SYMPOSIUM

implementing problem-based
learning in politics
john craig a and sarah hale b
a
Department of Behavioural Sciences, University of Huddersfield, Queensgate,
Huddersfield HD1 3DH, UK
E-mail: j.craig@hud.ac.uk
b
School of Continuing Education, Birkbeck College, University of London,
26 Russell Square, London WC1B 5DQ, UK
E-mail: s.hale@bbk.ac.uk

doi:10.1057/eps.2008.6

Abstract
Problem-based learning has a long history of successful use in disciplines
such as business, law and medicine. In 2005, a team at the University of
Huddersfield received government funding to develop the technique, and a
range of related resources, for teaching politics. This article describes the
experience of putting these resources into practice with a range of different
student cohorts.

Keywords problem-based learning; student-centred learning; case scenarios;

distance learning

T
he history of, and rationale for, a
problem-based approach to teach-
ing and learning in the discipline of
politics has been considered at length
elsewhere (Hale, 2006). In this article,
the authors describe and evaluate the
process of developing and implementing
such an approach across a range of
courses – beginning with two modules,
of which one is described in detail here –
at a UK university.
The authors of this article were the lead
members of the team which developed
and implemented problem-based learn-
ing in politics at the University of
Huddersfield. The aim of the project was
to explore the potential contribution of
(165 – 174) & 2008 European Consortium for Political Research. 1680-4333/08 $30 www.palgrave-journals.com/eps
problem-based teaching and learning
methodologies within the politics subject
area. These approaches have been
successfully used in a range of other
discipline areas, such as medicine,
nursing and law. Research in these
areas has demonstrated that students
have benefited through the acquisition
of transferable skills and a deeper
engagement with concepts and principles
(Savin-Baden, 2000). However, despite
this, problem-based learning has been
used less widely in politics. The aim of the
project was to see if we could address this
by transferring a problem-based learning
approach from one academic area to
another.
european political science: 7 2008 165
 The first stage of the project was to
develop the rationale for expanding the
use of problem-based learning in politics,
and to undertake, and write up, a survey
of good practice in problem-based learn-
ing more generally, which could then be
applied to politics. This resulted in a
7,000-word ‘Review of Good Practice’
(Hale, 2005), and also served further to
demonstrate the need for developing the
approach within and for the discipline of
politics. This is not to suggest that its use
in the field is unprecedented; there are
some notable examples, particularly from
the US, of problem-based learning having
been developed in a variety of ways, but
these tended to involve very long and
complex scenarios that were unsuited to
the requirements of teaching politics at
Huddersfield – and thus by implication,
in many other British institutions – in a
number of ways.
While there were a few – maybe half
a dozen – well-developed examples of
forms of problem-based learning being
used in politics, most of the academic
interest in problem-based learning (at
least in the UK) was based around more
vocational areas, particularly nursing, as
we discovered when attending confer-
ences to try to share and learn from
others’ experience. Very often we found
that the approaches, student cohorts and
learning outcomes were all very different
from what we were trying to achieve. It
seemed very clear that this represented
a wasted opportunity, as one of the
strengths of problem-based learning is
the way it can provide an opportunity to
explore potentially daunting theoretical
and philosophical questions in an acces-
sible way. Thus convinced of the need for,
and the value and potential of, a problem-
based approach to teaching politics, we
set about developing our own particular
version.
We needed, and set out to develop,
scenarios that could be used with stu-
dents from a variety of disciplinary back-
166 european political science: 7 2008 implementing problem-based learning in politics
‘yone of the strengths of
problem-based learning
is the way it can provide
an opportunity to explore
potentially daunting
theoretical and
philosophical questions
in an accessible way’.
grounds; that could be integrated with
workplace learning (one of the first stu-
dent cohorts were taking the B.A. (Hons)
‘top-up’ to a Foundation Degree in Com-
munity Governance and Public Sector
Management); that could be delivered,
in part at least, through a virtual learning
environment (VLE) (in Huddersfield’s
case this was Blackboard), and which
could be used over short time periods as
well as longer ones. As well as the Public
Management students on whom we
concentrate here, problem-based learn-
ing scenarios were also utilised in a
module for second-year undergraduate
students from the disciplines of politics,
sociology and criminology that was
taught via face-to-face rather than
distance learning.
DEVELOPING PROBLEM-
BASED LEARNING
MATERIALS
The original intention was to produce a
range of case scenarios closely based on
‘stories’ collected from the local govern-
ance sector. In practice, cases were
