Europe 1215-1517：Religion, Death and Culture

1. Time, Festivals, Festivities

Church and time
St. Bernard, “Nothing is more precious than time”

Church: time is primarily theological 神學的 time- ‘begins with God’, ‘dominated by him’
time = straight line, had a start and end “Time ultimately carried the Christian toward God”
“Church’s missionary duty and the preaching of the Gospel 福音 give meaning to the time between
the Resurrection and the Second Coming”
Time is neither “a sort of lining or backing of space nor a formal condition of thought’
“Time cannot be sold” “Time is a gift of God and therefore cannot be sold”

Church cannot manipulate time completely: secular practice and need

Aristotle, “Time is the number of motion”
commercial, labor and social habit: measurable, mechanized, discontinuous-
punctuated by halts and period of inactivity,
subject to quickenings and slowings of its pace
[spring and autumn- farmers are busy but have a lot of spare time in winter]
Urban development further strengthen the emphasizing of secular time- precise, effiecient, domination
Development of scientific scholasticism

Book of Hours (宗教與世俗的融合

strong relation with ancient Rome + canonical hours
contains: a calendar of Church feasts, Extracts from the Four Gospels
The Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, The Fifteen Psalms of Degrees,
The seven Penitential Psalms, A Litany of Saints, An Office for the
Dead, The Hours of the Cross

Time begins and end

Time begins: 基督出生在創世後 5199 年
The Annals of Ireland, “According to Orosius there were 4484 years from the foundation of the world to
the foundation of the city of Rome; and from the foundation of the city of Rome
to the birth of Christ 715 years, and therefore 5199 years are totalled from the
beginning”

The End of the World:

Bible: The Book of Revelation – God pouring his wrath to a disobedient world
 return of Jesus Christ and the Millenium Kingdom
having a new heaven and the new earth
Joachim of Fiore 翡愛的約瑟亞希– revolutionary interpretation of the Bible
Only 2 generations left until the end of the present age of history
 the new era of the Holy Spirit would start in 1260
= a transition and spiritual fruition 完成 before the end of the world
Flagellants: 苦修團- Christ was angry at mankind and would destroy the world in 33 days
 walk for 33.5 days, bleeding and showing devotion to God in hopes of preventing
the end of the world.
Robert of Avesbury, “In that same year of 1349, about Michaelmas over six hundred men came
to London…… Each had in his right hand a scourge with three tails.
Each tail had a knot and through the middle of it there were
sometimes sharp nails fixed. They marched naked in a file one behind
the other and whipped themselves with these scourges on their naked
and bleeding bodies”
Emperor Frederick II “is still alive and will remain alive until the end of the world; there has been and
shall no proper emperor but he’= died in 1250
Devotee
Pope Boniface VIII, Pope John XXII: the world shall end at 1300, 1310, 1325, 1335, 1346-8, 1360
Ideal: link to the birth of Christ to the status quo

Year
New Year: East Europe and Italy= Christmas France= Easter,

Spain= 1 January [Feast of the Circumcision, Pope Gregory XIII acknowledgement]

England, Ireland= 25 March [Feast of the Annuciation/ “Lady Day”]

Month
MS Digby 88 (15th century) [類似《詩‧七月》]

Januar By thys 汝 I warme my hands [互相取暖, 開始溫暖??]

Februar And with my spade 鏟 I delfe (dig) my landys. [預備春耕]

Marche Here I sette my thynge (thing) to sprynge (spring);

Aprile And here I here the fowlis synge (sing).
Maii I am a light as byrde in bowe
Junii And I wede my corne well now
Julii With my sythe my mede I mowe;
August And here I shere my corne full lowe;

September With my flayll I erne my brede 繡品;

October And here I sawe my whete so rede [秋收??]

November At Martinmasse I kylle my swine 豬

December And at Christmasse I drynke redde wyne (wine)

Week
Taboo and customs
San Bernardino (1424), “Some avoid being asked for money on Mondays: plain averse! Some won’t
begin anything on Tuesdays, others won’t touch cloth on Fridays. All this is an
illusion of the devil. All days are good. Do everything in reverence to God, but be
careful not to work on mandatory feast days, and fulfil your needs on other days, in
reverence to God.”

Wednesday, Friday: should not eat meat, but can eat fish during Lent 四旬期(復活節前 40 天)

Jean de Joinville, “While we were dining he summoned a citizen of Paris to appear before us. When the
man arrived he said to me: ‘My lord, what are you doing?’ ‘Why, what can I be doing?’
said I. ‘In God’s name,’ he replied, ‘You’re eating meat on a Friday.’ As soon as I
heard this I put my bowl behind me. The admiral asked my Saracen why I had acted
thus, so he told him. The admiral replied that God would not hold what I had done
against me, seeing that I had not realized I was doing wrong.’
“I may tell you that the same reply was given me by the legate after we were freed from
captivity. None the less I did not cease to fast 禁食 on bread and water every
Friday in lent from that time onwards”
St. Thomas Aquinas, “Fasting was instituted by the Church in order to bridle the concupiscences of the
flesh, which regard pleasures of touch in connection with food and sex. Wherefore the
Church forbade those who fast to partake of those foods which both afford most
pleasure to the palate, and besides are a very great incentive to lust. Such are the flesh
of animals that take their rests on the earth, and of those that breathe the air and
their products.”

Thursday, Friday, Sunday: Florescence wash streets

Sunday: “Lord’s Day” people should not work [Sunday worship, Sabbatarian (安息 rest) practices]

Code of Canon Law “On Sundays and other holy days of obligation, the faithful are obliged to
participate in the Mass”
Preparation from Saturday mid-day- The ordinance of the lorimers of London(1260)
“no one of the trade shall work upon Saturday after noon
sounded and rung out at his parish church”
But in many people still work or trade instead of hearing mass and evensong
1287- Statutes of Peter Quivel of Exeter ordered punishment for non- attendance
 1291- Archbishop Pecham commanded his archdeacon to use every possible censure to
persuade rebel diocesan parishioners to return to the solemn observances of Sunday
1350s- Bromyard complained that few people could be found who did not go to Sunday
fairs and markets or send their servants with loaded pack animals + in many places
markets were held on Sundays throughout the year
Churchmen also didn’t want the church to be too crowded
Dominican John Bromyard, “If they can’t get away, and do spend a fleeing hour in church,
they pass that brief time in idle gossip and useless chattering…”
Pauper, “When men come to church, they leave bedes-bidding and spend their time
in sinful jangling”
Some churchmen and rulers respect the necessity
1401- Archbishop Arundel added that it was lawful to buy and sell on Sundays during
the autumn harvest because of the need ot gather in crops during the week
Edward II allowed the sale of necessary victuals on Sundays

Day
Carnival 狂歡節/嘉年華
Carnival at Nuremberg, 1469 “We the Burgermeister and Council of the city of Nuremberg……solemnly
enjoin the following, that no one man or woman…… either by day or night,
shall reverse their clothing or alter it otherwise, and especially that they shall
not change or distort their visage with any sort of thing…...but show it so
that they are recognizable…… And no one, especially not the wildmen, shall
run after people and force them to give money to cries, insults and injury.
Fourthly, no one shall throw fireworks, ashes, feathers or other impurities.
For indeed in the last Carnival various people used light-headed
luxurious, immodest, impolite gestures in plays and rhymes not only
inside houses but elsewhere, both by day and night. Such behaviour is, in
the presence of honourable people and especially of maidens and women,
sinful, annoying and shameful”

More than food and entertainment but also about social order: Brueghel, “Combat of Carnival and Lent”
Everyone has their own place

Feast Days and Festival

Catholic Feast Days 6 January- Epiphany: feast of the Three Kings
13 January: St Hilary
15 January: St Paul the Hermit (d.c. 345)
St Ita, founder of a nunnery at Killeedy, Co. Limerick (d.570)
20 January: St Sebastian
2 February: Candlemas
25 March: Feast of Annunciation
 Relations with non-Catholic aspect:1 January- Feast of Fools (derived from Saturnalia 農神節)
14 January- Feast of the Ass (derived from Cervulus
2 February- St. Brigid’s Day (derived from Imbolc 凱爾特聖燭節
14 February- St. Valentine’s Day (derived from Lupercalia 牧神節)

Hour
Bells: Belfry, Ghent- 91 metre, construction began 1313 completed 1380
Belfry, Tournai- 72 metre, first recorded 1188
Different purpose: mark the start of study, defense,
mark the start and end of work,
mark the time to open and close the gate
Clocks: urban clocks in cities, to some extend ornamental
Not very good to mark time, due to technology
24 hours instead of 12 hours. show minutes
business of work: employees and employers, the start and end of work
to calculate the salary by measuring the amount of time to work

Development of urban society

1324 in Ghent, fullers “install a bell in the workhouse newly founded by them near the
Hoipoorte, in the parish of Saint John”
1335 at Amiens, mayor and aldermen “permitted to issue an ordinance 條例 concerning the
time when the workers of the said city and its suburbs should go each morning
to work, when they should eat and when return to work after eating; and
also, in the evening, when they should quit work for the day; and that by the
issuance of said ordinance, they might ring a bell which has been installed in
the Belfry of the said city, which has been installed in the Belfry of the said
city, which differs from the other bells.”
1335 in Aire-sur-la-Lys, mayor, aldermen, and community of the city were permitted to
construct a belfry because “cloth trade and other trades which require several
workers each day to go and come to work at certain hours”
1395 in Paris, “workers in Paris have wanted and do want to start and stop work at certain
hours while they are being paid by the day as though they were on the job
the whole day long”  “the working day is fixed from the hour of sunrise
until the hour of sunset, with meals to be taken at reasonable times”
Centralization of Power
1370, Charles V ordered that all the bells of Paris be regulated by the clock at the Palais-Royal=
time of the state, centralization

Book of Hours 時禱書 [1 canonical hour = 3 hours]

