can be as
high as 150 g/m3. Dust on the pre-heater side is sticky, and dust at the clinker cooler
exhaust is abrasive. This aspect has an impact on the design of heat exchangers used
for waste heat recovery. In addition, sulfur contained in those gases can condensate,
which limits the amount of waste heat that can be recovered.
3.1 ECONOMIZER DESIGN:
Figure 3-1:
Rough
Schematic
of Boiler
24
1. Its function is to preheat the feed water before it enters in the evaporator. Only
sensible heating take place, no phase change process otherwise steaming can
cause blockage of tubes and may disturbs the circulation.
2. Therefore required heat transfer in economizer is lower than the saturation
temperature of water at given pressure.
3. But the decision is also dependent on mass flow rate of water. Large quantity of
water can cause steaming too; therefore we kept a margin of 15 to 20 degrees
below saturation temperature.
3.1.1 Design considerations:

1. The cooler the water the more effective will be the heat transfer.
2. If approach point is kept low then the economizer can steam up at partial
loads. Or prevention is making the flow of water from bottom to top against
the gravity.
3. Economizers are usually finned due to the fact that there is low temperature
difference between flue gases and water thus required larger surface area.
4. Due to finned tubes there is a large pressure drop of exhaust gases across
economizer, and cleaning also becomes difficult. Therefore using un-finned
design of economizer.
5. As economizer is the last stage of quantifying lost heat of flue gases, we must
consider the dew point of flue gases. If flue gases contain SO3, SO2 and other
chlorine compounds and water is below the dew point temperature, then there
is a great danger for corrosion due to formation possibility of hydrochloric or
sulfuric acid.
6. The design pressure of economizer should within a few inches of water
column gauge. The higher pressure drop results in the decrease in efficiency of
the process.
3.1.2 Governing parameters:

1. The following parameters are to be determined while designing the boiler.
2. The heat content absorbed by the water or given away by gases.
3. The area of heat exchange
4. The number of tubes required.
5. The arrangement of tubes.
6. Pressure drop across the tubes.
3.1.3 Heat balance:

1. For any heat exchanger heat balance is a useful mean to extract the basic
parameters like inlet and outlet temperatures of either fluid.
2. Applying heat balance would give:
25
3.1.4 Considerations and assumptions:
1. The operating pressure of the boiler and the degree of superheat of steam
should be fixed.
2. Normally the pressure of steam is high for power generation.
3. The operation pressure should be around 13 bars.
4. The pinch and approach point should be selected; these greatly affect the area
for heat exchange and stability of operation.
5. Suitable temperature of feed water is set at the inlet of economizer.
6. The log-mean temperature difference should be evaluated.
7. The gas-mass velocity should be fixed (depending on the nature of gas i-e
clean or dirty).
8. Dew point should be estimated.
9. Transport properties should be evaluated.
10. The area for the flow or the number of tubes required for a fixed size tube and
velocity can be determined by the equation ṁ= . Here A is the water side
flow area.
11. The gas side area is determined by the equation:
3.1.5 Economizer constraints:

1. The dew point temperature should be 130˚C, so the outlet temperature will be
15˚C above it.
2. The incoming temperature of the gas is 221˚C.
3. The operating pressure of the boiler is taken to be 13 bar and corresponding
saturation temperature to be 191.6˚C.
3.2 ECONOMIZER DESIGN CALCULATIONS:

Specifications on which we are designing the economizer are as follows:
Inlet gas temperature 321.94°C

Outlet gas temperature ?
Gas mass flow rate 83.5 kg/sec
Specific heat 1.04 kJ/kg °C
Inlet water temperature 40°C
Outlet water temperature 175°C
Inlet enthalpy 167.57 kJ/kg
Exit enthalpy 741.5 kJ/kg
Mass flow of water ṁ 2.22 kg/sec
Table 3-1: Design specifications for Economizer
26
The outlet temperature of water is taken short of the saturation temperature at
operating pressure of 13 bars, in order to prevent steaming.
The values of enthalpies are taken from book of “Heat Transfer” by Yunus A. Cengel.
Now Applying Energy Balance;

Energy gain by feed water = Energy lost by the gases
Energy gain by feed water = ṁ ( )
= 2.222(741.5 – 167.57)
= 1274.124 kW
Therefore energy gain by water is equal energy loss by the gases

=
1274.124 kW = ṁ ∆T
1274.124 = 83.5 × 1.04 × ( – )
= 306.83 °C
Temperatures for transport property:

In order to get the properties of fluids, average temperatures are likely to be found.
Average temperature of gas
= = 314.385°C
Average temperature of water

= = 107.5°C
Average film temperature of gas

Properties of fluid such as density viscosity Prandtl number etc are calculated at the
film temperature (temperature of the fluid at solid fluid interface). Since temperature
is changing continuously along the flow direction, therefore finding the mean of mean
temperature of water and flue gases.
Log-mean temperature-difference (LMTD)

Since the purpose of economizer is to preheat the fluid, therefore counter flow
configuration is used. Otherwise disturbance would be created through steaming,
especially when the flow is downward. Log mean temperature difference of parallel
flow is less than that of counter flow.
27
∆T LMTD =
Where
∆ Ta = –
∆T b =
321.94°C
306.83°C
40°C
175°C
∆T LMTD =
∆T LMTD = 200.96 °C
Assuming a suitable tube size

Assuming the diameter of tubes and thickness in accordance with the mass flow rate.
Outer diameter
OD = 25.4 mm = 0.0254m (1 inch)
Table 3-3-2: Standard dimension for steel tubes
Figure 3-2: Standard dimensions for steel tubes

Source: TEMA (Tubular Exchanger Manufacturer Association)
According to the table above thickness with respect to outer

diameter is given, selecting higher value in order to
28
compensate fouling and corrosion and also reduces pressure drop.
Thickness: t =3.175 mm =0.003175 m ( )
Now internal diameter would be;

OD -2(t) = ID
Di =ID = 25.4 – (3.175x2)
Di = ID = 19.05 mm = 0.01905 m ( inches)
Cross-sectionalqareaqforqoneqtube:
Theqcrossqsectionalqareaqofqtheqtube would be used in the formula of mass flow
rate to find out the number of tubes width and hence width of the boiler.
A= = (0.01905)2
A = 2.85× m2
Number of tubes
Continuity equation tells us that in how many tubes does a mass flow rate of water
(ṁ) of 2.22 kg/sec would be divided.
Nw=
Where,
For density taking average temperature of water in economizer

= = 107.5°C
Since,
= = = 937 kg/m3
ṁ=2.22 kg/sec
A = 2.85× m2
For velocity of the fluid iterations are required within the suitable range as given in
the table below
29
Table 3-3: Maximum Velocity Ranges
V=0.5m/sec (Assumed) in good assumption with the above table.

Nw=
= 16.626 ≈ 17 tubes
Thus 7 tubes are quite reasonable for lesser frontal area. This would curtail the length
of the tubes as given by the following relation =
Tubes specs for economizer:
outer diameter 25.4 mm
inner diameter 19.05 mm
thickness 3.175 mm
number of tubes 17
area m2
Table 3-4: Tube Specifications for Economizer
Fixing the gas mass velocity:
Gas mass velocity is basically the mass flux (amount of exhaust gas passing through
per unit area). The range for the gas flux typically ranges from 6-16 kg/m2sec,
depending upon the type of gas which ascends from dirtiest to clean.
ṁ = ρAV
= ρV =G
Setting up =G=9kg/m2sec for cement industry exhaust gas;

G=
30
Where is the frontal area, re-arranging the equation and putting values we get
= 9.278 m2
Now length of economizer tubes can be calculated.

Pitch of tubes
Figure 3-3: Different tube arrangement
Transverse pitch of the tube can be evaluated by the formula

Aff = L× (ST-do) × Nw
Setting up length up to 3.8 meters because of evaporator length found to be 3.8m.

Since length of the tubes is fixed therefore only variable is the transverse pitch in the
equation.
ST = + do
Then;
ST = + 0.0254
ST = 0.169 m = 6.65 in.

