1 Introduction

The structure of the atom has fascinated the scientists and philosophers since the times
of Democritus in Ancient Greece. Although more proper scientific studies have been con-
ducted on matter after the enlightenment era, the first prominent theory of the matter
was presented by John Dalton (1766-1844) who reconceptualized the term of "atom" as
fundamental part of a matter [1]. The further studies in the quest of understanding the
structure of matter paved the way for the discovery of "electron" and "nucleus" by Joseph
John Thomson (1856-1940) and Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937). As a next step, Niels Bohr
(1885-1962) put forward his idea of orbital motion of electrons around the nucleus in 1913
[2], which explained why the atom emits radiation in certain frequencies. Before long,
this exhilarating theory of Bohr attracted many scientist at the times for the experimental
verification/falsification. Consequently, Henry Moseley (1887-1915), who was a fellow in
Cavendish Laboratory in Manchester University led by Ernest Rutherford, presented his
first work of " The High Frequency Spectra of the Elements" at Philosophical Magazine
in 1913 [3]. In this work, he studied the relation between atomic numbers of elements and
the frequency of their characteristics X-ray radiations experimentally. The ingenuity of
Moseley in this experiment was his spectrometer design out of a crystal and photographic
plate which utilizes the newly discovered phenomenon of Bragg’s reflection in 1913 [4] so as
to obtain more accurate spectra of elements. The observation of well-agreement between
the theory of Bohr and experimental results paved the way for his second paper in 1914
[5], where he extended the number of elements which were characterized and further he
quantitatively discussed the relation between the frequencies of K and L lines and atomic
numbers thoroughly. Having passed through the criticisms of Ferdinand von Lindemann
(1852-1939) about the dimensional analysis, the results of Moseley has proven themselves
as strong experimental verification of Antonius Johannes van den Broek’s (1870-1926) as-
sertions on the charge of the nucleus is same as the place of the elements in Mendeleev’s
table and the atomic model of Bohr [6].
In this experiment, the frequency of the characteristic X-ray radiation of barium, silver,
tin and iodine are measured with a sophisticated spectrometer made up of scintillator and
multi-channel analyzer to verify the observation of Moseley. With the known elements and
measured energies, the Rydberg constant in Moseley’s law is determined.

2 Theory
In the theory of Bohr, the quantized angular momentum of the system and the equiv-
alance between centripetal force to Coulomb force give the rise the following relation for
the frequency of principal radiation, which is the transition between 2nd level to 1st level:

1 1 2π 2 e4 m 2
ν=( − ) ∗ N (1)
12 22 h3

2
where N is the charge of the nucleus.
On the other hand, the experiments shows that the K and L transitions are not depend
on solely N 2 but (N − σn )2 :

1 1 2π 2 e4 m
ν=( − ) ∗ (N − σn )2 (2)
12 22 h3
where σn is a term arising due to the presence of n-electrons in the same electronic
level to each other, and together with the atomic number they are constituting the effec-
tive nuclear charge of an atom experienced by the electron of interest. As following the
quantitative comparison between the Bohr estimations and Moseley’s empirical expression:
3
ν = ν0 (N − σn )2 (3)
4
2 4
The value of ν0 is very close to the value of 2π he3 m , which indicates that the physics
described by Bohr corresponds to the effect observed by Moseley. In the experiment, to be
able to observe this transition, atom is hit by a radioactive source (in our case 58.8 keV), to
replace the electron from the innermost ring. The resultant vacancy in the innermost ring is
filled with an electron present in outer rings, which eventually leads an emission in a photon.
Since the probability of the transition between closer levels are high [7], Moseley’s law is
tried to be verified by observing the dominant emission coming from the atom. Furthermore,
Moseley found the value of σn as 1 and 7.4 for K and L lines, respectively. When the charge
screening taken into account, Moseley gave the first rough empirical evidence of electron
occupation of first two orbitals as 2 and 8. It is pertinent to note that in the original paper,
the first ring is believed to contain 4 electrons, therefore σ4 was taken as 1.

3 Experimental Details
3.1 Experimental Setup
3.1.1 Radioactive Sources Americium-241 and Cs-137
The former will be used as a gamma sources for replacing the innermost electron and the
latter is utilized for calibration of the detector. Since their characteristic radiations are
known, two-point calibration has performed on multi-channel analyzer.

3.1.2 X-ray Detector

X-ray detector is consisting of NaI scintillation crystal and Photo-Multiplier Tube (PMT).
The X-rays are converted to high energy electrons inside of the crystal and the secondary
light field is formed inside the crystal which is proportional to the energy of electrons. This
light field yields photoelectrons, and those photoelectons are converted to electrical signal

3
via PMT. As a result, the deposited energy can be translated into electrical signal via
gamma detector.

3.1.3 Multi-channel Analyzer (MCA)

Multi-channel analyzer samples the incoming the electrical signal with respect to its am-
plitude in different channel bins.