Vespers Evening Prayer (generally at 6 p.m.) The Flight into Egypt
Compline Night Prayer (before retiring, generally at 9 p.m.) The Coronation of the Virgin
Matins During the night (at midnight with some) The Annunciation
With Lauds Dawn Prayer (at Dawn, or 3 a.m.) The Visitation
Prime Early Morning Prayer (First Hour: approximately 6 a.m.) The Nativity
Tierce Mid-Morning Prayer (Third Hour: approximately 9 a.m.) The Annunciation of the Shepherds
Sext Midday Prayer (Sixth Hour: approximately 12 noon) The Adoration of the Magi
None Mid-Afternoon Prayer (Ninth Hour: approximately 3 p.m.) The Presentation in the Temple
2. Confession and Promotion
Confession
The Ten Commandments 十誡: Thou 汝 shalt have no other gods before me

Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image

Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain
Remember the Sabbath day, to keep it holy

Honour thy 汝的 father and thy mother

Thou shalt not kill Thou shalt not commit adultery

Thou shalt not steal Thou shalt not covet 貪圖渴望

Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor

Seven Deadly Sins 七宗罪: Pride, Envy, Wrath, Sloth,

Lechery/Lust 好色, Covetousness/Greed 貪婪, Gluttony 貪食

Seven Christian virtues 七美德: meekness 順從, charity 慈悲, patience, spiritual activity/Diligence,

chastity 貞潔, generosity 慷慨, abstinence/Temperance 節制

Cardinal Virtues 基本美德: Justice, Prudence 審慎, Fortitude 堅忍, Temperance 節制

Seven Works of Comfort: Counsel, Correction, Comfort, Forgiveness, Endurance, Prayer, Instruction

Council of fathers Discussion of relation between church and secular world

relation between Roman Church and Byzantine church
about the life and after death, (intensified when the black death broke out
Heaven is something ordinary people can attended  route became complicated

No one knew when purgatory 苦難 will come to an end

How to respond public believes- ‘heresy’

Providing Instruction to faithful
Lateran IV, Canon 21 “all the faithful of both sexes shall after they have reached

Body of Christ is appeared in the form of

the age of discretion 謹慎 faithfully confess their sins at
communicating heaven and secular world
least once a year to their own priest and perform to the
 best of their ability the penance imposed, receiving

reverently at least at Easter the sacrament of Eucharist 聖餐

Confession- test and reminding the knowledge of religion,

ask question about creed, seven deadly sins, seven Christian virtues
Hermann, the dean of Boon- “a certain woman came to him (Hermann) at the time of Lent
to confess her sins…… The parish priest said, “What is your job?’ The woman
replied, ‘I usually sell iron.’ To this he said, “Are you sometimes in the habit
of mixing smaller pieces of iron in larger bundles, in order to sell lot together
in this way?’ To her saying ‘I do’ he replied, ‘Look, this is a mortal sin,
because it’s fraud’. And he added, “Are you sometimes in the habit of lying,
swearing, perjuring, cursing your rivals, and being jealous of those who sell
more?’ She replied, ‘In such things I often overstep the mark.’ The parish
priest said, ‘And all of these things are mortal sins, and unless you’ll have
done suitable penance, you’ll go to hell at your leisure.”

Promotion
Preaching- more important and popular, concern on preachers who are trained or not
Religious knowledge delivered in local language instead of Latin
Augustine, “But in all their utterances they should first of all seek to speak so they
may be understood, speaking in so far as they are able with… clarity.”
Urban councils invited preachers to come and preach,
audience might not really learning but just attending social activities,
Alan of Lille, “an open and public instruction in faith and behavior, whose
purpose is forming the humankind”
Guillaume Pepin, “we see more evil men, who are especially stubborn and hardened
in sin, in large cities, where they have preaching all the time, than
in the countryside where they scarcely have one sermon a year.”
Preachers- keep speeches short and add melodies, tell stories, the content might not be accurate
John Wycliffe (1330-84), Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153)
Margery Kempe (1373-1438), Henry of Lausanne (d.c.1148)
Erasmus, “(Vitrier) His sermons hardly had any divisions.… By a sort of continuous
discourse, binding the epistle of the day to the gospel, he allowed the listener to
enter into it with him. He did not gesticulate wildly nor give himself over to
showy display; on the contrary, he kept himself in full control at all times. One
felt that the Word proceeded from a simple and ardent heart. He never drew things
out to inordinate length so that everyone got bored nor did he try to vaunt
himself by citing huge numbers of authorities. Each homily that he pronounced
was filled with Holy Scripture; he could preach nothing else.

Taylor (1992), “The preachers used stories as both parables 寓言 and entertainment. The

exemplum 勸喻故事 was ‘a short narrative used to illustrate or confirm a

general statement’

Text and Translation- Not many people can really read the Bible: written in Latin
Latin Bible had many mistakes due to hand coping before the invention of printing.
Church didn’t forbid translation, but the quality might not be good due to people’s
lack of understanding of Latin  Church had increasing concern on translation
as when it became more popular, church had to guarantee the meaning should to
be orthodox.
Printing cheaper to copy bible: more people can read

Drama- convey the religious message and knowledge e.g. creed playexplaining the meaning of creeds
Depict Adam and Eve, angels…….

Painting and status- stories, miracles, saints, highly visible, sin rotting flesh: punishment
“art is equivalent to books”
But some painting are difficult to see
  it is simply a remainder to participants who already know the content.

3. Saints and Relics

 Saints
Saints are human- have human emotions, can be imitated
Different saints have different characteristic and function

Christ- God in human form

New Christ-focused Feasts (by end of 15th century)

Feast of the Transfiguration 耶穌顯聖容 6/8,

Feast of the Holy Name of Jesus (usually in January)

Feast of the Five Wounds of Christ (Last Friday before Passion Sunday),

Sacred Heart of Christ (19 days after Pentecost 五旬節)

Crown of Thrones (Friday after Ash Wednesday)

Symbol: Cross

Christ Family
St Anne- mother of Virgin Mary- cult in Latin West popularized from 13th / 14th century
St Joachim- father of Virgin Mary- cult in Latin West popularized from 15th / 16th centuries
St Joseph- cult in Latin West popularized from 14th / 15th centuries
Mary- Mother of Christ

Depiction: mother, pretty, virgin, intercessor (仲裁者)

mother as human, mother as holy figure (higher status than Christ)

Sometimes depicted as more powerful than Christ, encourage Christ to exercise mercy
Marian Feasts- Purification 2/2, Annunciation 25/3, Visitation 2/7
Assumption 15/8, Nativity 8/9, Immaculate Conception 8/12

Hymn 讚詩- Ave Maria, Salve Regina

Symbol: rosary beads 玫瑰念珠

Christ student/ Apostles

St. Andrew
Depiction: matyre, student of Christ, brother of St. Peter
Symbol: X, crucified in a X-shaped cross
Patron saint: Scotland, Amalfi in Italy, Esgueira in Portugal, Patras in Greece
Feast of St. Andrew 30/11

People related to Christ

St. Veronica
Story: gave her veil to Jesus to wipe his forehead when he was carrying his cross
Jesus accept it and wipe his forehead and return to Veronica, his image impressed upon it
 Depiction- Ravensburg (Germany): Church of St Jodok, (15th century)
Feast of St. Veronica 12/7

Matyres
St. Sebastian
Story: killed during Roman emperor Diocletian’s persecution, but was rescued and brought to life
Depiction: tied to a post or tree and host with arrows, protector of potential plague victims
Feast of St. Sebastian 20/1

Royal saints- England- Edward the Confessor, Scotland- Margaret,

Norway-Olaf, Sweden-Erik, France-Louis IX
Symbol: national feeling, national power in late Medieval period
bring good life of subjects during lifetime will do so even after death
13th century, Spanish noble, “I wholeheartedly believe that the son of a ruler or of some great man can
become a saint, but utterly disbelieve that any labourer or peasant can.”
793- Alcuin, “We read that goodness of the king is the prosperity of the whole people, the victory
of the army, the pleasantness of the air, the abundance of the soil, the blessing
of sons, the health of the populace. It is a great thing to rule a whole people”
1106- eager crowds attempted to touch emperor Henry IV’s funeral bier, “believing that they
sanctified themselves by doing so”
“Many people scraped up the earth from his grave with their nails and scattered it on their

own fields and homes as a blessing; others placed last year’s corn on his bier 棺材架 and, mixing

it with new seed, sowed it, hoping in this way to secure for themselves an abundant harvest”

Folk Saint
St. Guinefort (a 13th French dog)
Stephen of Bourbon (1262), “The local peasants hearing of the dog's noble deed and innocent death,
began to visit the place and honor the dog as a martyr in quest of help for their sicknesses and
other needs. They were seduced and often cheated by the Devil so that he might in this way lead men
into error. Women especially, with sick or poorly children, carried them to the place, and went off a
league to another nearby castle where an old woman could teach them a ritual for making offerings
and invocations to the demons and lead them to the right spot. When they got there, they offered salt
and certain other things, hung the child's little clothes on the bramble bushes around, fixing them on
the thorns. They then put the naked baby through the opening between the trunks of two trees, the
mother standing on one side and throwing her child nine times to the old woman on the other side,
while invoking the demons to adjure the fauns in the wood of "Rimite" to take the sick and failing
child which they said belonged to them (the fauns) and return to them their own child big, plump, live
and healthy. Once this was done, the killer mothers took the baby and placed it naked at the foot of
the tree on the straws of a cradle, lit at both ends two candles a thumbs breadth thick with fire they
had brought with them and fastened them on the trunk above. Then, while the candles were consumed,
 they went far enough away that they could neither hear nor see the child. In this way the burning
candles burned up and killed a number of babies, as we have heard from others in the same place.