Width of tubes
The numbers of tubes are known and we have to find the pitch.
Now setting the width for bank of tubes:
Width = ST × Nw
W = 6.65×17
W= 113.05 in = 2.87 m
31
3.2.1 Estimating the overall heat transfer co-efficient:
Overall-heat-transfer coefficient is useful for finding the surfaceqareaqforqheat
transfer. Since convective heat-transfer-coefficient of gas side has much lower value
than water side, therefore gas side coefficient is the governing parameter. Even
though they don’t have much impact, but for higher accuracy we have considered it.
Also we have to consider the fouling factor on gas side and corrosion factor on water
side. Therefore the equation for overall coefficient becomes
Figure 3-4: Thermal circuit of a fouled heat transfer surface

Where
Figure 3-5: Resistance to the flow of

heat through pipe walls
32
For water side:
= 0.0254m
( ) H₂O = 107.5°C = 225.5°F
ṁ = 2.22kg/sec = 7.992 tones/hr.
At average temperature of water 107.5°C properties are:

These properties are extracted from table of properties of saturated water from
INCROPERA “fundamentals of heat and mass transfer”
Dynamic viscosity µf = 324×10-6 Ns/m2

Prandtl number Pr = 2.02
Thermal conductivity kf = 674×10-3 W/m.K
3
Density f = 937 kg/m
Reynolds number:
Re = =
Re =
Re = 27546.06
Nusselt number:
As we know that critical Reynold number for internal flows is Re 2300, here
Reynold number is greater than this, hence the flow is turbulent.
Now using Dittus-Boelter correlation for finding Nusselt number (Book: Incropera)
NU = 0.023
0.8
NU = 0.023 ( (2.02)0.4
NU = 108.6215
hi =
h = 3.843 kW/m2K
33
For Gas side:
Properties of gases evaluated at the film temperature
= 314.385
= 1.010 kJ/kg
µ = 2.630×10-5 kg/m sec

k = 4.013×10-5 kJ/m sec
Reynold number:
Using gas mass velocity for finding Reynold number
Where is the dynamic viscosity for the flue gas
Prandtl number: Figure 3-6: Fouling factor for

different fluids
Nusselt number:
Since Reynold number for flow over tube bank is less than the critical Reynold
numbers. For outside heat transfer coefficient using correlation
Nu = 0.33 .
This relation is known as GRIMSON MODEL and is used for flow over tube banks
when
Re 4
Pr
and m are constants. For values of these, two tables are given below
34
Using tube material to be low Carbon steel thermal conductivity k = 50 W/m.K
Now;
Substituting all values,

+ + In +0.001+0.0002
U = 90.36635 W/m2K
Flow area required:
Now calculating the surface area:
A = 70.1605 m2
Number of tubes high required:
= ×
= ×
= 13.61 13
Total number of tubes

N = Nh × Nw
N = 170
35
3.3 EVAPORATOR DESIGN
3.3.1 Design and operational criterion:

During the calculation of design parameters we have to take certain considerations for
better utilization and safer working conditions. In the following lines some general
points will be mentioned which are thought to be vital for the boiler.
1. To avoid thermal shock it is suggested to introduce makeup water or feed water in a

way that there should be no sudden temperature change occurs.
2. For a high temperature and pressure boiler, material should be, strong enough
against creep, enough structural stability against crystal changes, enough surface
stability against corrosion, erosion and oxidation, alloys that can be easily welded or
machined.
3. Design and shape of boiler depends on, conditions and heat content of hot gases,
maximum utilization of all three forms of heat.
4. The best possible heat transfer occur in condition of nucleate boiling so try to avoid
film boiling. Moreover stagnation film of either gas or water causes reduction in heat
transfer.
5. Scaling is one of the fatal factors for tube causes reduction in surface conductance
that ultimately brings temperature high enough to be damaged.
6. Although forced convection increases rate of heat transfer but it is limited by heat
transfer area and most important cost of surface area.
7. In water tube boiler shell and tube are not exposed to radiant heat fire, therefore not
subjected to overheating.
8. Corrosion is another threat to boiler.
9. Generally speaking all parts of boiler are accessible for cleaning, inspection and
repair.
10. According to temperature, pressure and gas conditions different types of materials
can be used like carbon steel with different grades, alloys steel with composition with
chromium, nickel, molybdenum etc.
11. Tubes failures are due to reasons, scaling, corrosion and stress concentration, high
concentration of heat, poor circulation.
12. Bent tube design offers certain benefits like, boiler can be made wide and low or
narrow high, more surface available for radiant heat of flame, and provide greater
flexibility in tube design.
13. It is necessary to keep in mind that, as temperature difference becomes smaller
and smaller heat transfer area requirement increases.
14. For heavy dust flue gases water tube are appropriate for one more reason that
baffles can be used not only for gas flow help but also to remove dust particle that are
deposited.
15. Usually tube banks are concerned with convection form of heat transfer.
36
16. In case of clean surface, gas film resistance is important and considerable as
compared to steam or water film resistance or tube wall conductance.
3.4 EVAPORATOR DESIGN CALCULATIONS:
Specifications on which we are designing the evaporator are as follows:
Pressure in Evaporator P 13 bar
Flue Gas Inlet Temperature 373.4
Flue Gas Outlet Temperature ?
Inlet Water Temperature 175
Outlet Water Temperature =

Saturation Temperature @ given 191.6
pressure
Massqflowqrateqofqflueqgas 83.5 kg/s
Mass flow rate of steam 2.22 kg/s
Enthalpy @ 175 743.2 kJ/ kg
Enthalpy @ 191.6 2786.4 kJ/ kg
SpecificqHeatqofqFlueqgas 0.99679692 kJ/kg ˚C
Viscosity of Flue gas
Prandtl Number Pr
Table 3-5: Design specifications for Evaporator
37
Amount of heat to be generated:
This heat will be equal to the heat gained by water:
=
= (2.22 2022)
= 4488 kW
Applying Energy Balance:
Energy gained by the water = Energy lost by flue gas
4488 = (83.5) (1.024) (373.4 )
= 321 C
For estimation of surface area:
Where,
=
After Rearranging,
In order to find Area, we need to find out:

1.
2. Overall Heat transfer coefficient (U)
- FIRST WE FIND LMTD:
38
Where,
And we know that,

373.4
321 C
176.64
191.64
After calculating, we get,
- NOW WE WILL FIND ‘U’:
Here,
For and :
We will follow the following steps, first we will calculate Nusselt Number, then
Reynolds and then Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient.
39
For gas side:
:
From Heat and Mass Transfer by Incropera,
Here,
……. [Gas mass velocity is nothing but the mass
flux ]
----------- (1)
It depend upon the gas

It ranges from 6-16 which ascends from dirtiest to clean
Setting up = = 9 kg/m2.s [Reason: acoustic cleaning system]
Assuming suitable tube dimension:
After solving, we get:
Hence the flow is turbulent.

Using correlation from Incropera,
Nu = 1.13 .
Value of ‘C’ and ‘m’ can be taken from the table
Nu = 1.13 .
According to the calculated Reynold Number Figure 3-7: Constants for Nusselt
– C = 0.229 and m = 0.632 correlation
Hence, Nu = 102.3
Now,
40
For water side:
:
Here,
Solving, we get,
Nu= 0.023
Nu= 1529.0108
Now,
Finally, putting in,
We get,
Putting back in equation (A) to get Surface Area,
41
For gas side:
Where is the frontal area
Also,
Comparing both, we get

Figure 3-8: Heat flow across
In-line Arrangement (Heat and
Mass Transfer by Incopera )
Here,
……… (B)
Also we have,
A = Total required surface area taking all the tubes.
A= ----------------- (C)
Putting from eq (B):
Iterating for and for different ,