drawn mainly from local government
and the voluntary and community sector,
but could also have included health
trusts, Local Strategic Partnerships
(LSPs) etc. In fact, interviews were con-
ducted with LSP managers, but the issues
that emerged were too complex to use.
There was some initial debate within
the project team over whether to pursue
an ‘inductive’ or ‘deductive’ approach to
designing the case scenarios. A deductive
approach would entail choosing issues
and themes that would potentially make
good cases and then set about collecting
suitable materials with which to develop
them, while an inductive approach would
mean collecting a range of stories from
practitioners in the field and then explor-
ing how these might be fashioned into
particular case-based scenarios. In the
event, a combination of these approaches
emerged. The development of cases was
story-led to the extent that a limited
number of stories were available, and
nearly all of them ended up being used.
The nature of the stories, their complexity
and the amount of information available
also played a part in determining the
length and detail of the case scenarios,
which varied in these respects. However,
it was always intended that the case
scenarios should span a range in terms
of length, complexity and degree of de-
tail, so this was more a case of selecting
which stories would be most suitable for
each format. Some short cases could
have been longer and vice versa. The
scenarios were written with a particular
audience in mind, and were consciously
developed in ways that would bring out
particular issues and ensure that each
scenario complemented, rather than du-
plicated, the others, although (see below)
students did find common threads run-
ning through the scenarios that were not
deliberate on the part of their authors.
This illustrates one of the advantages
claimed for problem-based learning: the
fact that it is student-centred in this way.
At the same time, the scenarios were
developed to bring out a wider range of
issues, particularly theoretical and con-
ceptual ones, than necessarily demanded
by their initial use. Their success in raising
these more complex issues has been
demonstrated through their use with
academics at workshops and training
sessions.
john craig and sarah hale
Because of the availability of intervie-
wees, stories were collected before any
firm structure for the form or use of the
problem-based case scenarios had been
decided upon. As a result of developing a
Foundation Degree in Public-sector Man-
agement and Masters level courses in
partnership with local public and third-
sector organisations, the project team
had established a range of contacts in
the field. In addition, one of the authors
(Hale) had herself been a member of a
local authority and a community develop-
ment partnership, and was able to draw
on contacts from this. It is interesting to
note, however, that the case scenarios
derived from these interviews, although
based on experiences from local govern-
ment and the voluntary sector, are not
confined to teaching in those areas. In
fact they have a far wider relevance,
through their illustration of broader
political issues.
For example, a case (no. 6) nominally
about a planning application actually
illuminates and facilitates discussion of
a very broad range of political issues
including interest-group politics, demo-
cratic theory, representation, conflict re-
solution and decision making, while a
case (no. 2) based on school uniform
policy addresses a range of theoretical
issues, including multiculturalism, indivi-
dual freedom and the nature of equality,
as well as more practical political issues of
consultation and responsibility.
The eight scenarios (all available at
http://www.hud.ac.uk/cbl) developed in
the first phase of the project were:
1. The Voice of the People? (consultation,
representation and democracy)
2. Diverse and Equal? (equality, diversity
and multiculturalism in theory and
practice)
3. All Change! (managing change in a
complex organisation)
4. But We’re all Volunteers! (managing
volunteers)
european political science: 7 2008 167
 5. All in a good cause? (ethical issues
around resource distribution)
6. What goes up y (negotiation and
conflict resolution based around a
planning issue)
7. Who elected you? (party politics and
the policy process)
8. Slap an ASBO on them! (approaches to
‘anti-social behaviour’)
Two of the cases (3 and 6) were based
directly on stories collected from local
government contacts in West Yorkshire,
complemented in the case of scenario
no. 6, with material from the local press;
three (1, 4 and 5) were based on experi-
ences from the south-east, including
interviews with voluntary sector workers;
one (no. 2) was based on a national
news story, and the remaining two (7
and 8) were composites based on a
combination of local interviews, national
issues and details invented to bring out
particular issues.
If the time (and other factors like
travel) taken in conducting interviews is
included, creating case scenarios is prob-
ably a lengthier process than producing
more conventional lesson plans and
teaching materials, but it did not feel like
it. As noted by Boud and Felletti (1997), it
is an enjoyable process, at least in the
experience of these authors, providing a
welcome opportunity to use imagination