Perugia (middle Italy)- 115 saints venerated 尊崇

75 universal saints, 26 regional saints, 14 local saints

St. Ercolana, St. Costanzo, St. Susanah, St. John of Perugia
Relics
Body of saints or things related to saints
Robert Bartlett, “Medieval Christianity developed to an extreme degree a distinctive form of this concept:
the idea that the dead bodies of these holy people should be cherished as enduring
sources of supernatural power. There were thousands of shrines in medieval Europe
containing the dust, bones, or (an elect group) the undecayed bodies of the holy dead.
Men and women came to these places, revered those whose mortal remains lay there,
asked them for favours, and, to judge by their accounts, were cured of their ills.

Christ blood- returned to Bruges (Belgium) in 1150 from the 2nd Crusade
Relics acquired by Louis IX
Crown of Thorns, Fragments of the True Cross, Samples of Christ’s blood,
Vestments of Christ’s infancy Chai that tied Christ to the column
Panel with the imprint of Christ’s face taken from the Cross

Large stone of Christ’s sepulchre 填墓 Purple robe in which Christ had been clad

Sponge 海綿紗布 Cloth for wiping face

Small churches might have some relics  rise the status of the church + attract tourist

Padua Cathedral: Reliquary 聖物盒 of the tongue and tenth of St. Anthony

Warin, abbot of the Saxon monastery of Corvery, sought out relics from Frankish heartlands “to
strengthen the faith of his people”

Relics can be sold and bought

St. Augustine condemned insincere monks who “offer for sale pieces of the martyrs”
Anglo-Saxon king Athelstan (924-39) “He then sent honest, discerning men over the sea, and they
travelled as widely as they could travel, and with his treasure they
purchased the most precious treasures which might ever yet be purchased
on this earth, which was the greatest of relic-collections, gathered far and
wide from every place”
accompanied to the grave by “the relics of the saints that he had purchased
from Brittany”
Roman imperial legislation (380) “let no one put up for sale or purchase a martyr”
Norman kings of Sicily (12th century), “we permit no one to sell or buy relics of the martyrs or of any
of the saints”
Latern IV Council, Canon 62 “From the fact that some expose for sale and exhibit promiscuously the
relics of saints, great injury is sustained by the Christian religion. That this
may not occur hereafter, we ordain in the present decree that in the
future old relics may not be exhibited outside of a vessel or exposed for
sale. And let no one presume to venerate publicly new ones unless they have
been approved by the Roman pontiff.”

Relics can be stolen

370s- the body of St. Hilarion buried in Cyprus was stolen by one of monks from monastery of Majuma
St. Mark’s bones were stolen from Alexandria and brought to Venice
St. Nicholas’s bones were stolen from Myra and brought to Bari.
1070- archbishop Anno of Cologne bribed the custodian of St. Maurice-en-Valais’ church and stole the
body of St. Innocent and the head of St. Vitalis and took it back to Cologne and enshrined the
relics in monastery of Siegburg

9th century- an abbot 男修道院院長 of Figeac in Aquitaine was praised because “always his custom was

to take away the bodies of the saints, from whatever place, through secret
deceits, and to bring them to the places over which he preside”
“he sent out scouts and took away the holy body of the great bishop by a
clandestine trick”

Stealing relics might be praised as “a praiseworthy theft” or even “a happy sacrilege 褻瀆”

False relics (most people didn’t care whether it is verified)

1020s, a huckster active in France and Italy, “He used to dig up bones from the graves of the recently
dead, place them in reliquaries and sell them as the relics of holy martyrs and confessors”
13th century- Heretics criticized. “false relics, which some people carry around through the villages, and
with which they fool people in the taverns, like the milk of the Virgin Mary”
1220s- Caesarius of Heisterbach, “In my judgement, ignorance in such cases excuses any fault; devotion
deserves grace… sometimes the Lord works miracles through false relics to honour the
saints to whom they are ascribed and through the faith of those who honour them.”

Trail of relics by fire

1100- bishop of Prague, “the bishop threw the cloth (of Ludmila, the Czech princess murdered in
921 whom many regarded as a saint) onto the fiery coals. A wonderful thing, the smoke
and flames darted around the cloth but did not harm it. And this made the miracle even
 greater, that for a long time it was impossible to take the cloth from the flames because of the
intense heat, and, when at length it was taken out, it was as undamaged and strong as if it
had been woven that very day”
Church of Rheims described the ritual, “Lord God Jesus Christ, who is king of kings and lord of lords,
and lover of all who believe in you, who is a just judge, strong and powerful, who has
revealed your holy mysteries to your priests, and who tempered the flames of the fire for
the three children, grant to us, your unworthy servants, and hear our prayer, so that this
cloth, or thread, in which the bodies of the saints have been wound, if they are not
true, may be burned by this fire, and if they are true, they may escape that.”

Christian—Superstition
Boundary between truth and non-truth are not science cause science didn’t exist in Middle Ages

People looking for miracle instead of official recognition- power of saints, cures,
Even a dog can be venerated as saint (St. Guinefort)
Bishop Wigbert of Meseburg (1004-9), “By diligent preaching he recalled his flock from the empty
superstition of their error and uprooted the grove called Zutibure [swiety bor, “holy grove”

樹叢] which the local inhabitants honoured as a god and which, from ancient times, had

never been violated, constructing there a church dedicated to the holy martyr Romanus.”
Badurad, bishop of Paderborn, “Since the populace, especially the common people, still unformed in the
ways of the faith, could only be turned away completely from pagan error with difficulty,
as they secretly gave themselves up to the cultivation of their ancestral superstitions, the
man of great wisdom understood that, if the mass of the people began to venerate the
body of some famous saint which had been brought there, persuaded by the display
of miracles (as is accustomed to happen), and the grace of healing, and growing used

to seeing his patronage 贊助, nothing could recall them more easily from disbelief”

Basil, bishop of Caesarea (370-78)’s preaching, “those who have enjoyed the presence of the martyr in
dreams, those who have come here and found his help in prayer, those who have called on
his name and been helped in your deeds, who have been brought safely to journey’s end,
relieved of sickness, had the lives of your children saved or had your life lengthened.
Hilary of Poitiers (360), “everywhere the holy blood of the blessed martyrs is received and their revered
bones are daily witness, for through them the demons groan and sickness is driven out”

When people didn’t believe the relics or saint, no cult could be developed
Henry III of England claimed that he possessed a drop of holy blood and put it to Westminster
 Faced skepticism  failed to attract devotion, no cult has developed
Robert Grosssetste addressed those who opposed the cult, “Because the slow and the skeptical are
accustomed to object that since Christ rose again on the third day with his body whole
and not drained of blood, how can it be that he left his blood behind him on earth?”
No known miracles occurred after Henry III received the Holy Blood

4. Pilgrimage, Crusade and Outsider

Pilgrimage
Dante (1265-1321), “ ‘Pilgrims’ can be understood in two senses, a general once and a more restricted one:
in a general sense, anyone away from their homeland is a pilgrim; in the more restricted sense, a
pilgrim is someone traveling to or from the house of St. James [that is, Santiago]. However, you
should know that there are three particular terms for people journeying in the service of the Most High:
those who go overseas and, in many cases, bring back a palm, are called ‘palmers’; those who go
to the house in Galicia are called ‘pilgrims’ [peregrine], because the burial place of St. James is
further from his homeland than that of any other apostle; those who go to Rome are called romei.”

most popular destinations: Holy Land [limited amount of people]

[remote, difficult and expensive to go, oftern under Muslim control]
[Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, Mount Sinai]
Rome [easier to go, many relics of saints, e.g. St. Peter, St. Paul, Veronica]
Destination

[MCCCCLXVII quidem Scoti hic fureunt

Santiago de Compostela [in Spain, St James the Greater]

Other second tier destinations: Cologne [shrine of Three Kings]

Canterbury [shrine of St Thomas Becket]
Local destinations
 Huge number: 1487- Wilsnack (Brandenburg): 10000 on one day
1300- Rome: 20000 on one day
1496- Aachen (NRW): 142000

All classes and sex: 8th century- Paul the Deacon, “Many of the English race, noble and commoner,
men and women, leaders and ordinary people, were accustomed to come from
Popularity

Britain to Rome, stirred by divine love”

St Margaret’s Miracles at Dunfermline- men 27, women 17
1470- Pilgrims recorded at Wroclaw, “Laurence Green … has come from Rome and has no
shoes and had been ill for three quarters of a year… He… vowed a
pilgrimage to Rome when at sea in distress…”
“Thomas Taylor… left his country on All Souls Day and has long been ill and vowed
a pilgrimage to Rome on Palm Sunday… He wishes [now] to go to Danzig”
1450- The earl of Douglas at Lille’s preparation: 231 chickens, 156 rabbits, 56 pigeons….
Not a must: Christ and saint’s soul are in heaven not on earth
St Bernard of Clairvaus, On the pilgrimage of foolish people to the Holy blood in 1475, “the
days are very long and empty of things to do an many are driven to pilgrimage for lack
of break to eat… having no bread, and being too poor to stay with friends or
neighbours, they were ashamed to beg near their own home.