If taking 25 according to ease, then equation (C) becomes
If taking 25 then length will be
It is sufficient length and can be easily managed and accommodated.
42
For water side:
Now finding the velocity of fluid (water) in evaporator
Again using equation (1)
=
Where,
After rearranging,
-------------------- (D)
Where,
= Velocity of fluid in evaporator
--------------- (E)
Here,
Also, C. R = 4,
Substituting, we get
= 244.59 kg/
= 0.0312
Putting in equation (D)
43
3.5 SUPER HEATER DESIGN
1. The production of steam at higherqtemperatureqthanqtheqsaturationqtemperature
is called superheating.
2. The temperature added to the saturationqtemperatureqisqcalledqtheqdegreeqof
superheat.
3. A superheater is employed in the steam boiler to add additional energy into steam
and raise its temperature.
4. Superheater is in demanding condition, and their failure could mean shut down
for few days resulting in large financial losses.
5. The function of superheater is to increase the capacity of the steam boiler,
eliminates erosion of the steam turbine, and reduces steam consumption of the
steam turbine.
3.5.1 Design consideration:

There are basically three types of superheaters:
1. Radiant superheater
2. Convection superheater
3. Semi-radiant superheater
But the cement plant exhaust will not be concerned with radiant or semi-radiant
superheater. Our concern is convective superheater as we are not taking heat from any
furnace.
The final sections of superheater are placed in the highest gas temperatures, which
calls for adopting the most appropriate high-temperature alloy for the tubing from
considerations of metal temperatures, fouling due to ash compounds and corrosion
due to salts in ash.``
Strict control of the chemical composition of the ash and strict control of the
operational variables are necessary in order to avoid severe material loss in the
superheaters.
3.5.2 Design aspects:

Some of the most important aspects of the design of superheaters are:
1. Uniform distribution of steam and gas across all the sections to minimize
imbalance of flows.
2. Provision of thermal expansion of headers, tubes, spacers and supports.
3. Accessibility of cleaning, examination and removal of elements
4. Optimally high steam velocity in all the tubes to keep the metal temperatures as
low as possible
5. Minimum steam pressure losses.
44
3.5.3 Design assumptions:
Velocity:
Superheaters transfer heat from flue gas to steam. Heat transfer between two gases is
not very effective compared to heat transfer from gas to fluid. For that reason, steam
must flow fast enough (10-20 m/s) in order to give the superheater tubes enough
cooling. Lower steam pressure weakens the heat transfer rate, so with lower pressures,
steam must have a greater velocity (15-40 m/s).
Spacing:
Superheater of boiler consists of banks of tubes. A system of tubes is located in the
path of the furnace gases in the top of furnace. A superheater must be built so that it
superheats approximately the same amount of steam from low to high loads.
Changing tube lengths between passes can control temperature differences. The
outermost tube that receives the most radiative flux should be shorter than the rest of
the tubes.
Tubes:
Tubes in superheaters can be arranged according to inline or staggered arrangement.
Inlineqtubeqarrangementqis preferred forqfoulingqboilers, andqrecovery. Staggered
arrangementqisqpreferredqforqoil, gasqandqheatqrecoveryqsteam generator. As free
space with staggered arrangement is much smaller than with inline arrangement the
reason for decreased fouling with inline is evident.
3.6 SUPERHEATER DESIGN CALCULATIONS:

Specifications on which we are designing the superheater are as follows:
Pressure in superheater P 13 bar
Flue gas inlet temperature , 380°C
Flue gas exit temperature , ?
Flue gas mass flow rate 83.5 kg/sec
Specific heat of flue gas g 1.041 kJ/kg °C
Inlet steam temperature Tsi 205.7°C
45
Outlet steam temperature Tso 294.28°C
Enthalpy at inlet h @205.7°C 2824 kJ/kg
Enthalpy at exit h @294.28°C 3030 kJ/kg
Mass flow rate of steam 2.22 kg/sec
Density of flue gas ρg 0.5 kg/m3
Viscosity of gas 3.345x10-5 N.s
Thermalqconductivity K 0.0364qW/m.K
Outer diameter of tube do 0.0508 m (2 in)
Inner diameter of tube di 0.043 m (1.7 in)
Length of tube L 3.8 m

Table 3-6: Design specifications for Super-heater
Energy gain by steam = Energy lost by the gases

E gain = ×
E gain = 457.32 kW
Temperature for Transport property:
Average temperature of steam:
Outlet temperature of flue gas:

Applying energy balance:
E=
Where
0.95 is for fouling effects
0.98 is for radiation losses
374.34
46
Average temperature of flue gas:
377.17
Log mean temperature difference:
Where,
∆ = out,– sin,
∆ = , – s,
And we know that,
, 380
, 373.4°C
s, 205.7°C
s, 294.28°C
After calculating, we get,

= 122.159 ℃
For gas side
Reynold Number:
Assuming diameter of exhaust gases pipe = 4 m
Area =
Area = 12.568 m2
Assuming volumetric flow rate of flue gases = = 166.3 m/s
47
Finding the velocity of flue gases:
Vf =
Vf = 13.23 m/s
Reyonld number =
At
ρ = 0.5 kg/m3
V = Vf = 13.23 m/s
D = Do = 0.0508 m
Re = 10000
Finding Reynold number at particular gas mass velocity
At G = 12 kg/m2 sec
Re = 12 x 0.0508 /3.345 x 10-5

Re = 18224.215
Nusselt number of flue gas:

Zukauskas has proposed a correlation of the form of Nusselt number
(Eq 7-58 Heat Transfer By Incropera)
Nu = C RemD,max Pr0.36 (Pr/Prs) 1/4

Where,
C & m selected on basis of Reynold
number.
C (at Re ) = 0.27
m (at Re) = 0.63
48
Figure 3-9: Table of constant for Nusselt correlation
C2 selected on the basis of number of tubes C2 (8 rows) = 0.96
Pr at inlet of the air = Pr = 0.713

Prs at the mean temp at inlet & exit = Prs = 0.706
Nu = (0.27) x (18224.215)0.63 x (0.713)0.36 x (0.713/0.706)1/4
Nu = 115.8126419
Heat transfer co-efficient:
h0 = (Nu) (k)/do
h0 = 115.8126419 x 0.0364/0.0508
h0 = 82.98 W/m2K
For water side
Following data is obtained from steam table
Density ρs 5.62 kg/m3
Viscosity 5.5 N.s
Thermal conductivity k 43.5 W/m.K
49
Specific heat of steam s 3.37 kJ/kg K
Prandtl number Pr 1.295
Mass flow rate of steam ms 2.22kg/s
Heat transfer coefficient:

The value of internal heat transfer co-efficient is taken from Appendix B from
Applied Heat Transfer by V Ganapathy:
= 1300 W/m.K
3.6.1 OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT OF PLAIN TUBES
Here,
=
=
= (steam ) = .0002 m2.oC/W
= ( ) = .001 m2.oC/W
When,
ho = 82.98 W/m.K
= 1300 W/m.K
The overall-heat-transfer coefficient is found to be:

= 69.94 W/m2K
3.6.2 TOTAL SURFACE AREA FOR HEAT
50
TRANSFER
Q = Energy absorbed by steam = 457.32 kW

LMTD = 122.159 ℃
A = 53.520 m2
3.6.3 NUMBER OF TUBES WIDE
At tube length = 3.8 m, if we select the number of tube high as 4, then the number of
tubes wide are given by the following relation:
A = Nh × Nw × × do × L
Assuming Nh 4
53.520 = (4) Nw ( ) (0.0508) (3.8)
Nw = 22.06
3.6.4 TOTAL AREA FOR MASS FLOW

A = Nw (di)2
A = 0.032 m2
From the definition of continuity equation, velocity of steam is given by
V= 12.327 m/s
3.6.5 TRANSVERSE PITCH
Then transverse pitch calculated is

ST = 0.1338 m
3.6.6 WIDTH OF SUPERHEATER
W = 2.95 m
51
3.7 INDIRECT EFFICIENCY BOILER OLD CONDITION
Figure 3-10: Indirect Method for Efficiency evaluation
In order to find the current condition of boiler, we use indirect method of efficiency
calculation. The efficiency can be measured easily by measuring all the losses
occurring in the boilers using the principles to be described. The disadvantages of the
direct method can be overcome by this method, which calculates the various heat
losses associated with boiler. The efficiency can be arrived at, by subtracting the heat
loss fractions from 100.An important advantage of this method is that the errors in
measurement do not make significant change in efficiency.
For calculation of efficiency, following losses are considered

