Power electronics

• Power electronics is a technical field dedicated to study, analyze, construct,

and maintain electronic circuits capable of controlling electric energy flow.

• Related fields include:

• Devices and materials
• Controls and systems
• Power and energy

• Power electronic circuits critical components include

• Switches often commutated at a high rate (kHz or faster).
• Energy storage components (capacitors and inductors).

• Use of power electronics are linked to power systems development.

• There are two main group of power electronic applications

• Static applications (output is primarily electric power)
• dynamic/mobile applications (output is primarily mechanical
power)
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 Power electronic applications
• Dynamic:
• Variable speed drives in industries
• Arguably for wind generation
• Electric and hybrid electric cars (and other transportation
applications)

• Stationary:
• UPS
• Energy storage integration
• Information and communication technologies power plants
• Power supplies
• Solar power
• Micro-grids
•
•
•

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 Power electronics basics
• Types of interfaces:
• dc-dc: dc-dc converter
• ac-dc: rectifier
• dc-ac: inverter
• ac-ac: cycloconverter (used less often)

• Power electronic converters components:

• Semiconductor switches:
• Diodes
• MOSFETs
• IGBTs
• SCRs
Diode MOSFET
• Energy storage elements
• Inductors
• Capacitors
• Other components:
• Transformer SCR
IGBT
• Control circuit
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 Power electronics basics
• dc-dc converters
• Buck converter
Vo  DE

• Boost converter
E
Vo 
1 D

• Buck-boost converter
DE
Vo  
1 D

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 Power electronics basics
• Rectifiers

v
v v

t
t t

Rectifier Filter

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 Power electronics basics
• Inverters

• dc to ac conversion
• Several control techniques. The simplest technique is square wave
modulation (seen below).
•The most widespread control technique is Pulse-Width-Modulation (PWM).

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 Power electronics basic concepts
• Energy storage
• When analyzing the circuit, the state of each energy storage element
contributes to the overall system’s state. Hence, there is one state variable
associated to each energy storage element.

• In an electric circuit, energy is stored in two fields:

• Electric fields (created by charges or variable magnetic fields and
related with a voltage difference between two points in the space)
• Magnetic fields (created by magnetic dipoles or electric currents)

• Energy storage elements:

• Capacitors: Inductors:

L
C

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 Power electronics basic concepts
•Capacitors:
• state variable: voltage
• Fundamental circuit equation:
dvC
iC  C
dt
• The capacitance gives an indication of electric inertia. Compare the
above equation with Newton’s
 
dv
F m
dt
• Capacitors will tend to hold its voltage fixed.
• For a finite current with an infinite capacitance, the voltage must be
constant. Hence, capacitors tend to behave like voltage sources
(the larger the capacitance, the closer they resemble a voltage source)
• A capacitor’s energy is
1
WC  Cv 2
2
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 Power electronics basic concepts
• Inductors
• state variable: current
• Fundamental circuit equation:
diL
vL  L
dt
• The inductance gives an indication of electric inertia. Inductors will
tend to hold its current fixed.
• Any attempt to change the current in an inductor will be answered with
an opposing voltage by the inductor. If the current tends to drop, the
voltage generated will tend to act as an electromotive force. If the
current tends to increase, the voltage across the inductor will drop, like
a resistance.
• For a finite voltage with an infinite inductance, the current must be
constant. Hence, inductors tend to behave like current sources (the
larger the inductance, the closer they resemble a current source)
• An inductor’s energy is 1 2
WL  Li
2
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 Power electronics basic concepts
• Since capacitors behave like constant voltage sources you shall never
connect a switch in parallel with a capacitor. Any attempt to violate this load will
lead to high currents. Likewise, you shall never connect a switch in series with
an inductor. Any attempt to violate this rule will lead to high voltages.

•Steady state:
• In between steady states there are transient periods,

• In steady state the energy in each of the energy storage elements is

the same at the beginning and end of the cycle T. That is, ideally power
input = power output

• Of course, during the transient periods (if they could be called

“periods”) there is a difference between the initial and final energy.