Jerome, church father(347-404), “I do not dare to confine 限制 the omnipotence 全能 of God

to some small territory” , “the heavenly palace can be reached as easily from
Britain as from Jerusalem”
Theodulf of Orleans, “God is not to be sought in any particular place… I do not believe that
one reaches heaven by the path of the feet but by the path of conduct”
Reason

Face Danger: Hunger, rape, lack of accommodation in destination

Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales William Langland, Piers Ploughman

-Religious Passion- voluntary

Jerome’s disciples Paula and Eustochium, “whenever we enter there(Holy Sepulchre), we perceive

the Saviour lying in hi shroud 裹屍布”

8th century- Paul the Deacon, “Many of the English race, noble and commoner, men and women,
leaders and ordinary people, were accustomed to come from Britain
to Rome, stirred by divine love”
“for the sake of prayer”- Ethelwulf (king of Wessex), Archbishop Siegfried I of Mainz,
13th century- Spanish book Seven Division, “Men undertake pilgrimages to serve God and
 honour the saints, and, to do this, they leave their families and their native soil,
and their wives and their homes and all that they have, and go through alien lands,
wearying their bodies and expending their goods in the pursuit of holy places”

-Miracle- fortune and healing

St. Thecla at Seleucia, “a centre of healing for all and a common mercy-seat for the whole world”
St Margaret’s Miracles at Dunfermline: strokes, Insanity, Blindness, swellings, Dumbness…….
Pilgrims recorded at Wroclaw, c.1470 “Thomas Taylor… left his country on All Souls Day and
has long been ill and vowed a pilgrimage to Rome on Palm
Sunday… He wishes [now] to go to Danzig”
Crowds came to abbey of Conques consisted, “pilgrims coming for the sake of prayer or the
recovery of their health”
Roger de Wandesford of Tireswell, Nottinghamshrie, “I direct that my executors hire a man to
go on pilgrimage to Beverley and Bridlington, to visit the glorious confessors
there reposing, to whom I made a solemn vow when I was gravel threatened by
the waves of the sea and almost drowned between Scotland and Norway
Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, “(A.D.1255) the churches of Lincoln and Chichester became
famous from the frequent miracles worked there”
Penance- punishment and indulgence
Lateran IV, Canon 62 “In addition, since because of the indiscreet and excessive indulgences
which certain prelates of churches grant, they keys of the Church are belittled not feared an
penitential satisfaction is weakened… on the occasion of the anniversary of the dedication
[of a church], the remission of enjoined penance granted shall not exceed forty days.”

Plenary 完全 Indulgences: The Jubilees- go the Rome to buy a ‘letter of indulgence’

1150s- Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, “whoever, with pious 虔誠 intention, visits the

church of St. Mary, the mother of the Lord, at Reading, where the hand of the glorious
apostle is housed, along with many other relics, on the feast-day of the apostle, which
is celebrated on 25 July, or in the week following, and takes the apostle at his patron, we
remit for him forty days of the penance enjoined on him, trusting in the merits of the
apostle and of the other saints whose relics are gloriously housed there”
11th century- Peter Damian wrote to Italian noble Rainer, “I have enjoined on you, most noble
lord, that, on account of the sins that you have confessed to me, you should take the road
to Jerusalem and appease divine justice by the satisfaction of such a long pilgrimage”
1354, the aldermen of Douai ordered a townsman to undertake a pilgrimage to Our Lady of
Chartres as a punishment for the ‘outrageous words’ he had spoken to them.
 People can pay someone else to go on their behalf
Roger de Wandesford of Tireswell, Nottinghamshrie, “I direct that my executors hire a man to
go on pilgrimage to Beverley and Bridlington, to visit the glorious confessors there
reposing, to whom I made a solemn vow when I was gravel threatened by the waves
of the sea and almost drowned between Scotland and Norway
1317, a guy in Somerset, “I bequeath forty shillings to a man to go on pilgrimage to Santiago
and Rocamadour for me”
1354, a man From Frias, ordered “a man be sent to Santiago for me and another to Our Lady
Development: payment and tourism

of Roncesvalles and another man to Our Lady of Rocamadour, and I order that
another man be sent to Jerusalem”
1356, wealthy woman of Pamplona, “my knights should send on pilgrimage a good man on
foot to Santiago in Galicia for the soul of my father. And they should send another
good man on foot to Our Lady of Rocamadour on pilgrimage for the soul of my
mother. And I command that my knights should send a man on horseback to Santiago
in Galicia for me on pilgrimage for my soul. And they should send another man on
horseback on pilgrimage to Our Lady of Rocamadour for my soul.”
Johann Tetzel(1465-1519), “As soon as a coin in the
People can pay instead of going to pilgrimage coffer rings, a soul from purgatory 煉獄 springs”

The Penitentia 悔罪的 Tariff of Oudenarde (Flanders), 1338

Bari-20 pounds, Compostela-12 pounds, Rome-12 pounds,

Canterbury-6 pounds, Cologne-40 shillings, Maastricht-24 shillings

Business and tourism Giovanni Villani, “great treasure accrued 累積 to the church and to the

Romans; all were made rich by their takings…”

Souvenir: letter of indulgence, Pilgrimage Badges [status, shells, ornaments]
Crusade
Traditional view of crusade: Ventures to holy hand
Definition

Pope Urban II, Council of Clermont, 1095

Jerusalem captured 15/7/1099
Crusader states established at Jerusalem, Edessa, Tripoli and Antioch
New view of crusade: Norman Housley, Jonathan Riley-Smith-
all holy wars launched by Pope intended to protect Christendom
in Spain against Muslim, in East Germany against heretics
Jonathan Riley Smith, “To contemporaries a crusade was an expedition authorized by the
pope on Christ’s behalf, the leading participants in which took vows and
Original= pilgrimage consequently enjoyed the privileges of protection at home and the
Latin: cruciate = signed with the cross indulgence, which, when the campaign was not destined for the East, was
English: crusade, borrowed from equated with that granted to crusaders to the Holy Land.”
French “croisade”- path of the cross in “A crusade, however, was a special kind of holy war in that it was also
18th century penitential. It was at first associated with pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the
most penitential goal of all…… In 1099, after the fall of Jerusalem,
 many of the survivors of the campaign threw away their arms and
armour and returned to Europe carrying only the palm fronds they
had collected as evidence that they had completed their pilgrimage.

A kind of Pilgrimage: Louis VII of France, went to Jerusalem “to pray and fulfill his pilgrimage”
Robert the Monk, “pilgrim knights of the Holy Sepulche”
Third Crusade =“the pilgrimage of Richard, king of England, and Philip, king of France”

Similar to Pilgrimage: receive indulgence

1147- Pope Eugenius III, “To all those who do not receive the same Cross of Jerusalem and
determine to go against the Slavs and remain in that expedition we concede…
that remission of sins which our predecessor Pope Urban of happy memory
instituted for those going to Jerusalem) (concerning Germany)
1215- The Fourth Latern Council "Catholics who have girded themselves with the cross for the
extermination of the heretics, shall enjoy the indulgences and
privileges granted to those who go in defense of the Holy Land”
1326- Pope John XXII, “We have thought it worthy to concede those indulgences which in
similar cases were accustomed to be given by the Holy See to those going
to the aid of the Holy Land” (concerning Spain)
Participant: all kinds, all classes and both sex

1250- ship St. Victor from France to East: 14 knights, 90 retainers 僕人侍從, 7 clerics,

342 commoners with 42 women

Protecting Christendom from infidels, heretics

And
Motivation and Participation

1145-Pope Eugenius III, “By the grace of God and the zeal of your fathers, who strove to defend
them over the years and to spread Christianity among the peoples in
the region, these places have been held by Christians until now and
other cities have courageously been taken from the infidel.”
(1190-1273) Eudes of Chateauroux, “someone says, ‘The Muslims have not hurt me at all. Why
should I take the Cross against them?’ But if he thought well about it he
would understand that the Muslims do great injury to every Christian”
1199-Pope Innocent II authorized the Livonian Crusade, “in defence of the Christians in their
parts”, “to defend the church of Livonia”
1209-Pope Innocent III encourage the king of Denmark to take the cross, “to extirpate the error
of paganism and spread the frontier of the Christian faith”
Innocent IV- Holy Land was rightfully Christian property- war to recover the territory that
rightfully belonged to Christians
(1160-1240)James of Vitry, “The brothers of the military orders are ordained to defend
Christ’s church with the material sword, especially against those who are
outside it; that is against the Muslims in Syria, against the Moors in Spain, against
 the pagans in Prussia, Livonia and Comania… against schismatics 教派分裂者 in

Greece and against heretics everywhere dispersed throughout the universal church.”
“(military orders) all are united in defence of the Church against infidels”
1209-1229- Albigensian Crusade [against Cathar heretics in southern France]
1420-1434- Crusades against Hussites [against Hussites in Bohemia]

Jonathan Riley Smith, “the pope could proclaim a crusade against

a pagan ruler, not because he was pagan but because he posed a
threat to Christians or had sinned by, for example, refusing
Economic and political interest
to allow Christian missionaries to operate in his territories
(Venetian, Hungarian, Teutonic Order, Ottoman)
1203- Fourth Crusade against Byzantine, “because it is not subject to the Holy See and because
the emperor of Constantinople usurped the imperial throne, having
deposed and even blinded his brother”
Robert of Clergy “showed the barons and the pilgrims that he who was guilty of such
a murder [of the emperors] had no right to hold land and all those who
had consented were abettors of the murder; and beyond all this that they
had withdrawn themselves from obedience to Rome. ‘For which
reasons we tell you,’ said the clergy, ‘that this war is lawful and just and
that if you have a right intention to conquer this land and bring it into
obedience to Rome all those who die after confession shall enjoy the
indulgence granted by the pope’”
1228-30- Pope Gregory IX launched campaign against Emperor Frederick II [Frederick II
was not willing to fully obey the Roman Church, Germany + Sicily surrounded Rome
1383- Crusade in Flanders [Pope Urban VI + Kingdom of England + crusaders
V.S. Pope Clement VII + Kingdom of France]

Family ties, social status, fame, adventure, punishment

(Guilbert de Lannoy- Mediterranean, Granada, Prussia, Jerusalem)
11th century- Peter Damian wrote to Italian noble Rainer, “I have enjoined on you, most noble
lord, that, on account of the sins that you have confessed to me, you should take the road
to Jerusalem and appease divine justice by the satisfaction of such a long pilgrimage”
1145-Pope Eugenius III, “It will be seen as a great token of nobility and uprightness if those
things which the efforts of your fathers acquired are vigorously defended by
you, the sons. But if, God forbid, it comes to pass differently, then the bravery
of the fathers will be shown to have diminished in the sons”
(1160-1240) James of Vitry, “You hold your body and soul and whatever you have from the
Supreme Emperor and today he has had you called upon to help him in battle;
and though you are not bound by feudal law, he offers you so many and
such good things, the remission of all sins, whatever the penalty or guilt,
and above all eternal life, that you ought at once to hurry to him”
(1150-1213) Geoffrey of Villehardouin, “because the indulgence was so great the hearts of men
were much moved; and many took the Cross because the indulgence was
 so great”
(1180-1240) James of Vitry, “Do not in any way doubt that this pilgrimage will not only earn you
remission of sins and the reward of eternal life, but it will also offer
much to wives, sons, parents, living or dead: whatever good you do in
this life for them. This is the full and entire indulgence which the
supreme pontiff, according to the keys committed to him by God,
concedes to you.”
1187- Pope Gregory VIII, “Since you… having assumed the sign of the living cross, propose to
go to the aid of the Holy land, we … take under the protection of St. Peter and ourselves
your persons, with your dependants and those goods which you reasonably possess at
present,… stating that they all should be kept undiminished and together from the tome
of your departure on pilgrimage overseas until your return or death is most certainly known.
1309- John of Joinville, “And there Abbot Adam of Saint-Urbain- may God absolve him- gave me
and the nine knights a great number of beautiful jewels.