1. Dry flue gas loss
2. Radiation loss
3. Unaccountable losses
4. Manufacturer margin
52
Dry flue gas loss:
Radiation losses
2%
Unaccountable loses
2%
Manufacturer’s margin
Therefore
53
CHAPTER # 4
4. OPTIMIZATION OF BOILER GAS SIDE

PARAMETERS:
There are two ways to increase the efficiency of boiler which include either to change
the design of the boiler or its auxiliaries and second one is to optimize the boiler
parameters to obtain the best efficiency of the boiler. There are various parameters of
the boiler which can be controlled. Following are the variables that may change
without altering the design of plant and boiler to obtain the optimization.
1. Inlet gas temperature
2. Inlet mass flow rate of gas
3. Feed water flow
4.1 Inlet gas temperature:

Inlet gas temperature can increase the effectiveness of the boiler which will led to
change in properties of boiler and increase the overall convective-heat-transfer
coefficient of the boiler and can easily be seen by graphs which are obtain by the
calculations with different temperatures.
Figure 4-1: Temperature vs Overall

Heat Transfer Coefficient for
Economizer, Evaporator and
Superheater
54
And the effectiveness of each component of the boiler is shown below the following
graph showing the increase in effectiveness of the boiler as a function of inlet gas
temperature.
Figure 4-2: Effectiveness Vs Inlet Gas Temperature for

Economizer, Evaporator and Superheater
55
But due to high temperature of gases there will be an overall increase in efficiency of
the boiler as the heat transfer enhance more than the losses. The graph between
efficiency and the temperature clearly showing the efficiency so make the temperature
about 385oC with constant mass flow of the gases.
So, these are the advantages of the increase in inlet gas temperature.
Further if we increase the temperature of the inlet gas the feed water flow is adjusted
accordingly and it will increase the overall power output of the turbine but there are
several disadvantages of temperature increment on the gas side which includes
1. Reduction of the tubes life due to increase in velocity of flue gas which will
enhance the erosion rate discuss in the next chapters.
2. Heat transfer across the outside wall will also increase significantly led to
increment of the Heat loss from 1.2% to 1.3%. Following graph shows the loss of
the energy as the inlet gas temperature increases.
3. Increase in creep which is another factor of life reduction.
4. Increase in boiler temperature also increases the irreversibility’s of the cycle and
boiler by increasing the pinch point of the system and decrease the efficiency of
the boiler.
Pinch and approach points are important parameters which determine directly the
steam generation rate, the temperature profiles, and the heat transfer surface area
required in the WHRB.
PINCH POINT: The pinch point is defined as the minimum temperature difference
between two streams, in this case the exhaust gas and the water or steam. In practice,
the pinch point is usually the difference between saturation temperature and
temperature of the exhaust gas at the evaporator outlet in waste heat recovery steam
boilers. After the exhaust gases have transmitted a certain amount of heat and cooled
to a certain temperature, there is a point below where the further cooling of the gases
requires disproportionately large heat transfer surface area resulting in expensive
WHRB design. As the pinch point decreases, the increase of the heat transfer surface
area of the evaporator is exponential, whereas the increase of recovered heat is only
linear. In other words, the smaller the pinch point, more efficient the WHRB, but also
more expensive the design. The commonly used pinch point in WHRB designs is
usually between 8 to 15 °C.
56
Table 4-1: Heat Loss across the Outside Wall Vs Inlet Gas Temperature
Table 4-2: Efficiency VS Temperature
4.2 Inlet gas flow rate:

Increase in the flow rate of source fluid flowing over the tubes will lead to increase in
the effectiveness of the boiler by increasing the Reynold number and velocity. This
leads to the heat transfer enhancement across the tube and ultimately leads to increase
in efficiency of the boiler.
57
Figure 4-3: Mass flow rate of gas Vs Overall Heat Transfer
coefficient for Economizer, Evaporator and Superheater
All the graphs drawn above showsqthatqtheqheatqtransferqincreasesqwith increase in

flow rate and the feed water flow is adjusted accordingly with flow rate which will
also increase and there are certain advantages of increase in mass flow rate over
58
increase in temperature which includes No heat transfer increment across the wall of
the boiler and No growth in creeping phenomenon of the tubes.
But the only disadvantage of flow rate increment is the increase in velocity of the
gases and gases has significant amount of kiln dust content which will enhance the
erosion of the wall exponentialy .The complete relation of the velocity and erosion
and discuss in the chapter of erosion. So it should be 45 to 55 kg/s when operating at
about 350oC to 380 oC.
Itqisqimportantqtoqnoteqthatqincreaseqin mass flow will increase the pressure losses
across the tubes which will lead to the requirement of larger Induced Draft (ID) fans
operating at its maximum power for obtaining the maximum efficiency of the boiler.
Figure 4-4: Mass flow rate of gas Vs

Effectiveness for Economizer,
Evaporator and Superheater
59
4.3 Constant Inlet energy:
If the inlet energy is constant and the inlet temperature of the gases is increased then
their will be reduction of mass-flow-rate of the gas.The following graph is showing
the detail of the decrease in effectiveness with increase in inlet temperature of the
gases at constant energy because of the mass flow rate reduction which will reduce
the effectiveness and so the efficiency.
From the graph it is clear that the effectiveness is reduced and it is recommended that
one should increase the mass flow rate and reduce the temperature if constant amount
of energy is transferred to the boiler. However the erosion rate will also increase with
the increase in mass flow significantly and reduce the boiler life.
Figure 4-5: Mass flow rate Vs Effectiveness & Inlet Temperature Vs Effectiveness for
Economizer
Figure 4-6: Mass flow rate Vs Effectiveness & Inlet Gas Temperature Vs
Effectiveness for Evaporator
60
Figure 4-7: Mass flow rate Vs Effectiveness & Inlet Temperature Vs Effectiveness
From the graph it is clear that the effectiveness is reduced and it is recommended that
one should increase the mass flow rate and reduce the temperature if constant amount
of energy is transferred to the boiler. However the erosion rate will also increase with
the increase in mass flow significantly and reduce the boiler life.
4.4 Conclusion:
So from the results obtain in the form of the graphs showing above it can be
concluded that:
1. Temperature should be greater than 370oC and less than 450oC provided that
the mass flow rate in constant to obtain the maximum efficiency.
2. Flow rate increase the efficiency and effectiveness of boiler greater than the
inlet temperature of the gases.
3. All the efficiency increment is at the cost of boiler life.
61
CHAPTER # 5
5. MATERIAL OPTIMIZATION:
5.1 GENERAL CRITERIA FOR MATERIALS SELECTION:

The engineer making the materials selection must know all the aspects involved in the
construction, operation and maintenance of the heat exchanger tubing. The
importance of this is illustrated with the following examples: an operator may isolate
a heat exchanger with raw water for sufficient time to initiate a pitting corrosion;
partial blockage of tubes, specially of small diameter, would result in stagnant
conditions that may cause pitting in alloys that are so prone; fouling may result in
operating the heat exchangers in throttled/part load condition.
A general procedure that could be used for identifying the most appropriate material
for a specific heat exchanger application would consist of the following steps:
1. Defineqtheqheatqexchangerqrequirements.
2. Establishqaqstrategyqforqevaluatingqcandidateqmaterials.
3. Identifyqcandidateqmaterials.
4. Evaluateqmaterialsqinqdepth.
5. Selectqtheqoptimumqmaterial.
In identifying candidate materials, it is desirable to narrow the field to a