in developing both the settings and the
range of characters. In any case, the
difference in preparation time is not
great, and scenarios can be adapted
subsequently to a range of teaching
situations. Once the interviews and other
research were completed, each case took
no more than a day to write up. After
travelling to conduct interviews, the most
time-consuming aspect was gathering
background information, most notably in
case scenario 6, but even here, it involved
no more than an online trawl of the local
press. In case scenario 8, in contrast, no
background information is provided, the
168 european political science: 7 2008 implementing problem-based learning in politics
intention being that students will research
it themselves.
A further point to bear in mind is that
academics’ own research may provide a
fruitful source of ‘stories’ with no addi-
tional investment of time required.
Although a basis in a true story or
documented research can help contribute
the verisimilitude, which is one of the
major attractions of problem-based
learning, it is well established that some-
times truth is stranger than fiction, and
with practice and experience it is perfectly
possible to develop cases from scratch, or
develop stories from a ‘real’ starting point
into whatever areas the tutor wishes
to explore. Indeed, this research-led
approach to case design informed a
second generation of scenarios, one of
which, How Green is my Footprint?, was
used in the teaching discussed below.
A key aim was to keep the case
scenarios relatively simple, and to a
manageable length, for a number
of reasons. First, requiring a great deal
of advance reading undermines the
approach’s claim to be different from
conventional approaches (and in many
cases background reading for students
was also suggested, and could be re-
quired). Second, overwhelming students
with detail would, we felt, militate against
them using their own imaginations and
initiative to flesh out the problem, explore
its different aspects and seek innovative
solutions. In view of this, we established a
policy of putting background information
in appendices. These are still relatively
brief, and allow the tutor to decide how
much information is released to students
and when.
On this basis, the eight initial scenarios
were completed, without any specific
plans at this stage regarding how
each would be used, but aiming to
supply a sufficient variety to cover all
possible requirements. As well as being
piloted at Huddersfield, the scenarios
were made available online at this
point for use by other higher education ‘Each case was
institutions, in addition to those who
had formally signed up to pilot them.
structured to prompt
Now all we needed to do was bring in students to engage with
the students! one another and to
IMPLEMENTING PROBLEM- create an environment in
BASED LEARNING which they would benefit
from these reciprocal
Problem-based learning was introduced
into the curriculum through the creation
interactions.’
of two dedicated modules: Case Studies
in Public Management for students on the
B.A. (Hons) Governance and Public Man-
the credit weightings, levels and delivery
agement course and Case Based Learning
methods of the modules varied to ensure
for students in the second year of the B.A.
that they fitted effectively into each
(Hons) Politics course.1
course. However, in terms of the under-
The decision to introduce case-
lying problem-based approach and the
based learning in this way reflected a
case-based learning materials that
number of considerations. The project
have been used, the two modules were
team believed that embedding the new
essentially similar.
approach within existing modules might
For the remainder of this paper, the
have resulted in the approach being
focus will be on the implementation of
perceived as an ‘add-on’ to the essential
the Case Studies in Public Management
content, which could have discouraged
module for the B.A. (Hons) Governance
engagement by learners. In addition,
and Public Management course. The
reflecting the initial rationale of the
reason for this is that it was the module
project, there was a desire to foreground
on which the initial pilot implementation
the work-related relevance of the pro-
occurred and for which most evaluation
blem-based learning approach within the
data have been collected to date.
curriculum. For these reasons, the crea-
The module is rated at 30 honours-level
tion of new and dedicated modules was
credits (NQF level 6), which is equivalent
selected as the most effective means
to one-quarter of the standard third year of
through which the approach could be
an honours degree course in England and
introduced.
Wales (QAA, 2001), and aims to allow
The rationale for creating two case-
students to gain a critical understanding of
based learning modules rather than one,
problems, challenges and dilemmas in
reflected differences in the structures of
contemporary public management. There
the two courses into which the modules
are five intended learning outcomes for the
were introduced. The B.A. (Hons) Politics
module, the first two relating to knowledge
course is a three-year, full-time course,
and understanding, and the remainder to
which is primarily delivered through face-
skills and ability development:
to-face teaching on campus. By contrast,
the B.A. (Hons) Governance and Public 1. a critical understanding of key pro-