Islamic Threat- Failure in Levant and North Africa, Aegean Sea and Balkan annexed
Later Crusade

1248-1254: 1st Crusade of St. Louis (Louis IX of France)-

defeated and captured at Mansura by Egypt
nd
1270- 2 Crusade of St. Louis- King Louis died at Tunis
1291- Fall of Acre [lost all important settlement in Levant]
Ludolph of Suchem(1350), “Egyptian campaigns against the Latin kingdom came thick and
fast. In 1265 Caesarea, Haifa, and Arsuf all fell to the Sultan. The following
year saw the loss of all the important Latin holdings in Galilee. In 1268
Antioch was taken…… In any event, no Crusade of any major importance was
forthcoming, despite the Pope’s best efforts. Meanwhile the attacks on the Latin
East continued, as did also the internal difficulties within what was left of the
Latin Kingdom. By 1276 the situation of the Kingdom, both external and
internal, had become so perilous that the “King of Jerusalem” withdrew from
Palestine altogether to take up his abode on the Island of Cyprus.
The desperate plight of the Latin Kingdom worsened. In 1278 Lattakioh fell.
In 1289 Lattakioh fell. In 1289 Tripoli was lost, too. …… At last, in 1291, the
Egyptian Sultan, al-Ashraf, began an assault upon the last major Latin city left
in Palestine- Acre……. The fall of Acre closed an era. No effective Crusade
was raised to recapture the Holy Land after Acre’s fall, though talk of further
Crusades was common enough. By 1291 other ideals had captured the interest
and enthusiasm of the monarchs and nobility of Europe and even strenuous papal
efforts to raise expeditions to liberate the Holy Land met with little response.
The ideal of the Crusade was irretrievably tarnished……
1343- Pope Clement VI= memorandum between Roman see and Venice to form a Holy League to
suppress Turkish aggression  captured Smyrna until 1402,
1365- Sack of Alexandria: crusade’s target was to sack but not stay and rule
Ludolph of Suchem(1350), “One last effort was made by King Peter I in 1365, when
 be successfully landed in Egypt and sacked Alexandria. Once the city was
pillaged, however, the Crusaders returned as speedily as possible to Cyprus
to divide their loot. As a Crusade, the episode was utter futile. The ‘Crusades’
of the fourteenth century aimed not at the recapture of Jerusalem and the
Christian shrines of the Holy Land, but rather at checking the advance of
the Ottoman Turks into Europe.”
1389- Battle of Kosovo (Orthodox Serbs defeated by Turk)
1444- Battle of Varna (crusading armies defeated by Turkish Sultan Murad II)
1453- Fall of Constantinople (Byzantine capital falls to Turkish Sultan Mehmend II)
Francesco Foscari, the Doge of Venice, “the capital of all Greece, the splendor and ornament
of the East, the Academy of the arts of civilization, the repository of all virtues, has
been captured, despoiled, destroyed, and devastated by inhuman barbarians, by
brutal enemies of the Christian faith, by the most ferocious of wild beasts’
Aeneas Silvius, the bishop of Siena wrote to Pope Nicolas V, “You must rise up; write to the
kings; send legates; warn, exhort the princes and the communities [of Europe] to
assemble in some place of meeting or to send thither their envoys. Right now, while
the evil is fresh in mind, let them hasten to take counsel for the Christian
commonwealth. Let them make a peace or truce with their fellow Christians, and with
the joined forces take up arms against the enemies of salvation’s cross”
Venetian historian Marino Sanudo (1466-1536), “The news of the loss of Constantinople caused
a great terror among Christians, and the pope immediately sent word to the Signoria
that the Venetians should arm five galleys against the Turks at his expense, and he
launched the crusade. Those who went in an armada or by land against the Turks
should receive the full benefits of the jubilee. If any soldier refused recruitment and
decline to go, he was excommunicated.
But Venice and Ottoman signed peace treaty in 1451
Emperor Frederick III, “I admit that as individuals we ought to aid the commonwealth,
but I see no one anxious to put the advantage of another before his own”
Aeneas the bishop of Siena, “this would have been a great assembly (in Regensbury)if
the emperor had come, but his Majesty was necessarily detained at
home because of the uprisings in Hungary……those who had
promised to come from Italy have not appeared”
Pope Nicholas V, “shame of Christendom”
1456- Siege of Belgrade  1521- Fall of Belgrade
“The outer wall of Christendom”
1522- the base of Knights Hospitaller Rhodes Island captured by Suleiman the Magnificent
Receive few aid from the west, powers were busy fight against each other
L’ Isle-Adam, “no means of being able to resist so great a power”
Jacques de Bourbon, “I firmly believe that ever since the world was created, neighter such
furious artillery nor in such great quantity was every shot against a twon
as has been against Rhodes in this siege”
Hospitaller surrendered Rhohes, and permitted to leave without attack
 Pope Hadrian VI wrote to French King Francis I, “Who is there to render aid to Sardinia,
Corsica, Marseille, Provence, Apulia, Campania, Latium, Picenum, and
other Christian territories? Come then, most gentle sire, have compassion
for the grievous misfortune for such great lands, for whose safety your
ancestors often had regard in far less perilous times. May the madness of
this tyrant move you, this dread marauder, whose thirst for Christian
blood is insatiable! And if perchance these considerations do not move
you, take thought for your own salvation. Do you imagine that, when all
the others have been defeated, you will escape the great penalty? You
will pay the price as will your people”
Raffaele de’ Graziani, “I am looking upon the final ruin of this poor Italy of ours, which
has been assailed by three kinds of barbarians, Spanish, German, and
French. In the end they’ll all calm down, with Italy becoming a shambles
in the meantime”
1526- Battle of Mohac (Louis II of Hungary defeated by Turks)
France and Venice once again refused to provide support against Turks out of tension with
Holy Roman Empire during the war in Italy
Pope Clement VII, “We now have 5,000 foot soldiers and 200 knights under our standards
in Hungary, and so far no other more substantial aid is in sight amid
that great fear and peril which the Hungarian nation faces. If the
harsh necessity of these times and circumstances had not forced us to
give part of our attention and resources to the domestic affairs of Italy,
we would have tried to supply still greater aid”
1529- Siege of Vienna
1683- Battle of Vienna (mark the turning point as Ottoman was defeated and changed her foreign
policy from aggressive to defensive

Reconquest of Iberian peninsular

1085- Alfonso VI, “I took up arms against the barbarian peoples. After many engagements and
innumerable enemy deaths with the assistance of God’s grace I captured from
them populous cities and very strong castles. And thus, inspired by the grace of
God, I moved my army against this city where once my forebears, very rich and
powerful kings, reigned; believing that it would be pleasing in the sight of God
if what once a treacherous people under their evil leader, Muhammad, had
stolen from the Christians, I Alfonso the emperor under the leadership of
Christ might restore to the worshippers of the same faith…”
Juan Manuel (1282-1348), “There is war between Christians and Moors and there will be until the
Christians have recovered the lands that the Moors have taken from
them by force.”
1340- Alfonso XI defeated significant Muslim invasion in the peninsula, close to complete the
reconquest, leaving only kingdom of Granada exist. some even suggested conquering Africa
Alvaro Pelyao, “Africa, where the name of Christ was revered, but where Muhammad is
 exalted today, belongs to you by right. The kings of the Goths, from whom
you descend, subjected Africa to the faith… Take it, as the other western
lands, for it is yours by hereditary right. Because it is yours, subject it to the
faith and take it in the name of Christ”
Alfonso XI, “the acquisition of the kingdom of Africa, as is well known, belongs to us
and to our royal right and to no one else.”
15th century, Ferdinand and Isabella restored internal peace to Castile and Aragon  destroy
the kingdom of Granada, Treaty of Granada (1491) complete the reconquest
“It pleased our Lord to give us a complete victory over the king and the Moors
of Granada, enemies of our holy Catholic faith… After so much labor, expense,
death, and shedding of blood, this kingdom of Granada which was occupied for
over seven hundred and eight years by the infidels… [has been conquered]”
 Attempted to annex Africa: occupied Ceuta (1415), Tangier(1471),
Melilla (1497), Mazalquivir (1505), Oran (1507), reached limited success