comparatively small number of materials for more extensive evaluation. There is no
hard and fast rule as to how many candidate materials should be selected for detailed
study. The initial identification and selection procedure, if done properly, will
eliminate those materials which are unsuitable and those which are excessively
expensive.
Special considerations which affect materials selection include:
Physical properties:
1. High heat transfer coefficient (requiring high thermal conductivity for tube
material).
2. Thermal expansion coefficient to be low and as compatible as possible if tubes are
welded at the header section.
62
Mechanical properties:
1. Good tensile and creep properties (High creep rupture strength at the highest
temperature of operation and adequate creep ductility to accommodate localized
strain at notches are important).
2. Good fatigue, corrosion fatigue and creep-fatigue behavior.
3. High fracture toughness and impact strength to avoid fast fracture.
Corrosion resistance:
1. Low corrosion rate to minimize the corrosion allowance.
2. Resistance to corrosion from off normal chemistry resulting from leak in upstream
heat exchanger or failure in the chemistry control
3. Tolerance to chemistry resulting from mix up of shell and tube fluids.
5.1.1 Properties of different Steel Grades
ASTM A36:
ASTMqA36qisqtheqmostqcommonlyqusedqmildqandqhotqrolledqsteel.qItqhas
excellentqweldingqpropertiesqandqisqsuitableqforqgrinding,qpunching,qandqtapping,
drilling and machining processes. Chemical composition is given below.
Carbon 0.25-0.29%
Copper 0.20%
Iron 98.0%
Manganese 1.03%
Phosphorus 0.04%
Silicon 0.28%
Sulfur 0.05%
Table 5-1: Chemical composition of ASTM A36
Ultimate tensileqstrength 400-550qMPa
Yield strength 250qMPa
Elasticqmodulus 200qGPa
Bulkqmodulus 140qGPa
Shearqmodulus 79.3qGPa
Poissonqratio 0.26
Table 5-2: Mechanical properties of ASTM A36
Machining:
The machinabilityqrateqofqASTMqA36qisqestimatedqtoqbeq72%, andqtheqaverage
surfaceqcuttingqfeedqofqASTMqA36qisq120 ft. /min. Machining of ASTM A36 steel
is not as easy as that of AISI 1018 steel.
63
Welding:
ASTM A36 steel is easy to weld using any type of welding methods, and the welds
and joints so formed are of excellent quality.
AISI-1040
AISIq1040qcarbonqsteelqhasqhighqcarbonqcontentqandqcanqbeqhardenedqbyqheat
treatment followed by quenching and tempering to achieve 150 to 250 ksi tensile
strength. Chemical composition is given below.
Carbon 0.37-0.44%
Iron 98.6-99.0%
Manganese 0.60-0.90%
Phosphorus ≤ 0.04%
Sulfur ≤ 0.05%
Table 5-3: Chemical composition of AISI 1040
Ultimateqtensileqstrength 620qMPa
Yieldqstrength 415qMPa
Elasticqmodulus 190-210qGPa
Bulkqmodulus 140qGPa
Shearqmodulus 80qGPa
Poissonqratio 0.27-0.30
Table 5-4: Mechanical properties of AISI 1040
Machining:
The machinability rating of AISI 1040 carbon steel is 60.
Weldability:
AISI 1040 carbon steel can be welded using all welding techniques. It can be
preheated at 149 to 260°C (300 to 500°F) and post heated at 594 to 649°C (1100 to
1200°F) due to its high carbon content.
AISI-1010
AISI 1010qcarbonqsteelqisqaqplainqcarbonqsteelqwithq0.10%qcarbonqcontent. This
steel has relatively low strength but it can be quenched and tempered to increase
strength. Chemical composition is given as:
Carbon 0.080%
Manganese 0.30%
Phosphorus 0.05%
Sulfur 0.04%
Iron 99.18%
Table 5-5: Chemical composition of AISI 1010
64
Tensile strength 365 MPa

Yield strength 190 MPa
Elastic modulus 305 GPa
Table 5-6: Mechanical properties of AISI 1010
Machinability:
TheqmachinabilityqofqAISIq1010qcarbonqsteel, especiallyqinqtheqcoldqdrawnqor
cold worked state, is considered as fairly good.
Welding:
AISI 1010 carbon steel can be welded using all the conventional welding techniques.
STAINLESS STEEL GRADE-410:
Gradeq410qstainlessqsteelsqareqgeneralqpurposeqmartensiticqstainlessqsteels
containingq11.5%qchromium,qwhichqprovideqgoodqcorrosionqresistanceqproperties
. However, the corrosion resistance of grade 410 steels can be further enhanced by a
series of processes such as hardening, tempering and polishing. Quenching and
tempering can harden grade 410 steels. Chemical composition is given as:
Carbon 0.15%
Manganese 1.00%
Silicon 1.00%
Phosphorus 0.04%
Sulfur 0.03%
Chromium 13.00%
Nickel 0.75%
Iron 84.03%
Table 5-7: Chemical composition of Stainless Steel Grade 410

Brinell hardness 321
Table 5-8: Mechanical properties of Stainless Steel Grade 410
Welding:
Gradeq410qsteelsqcanqbeqweldedqusingqallqconventionalqweldingqtechniques,qbut
theqmaterialsqshouldqpreheatedqat 150 to 260°C followedqbyqpostweldqannealing
treatment,qtoqmitigateqcracking. According to AS 1554.6 standards, grade 309
electrodes or rods are preferred for welding 410 steels.
65
Machining:
Grade 410 steels can be easily machined in highly tempered or annealed conditions.
However, it is hard to machine grade 410 steels if they are hardened above 30HRC.
Free machining grade 416 is the best alternative.
STAINLESS STEEL 316:

Grade 316 is the standard molybdenum bearing grade, second in importance to 304
amongst the austenitic stainless steels. The molybdenum gives 316 better overall
corrosion resistant properties than Grade 304, particularly higher resistance to pitting
and crevice corrosion in chloride environments. Chemical composition is:
Carbon 0.08%
Manganese 2.00%
Silicon 0.75%
Phosphorus 0.045%
Sulfur 0.03%
Chromium 18.0%
molybdenum 3.0%
Nickel 14.0%
Nitrogen 0.10%
Iron 62.0%
Table 5-9: Chemical composition of Stainless Steel 316

Elastic modulus 193 GPa
Table 5-10: Mechanical properties of Stainless Steel 316
Welding:
Excellent weldability by all standard fusion methods, both with and without filler
metals. AS 1554.6 prequalifies welding of 316 with Grade 316 and 316L with Grade
316L rods or electrodes (or their high silicon equivalents). Heavy welded sections in
Grade 316 require postweld annealing for maximum corrosion resistance. This is not
required for 316L. Grade 316Ti may also be used as an alternative to 316 for heavy
section welding.
Machinability:
A “Ugima” improved machinability version of grade 316 is available in round and

hollow bar products. This machine is significantly better than standard 316 or 316L,
giving higher machining rates and lower tool wear in many operations.
66
5.1.2 TREND OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY ON ‘U’ VALUE:
Different grades of AISI and ASTM standards are considered whose composition and
properties are mentioned in the above section. Now thermal conductivities of each
grade are considered. The table below shows thermal conductivities:
GRADES THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES

(W/m.K)
Mild Steel 42
AISI 1010 63.9
AISI 1018 51.9
AISI 1020 51.9
AISI 1040 51.9
ASTM A36 50
StainlessqSteelq405 30
StainlessqSteelq304 16.2
StainlessqSteel 410 16.2
Stainless Steel 316 16.2
Stainless Steel 440A 30
Table 5-11: Thermal conductivities of different steel grades
5.1.3 Overall heat transfer coefficient:
Where,
5.1.4 Evaluating U-value for mild steel:
5.1.4.1 ECONOMIZER:
In order to calculate the overall-heat-transfer-coefficient as the function of thermal
conductivities, all other values are needed to be fixed. From the design section the
values are given below:
67
K/W
K/W
W/ .K
W/ .K
Thermal conductivity of mild steel is 42 W/m.K at elevated temperatures. Now,
+ + In +0.001+0.0002
1.16× 9.52× ) ) 0.001
4.64×
1.135
U 89.07
Surface area required:
= 71.16
U-values of other grades:
In a similar manner as above, the values of surface area and overall heat transfer
coefficient is calculated. This work is done directly on Microsoft Excel sheet. The
values are as follows:
Thermal
Material U A
Cond (k)
68
Economizer
Mild 42 0.0109441 91.373163 69.374039