• E.g. inductor: 1 2
WL  Li
2

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 Power electronics basic concepts
• The average voltage across an inductor operating in periodic steady state is zero.
dW (t )  0 P0
1 2 i (T )  i (0)
WL  Li
2

1 T 1 T L
 vL (t ) 
T 0
v L (t ) dt 
T 0
Ldi 
T
(i(T )  i (0))

 vL (t )  0

• Likewise, the average current through a capacitor operating in periodic steady state is
zero.
 iC (t )  0

• Hence, Both KCL and KVL apply in the average sense.

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 Power electronics basic concepts
• Time constants: In power electronics we tend to work in many circuits with
“large” capacitances and inductances which leads to “large” time constants.
• What does “large” means? Large means time constants much larger than the
period (whatever the period is. For example, a switching period.
C    RC L
L  
R

Time constant time scale Period time scale

• If you look close and for a short time interval, exponentials look like lines
2
t
e  t  1  t    
for small t
 e t  1  t
2
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 Power electronics basic concepts
• Switch matrix
• It is a very useful tool to represent a power electronics circuit operation
and to related (input) variables and (output) signals.
• Analysis with a switch matrix involves:
• 1) Identify and define all possible states. States are defined based on
all possible combinations of the switches in the matrix. Switches have
two possible states: ON (1) or OFF (0).
• 2) For each possible state relate (output) signals to (input) variables
by taken into consideration the time at each state (i.e. the portion of the
time with respect to the switching period).
• 3) Combine the previous relationship in order to calculate average
values for the (output) signals.

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 Power electronics basic concepts
• Switch selection
• There are two criteria:
• Current conduction direction
• There are two possible directions:
• Forward – Usually from source to load
• Bi directional – Both directions
• (if current only circulates in the reverse direction, just reverse
the switch and make it a forward conducting switch).
• Voltage present at the switch when it is blocking the current flow.
• The definition relies on the voltage polarity off the switch when it is
blocking current flow and with respect to the forward current
direction convention.
• Can be reverse blocking (RB - diode), forward blocking (FB – BJT
or MOSFET), or bi-directional blocking (BB - GTO).
+ -

• Switches power rating is significantly higher than their losses.

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 Power electronics basics
• Harmonics
• Concept: periodic functions can be represented by combining
sinusoidal functions 
f (t )  c0   cn cos(nt   n )
n 1

• Underlying assumption: the system is linear (superposition principle

is valid.)
• e.g. square-wave generation.

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 Power electronics basics
• Additional definitions related with Fourier analysis

f (t )  a0   (an cos(nt )  bn sin(nt ))
n 1

1  T
a0   f (t )dt
T 
2  T
an   f (t )cos(nt )dt
T 
2  T
bn   f (t )sin( nt )dt
T 
 bn 
a0  c0 (dc components) cn  a  b
2 2  n   tan  
1
n n
 an 

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 Power electronics basic concepts
• In power electronic circuits, signals usually have harmonics added to the
desired (fundamental) signal.

• Energy storage elements are used to

• Provide intermediate energy transfer buffers.
• Filter undesired harmonics
• There are two approaches:
• Linear approximation (based on time constants considerations).
I.e., current and voltage ripples)
I L VC
VL  L IC  C
T T
• Harmonic superposition

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 Power electronics basics
• Additional definitions
1  T
• Average  f (t )   f (t )dt
T 
• RMS value
1 T 2 1  2  
f 2 (t ) RMS   f (t )dt  c0   cn  c0   cn2, RMS   cn2, RMS
T 0 2 n1 n 1 n 0
• Instantaneous power
p(t )  v(t )i (t )
• (Average) power

1  T Vn I n
P   v(t )i (t )dt  V0 I 0   cos(Vn   In )
T 
n 1 2

• Total harmonic distortion 

n
c 2

THD  n2
c12
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 Power electronics basics
• Additional definitions
T
• Power factor
p. f 
Average Power

0
p(t )dt 1
T

Apparent Power VRMS I RMS

• Line regulation
VOUT (Highest input )  VOUT (Lowest input )
LiR (%)  100
VOUT ( Nominal)

• Load regulation

VOUT (Min Load)  VOUT (Full Load)

LoR(%)  100
VOUT ( Nominal)

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