Management course is a top-up for a blems and emerging issues in contem-
Foundation Degree at the University, porary public management, and
which is delivered to part-time students 2. a critical appreciation of the methods
through a blended learning environment. of analysis and their application to
Reflecting such organisational differences, workplace issues;
john craig and sarah hale european political science: 7 2008 169
 3. an enhanced ability to present material personal goals and motivations did not
in a written and oral format; easily combine with those of each other or
4. an enhanced acquisition of core skills of the organisation as a whole. The case
relating, in particular, to working with scenario was based on a real situation
others and problem solving; and that had been shared with the project
5. an enhanced ability to access and manager. Thus it presented the learners
utilise a range of relevant information with an authentic situation from the real
in order to solve problems relating to world. The group was presented with an
the workplace. account of the situation facing the orga-
nisation and a thumb-nail sketch of the
To achieve these outcomes, learners
nine regular volunteers who carried out
were placed in small groups and pre-
many of the day-to-day functions. The
sented with a series of problem-based
group was asked to work together to
case scenarios. Reflecting the blended-
produce a one-page action plan that
learning nature of the course, cases 1–3
identified the long- and short-term prio-
were structured to facilitate online inter-
rities for a new full-time manager who
action between students through the
was to be appointed. To help them do this
Blackboard VLE, while the learning
effectively, learners were prompted to
experience for case 4 was based on
draw on their own experiences of mana-
face-to-face interactions between group
ging and volunteering as well as acces-
members within a campus setting. Each
sing advice and guidance resources that
case was structured to prompt students
were available.
to engage with one another and to create
For the first three cases, the case
an environment in which they would
scenario was made available to students
benefit from these reciprocal interactions.
as a Word document posted on Black-
This was further supported by an assess-
board. Additional links to further online
ment regime, discussed further below,
resources that they might choose to
which built on both the experiences and
explore were provided, with a series of
product of cooperation, and therefore
prompts and questions to encourage the
highlighted the importance of engage-
initial process of engagement with the
ment in the group experience to even
resources. In addition, online discussion
the more instrumental of learners.
boards were set up to enable learner-to-
learner interactions and discussions of
PERIOD ACTIVITY
the cases. In this way, a student acces-
sing the Blackboard site for the module
Weeks 1–3 Case 1: But We’re All
would gain access to the core learning
Volunteers!
materials, additional resources and a
Weeks 4–6 Case 2: The Voice of the
discussion board through which they
People
could interact with other learners.
Weeks 7–9 Case 3: Slap an ASBO on
As noted earlier, the assessment strat-
Them!
egy for the module was designed to
Week 10 Case 4: How Green is our
support interactions between students in
Footprint?
the learning process. At the end of
Weeks 11–12 Reflection and completion
the module, students were required to
of assessment
produce a reflective learning log that
The case study But We’re All Volun- accounted for 25 per cent of the module
teers!, for example, asked students to grade. This required the learner to reflect
consider the challenge of managing a on the cooperation between group mem-
group of voluntary workers whose own bers for each of the four case scenarios,
170 european political science: 7 2008 implementing problem-based learning in politics
identifying which elements of interaction
had been successful or unsuccessful, and
analysing the reasons for each. A further
25 per cent of the assessment mark was
awarded for the fourth case study, which
was based on face-to-face interactions.
For this, a group was required to produce
a collective presentation in response to
the case scenario with which they had
engaged during the session. Once again,
this placed a premium on effective
cooperation between group members in
pursuit of a common goal.
The final element of the assessment
for the module, which accounted for the
remaining 50 per cent, provided learners
with an opportunity for a more individua-
lised engagement with the case materials
by asking them to produce a single-
authored report on any one of the
case scenarios on the module. The aim
of this element of assessment was
to provide each learner with an opportu-
nity to pursue their own interest in one
of the cases and to explore relevant
issues and concepts which they had
identified as particularly significant. Yet
even for this element of assessment the
experience of working in a group was
introduced as a potentially relevant
source of material, with prompts to lear-
ners to compare their own personal
responses to those produced by their
group, or to further develop the product
of the group work.
The remainder of this article focuses