More about political and economic interest

1201-1204- Fourth Crusade: Commercial rivalry between Byzantine and Venice,
Massacre of the Latins, didn’t obey the Roman Church
Sack of Constantinople- looted 900,000 silver marks
1228-30- Pope Gregory IX launched campaign against Emperor Frederick II [Frederick II
was not willing to fully obey the Roman Church, Germany + Sicily surrounded Rome
1228-1229 The Sixth Crusade: Frederick was invited to Levant by sultan al-Kamil to resist his
brother al-Ma‘azzam + Frederick attempted to gain prestige through success in
gaining back Jerusalem against the Pope [crown himself in Holy Sepulcher]
1383- Crusade in Flanders [Pope Urban VI + Kingdom of England + crusaders
V.S. Pope Clement VII + Kingdom of France]
Henry le Despense, “if within the year it should happen that the realm of France was
converted to the faith of the true Pope Urban, the bishop should be bound
to fold up and put away the banner of the crusade, and thenceforth to serve
our lord the king under his [the king’s] own colours [in some other theatre]”
1410- Battle of Grunwald (Teutonic Order V.S. Polish Lithuanian army,
Lithuania converted to Christianity in 1386, political control of land)
James M. Powell, “there was a very substantial change in the way in which religion was employed.
It was moving toward a more exclusively propaganda role. Religion was more
and more serving the interests of secular rulers”

Faith became insufficient

Sixth Crusade (1228-1229)- Frederick II
Long preparation: delayed departure several times

‧consolidate his rule in Sicily and subdue North Italian cities

 ‧ Prepare goods to support, sent “a great number of ships… loaded with immense

quantities of corn and barley, wine and all kinds of

provisions” to support his crusading army

‧Prepare information about his opponent in Levant, communication with al-Kamil in

1226-1227, al-Kamil invited Frederick to come to resist al-Mu‘azzam

in Damascus, good friendship between Frederick and al-Kamil
David Abulafria, “the idea of a mass crusade” had shifted from “surge of
popular enthusiasm” to “carefully planned expedition”
Achievement through diplomatic negotiation: signed treaty with al-Kamil,

‧gained back Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, Turon, Sidon……

‧reconstruct Jerusalem, Joppa, Cesarea, Sidn, St. Mary

‧Hebron, Nablus, Jordan Valley, Tiberias remain in Muslim hand

‧Muslim pilgrims could still visit Jerusalem

Success even when excommunicated by the Pope

‧Gerold, “without any fitting ceremony and although excommunicated, in the chapel of

the sepulcher of our Lord, to the manifest prejudice of his honor and of the
imperial dignity, he put the diadem upon his forehead”

Seventh Crusade (1244-1254)- St. Louis (Louis IX)

Long preparation:

‧improved administration and strengthen the control of institution to collect revenue

Attacked and exploited heretics and Jews

‧hired 16 ship from Genoa and 20 from Marseilles

‧huge amount of goods of supplies: Jean de Joinville, “There was such a supply of wine

that in the middle of the fields by the seashore… [the king’s] men had built great
piles of barrels of wine which they had been buying for two years before his
arrival;…… The wheat and barley were also heaped out in the fields. At first
you thought they were hills; the rain had made it sprout on the outside so that all
you could see was green grass. But when they were ready to ship it to Egypt they
tore off the outside crust of grass, and inside the wheat and barley were as fresh as
if they had been newly threashed”
 ‧after arriving Cyprus, spent 8 months in further preparations: collected additional troops

from the East

William Chester Jordan, “he put so much more effort into his preparations, he
carried out his plans with such minute precision”
Joseph R. Strayer, “None of the earlier expeditions was as well organized or
financed, none had a more inspiring leader, none had a
better chance of success
Failure of war:
Well preparation made him able to capture Damietta, but difficult to march in land
Jean de Joinville, “The Crusaders, overcome by number, soon fell under this furious attack”
 St. Louis was captured and imprisoned by Saracens,
Louis, “I am a prisoner of the Sultan, and he can do with me, as he wills”
Pay ransom of 400,000 livres tournois, lost Damietta

Eighth Crusade (1270): Louis IX

Well Preparation:
19 ships from Genoa and 20 ships from Mareilles
Money from church, Jews, and subjects
Ending: Disease, death of leader
Tunisia paid a war indemnity of 210,000 gold-ounces (around 525,000 livres)
Sicilian could trade freely in Tunisian ports and exercise their faith freely in Tunis

Outsiders
Strong local tradition, cannot be fully eliminated
Paganism

Lithuania- never conquered

officially abandoned Paganism and converted to Catholicism in 1386
pagan Grand Duke Jogaila adopted the name Wtadystaw, married the queen of Poland

Teutonic order- might not be orthodox enough

‘… he said that he had heard said that a certain brother of the [Teutonic] order… looking in the bone
of a certain pig, predicted to the older brothers certain future things that after happened.’

Festivals: 1 January- Feast of Fools (derived from Saturnalia 農神節)

14 January- Feast of the Ass (derived from Cervulus
2 February- St. Brigid’s Day (derived from Imbolc 凱爾特聖燭節
14 February- St.Valentine’s Day (derived from Lupercalia 牧神節
Devotion and Veneration
Bishop Wigbert of Meseburg (1004-9), “By diligent preaching he recalled his flock from the empty
superstition of their error and uprooted the grove called Zutibure

[swiety bor, “holy grove” 樹叢] which the local inhabitants honoured
 as a god and which, from ancient times, had never been violated,
constructing there a church dedicated to the holy martyr Romanus.”

View of Church-
Jews

1. Should not be persecuted but be protected because they have special role in salvation
Saint Augustine- “Thus the unbelieving people of the Jews are cursed ‘from the earth,’ which is to
say, from the Church.”
“the Jews who rejected Him, and slew Him (according to the needfulness of His
death and resurrection), after that were miserably spoiled by the Romans, under
the domination of strangers, and dispersed over the face of the whole earth.”
“They make visible to the Christian faithful the subjection that they merited because
they, in the pride of their kingdom, put the Lord to death”
“Here did God show mercy to His Church, even by means of the Jews His
enemies…… he slew them not, that is, he left them their name of Jews still, although
they be the Romans’ salves, lest their utter dissolution should make us forget the
law of God concerning this testimony of theirs. So it were nothing to say, “Slay
them not’, but that he adds, ‘Scatter them abroad’: For if they were not dispersed
throughout the whole world with their scriptures, the Church would lack their
testimonies concerning those prophecies fulfilled in our Messiah.”
“by teaching that the Father (God) loves Him (Jesus), that the Jews who had
hated Him before may henceforth love him also”
Tolerated the Jewish minority communities in Europe
Calixtus III (1120), “We decree that no Christian shall use violence to force the Jews to be
baptized as long as they are unwilling and refuse; but that if anyone of them
seeks refuge among Christians of his own free will … he shall be made a
Christian… Moreover, no Christian shall presume to wound their
persons or kill them or rob them.”
13th century Church’s statement, “Neither force nor compulsion should be used in any way
against any Jew, to make him become a Christian. Rather, the Christians should
convert them to faith in Our Lord Jesus Christ by setting a good example……Also,
we command that, after certain Jews become Christians, all those who live under our
lordship should honour them, and no-one should dare to remind them or their
families of their Jewish origin in an insulting manner.”
15th century Spanish “definition”, “the Church tolerates the Jews as a witness to the Christian
faith……. The prince [any ruler] has the right to baptize by force the children
of Jews, always on condition that, as it appears, he does not wish by this means to
force adult Jews to receive baptism. …… Catholics can talk to Jews but they are
forbidden to eat in their company. A Jew cannot have Christian slaves: this would
be to sully the Christian religion. But a Christian may buy a Jew……. Violence
is not done to them to force them to convert”

2. Decreasing toleration
 Suppression of heresy- Some believed there is a link between Judaism and heresy
(Franciscan and Dominican)
1489-1490 Spain, Inquisitor Diego Martinez de Ortega prosecuted Gonzalo Perez Jarada “a
heretic and apostate from our Holy Catholic faith, following and
keeping the Law of Moses and its rites and ceremonies”
Pope Gregory IX 1236, Pope Julius 1554, attacked the Jewish religious text Talmud
Crusade - believed connection between Muslim and Jews
Jews are responsible for the death of Christ, Alfonso X, “they might live in
captivity forever and that they should be a reminder to everyone that they
come from the lineage of those who crucified Our Lord Jesus Christ”
Specific Days to attack Jews- Christmas, Easter
1506- Damiao de Gois: Massacre of New Christians in Lisbon, “more than five hundred
having assembled, they began to kill all the New Christians they found
in the streets. …… On this Easter Sunday they killed more than five
hundred people

Views of secular world

1. Royal protection and separate them from others because their tax provided huge income
Maintain own identity- St. Augustine, “It is a marvel to be greatly respected that…… the Jewish
nation under foreign monarchs whether pagan or
Christian has never lost the sign of their law, by which
they are distinguished from all other nations and peoples.”
1391- Henry III of Castile, “the Jews who used to live in these communities have been driven out,
about which I am very angry, because this does me great disservice……They
should be punished so that no-one [else] may have such wicked and ugly temerity
as to go out against these Jews, in such a wicked way, knowing that [the Jews]
were always guarded and defended by the kings, my ancestors; and the
Church itself, according to its law, ordered them to be guarded and defended”
Cecil Roth, “Jews were like a sponge, sucking up the floating capital of the country, to be
squeezed from time to time into the Treasury; while the king, high above them and
sublimely contemptuous of their transactions, was in fact the arch-usurer of the realm

2. Tolerance decreased-
Difficult to adapt local culture [different laws- Talmud, education, language-Hebrew]
[clothes- Rouelle, Conical hats, live together-community]
th
13 century Spanish Laws, “we order that all Jews male and female living in our
dominions shall bear some distinguishing mark upon their
heads so that people may plainly recognize a Jew, or a Jewess”
Scapegoat of Black Death- burn Jews
Albert, the “World Chronicler”, “horrible means by which the Jews wished to
extinguish all of Christendom, through their poisons
of frogs and spiders mixed into oil and chesses”
 Henry of Hervodia, “cruelly slain …… women with their small children cruelly and
inhumanly fed to the flames””
Accusation of Jews Abduction on children
1155-monks of Peterborough, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, “the Jews of Norwich
bought a Christian child before Easter and tortured him with all the
tortures that our Lord was tortured with, and on Good Friday hanged him
on a cross on account of our Lord, and then buried him.”
Matthew Paris, Chronica Majora, “(A.D.1255) the Jews of Lincoln stole a boy of eight
years of age, whose name was Hugh…… the boy was subjected to divers
tortures. They beat him till blood flowed and he was quite livid, they crowned
him with thorns, derided him, and spat upon him. Moreover, he was pierced
by each of them with a wooden knife…… After tormenting him in divers
ways, they crucified him, and pierced him to the heart with a lance. ……
John of Lexington……, “What the Christians say is true; for almost every
year the Jews crucify a boy as an insult to the name of Jesus

Envy of Richness- Jewish Occupations in Marseille (France, 14th century)

Finance: 40.5% Commerce: 27.5% Medicine:7%
1488- Jew Yucef Abravanel was appointed as the chief collector of the Spanish royal
taxes on livestock
1488- Jew Abraham Seneor was appointed as treasurer of a Castile royal agency for
law and order, Holy Brotherhood
1492-Andres Bernaldez, “all their effort was to grow and multiply. And during the
time of the rise of this heretical depravity by converso gentlemen and merchants
[in Seville], many monasteries were violated and many professed nuns corrupted
and subjected to ridicule, some by bribes and some by deceptions…… In these
kingdoms, many of them gained great wealth and property in a short time,
because they had no conscience about profit and usury

Poisoning their water and food in local communities + Murder

1506- Damiao de Gois: Massacre of New Christians in Lisbon, “more than five hundred
having assembled, they began to kill all the New Christians they found
in the streets. …… On this Easter Sunday they killed more than
five hundred people…… In these cruelties, they did not forget to
sack the houses and steal all the gold, silver and jewels which they
found in them…… On this day (Monday) more than a thousand souls
perished, without there being anyone in the city who dared resist”

Expulsion- England- 1290, France-1306/1394, Lithuania-1445

Spain-1492, Portugal-1497, South Italy- 1492
15th century Spanish “definition”, “can the king or prince, without [himself] sinning,
expel them from a town or from a kingdom? It has been said that they can”
 1492- Ferdinand and Isabella, “[These Jews] demonstrate that they always work, by
whatever ways and means they can, to subvert and remove faithful
Christians from our holy Catholic faith, to separate them from it, and
attract and pervert [them] to their wicked belief and opinion, instructing
them in the ceremonies and observances of their Law…… if the principal
cause of all this is not removed, [means we have] to throw the said Jews
out of our kingdoms…… Therefore we…… agree to order all the Jews
and Jewesses of our kingdoms to leave, and never return or come back
to them, or any one of them……. “

Exploitation: Louis IX
15th century Spanish “definition”, “the king may seize [the Jews’] goods, and that the
Pope may order this, even if he does not have to carry it
out, if they create no scandal and if they live peacefully”
1306-French king Philip IV confiscated Jews’ properties and received ~1,000,000 pounds

Iberian Peninsula - Not conquered by Christian before 1492

Muslim

Huge Muslim population (2/3 of total population in 14th century, still pretty large in 15th century).
Reconquest- Alfonso X(1252-1284), “The Moors are a people who believe that Muhammad was the
Prophet and Messenger of God…… his religion is, as it were,
an insult to God”
1229- Pope Gregory IX, “once the enemies are captured or dispersed, the land may return
to the Divine Cult and the rites of the Church may expand”

Comparative harmony between Christian and Muslim recorded by outsiders

1491-Treaty of Granada, “That their laws should be preserved as they were before, and that
no-one should judge them except by those same laws.
That their mosques, and the religious endowments appertaining to
them, should remain as they were in the times of Islam
That no Christian should enter the house of a Muslim, or insult
him in any way…….
That the Christians who had embraced the Mohammadan religion
should not be compelled to relinquish it and adopt the former creed”
Ferdinand, “through domestic communication with Christians, debating and
discussing religious matter, [the Muslims] would understand the error
they were in and abandoning it,… come to a true knowledge of the faith
and embrace it, as many other barbarous nations had done in the past”

Hostile attitude from outsiders  decreasing toleration from authority

Christian outsiders demanded suppression on Muslim religion
Cisneros, “if the infidels couldn’t be attracted to the road to salvation,
they had to be dragged to it”
 Muslim outsiders attacked Iberian Christian and Muslim

1492- Castilians conquer Granada 格蘭納達

1497- Muslims expelled from Portugal

1500- Cisneros, “there is now no one in the city who is not a Christian, and all the
mosques are churches”  Muslim rebellion
Cisneros, rebels should “be converted or enslaved, for as slaves they will be better
Christians and the land will be pacified forever”
1502- Muslims in Castile offered choice of conversion to Christianity or expulsion
1515- Muslims expelled from Navarre
Muslim customs and culture are banned

Sicily
Frederick II- suppress Islamic rebellion, forced all Muslim (about 20,000) to live in Lucera
Didn’t interfere with the practice of Islam at Lucera, accept Saracens would stay Muslim
David Abulafria, “the Muslims were also used as soldiers, personal servants, concubines……
A Saracen bodyguard travelled with Frederick, even to Jerusalem on his
crusade! ...... He used them for practical purposes. If Muslims rose high in
government service, it was as converts to Christianity”
Charles I of Anjou- Lucera supported Frederick’s grandson Conradin to resist Charles
Adopted the same policy implemented by Frederick to appease the locals
Charles II- sacked Lucera and Muslim were exiled or sold in slavery

Ottoman Empire
-Religious tolerance- dhimmis (non-Muslim subjects) were allowed to “practice their religion,
subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy)
Few places in the Balkans had mass conversion to Islam (mainly in Albania and
Bosnia)
Sinan Pasha, “Have no fear, there will be no captivity, no abduction of children, no
destruction of churches; we shall not change them into mosques, but
your church bells will ring as is your custom. The metropolitan will have
charge of justice over the Greeks and all the ecclesiastical rights. The lords
who have feudal estates will continue having them”
-suppression- non-Muslim were not allowed to carry weapons or ride horses
Non-Muslim suffered higher tax rate than Muslim
5. Religion and Family
Church’s place
Prohibition on marriage

1215- 4th Lateran Council prohibition on marriage within four degrees of consanguinity 親屬

Not just blood degrees, but also spiritual degrees [god father, god siblings]
Had relaxed from previous prohibition on marriage within 7 degrees
Still difficult to find somebody that doesn’t have relations to get married

Protection of marriage, marriage end when spouse die

Pope Nicolas I, “Where there is no consent from either party, there is no marriage. Therefore those
who give girls to boys while they are still in the cradle, and vice versa, achieve nothing,
even if the father and mother are willing and do this, unless both of the children
consent after they have reached the age of understanding”
12th century, Canon Law, “When therefore there is consent, which alone makes a marriage, between
those persons, it is clear that they have been married”
Priest’s blessing to the “A woman who has been sent to a monastery without the consent of her husband
ring and marriage to
is not prohibited from returning to live with him……”
ensure the marriage
wouldn’t be haunt by devil “He who has become a monk without his wife’s consent must return to her”
“A man may not make a monastic vow without his wife’s consent”

“A husband is not permitted to be celibate 獨身 without his wife’s consent”

“A wife is not permitted to take a vow of celibacy, unless her husband chooses
the same way of life”

“If a man plights his troth 承諾 to any woman, he is not permitted to marry another’

1215-4th Lateran Council- unlawful marriages (without priest or witnesses) are still considered valid

Ending Marriage?
Marriage cannot be dissolved- 12th century Canon Law, “once a marriage has been proved to have
begun, it cannot be dissolved for any reason”
Cervantes, “Better the worst marriage than the best divorce”
Church force divorce- annulment: if church announce the marriage is not legal or valid
Separation- 12th century Canon Law, “Divine law forbids a man to forsake his wife, except on
account of fornication” “The bond of marriage cannot be dissolved by fornication”
mistreatment, cruelty, drunkenness, forsaken
Re-marriage
12th century Canon Law, “neither a second nor a third nor successive marriages shall be condemned”
St. Paul, “To the married I give charge, not I but the Lord, that the wife should not separate from
her husband (but if she does, let her remain single or else be reconciled to her husband)-
and that the husband should not divorce his wife……. A wife is bound to her husband
as long as he lives. If the husband dies, she is free to be married to whom she wishes,
 only in the Lord. But in my judgment she is happier if she remains as she is.”
Urban III, “A man or a woman, passing to a second marriage, ought not to be blessed by a priest,
for, since they have been blessed on another occasion, their blessing should not be repeated”
social meanings of marriage
Love- Edward I & Eleanor of Castile, but most marriage in middle ages were arranged marriage
 large number of divorce
Matthew Paris, “Law connects them, love and sexual compatibility”
J.W. Thompson, “Medieval martial relations, far from being the sentimental attachments which
romance depicts, were very often marriages of convenience and were brutally enforced”
15th century Faenza’s Common Law, “We decree and ordain that anyone in the city, county, or district
of Faenza who does not keep his wife in his house and who fails to treat her with marital
affection shall forfeit half of the dowry of his said wife… And, on the other hand, if a
wife fails to treat her husband with wifely affection, but lives dishonorably, commits
adultery, or wanders about without her husband’s permission, she shall lose her
dowry and her husband may profit thereby. In order to sustain [charges on] these
matters common knowledge proved by five witnesses shall suffice”

Political and socio-economic Alliance- Habsburg family

Ferdinand + Isabella combination of kingdom of Aragon and Castile
Henry + Elizabeth  End of Wars of the Roses and the settlement the conflicts
between House of Lancaster and House of York
Jean de Joinville, “Certain of the barons, however, took steps to bring about a reconciliation
between Comte Pierre [of Brittanu] and Comte Thibaut [de
Champagne] and were so successful in their negotiations that the latter
promised to take the Comete de Bretagne’s daughter as his wife…”
Redevances- marriage tax of any serf who get married, if married outside the manor, tax
would be much heavier
J.W. Thompson, “Since his(lords) primary interest was to have a redoubtable and robust vassal to
serve the fief of which he was suzerain, he usually compelled the widow again to
marry, and often imposed upon her a husband of his own selection, without the
faintest regard for the feelings of the lady.”
“Marriage was often a contract entered into to make an advantageous alliance,
to escape escheat of a fief, to keep a particular piece of land in the family, to
acquire new lands.”
“The rich traders established mercantile and then social connections by marriage with
the old landed aristocracy, so that their interests in course of time became identical”
Increase social mobility- low class would like to get higher social status by marriage
 Poor people would like to be rich by having spouse from rich family
Descend old nobles married rising new nobles

Dowry 嫁妝- 跟隨女性的財產

Bologna Testament “Albertino di Ser Petro, labourer, of the parish of Santa Maria degli Alemanni, by grace
of Christ … not wishing to die intestate… leaves to his wife, Margarita di Giovanni,
her dowry which was 23 Bolognese pounds”
12th century, Pope Innocent II, “with regard to the lady who you said was given in marriage by her father,
and was returned into her father’s keeping by the man to whom she had been given
until on a day appointed he should take her into his own house”
1342- Dowry law in Perugia, “If any woman is given a dowry by her father, mother, brother, maternal or
paternal uncle or any other person, such a woman and her descendants cannot and may
not have any reversionary claim on the inheritance of any of those who endowed
her, or of their descendants in the male line, while any male descendant survives.
th
14 century- Diary fo Gregorio Dati, “her(Isabetta) first cousins, Giovanni and Lionardo di Domenico
Arrighi, promised that she should have a dowry of gold florins and that, apart from
the dowry, she should have the income on a farm in S. Fiore a Elsa…… I want her
to be as assured as can be of having her dowry, just as though it had been declared and
insured.
1384- Paolo Sassetti’s diary, “On 20 March 1383 [1384], we secured and agreed with …… the said Lena
should be wife of Lodovico….. with a dowry worth 700 gold florins, made up
of money and trousseau
 Insurance: Florence- Monte delle doti (insurance scheme)
Starting from 5 years old, father made the first payment, deposit interest rate ~11 percent
If the girl died before marriage, deposit could not be claimed back

7 deadest sin: lust

Sex: Pleasure and childbirth
12th century Canon Law, “Childbirth is the sole purpose of marriage for women”
Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109), “There is one evil, an evil above all other evils…… This evil is
sexual desire, carnal delight, the storm of lust that has smashed and battered
my unhappy soul, emptied it of all strength, and left it weak and empty”
St. Bonaventure (1217-74), “The sexual act itself is diseased, for it cannot be performed without
disorder”
St. John Fisher (1469-1535), sex = “the foul and filthy pleasure of the body”
John Bromyard (-1352), “This sacrament (marriage) was ordained by God for the end of
procreating children…… If one turns one’s attention and mind to the end which they
seek in marriage, that is to say, lust… and if one pays attention to their abuse of the
sexual act, it is no wonder that they lack marriage’s due end and reward, offspring”1

1556- Giles of Roman, “we observed that prostitutes are more sterile 不育 than other women”

James A. Brundage, “These warning did little to change behavior. People stubbornly continued to
 chase after sexual pleasure with undiminished energy, despite plague, war,
political upheaval, and social turmoil.
Abortion and orphans, Burchard of Worms (950-1025), “It (abortion) makes a big difference if a
poor little woman does it on account of difficulty of feeding, or
whether a fornicator does it to conceal her crime”
Discrimination against women
Unnatural and First Sin
Bible, Genesis, “the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and he slept; then He took one
of his ribs and closed up the flesh at that place. The Lord God fashioned into a woman
the rib which He had taken from the man, and brought her to the man……. The serpent
said to the woman, ‘You will not die. For God knows that when you eat of it your eyes will
be opened, and you will be like God, knowing good and evil.’ So when the woman saw
that the tree was good for food, and that it was a delight to the eyes, and that the tree
was to be desired to make one wise, she took of its fruit and ate; and she also gave some
to her husband, and he ate. Then the eyes of both were opened…… To the woman he
(God) said, ‘I will greatly multiply your pain in childbearing; in pain you shall bring forth
children, yet your desire shall be for your husband, and he shall rule over you.”
St. Paul, “As in all the churches of the saints, the women should keep silence in the churches. For they
are not permitted to speak, but should be subordinate, as even the law says. If there is
anything they desire to know, let them ask their husbands at home. For it is shameful for a
woman to speak in church”
“I permit no woman to teach or to have authority over men; she is to keep silent. For Adam was
formed first, then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but the woman was the transgressor.”
(1420-1492) Pere Torrellas, women are ‘unnatural, born with a deficiency of good, clean warmth’
(-1266) Bernard of Parma, “A woman on the other hand should not have [jurisdictional] power …
because she is not made in the image of God; rather man is the image and
glory of God and woman ought to be subject to man and, as it were, like his
servant, since man is the head of the woman and not the other way about”

Women as property or subject of father, then husband and childbirth machine

St. Paul, “Wives, be subject to your husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is the head of the
wife, as Christ is head of the Church…”
12th century Canon Law, “Childbirth is the sole purpose of marriage for women”

Limited jobs to gain money for women

Peasant women- 1270- Seneschaucy, “she ought to know her work and what relates to it …… She ought
to know well how to make and salt cheese and how to preserve and look after the
vessels of the dairy…… …… the dairymaid ought to help winnow the corn whenever
she can; she ought to keep geese and hens and answer for the yield; and she ought to
keep and screen the fire so that no harm arises through lack of supervision…… The
dairymaid ought to look after all the small stock which are kept on the manor……
 Town women- 1276- Veronese civic law, “we order that a woman who sells oil or fruit, or anything
else that is eaten, ought to hold boys in apprenticeship selling the aforesaid
things…… no merchant women or other women selling wine or anything
edible ought to spin or wind thread while standing at their places

Real Practice V.S. Canon law

Canon Law, “He who has become a monk without his wife’s consent must return to her”
V.S.
1201- Innocent III decreed that man could take the Cross without his wife’s consent
Need Consent

Canon Law, “Betrothals 訂婚 may not be contracted before the age of seven”
V.S.
Desiderius Erasmus, “It is not rare to see, especially among the French, a girly hardly the years old and
a mother a eleven”
Canon Law, “It is not permitted to perform a marriage in secret”
Secret Wedding

“No one shall marry a wife without a public ceremony”

V.S.
Priest ensure that the marriage is with consent of both parties help secret wedding
Shakespeare, Romeo and Julietpriest helped the couple to get married even their families disagreed

Canon Law, “Adultery in either sex is punished in the same way”

“No man may kill his adulterous wife”
“Men are to be punished more severely for adultery than women”
V.S.
1231 Laws of Sicily, “If a husband catches his wife in the very act of adultery, he may kill both the
adulterer and his wife, but without any further delay”
th
13 century Spanish laws, “although a married man might lie with another woman who had a husband,
his own wife could not accuse him before the secular judge on this account……First,
because no injury or dishonor results to his own wife from adultery committed
Adultery

by a man with some other woman. Second, because from the adultery which his
wife commits with another man her husband becomes dishonored through her
receiving another into her bed, and moreover, because through adultery committed
by her great injury may result to her husband. For, if she should become pregnant
by the man with whom she committed adultery, the child of another would
become an heir along with his own children……therefore, since the injury and
dishonor are unequal, it is proper that the husband should have this advantage,
and the power to accuse his wife of adultery if she commits it, and that she
should not have the right to accuse him; and this was established by the ancient
laws, although, according to the decrees of the Holy Church, it is not so.
 Canon Law, “once a marriage has been proved to have begun, it cannot be dissolved for any
reason”
V.S.
th
13 century Spanish Laws, “When a wife complains of her husband, on account of his being of a
cold disposition, or impotent, she should file her application in writing, or state it orally,
making said complaint simply in the following manner, before one of the judges of the
Holy Church, alleging specifically that she complains of her husband because he cannot
have intercourse with her, and asked to be separated from him and that permission be
given her, to marry someone else, as she desires to have children…… A husband can
complain of his wife in the same way, where an impediment exists in her which prevents him
from having sexual intercourse with her.”
Portugal and the Age of Discoveries
Portuguese Expansion to 1460: 1415 Ceuta 1420 Maderia 1427> Azores
 1434 Cape Bojador (Western Sahara)  1437 Tangiers
1444 Senegal: Nuno Tristao, Cape Verde: Dinis Diaz 1460 Sierra Leone
Expansion from 1480s: 1480s Congo  1481 Elmina (Ghana)
 1488 Cape of Good Hop: Bartholomew Diaz
 1497 Calicut: Vasco da Gama  late 15th century Kilwa (Kenya)

Interested in Africa more than America

Crusading tradition: Crusade to North Africa
Military orders: Order of Aviz, Order of Christ, Order of Santiago
Spread Christian, find Christian allies
Sending princes overseas to prevent internal struggles
building overseas colonies and providing overseas adventures
[Henry obtained: monopolies on soap production, income from taxes on tuna, sardine fishing,
Jurisdiction in Madeira, Exemption from customs duties
Intellectual curiosity: Renaissance
Economic interest: black death hindered economic development before  need to make commercial profit
Venice, Genoese’s commercial rivalry  find new market, new lands (slave, sugar, gold trade)

Slave trade: 16th century 10% population are black slave

Riberia Grande (1513) “There are fifty-eight settlers who are vizinhos, white men of
honourable standing. There are sixteen black vizinhos and there are fifty-six estantes estrangeiros who are
natives of your kingdoms. There are four unmarried women and ten black women, as well as other foreigners
who are now here with their ships and will leave. There are twelve clerics, and three friars among whom
are two preachers.
Prince Henry the Navigator
- Son of King Joao I of Portugal,
- Gomes Eannes de Azuara (chronical- new market and trading partner, search of Christian ally
- Prester John