AISI 1010 63.9 0.0108115 92.4943 68.533146
AISI 1018 51.9 0.0108152 92.462069 68.557036
AISI 1020 51.9 0.0108152 92.462069 68.557036
AISI 1040 51.9 0.0108152 92.462069 68.557036
ASTM A36 50 0.010816 92.45555 68.56187
Stainless steel grade 405 30 0.0108299 92.336991 68.649902
Stainless steel grade 304 16.2 0.0108595 92.085514 68.837378
Stainless steel grade 440A 30 0.0108299 92.336991 68.649902
Table 5-12: Overall Heat Transfer coefficient and Surface Area of economizer
for different materials
5.1.4.2 EVAPORATOR:
K/W
K/W
W/ .K
W/ .K
+ + In +0.001+0.0002
6.12× 1.16× ) ) 0.001
2.36×
69
1.2983
U 75.0236
= 369.55
Thermal
Material U A
cond. (k)
Evaporator
Mild 42 0.0129965 76.943707 82.383936

AISI 1010 63.9 0.0128763 77.661975 81.621995
AISI 1018 51.9 0.01288 77.639717 81.645395
AISI 1020 51.9 0.01288 77.639717 81. 645395
AISI 1040 51.9 0.01288 77.639717 81. 645395
ASTM A36 50 0.0128808 77.635214 81.650131
Stainless steel grade 440A 30 0.0128944 77.553313 81. 736358
Table 5-13: Overall Heat Transfer coefficient and Surface Area of evaporator
for different material
70
5.1.4.3 SUPERHEATER:
K/W
K/W
W/ .K
W/ .K
+ + In +0.001+0.0002
8.87× 1.29× ) ) 0.001
2.31×
1.511
U 66.6
= 64.57
71
Thermal
Material U A
cond. (k)
Superheater
Mild 42 0.0151072 66.193796 95.763135

AISI 1010 63.9 0.0149052 67.09083 94.482739
AISI 1018 51.9 0.0149088 67.074269 94.506067
AISI 1020 51.9 0.0149088 67.074269 94. 506067
AISI 1040 51.9 0.0149088 67.074269 94. 506067
ASTM A36 50 0.0149096 67.009972 94.510787
Stainless steel grade 440A 30 0.0149232 67.009972 94. 596747
Table 5-14: Overall Heat Transfer coefficient and Surfaces Area of Super-
heater for different material
5.1.5 CONCLUSIONS:
From the above table you can observe the trend that thermal conductivity has on the
overall-heat-transfer-coefficient and surface area required for heat transfer. As
thermal conductivity increases, overall-heat-transfer-coefficient increases, therefore
lesser area will be required for same amount of energy transfer.
Conversely we can also say that if material of greater thermal conductivity is used,
then for same surface area amount of energy transfer would be maximized.
We will be showing this result through calculations. For this purpose we have to
redesign the boiler.
72
5.1.6 EFFECT ON FINAL TEMPERATURES OF COLD FLUID:
For the same surface area and new overall-heat-transfer-coefficient the amount of
power ( ) would also be maximized. This will give us a rise in the outlet
temperatures of water at every section.
After material shifted from mild steel to high thermal conductivity material AISI
1010, then U values of every section becomes
= 92.92 W/ .K
= 77.61 W/ .K
= 77.81 W/ .K
Now,
=
= 1290.87
= 4525.02
= 469.50
ECONOMIZER
For the changed amount of heat rate the outlet temperature in economizer is given as
1290.87 = 2.22 4.203
138.35
For inlet temperature of 40 the final temperature would become
= 178.35
Previously this temperature was 175 .

An obvious increase of 3.35 occurs after material change.
73
EVAPORATOR
For the previous temperature difference and phase change, evaporator requires 4488
KW of heat rate. Now here are two changes:
1. Inlet temperature of evaporator changes.
2. Material change will further increase the heat rate and outlet temperature.
Now
At 178.35 =C = 440 = 784.74
At 191.5 = 2792
Therefore for this temperature difference heat rate required is

= = 4456.12
After material changed, the heat rate available has been calculated and is found to be
greater than the previous one.
= 4525.02
Therefore extra amount of energy will be utilized in increasing the outlet temperature
of saturated steam.
= -
68.9
This extra energy will increase the outlet temperature of saturated steam coming out
of evaporator section.
= = 31.04
= = 2824
Now from steam table at pressure 13 bars superheated section across enthalpy, final
outlet temperature is found through interpolation.
= 205.7
Previously this temperature was 191.5 .
74
SUPERHEATER
For the changed amount of heat rate the outlet temperature in economizer is given as:
=
469.5 = 2.22
246.38
= = 3071
Now from steam table at pressure 13 bars superheated section across enthalpy, final
outlet temperature is found through interpolation.
= 313
5.2 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF BOILER TUBE MATERIAL

After taking the advantage of thermal conductivity for heat exchanger piping material,
here we are justifying on the basis of cost. In case we have higher cost of the new
material selected, then we will also have to compare the results of advantage with the
price i.e. degree of superheat increased will produce how much extra power. That
power in terms of cost will have to be compared with the newly compatible material
extra cost.
Also we have the chance to do corrosion and erosion analysis of old and new material
so as to fully justify our material.
MATERIAL DENSITY PRICE PER TON (ranges)
Mild steel 7850 350 -- 400

AISI 1010 7870 300 -- 550
AISI 1040 7845 580 -- 830
ASTM A36 7850 400 -- 700
SS 316 8000 1500 -- 6000
SS 410 7800 1000 -- 1500
Table 5-15: Ranges of Price per Ton for different Steel Grades
The prices of material are taken from the site (www.alibaba.com) . Billets of standard
sizes are considered for the cost analysis.
75
5.2.1 VOLUME OF MATERIAL USED IN HEAT EXCHANGERS
PIPING:
5.2.1.1 ECONOMIZER
Tube specification of economizer are:
Volume of material required for one tube:
For number of tubes 226
5.2.1.2 EVAPORATOR
Tube specification of evaporator are:
76
5.2.1.3 SUPERHEATER
Tube specification of super-heater are:
5.2.2 TOTAL VOLUME

Total volume required would be the sum of all volumes of three sections. Therefore,
5.2.3 MASS REQUIRED BY DIFFERENT GRADES

According to theqdefinitionqofqdensity:
Therefore mass can be calculated as:
Also
Since each steel grade has different density, therefore the mass required for each
grade will be different. This is a good way to truly justify our material.
77
MATERIAL DENSITY TOTAL TOTAL MASS
VOLUME
MILD STEEL 7850 1.8041 14141
AISI 1010 7870 1.8041 14177
AISI 1040 7845 1.8041 14132
ASTM A36 7850 1.8041 14141
SS 316 8000 1.8041 14411.2
SS 410 7800 1.8041 14051

Table 5-16: Mass required by boiler tubes for different material
5.2.4 COST FOR EACH STEEL GRADE
MATERIAL TOTAL MASS PRICE PER TON PRICE
MILD STEEL 14141 350 5455.8
AISI 1010 14177 300 4688.1
AISI 1040 14132 580 9034.6
ASTM A36 14141 400 6235.2
SS 316 14411.2 1500 23828
SS 410 14051 1000 15488
Table 5-17: Cost of each steel grade
78
CHAPTER # 6
6. MATERIAL INSPECTION:
6.1 CORROSION CALCULATIONS

Comparing different materials require the satisfactory amount of justification. From
the material point of view corrosion calculation is one of the important parameter.
by previous calculations related to material, we find out that AISI 1010 material is
best fitted in terms of enhancing the overall heat transfer i.e. ring the degree of
superheat up-to 20 degrees more.
Here now we are only considering AISI 1010 and mild steel for corrosion purpose.
Since our flue gases contain sulfur dioxide in considerable amount, therefore
production of sulfuric acid may be probable. Thus testing our materials in acidic
medium of sulfuric acid will give us right magnitudes of corrosion.
0.5 molar solution of sulfuric acid without corrosion inhibitor conditions were taken
from research articles for mild steel and AISI 1010.
FOR MILD STEEL
For mild steel directly measured corrosion rate is given:
FOR AISI 1010