on the experiences of students on this
pilot module. Student feedback demon-
strated that they found the case scenarios
to be engaging and that from an early
stage they recognised that the scenarios
introduced them to new and complex
problems for which simple or stock re-
sponses would not suffice. Commenting on
the first case study, for example, Alison
reported:
this was an interesting case study
which covered a service area I only
john craig and sarah hale
had a limited knowledge of. It high-
lighted the complexity and diversity
which would be faced by anyone who
managed a voluntary sector organisa-
tion. Along with how difficult it is to
equate the skills and enthusiasm of the
volunteers against the requirement and
needs of the clients.
While case 3, on anti-social behaviour,
was recognised as being:
an interesting scenario and one which is
also currently topical and high profile in
the media. It highlights the way in
which communities can become frag-
mented and how different people can
see the same situation from different
perspectives.
In addition, students also demon-
strated the emerging ability to de-com-
partmentalise their learning and make
links between their learning experiences
in each of the case scenarios. As ex-
pressed by Caron:
I realised that there were common
themes in each case which required
the management of detail and diversity
but also the consideration of complex,
intangible issues like perception and
intention which is probably the greatest
challenge facing public sector man-
agers today.
It should be noted that these ‘common
themes’ had not been intentionally built
into the module by the project team. The
identification of these by a learner, there-
fore, reflects an active process of the
co-production of the module content and
curriculum by the learners which accords
with constructivist principles of learning
(McConnell, 2000).
Students reported that engagement
with the scenarios encouraged them to
re-visit course materials from earlier
modules as well as identify and
explore new and additional materials.
european political science: 7 2008 171
 For example, as John commented on the
Voice of the People case:
This scenario made me re-visit the
module on community leadership and
public participation in order to refresh
my memory about the complex issues
raised in that agenda.
Reflecting this engagement, the work
produced by the group for this project as
well as John’s individual work, demon-
strated a critical application of concepts
and ideas that might otherwise have
remained latent.
An interesting and unexpected aspect
of students’ engagement with the module
was the ways in which they sought to
re-structure the learning environment
to better meet their study preferences.
For example, learners quickly identified a
preference for conducting their group
interactions through circular e-mails,
telephone calls and in some cases self-
organised face-to-face meetings rather
than through the Blackboard VLE. Lear-
ners reflected on these choices and noted
the apparent contradictions between their
own preferences and trends towards the
growth of online interactions. In addition,
for the first and second case studies, the
group decided to work as two sub-groups
for the initial process of exploring each
case, coming together to share and com-
pare the results of their initial deliberations.
Both of these choices raised the issue of
whether the project team should intervene
in the learning process and direct learners
to interact through the Blackboard VLE. It
was decided that such an intervention
should not take place for two reasons.
Firstly, all students were in agreement that
the structures that they had put in place
better met their individual needs. No
student expressed dissent from the ar-
rangement and no evidence could be found
that anyone was excluded from participa-
tion or was in any way detrimentally
affected by the group decision. Secondly,
the project team felt that the pro-active
172 european political science: 7 2008 implementing problem-based learning in politics
self-management of the learning experi-
ence by the group was in tune with the
ethos of the module, and demonstrated an
engagement with core skills relating to
problem solving and working with others,
which were expressed within the module
learning outcomes.
In addition, it is also important to
recognise that students’ re-structuring of
the group learning experience did not
indicate a rejection of group learning
itself, but rather, was an expression of it.
All students recognised the benefits of
group interactions as a means through
which to share ideas and perspective. As
Justin reported:
I found the five of us worked well
together. We all listened to each other’s
points of view and discussed our ideas
until we formed a common approach to
each of the casesy [for case study
three] the other group members’ ex-
periences of parenthood, and particu-
larly teenage children, gave them good
insights into the minds and behaviour
of some of those in the case. I think I
learnt a lot from others about the joy of
parenthood that will hopefully come to
me one day.
Overall, the case-based learning ap-
proach and the construction of the mod-
ule proved to be an effective means
through which learners can engage in
critical reflection on their learning pro-
cesses. This is demonstrated in feedback