3.1.4 Lead Blocks

Lead blocks remedy the radiation coming out of Am-241 source, and in the experiment
one of them is used for cutting the direct optical path between Am-241 source and X-ray
detector.

3.1.5 Elements to be tested (Barium sulfate, Tin rods, Silver Plate, Iodine)
To be able to find the Rydberg constant, the elements whose atomic numbers are known
are used.

Atom Atomic Number

Silver 47
Tin 50
Iodine 53
Barium 56

Table 1: Atoms and their atomic numbers.

3.2 Experimental Procedure

As a first step, the channel bins of the multi-channel analyzer is calibrated with known
two X-ray sources, which are Cs-137 and Am-241. Since the most prominent radiations
coming out of CS-137 is 32 keV characteristic X-ray emission of Barium and the 59.5 keV
for Am-241. The two significant peaks present in the screen are marked with these values,
and since the multi-channel analyzer sorts out channels with equal spacing, the values of
each channel bin can be interpolated accordingly. Alternatively, two-point calibration can
be performed by only using Am-241 source with longer integration time. In the screen, the
highest peak belongs to the 59.5 keV, and there are 4 peaks in its left. The peak which is
located at rightmost of these 4 peaks belongs to the 32 keV.
After the calibration process, the geometry of the setup is established by putting the
sample containing the atom whose characteristic X-ray radiation is concerned, Am-241
source and X-ray detector in desired angle configuration, as in Figure 1. After constructing

4
the setup, readings should be recorded at least 30 minutes for obtaining sharp peaks.
Throughout the process, the the number of particles incident to scintilla tor should not
exceed 1000 counts per second.

Figure 1: The photograph and schematic of the experimental setup.

5
4 Measurement and Data Analysis
In the first round of the measurement, silver, tin, iodine and barium are characterized in
experimental setup depicted in Figure 1 in such a way that they are directly exposed to the
radiation of Am-241 source.

4.1 Silver

Figure 2: The emission spectrum of Silver.

4.2 Tin

Figure 3: The emission spectrum of Tin.

6
4.3 Iodine

Figure 4: The emission spectrum of Iodine.

4.4 Barium

Figure 5: The emission spectrum of Barium.

As explained in the theory part, the relation between the frequency of emission and atomic
number is given as in Equation 2. Furthermore, the ν0 can be expanded as:

7
 ν0 = hR∞ (4)
where h is Planck constant and R∞ is Rydberg constant, which is the constant of interest in
this experiment. In this stage, the meaning of the peaks in the spectra should be explained.
In the first four graphs, the peak around 50 keV is very prominent. This peak can easily be
explained by Compton scattering experienced by the photon coming from Am-241 source
from the target atom. The calculated value for this scattering is around ∼ 120 degree,
which is consistent with the geometry between source, target and detector. The other
peak around the 5 keV bin is most probably related to the characteristic X-ray radiation
of the lead blocks. Although the K characteristic X-rays of lead is around 80 keV, the L
characteristic X-ray emission coming from the lead is around 10 keV. As it can be expected,
the energy of the source is around 58 keV, which is not enough to break off an electron in
K shell in lead but it is well enough for L shell [8]. Now having clarified the meaning of
the peaks, the third peak in the graphs can be deemed as characteristic X-ray emissions of
atoms on interest. As a result of the peak analysis of Figure 2,3, 4 and 5,

Atom The energies of characteristic X-ray emission (keV)

Silver 23.89
Tin 27.10
Iodine 22.60
Barium 33.60

Table 2: Atoms and the energies of their characteristic X-ray emission .

By using the experimental data depicted in Table 2, the Rydberg constant can be
estimated from the following formula:

4 EK
R∞ = (5)
3 h(Z − 1)2
For barium,

4EK 4 ∗ 33.60[keV ]
R∞ = = = 3.58 ∗ 1015
3h(Z − 1)2 3 ∗ 4.136 ∗ 10−18 [keV.s](56 − 1)2
Similarly for other atoms,

8
 The energies of characteristic X-ray emission
Atom Rydberg Constant [ 1s ]
(keV)
Silver 23.89 3.54 ∗ 1015
Tin 27.10 3.63 ∗ 1015
Iodine 22.60 2.63 ∗ 1015
Barium 33.60 3.58 ∗ 1015

Table 3: Experimental estimations of Rydberg constant.

Rsilver + Rtin + Rbarium

R∞ = (6)
3
and the standard deviation:

v
u 3
u (Ri − R)2
uP
t i=1
∆R∞ =
3−1
p
(3.54 ∗ 1015 − 3.58 ∗ 1015 )2 + (3.63 ∗ 1015 − 3.54 ∗ 1015 )2
=
2
6 1
= 1.43 ∗ 10 [ ].
s

which yields,
1
Rexp = R∞ ± ∆R∞ = 3.58 ∗ 1015 ± 1.43 ∗ 106 [ ]. (7)
s
In these calculations, σn value for Silver is taken as 1 on the contrary of 0.4 which was
discussed in the second paper of Moseley. This note in the original paper is most probably
caused by an systematical error in the original experiment. The estimations are in well-
agreement in theoretical value of Rydberg constant which is (3.45±0.3)∗1015 . On the other
hand, there is a huge discrepancy in the experimental estimation of Rydberg constant with
Iodine. As it can be seen from the other results, this discrepancy is most probably caused
not by the systematical limit of the experimental setup but the condition of the element of
Iodine. During the experiment, a considerable sublimation of Iodine is observed. In this
sublimation, a brown gas is observed instead of a purple one. Thus, there might be some
changes in the chemical structure of the Iodine, which yields wrong estimation for Rydberg
constant. Therefore, in the analysis the value of Rydberg constant estimated from Iodine
is discarded.
Furthermore, the tin atom is also characterized inside a plastic box to check whether
its characteristic X-ray can still be observed or not, which can be seen in Figure 6:

9
 Figure 6: The emission spectrum of Tin inside a plastic box.

In this graph, the peak is located very near to the expected energy bin; however, the
absorption due to the polymer makes hard to distinguish the peak from the background.
Therefore, the peak can be accessible either longer integration time or more active source.

5 Results and Discussion

In the X-ray fluorescence experiment, the relation between characteristic X-ray radiation
of atoms and their atomic numbers. Unlike the original experiment carried out by Moseley,
the scintillator and multi-channel analyzer combination is used to measure the spectrum
of the emission. After the calibration of the detector complex with two known radioactive
sources, measurements are taken in the geometry depicted in Figure 1.
For each measurement, the integration time is approximately 30 minutes to distinguish
the dominant peak better than the broadened emission. The measurements for silver,
barium and tin provide accurate estimations for Rydberg constant up to % 0.09 error, in
Table 3. On the other hand, the measurement taken with Iodine yields a wrong estimation
due to the complications mentioned in measurement and data analysis part of the report.
Consequently, there are several points that can be improved in the experiment for better
estimation. First, the condition of the atoms of interest. In far extreme, the condition of
Iodine is not appropriate for sake of experiment, which manifest itself as a huge error in the
estimation. The reason for that is the experiment is hugely depend on an approximation,
which is the energy difference between first two level in the atom are not affected by any

10
interaction so that the simplicity of Bohr’s orbital theory holds. Since the interactions
with the other atoms change the electronic levels of orbitals of individual constituents.
Likewise Iodine, the condition of the silver is not of its best either since it is oxidized
by air. Although we are fortunate that the oxidization does not severely affect the silver
sample in an unacceptable level, samples should be preserved in better conditions for better
estimation.
Secondly, the adjustment of the geometry can be made in a more testable way. In
other words, the main peak in the spectrum is caused by the Compton scattering of the
source from the atom. Therefore, if the angle between source, atom and detector is easily
measurable and controllable, this peak could be easily identified. Moreover, the setup can be
more versatile for the observation of different physical phenomenon while easing the analysis
part of the experiment. Thirdly, the shape of the lead blocks can be altered in such a way
they are more compatible with the shape of the detector. Thus, the main beam coming from
the source can be blocked more effectively. Lastly, a radioactive source which has higher
frequency component than 80 keV can be used to see the K lines characteristic emission
of a lead to be make sure of the peaks other than the scattered source and characteristic
X-ray emission of target atom belong to the lead.
Nonetheless, the Rydberg constant is managed to be observed within an error range of
% 0.09 as it can be seen in result 7. Overall, this experiment independently verifies the
result that Henry Moseley obtained in 1913 and 1914, which is also the verification of Bohr
and van den Broek’s hypothesis.

References
[1] A. W. Thackray, “The origin of dalton’s chemical atomic theory: Daltonian doubts
resolved,” Isis, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 35–55, 1966.

[2] N. Bohr, “I. on the constitution of atoms and molecules,” The London, Edinburgh, and
Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, vol. 26, no. 151, pp. 1–25, 1913.

[3] H. G. Moseley, “Xciii. the high-frequency spectra of the elements,” The London, Edin-
burgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, vol. 26, no. 156, pp.
1024–1034, 1913.

[4] W. H. Bragg and W. L. Bragg, “The reflection of x-rays by crystals,” Proceedings of the
Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical
Character, vol. 88, no. 605, pp. 428–438, 1913.

[5] H. G. J. Moseley, “Lxxx. the high-frequency spectra of the elements. part ii,” The
London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, vol. 27,
no. 160, pp. 703–713, 1914.

11
[6] H. Moseley, “Atomic models and x-ray spectra,” Nature, vol. 92, no. 2307, p. 554, 1914.

[7] N. Zettili, “Quantum mechanics: concepts and applications,” 2003.

[8] F. Baes, “X-ray emission lines.” [Online]. Available: https://hps.org/publicinformation/

ate/q11377.html

12