We have to calculate it. Formula for corrosion rate in terms of weight loss is given by:
Where,
For weight loss specimen dimensions are

Length 2.5 cm
Diameter of rod 0.6 cm
79
Therefore surface area is
Weight lost per unit area is found to be
Therefore total weight lost is:
Density of AISI 1010 is 7.87
And exposed area is 2
The specimen is tested for 3 days dipped in the solution, therefore time in hours
would be 72 hours
Now,
It is found that the corrosion rate of AISI 1010 is approximately 1.5 times the
corrosion rate of mild steel and comparing the tubes on same dimensions (thickness)
AISI 1010 needs to be changed earlier than mild steel.
On the other hand by using AISI 1010 sufficient increase in the degree of superheat is
observed i.e. 20 degrees increment. So you cannot let it go by seeing only one minor
difference of corrosion estimation.
6.1.1 JUSTIFICATION OF USING AISI-1010

Using simple Rankine cycle to calculate the difference of superheat had by using AISI
1010. Consider the power plant operating between two pressure curves on T-s
diagram as:
80
Figure 6-1: T-s diagram of Rankine
Cycle
While our system utilizing mild steel as tubing material the degree of superheat was
When we upgrade our material from mild steel to AISI 1010, our degree of superheat
is found to be:
Enthalpies of all four points are
Just because we neglected the pump work, enthalpy at point 1 and point 2 are same.
For mild steel @ 295
For AISI 1010 @ 313
Now,
81
WORK OUTPUT
The difference in superheat in terms of work output is given as:
FOR MILD STEEL
FOR AISI 1010
Fractional change in turbine work output is given by:
This means that upgrading the material is improving our work output up-to 13.46%.
Therefore changing the material is better.
82
6.2 EROSION IN BOILER TUBES
6.2.1 THEORY
EROSION:
Erosion-is-a-form-of-wear. Wear can be defined as progressive loss of a surface
material due to mechanical action involving impingement of abrasive particles.
Unlike corrosion, which is a chemical or electrochemical action, wear is purely
mechanical.
Abrasion and erosion are two types of wear.
1. Abrasionqcanqbeqlikenedqtoqsand-paperingqinqwhichqsolidqparticlesqmoveqin
contactqwithqaqparallelqsurface. Abrasionqaffectsqtheqhighqspotsqofqtheqsurface
withoutqmuchqeffectqonqtheqmainqbody. The resulting loss of material is smaller in
comparison with erosion. Abrasion resistance can be built by a boundary layer of high
and preferably hard spots.
2. Erosion is the impingement of hard particles at an inclination, and it has more
energy and destructive power than abrasion. The impinging particles cut through the
boundary layer and destroy the main matrix. Hence, abrasion-resistant material cannot
withstand erosion.
Erosionqofqhotqpartsqdueqtoqash,qparticularlyqtheqtubes,qisqaqseriousqproblem
affecting the life of boiler tubes. The hard constituents moving with flue gas at high
velocities impinge on tubes, refractory, and other parts in the gas path, causing
erosion.
Erosion is influenced by the following:
Erosion is an inseparable. It can be minimized but not eliminated altogether. The aim
is to minimize and predict the erosion rate so that the intervals between the downtimes
83
can be extended to coincide with the planned outages, thus improving the unit
availability. The erosion prevention and protection measures essentially fall into two
categories:
1. Design stage measures
2. Provision of sacrificial protective material
Figure 6-2: Erosion Mechanism
6.2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW:

METAL CUTTING THEORY:
Finne( 1960) developed a model for surface erosion. Chinese Boiler Thermal
Standards developed an equation by following the model using very large amount of
experimental data. The maximum corrosion rate in convective section is written as
(Basu.el/1999):
, are the coefficient accounts forqtheqnon-uniformityqofqtheqflyqashqdensity
and gas velocity field, temperature, respectively

= the time of erosion of tubes (h)
=the density of fly ash
=ratio of the gas velocity to average running load
= percentage of fly gas smaller than 90
84
= Gas velocity in the narrowest section of tubes
= erosion coefficient in gas .Depends on type of coal
= least square errors
= factor taking account of strike efficiency
= strike efficiency
EROSION RATE (BEP,1992):
K is constant dependent on tubes

= erosion rate
= ash abrasiveness factor
= the flue gas temperature, K
= Gas velocity between tubes
= ash to carbon ratio in fuel
EROSION BY PLASTIC CONTACT:
85
According to BeckmannqandqGotzmann, the ratio isqaquniversalqparameterqused
toqdetermineqtheqwearqresistanceqofqmetals. On the basis statistical data, a graph

between pure metals, carbon and alloy steel and White cast iron is plotted:
Figure: 6-2
Source: Solid Particle Erosion: Occurrence, Prediction & Control by Ilmar Kleis, Priit Kulu
= Wear rate in volume of material removed per kg of particle ( )
Stands for the share of wear caused by tangential component of velocity
Stands for the share of wear caused by normal component of velocity
= depth of indentation by the corroding material
R = radius of abrasive particle in flue gas

=is the dimension-less quantity, where numeratorqmeans the shearingqstress of
theqtargetqmaterial and denominator means specific shear energy density

= density of target material
= Density of particle in flue gas
86
= Modulus of Elasticity of Target material
= Modulus of Elasticity of Particle
= Hardness of target material (HV GPA)
= Hardness of corroding particle (HV GPA)
6.2.3 CALCULATION
EROSION RATE AT DIFFERENT IMPINGMENT ANGLE
6.2.3.1 OBJECTIVE:
Analysis of boiler tube wearing rate at different angle of impingement
FORMULA USED:
Erosion by plastic contact:
The reason of using this formula is that it is more general and does not depend on the
type of fuel used, while other approaches are restricted to the erosion caused by fly
ash of coal using as a fuel in fired tube boiler. In our case, the boiler is waste heat
boiler no firing happens only the cause of dust content is the Cement kiln dust (CKD).
Assumptions:
 The particles are spherical
 Particlesqcausingqerosion is homogeneousqandqelasticallyqdeformable
 The velocity of particle before immediate impact is constant
 The particles have no rotational energy
 Homogenous dust content distribution
 Flow rate and dust content are taken at nominal operating point. Changes due
to temperature is not incorporated
6.2.3.2 ANGLE OF IMPINGEMENT:
DATA:
Density of particle = = 2799.92
87
Hardness of target material (AISI 1010) = 60 (Rockwell B)
Hardness of the Particle (CKD) = 113 (Rockwell B)
ModulusqofqElasticityqof Target material = 190GPa
ModulusqofqElasticityqof Particle = 20GPa
Poisson’s ratio of target material = = 0.27
Poisson’s ratioqofqparticle = = 0.15 (approx.)
Vickers Hardness of Target material = HV= 108 = 108*0.0009807= 1.06GPa

Impingement Velocity = = 20 m/s (Current working parameter)
= 0.07 (from the graph presented by to Beckmann and Gotzmann given in literature
review heading)
6.2.3.3 CALCULATION OF RADIUS OF PARTICLE:
Particle size distribution is given by:
AVERAGE PARTICLE WEIGHT PERCENTAGE

DIAMETER( ),
1 03
5 20
10 15
20 20
30 16
40 10
50 06
60 03
>60 07
Weighted average Diameter of particle:
88
= 18.7096
R = 9.3548
Reduced modulus of elasticity is given by:
= 18.6031028GPa
= 2.47963e-07 m
= 5.97204e-4
=0
= 3.5644e-09
89
6.2.3.4 WEAR RATE ( AT DIFFERENT ANGLE OF IMPINGEMENT:
The velocity is kept constant as well as the hardness, density and viscosity the
resultant effect will be in following figure:
Figure 6-3: Impingement Angle Vs Wear Rate
6.2.3.5 RESULT:
 It is observed the wear rate increases sharply up to 50 degrees

 Shows almost constant wear rate between 60-90 degrees
 Maximum wear rate at 50-70 degrees
6.2.4 WEAR RATE AND VOLUME REMOVED PER HOUR AT

DIFFERENT VELOCITIES
Angle of impingement =
Density of particle = = 2799.92
Hardness of target material (AISI 1010) = 60 (Rockwell B)