from both Alison and Heather:
it was also an interesting learning curve
being the first module which we have
undertaken as a group, with the group
participation being at the focus of the
module. From an individual point of
view, I found the prospect of working
together quite daunting and felt under
pressure to be able to contribute to the
same standard and level as everyone
else and keep to the timescale which
had been allocated.
 This set of reflections has been useful
in analysing how people in differing
locations, and having different types of
personality can function together as a
group. At the start I was not convinced
that studying as a group would work
but, as we have progressed with our
studies, it has been revealing how we
could all adapt and contribute as a
team. Even though we have ap-
proached the study in some different
ways to those initially prescribed,
I feel that each case study has been
successful in its own right. Though
more analysis of the subject matter
prior to formulating the action plans
might have been beneficial to their
content, the ideas produced within the
group were solid and useable for the
assignments if required.
CONCLUSIONS AND
LESSONS
A number of points can be drawn from the
experience of delivering the Case Studies
in Public Management module that are of
broader significance for the delivery of
problem-based learning and politics
teaching more generally.
The first point to make is that overall
the delivery of the module can be
regarded as successful. As demonstrated
in the preceding section, students sub-
jectively identified benefits in the peer-
to-peer learning process, enjoyed the
topicality and challenge encapsulated in
the scenarios and demonstrated deeper
processes of learning though their efforts
to join up their learning in this module
with that in others. Achievement data
also confirms the success of the learning
process, with all students successfully
completing the module. Whether or not
these results could have been achieved
through an alternative means of delivery
remains open to question, as there was
no control group with which to compare
john craig and sarah hale
‘ystudent subjectively
identified benefits in the
peer-to-peer learning
process, enjoyed the
topicality and challenge
encapsulated in
the scenarios and
demonstrated deeper
processes of learningy’
results. Given the ‘live’ delivery of the
module on a course and the open ended
nature of a problem-based approach to
curriculum design, such scientific com-
parisons are by their nature rare in
teaching and learning innovation. With
that qualification in mind, we would
nevertheless suggest that there is good
evidence in the testimony that has been
presented that students have benefited
from this learning experience.
In terms of lessons learnt in the deliv-
ery of the case-based learning by the
course team, a number of issues arise,
first, that the process of delivering case-
based learning requires the tutor to ‘let
go’ of the learning process to a greater
degree than with some other delivery
approaches (such as lectures and semi-
nars). As students develop their re-
sponses to the case scenarios they will
themselves construct the curriculum.
While some of what they explore will be
expected and may reflect deliberate
prompts within the materials provided,
other lines of debate, enquiry and ex-
ploration will be unexpected. Equally, the
ways that groups of students choose to
organise themselves for group work and
structure their interactions may again
diverge from those expected by teaching
staff. It has been suggested in this article
that such divergences are positive and
represent the process through which
students take control of their own
european political science: 7 2008 173
 learning. It is recognised, however, that
such an approach may not be acceptable
in all cases and that the degree of auton-
omy may require pro-active management.
Overall, the experience of introducing
problem-based learning into politics
teaching has been a positive one all round.
Students have enjoyed and benefited from
the experience; its implementation on the
part of tutors has, so far, been relatively
problem free (although it must be borne
in mind that at this stage the people
teaching the problem-based module are
the same ones who developed it, so are
clearly already committed to the ap-
proach!), and the design, research and
writing of the case scenarios was a very
interesting and fulfilling process. We hope
that others will take the project further
and build on what we have achieved so far.

Note

1 Although the initial plan was for this second group of students to be cross-disciplinary, and the cases
were developed with this in mind, in the pilot year, students of criminology and sociology were not
available.

References
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About the Authors

John Craig is a Principal Lecturer and Head of Foundation Degrees at the University of
Huddersfield and teaches on politics and governance courses. He was Project Director on the
Huddersfield Case Based Learning in Politics project.
Sarah Hale is a Lecturer in Politics and Public Policy at Birkbeck College, University of London,
and was formerly Project Manager of the Huddersfield Case Based Learning in Politics
project.

174 european political science: 7 2008 implementing problem-based learning in politics