Hardness of the Particle (CKD) = 113 (Rockwell B)
Modulus of Elasticity of Target material = 190GPa
Modulus of Elasticity of Particle = 20GPa
Poisson’s ratio of target material = = 0.27
90
Poisson’s ratio of particle = = 0.15 (approx.)
Vickers Hardness of Target material = HV= 108 = 108*0.0009807= 1.06GPa
6.2.4.1.1 WEAR RATE:
The effect of wear rate at different velocity at 90 degree angle is:
Figure 6-4: Velocity Vs Wear rate
6.2.4.1.2 MATERIAL VOLUME REMOVED PER HOUR:
It is given the nominal flow rate and dust inlet content. To find the volume of material
removed from the boiler tubes we have just find the dust content mass flow rate and
then simply by multiplying the mass flow rate by the wear rate
The angle of impingement is kept constant i.e. 90 degrees
Angle of impingement =
Current dust content = 15
Flow rate = 588700 m3/hr

Mass flow rate of Dust content = (588700 * 15)/1000 = 8830.5 kg/hr.
Volume removed at different wear rate will be given as:
= Volume removed ( ) = mass flow rate of dust content (kg/s) * ( )
91
At different wear rate calculated using above formulae at different velocities the graph
between volumes removed per hour with velocity will be:
Figure 6-5: Velocity Vs Volume removed per hrs
92
CONCLUSION
We have a boiler operating at degraded performance. Through heat transfer analysis
boiler was defined in terms of number of tubes, heat transfer area and overall heat
transfer coefficient. Our work was on the material of tubes in boiler and optimizing
boiler gas side parameters.
In our boiler material was mild steel that has a thermal conductivity of 42 W/m.K
through this the boiler was giving superheated steam at 295 C. while optimizing gas
sides parameters we considered:
1. Inlet gas temperature effect on overall heat transfer coefficient and effectiveness.
2. Mass flow rate of gas effect on overall heat transfer coefficient.
3. Mass flow rate of gas effect on effectiveness of heat exchanger.
4. Inlet gas temperature effect when constant energy input.
5. Mass flow rate of gas effect when constant energy input.
 For inlet gas temperature effects at constant mass flow rate of gas, it is
recommended to use temperature of 380 to 400 degrees not greater than this
because this will lead to lesser tube life due to creep loading. At temperature 385
degrees overall efficiency found to be 85.11%.
 For mass flow rate of gas effects at constant inlet temperature, it is recommended
to use 80 to 90 kg/sec otherwise inlet dust content and increase in velocity will
increase, thus increase erosion rate of tubes.
 For constant energy inlet, increasing mass flow rate increases the effectiveness,
while increasing the inlet temperature reduces it. The optimum point is achieved
by increasing the mass flow rate and decreasing the inlet temperature. Keeping
erosion rate in mind.
Also by material upgrading to AISI 1010 that has high thermal conductivity, it is
found that degree of superheat enhanced and work output increased by approximately
13%.
Overall optimization can be concluded by considering the life of boiler. Factors like
corrosion, erosion can reduce lifespan and thus increase frequency of overhauling.
Final conclusion is increase the mass flow rate up-to 90 kg/sec for fixed hea0t transfer
ra0te, th0us reducing the high inlet temperature requirement. This will increase the
tubes life by reducing creep load and also increase the overall efficiency of boiler.
93
REFERENCES
[1] Yunus A. Cengel (2003). “Heat and Mass Transfer”.

McGraw Hill Publication.
[2] J.P. Holman (2010). “Heat Transfer”. The McGraw Hill
Companies.
[3] V. Ganapathy (2003). “Industrial Boilers and Heat
Recovery Steam Generators”. Marcel Dekker, Inc.
[4] P. K. Nag (2002). “Powerplant Engineering”. McGraw Hill
Companies.
[5] Vukic Lazic, Dusan Arsic (2016). “Selection and Analysis
of Material for Boiler Pipes in a Steam Power Plant”,
Procedia Engineering, Vol. 149, No. 27, pp. 216-223.
[6] Zainal Zakaria, Nor Ismail Hashim, (2014). “Corrosion-
Errosion on WHRB Systems via Blowdown Optimization”,
Global Journal of Petroleum and Chemical Engineering,
Vol. 02, No 02, pp 01-10.
[7] Hamideh Mehdizadeh, Abbas Ali Shah (2016). “Study on
Performance and Methods to Optimize Thermal Oil Boiler
Efficiency in Cement Industry”, Journal of Energy
Equipment and Systems, Vol. 04, No. 01, pp 53-64
[8] Yogendra Saidawat, Jitendra Kumar Gupta, (2015).
“Power Generations from Waste Heat Extracted Through
Clinker Production in Cement Industry”, International
Journal in I.T. and Engineering, Vol. 03, No. 06, pp 23-
33.
APPENDIX
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OPTMIZATION OF WASTE HEAT

Final Year Project Report

Group: 15 Batch: 2013-2014

Mohsin Ali Khan ME-13211

Internal Advisor: Mohammad Ehteshamul Haque

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

NED UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Group: 15 Batch: 2013-2014

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Extensive credit goes to Mr. Mohammad Ehteshamul Haque, (project internal

2. PROPERTIES OF FLUE GASES ............................................................ 16

3. DESIGN OF WASTE HEAT RECOVERY BOILER: .......................... 24

4. OPTIMIZATION OF BOILER GAS SIDE PARAMETERS: .............. 54

5. MATERIAL OPTIMIZATION: .............................................................. 62

6. MATERIAL INSPECTION: .................................................................... 79

Figure 1-2: T-s diagram of Organo Cycle ................................................................... 10

1.1 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY:

1.2 CYCLES FOLLOWED IN WASTE HEAT RECOVERY

Simple process is that, superheated

1.2.2 Organic Rankine cycle:

Figure 1-2: T-s diagram of Organo Cycle

Figure 1-3: T-s diagram of Kalina Cycle

1.3 CONCERNED INDUSTRY

1.4 BASIC OPERATIONS OF CEMENT PLANT:

Generally, the processes can be summarized as:

1.4.1 Sources of waste heat in a cement plant:

Population is somewhat we can’t control.

 Parametric analysis: EXCEL.

1.7 SCOPE OF PROJECT

The scope of this report includes:

2. PROPERTIES OF FLUE GASES

While applying energy – balance to calculate Heat content :

We will need (Specific Heat).

In the above expression, for finding ‘U’, we have:

In order to find ‘ ’ (Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient), we must know the

following dimensionless numbers:

As we can see, in order to:

So we have to calculate these parameters first at average temperatures.

2.1 CONSTITUENTS OF FLUE GASES:

CO2 0.22 0.1079 6.633249 0.15746 1.45931478

H 2O 0.06 0.087 4.24264 0.02215 0.2545584

SO2 0.015 0.1002 8 0.01202 0.12

O2 0.03 0.133 5.65685 0.02257 0.1697055

NO2 0.67 0.1264 6.78233 0.57438 4.5441611

Viscosity @ 380 (kg/m/hr) = 0.120435

- FOR TEMPERATURE = 300 ˚C

CO2 0.22 0.0953 6.633249 0.13907 1.45931478

H 2O 0.06 0.074 4.24264 0.01884 0.2545584

NO2 0.67 0.1138 6.78233 0.51713 4.5441611

Viscosity @ 300 (kg/m/hr) = 0.10781354

Viscosity @ 245.5 (kg/m/hr) = 0.08852081

Viscosity @ 245.5 (kg/m/sec) = 2.45289 E – 05

- FOR TEMPERATURE = 219 ˚C

Gases (weight frac. . . .

Viscosity @ 219 (kg/m/hr) = 0.09503597

Viscosity @ 219 (kg/m/sec) = 2.6399E – 05

2.2.2 Specific heat:

FOR TEMP = 280 ˚C

FOR TEMP = 250 ˚C

2.2.3 Thermal conductivity:

FOR TEMP = 380 ˚C

FOR TEMP = 300 ˚C

2.2.4 Prandtl number: