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Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
I ATA
Airport Development
Reference Manual
9th Edition
Effective January 2004
Director
Airports and Infrastructure Consultancy Services
International Air Transport Association
800 Place Victoria
P.O. Box 113
Montreal, Quebec
Canada H4Z 1M1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................... vii
Chapter A — Introduction
Section A1: lATA’s R o le ............................................ ........................................................................... 3
Section A2: Purpose of the Manual ..................................................................................................... 5
Chapter B — Planning
Section B1: Major Planning Processes............................................................................................... 11
Section B2: The Planning Process ...................................................................................................... 37
Page
Section F10: The Airport Scheduling Process ..................................................................................... 213
Section F11: Computational Fluid Dynamics ....................................................................................... 216
Page
Chapter L — Aircraft Parking Aprons
Section L1: Current and Future Aircraft Types .................................................................................... 407
Section L2: Physical and Functional Requirements ........................................................................... 409
Section L3: Gate Stands and Remote S tan d s......................................................... ........................... 419
Section L4: Ground Handling Equipment............................................................................................. 426
Section L5: Service Roads & Storage A re a s ....................................................................................... 433
Section L6: Distributed Electrical Power & A ir ..................................................................................... 438
Section L7: Aircraft De/Anti-Icing Facilities .................. ................................................. ...................... 445
Page
Chapter T — Airport Processes
Section T1: Terminal Processes ........................................................................................................... 557
Section T2: Apron Processes................................................................................................................ 560
Section T3: Support Processes............................................................................................................. 562
Chapter Y — Networks
Section Y1: Frontline Operational and S ecurity................................................................................... 705
Section Y2: Building Services ............................................................................................................... 710
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
IATA gratefully acknowledges the technical assistance and input provided by IATA Members and the
organisations and individuals listed below.
Chapter A — Introduction
Section A1: lATA’s Role
A1.1 IA T A ........................................................................ ..................................... . 3
A1.2 IATA Airports Activities ...... ....... ..................... ......... ...................................... 3
A1.3 Other IATA Airports A ctivitie s .............. ............ .............................................. 4
Section A2: Purpose of the Manual
A2.1 Scope of the Airport Development Reference Manual ............................... 5
A2.2 How to Use the M a n u a l.................................................... ............................... 6
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IATA
CHAPTER A — INTRODUCTION
A 1„1 IATA
International air transport is one of the most dynamic and fastest-changing industries in the world. It
needs a responsive, forward-looking and universal trade association, operating at the highest
professional standards. IATA is that association.
Originally founded in 1919, IATA brings together approximately 280 airlines, including the world’s
largest. Flights by these airlines comprise more than 98 percent of all international scheduled air
traffic.
Since these airlines face a rapidly changing world, they must cooperate in order to offer a seamless
service of the highest possible standard to passengers and cargo shippers. Much of that cooperation
is expressed through IATA, whose mission is to “represent, lead and serve the airline industry”.
Continual efforts by IATA ensure that people, freight and mail can move around the vast global airline
network as easily as if they were on a single airline in a single country. In addition, IATA helps to
ensure that Members’ aircraft can operate safely, securely, efficiently and economically under clearly
defined and understood rules.
IATA is pro-active in supporting the joint industry action essential for the efficient development of the
airtransport system. lATA’s role is to identify issues, help establish industry positions and communicate
these to governments and other relevant authorities.
The Airports and Infrastructure Consultancy Services section of IATA, positioned in the SO&I Division,
works to put this theory into practice.
A 1 .2 IA T A A IR P O R T S A C T IV IT IE S
IATA Airports and Infrastructure Consultancy Services is responsible for influencing airport planning
and development projects worldwide to ensure that airline requirements are met with respect to
appropriateness, efficiency and cost-effectiveness.
It produces guidelines on airport planning and design, such as this manual, and actively promotes
airline user requirements to airport authorities through Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) activity
and commercial airport consultancy services on airport projects worldwide.
The section works to assist airlines in the development of airport facilities that will meet airline
requirements in a cost-effective manner. The mandate of the section is:
To take a leadership role in influencing airport planning and development worldwide in order to
achieve safe and efficient, capacity balanced, cost-effective, functional and user-friendly airports.
Major activities of the section are defined within subsequent clauses A1.2.1 through to A1.2.3 inclusive.
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A 1 .2 .2 A ir p o r t C o n s u lta n c y S e rv ic e s
IATA offers a wide range of Airport Planning and Development Consultancy services. It brings a
global perspective to the projects it undertakes, drawing on its extensive in-house expertise and its
unique access to airline experts and other specialists. Typical clients include airport authorities, private
airport owners, airlines, governments, manufacturers, suppliers to the industry, consulting firms and
other parties involved in airport infrastructure decisions.
IATA can act as an independent consultant or provide a review of detailed work undertaken by
specialised consulting firms.
A 1 .2 .3 In te rn a tio n a l In d u s try W o rk in g G ro u p
The IIWG brings together IATA, Airports Council International (ACI) and the International Coordinating
Council of Aerospace Industries Associations (ICCAIA). The IIWG was founded in 1970 and its main
goal is to review airport/aircraft compatibility issues which might improve the development of the air
transport system.
A 1 .3 O T H E R IA T A A IR P O R T S A C T IV IT IE S
In addition to the Airport Planning and Development activities of IATA, which this Manual addresses,
IATA is active in many other Airport related areas such as User Charges, Fuel, Ground Handling,
Security, Passenger Services and Environment.
For more information on the full range of lATA’s Airport related activities, please visit
www.iata.org/airports.htm
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IATA Introduction
A 2.1 S C O P E O F T H E A IR P O R T D E V E L O P M E N T R E F E R E N C E M A N U A L
The IATA Airport Development Reference Manual (ADRM) is the industry’s most important guide for
airlines, airports, government authorities, architects and engineering consultants who are either
planning new or extending existing airport facilities. The ADRM’s information is an invaluable
consolidation of best industry practice with respect to the development of world class airports through
better design. Its content represents the consolidated recommendations of world-renowned industry
specialists and organizations seeking to promote the development of world-class airport facilities.
The ADRM has been completely revised since the previous (8th) edition. These revisions and new
content additions reflect recent changes within the civil aviation industry, and include entirely new
chapters dedicated to security and anti-terrorism issues in particular. In addition to this, specific
commercial issues have been discussed and recommended practices for running airport projects
have been developed. These address the need for authorities to run projects efficiently as they seek
to create unique airport environments through world class design. Environmental issues have also
been updated, primarily to promote savings in operational costs for airports which would then be
passed-on to lATA’s member airlines.
This latest evolution of the ADRM also incorporates IATA Recommendations (IRs) at the end of each
content section. These recommendations have been included to focus the airport operator and
designer on lATA-determined best practice design principles, and to help convey the expectations
of the world’s major airlines with respect to the development or refurbishing of airport facilities.
To foster overall ease-of-use and help the airport planner to locate key information within the ADRM,
the six chapters of the previous edition document have now been divided into twenty five more concise
content sections.
The following new chapters with multiple sections have been included to broaden the coverage and
scope of the publication and provide further essential airport planning guidance:
@ Airport economics.
• Contingency management.
• Airport commissioning.
• Future technology & miscellaneous items.
• Airport processes.
• IATA airport project process.
• Anti-terrorism and police facilities.
• Airport fire services.
• Networks.
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A 2 .2 HO W TO USE TH E M A N U A L
This ADRM should be used by airport planners worldwide as the primary source of best practice
airport design guidance. In certain instances specified within the relevant clauses of this ADRM, it is
advised by IATA to refer to further external supplementary international or national publications to
aid the airport planner. Seeking additional guidance from the sources listed below will help the airport
planner to ensure that best and safe practices are adhered to and built into the airport design and
that national standards are observed and implemented where appropriate.
IATA recognizes that national standards will vary from region to region across the world. While the
ADRM should be the initial source of design guidance for airport developments, the airport designer
should seek to clarify national mandatory standards and decide appropriately on any potentially
conflicting standards. Professional engineering and architectural guidance should be used to assess
and resolve areas of conflict between the ADRM standards stated herein and any supplementary
national standards.
In the event that professional guidance is not sought and used for this adjudication, which is not a
recommended course of action, then the designer should seek to use the higher more onerous
standards in areas of uncertainty. Particular reference should be made to national air transport and
nationally recognized design standards, as well as to any pertinent national legislation or construction
codes, as deemed applicable within the region.
The ADRM should be used in conjunction with the national legislation pertaining to the country where
the airport resides. Examples of typical national legislation for consideration for the countries of
Canada, United States of America and the United Kingdom include:
® International and national government aviation and security authorities, to include (but not limited
to):
International Civil Aviation Authority (ICAO), European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC)
Federal Aviation Authority-Transport Security Administration (FAA-TSA), United Kingdom
Department for Transport (DfT) and Transport Canada-Canadian Air Transport Security
Authority (CATSA).
® National and international legislation defining best design engineering practice to include (but not
limited to) standards published by:
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), British Standards Institute (BSI), International
Standardization Organization (ISO).
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IATA Introduction
For general information regarding the standards defined within this manual please refer to:
Mike O’Brien
Director, Airport Development and Infrastructure Consultancy Services
International Air Transport Association (IATA)
800 Place Victoria, P.O. Box 113
Montreal Quebec Canada.
airportdev@iata.org
Fax +1 (514) 874 2662
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Airport Development Reference Manual
IATA
Chapter B — Planning
Section B1 : M ajor Planning Processes
B1.1 Airline Participation ........ ......................................... ........ ........... ........... ....... 11
B1.2 Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) ............................ ....... .................. 11
B1.3 Key Planning Items ......... ............ ......... .................................. ....... . 15
B1.4 “World-Class” Airports ....... ............ ............................................. ................ 23
B1.5 Typical Features of World-Class Hub Airport .............................................. 24
B1.6 IATA Global Airport Monitor ................................................... ............... 31
B1.7 IATA Facilities Planning Questionnaire ...... ....... ...... .................. ................. 32
B1.8 IATA Recommendations ...... ....................................................... .......... . 36
Section B2: The Planning Process
B2.1 National Planning Considerations ... .................................. ...... ........ ........... . 37
B2.2 Regional Planning Considerations ..... ............ ............ ............ .......... ....... . 38
B2.3 The Airport Master Plan ..................................... .................................... . 38
B2.4 Local Community Issues ....................... .............. ...... ...... ............................. 39
B2.5 IATA Recommendations.............. ......... ........... .................... ........................ . 39
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IATA
CHAPTER B — PLANNING
B1.1 A IR L IN E P A R T IC IP A T IO N
As airlines are the primary users of airports and are a major source of revenue for airport authorities,
it is essential that their requirements in respect of airport development projects are met effectively
and at an acceptable cost. Experience has shown that the most useful and mutually beneficial course
of action when considering airport development projects is to establish full, joint consultation between
the airlines and an airport authority and its consultants. This should be undertaken as early as possible
in the planning and design process, in order to allow operational impact assessments and/or cost
benefit analysis to be determined and, if required, alternative solutions to be presented and discussed.
The IATA forum for this consultation is the Airport Consultative Committee (ACC).
IATA has forecast that passenger traffic will double in the next 12-15 years and it is estimated that
over $400 billion will be spent w orldw ide to expand and upgrade airport facilities. The IATA ACC
process is effective in ensuring that as many new airport facilities as possible are efficient, capacity
balanced, cost effective, functional and user-friendly. In 2003, about two dozen ACCs were active
mainly in Europe and Asia Pacific.
IATA strives to obtain information as soon as possible regarding any proposed international airport
development projects from Airline Operators Committees (AOC), Board of Airline Representatives
(BAR), and other sources. Upon receipt of such information, IATA will contact the national airline and
the planning specialists of the major airlines operating to that airport to determine if there is sufficient
interest in the proposed airport project. If there is sufficient interest, IATA will endeavour to obtain
the agreement of the airport or government authority concerned for consultation with the airlines on
all aspects of the proposed development. Once the principle of joint consultation has been agreed,
an ACC will be established.
If it is not practicable to establish a formal ACC, the principle of airline and airport authority consultation
on a local level are still valid. In such consultation, the principles and practices outlined in this manual
should still be followed.
B 1 .2 A IR P O R T C O N S U L T A T IV E C O M M IT T E E (A C C )
B 1.2.1 A C C O b je c tiv e
The objective of an ACC is to consolidate airline views and to provide a focal point for consultation
between the airlines and the airport authority concerning the planning of a major airport expansion
or a new airport in order to input airline functional requirements.
The ACC will consolidate airline views and provide a focal point for consultation between the airlines
and airport authorities concerned in the planning of major airport expansion projects or new airports
in order to input airline considerations. When considering proposals for new or additional airport
facilities, ACC members must constantly bear in mind that capital and subsequent maintenance and
operating costs of airport developments will be ultimately reflected in user charges. Furthermore,
airline operating costs are often adversely affected by inefficient airport design or terminal construction.
In the analysis of an airport development project, the ACC will ensure that it provides additional
capacity to meet present and projected demand in a cost-effective manner.
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B 1 .2 .2 A C C F o rm a tio n
An ACC will normally be formed under the guidance of IATA in consultation with the Regional Airports
Steering Group (RASG) and the Regional Co-ordinating Group (RCG — where flight operations
related matters are concerned, e.g. a new runway or new airport). If there are only one or two airlines
interested in the development of a particular airport, an IATA Mission may be conducted to the specific
location instead of convening an ACC. Normally, IATA will participate directly in ACC meetings and
will maintain close contact with its activities at all times.
It should be noted that ACC activity must be separate from AOC activity because of the scale of the
projects involved and the facility planning expertise required.
B 1 .2 .3 A C C M e m b e rs h ip
Membership on the ACC is open to all airlines serving the airport involved. Airline Headquarters will
be invited to nominate either a suitably qualified planning specialist or their local representative to
participate in ACC meetings. The level of expertise required will be dependent upon the scope of the
project concerned. If the number of airline representatives attending an ACC meeting is very large,
the Committee may elect a limited number of delegates to meet with the airport authority and act on
behalf of all carriers.
Today, nearly all airlines are engaged in some form of partnership, code share, or marketing
agreement. These have led to the formation of alliances among the world’s major carriers. Four or
five global alliances dominate the airline industry, each with a need to rationalise its requirements to
create the most efficient airport operations possible. In order to best achieve their needs, global
alliances may consider the appointment of a single representative to oversee the needs of that
alliance.
To ensure that local airline views and requirements are included in the ACC proposals and effect
appropriate co-ordination, the AOC will be invited to nominate a representative to participate in all
ACC meetings. It will be the duty of this AOC representative (usually the AOC Chairman) to keep
the full AOC informed of all ACC deliberations. At airports with multiple terminal operations, individual
terminal AOC Chairman will be invited to participate.
The local Board of Airline Representatives (BAR) will be invited to nominate a representative to
participate in all ACC meetings.
Because the ACC is the primary forum for consultation with the airport authority on all aspects of
airport expansion programs, it may be necessary to obtain participation of airline representatives from
other related disciplines where specific problems exist, as follows:
9 Security — A security advisor is assigned to an ACC early in the terminal planning process to
provide input on security matters, which may affect terminal design.
® Flight Operations — If ACC discussions are likely to involve flight operations matters (e.g. new
runway, taxi ways, docking guidance systems, etc.), the respective IATA Regional Coordinating
Group will be requested to nominate a suitably qualified representative to participate in ACC
meetings. A specialist working group of the ACC may be formed to undertake detailed studies
of flight operational matters.
• Fuel — Efforts in this area are directed at monitoring jet fuel costs world-wide and trying to secure
reductions — particularly in cases where costs are inflated by local supply or handling monopolies,
or by government taxation.
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I ATA Planning
• User Charges — As airport development projects normally impact on airport user charges, a
representative of the User Charges Panel (UCP), may be requested to participate in the early
planning stages of major airport projects. Airport Development and User Charges staff jointly
liaise regarding locations where UCP participation is appropriate.
ATAG’s worldwide membership includes airlines, airports, manufacturers, air traffic control
authorities, airline pilot and air traffic control authorities, chambers of commerce, tourism and
travel associations, investment organisations, ground transport and communication providers.
Recognising that its goals need to be consistent with environmental expectations, ATAG:
B 1 .2 .4 A C C S c o p e
The ACC is mainly concerned with airport infrastructure developments, strategic planning issues and
the associated capital expenditure (CAPEX) programme of the airport. These include, but are not
limited to:
• Passenger Terminal — planning and design of new terminals or major expansions of existing
terminals.
• The level of service provided for both passenger and cargo in their respective terminal areas and
fields of operation.
• The long term facility footprint and land area requirements for all parties operating at an airport.
• The need for efficient, cost-effective ground handling operations and the increased facility,
resource and equipment requirements to support multiple handlers.
• The proposed capital investment and the resultant operating cost to airlines over an agreed
period.
• The need to increase concession areas and resulting revenues, and the potential impact on
passenger flows and airline operations.
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• The differing needs of international carriers compared with those of domestic carriers, charters
and emerging low-cost carriers (LCCs).
ACC activity will include an assessment of the capacity of existing facilities and a comparison against
current and projected demand. The ACC will seek as much financial information as possible to
facilitate an economic assessment of various planning options in terms of layout, space requirements,
labour, equipment, etc.
B 1 .2 .5 A C C M e th o d o f O p e ra tio n
Once consultation between the airlines and airport authority has been agreed, IATA will request
copies of the proposed airport development plans to circulate to participants in advance of the first
ACC meeting. If this is not possible, then the initial ACC meeting with the airport authorities includes
a detailed presentation of the proposed plans.
The ACC will then meet independently to analyze the plans and develop an airline position including
alternative proposals regarding the proposed project. The ACC recommendations, which reflect the
majority point of view, are presented verbally to the airport authority following the internal closed
session. Every effort is made to resolve airline differences of opinion and to agree to a joint unified
position. Presentation of the airline position is made by a suitably qualified spokesperson or if desired,
by the IATA representative. The ACC recommendations are subsequently confirmed to the airport
authority in writing by IATA.
ACC meetings normally take place at the location of the proposed project. In certain circumstances,
it may be preferable for a working group meeting to be conducted at an alternative site, which is
convenient to a majority of participants. The dates of all proposed ACC meetings are usually co
ordinated to ensure adequate airline representation.
The ACC shall decide if and when specialist ACC working groups, and/or sub-consultants should be
employed to study and resolve detailed problems. This is particularly important where very large
airport development projects are concerned (i.e. new airports) and specialist expertise is required for
specific subject areas (i.e. terminals, apron/operations, baggage handling and cargo working groups).
Each working group is expected to develop its own routine and procedures, however it is responsible
to the full ACC and must report to the ACC through the Chairman and IATA . IATA will only participate
where this is felt to be necessary to progress activity. If working group proposals vary significantly
from that approved by the ACC, details and reasons for such must be substantiated by the group to
the next ACC so that they may discuss and resolve differences of opinion. These WGs will be dissolved
when a solution is found or when a satisfactory answer to a problem cannot be found.
IATA can employ ACC Project Managers on behalf of member airlines to more effectively monitor
airport authority Capital Expenditure programmes. This position recognises the need for continuous
airline consultation, as distinct from what may be limited consultation provided by formal and infrequent
ACC meetings. The airlines may request the creation of an ACC PM position through the ACC, who
will discuss the arrangements for airline funding and the budget to be allocated for the position.
® Updating the Core Document, which contains a profile of the main airports in the region.
Membership of the RASG meetings is taken from active participants in the regions’ ACC activities.
This includes representation from airport planning, operations and scheduling disciplines. In addition,
the RCG Chairman, User Charges Panel (UCP), Facilitation, Fuel, Environment and Security
disciplines, and selected industry working groups such as ATAG, may also be invited to participate.
B 1 .2 .7 C o -o rd in a tio n w ith O th e r G ro u p s
The User Charges Panel is responsible for representing the IATA airlines in negotiations with airport
authorities regarding the charges for the use of the airport, including but not limited to landing
fees, terminal building charges, passenger-related elements, lighting charges, air traffic control and
monopoly-type user charges. It is therefore very important that the activities of ACCs and the UCP
are closely co-ordinated so that the UCP is fully aware of costs emerging from ACC discussions to
assist them in future negotiations with airport authorities regarding user charges.
Airport authorities often misunderstand the difference between an ACC and an AOC. For information
on the establishment of an AOC please see the guidelines for the establishment of the AOC in the
IAT A Airport Handling Manual AHM 073. These committees are concerned with the day-to-day
operation of the airport for which they are established. Usually, information concerning a proposed
airport development is first received from the airport authority at AOC meetings
Liaison between the AOC and ACC is continuous and therefore the chairman or a representative of
the AOC is invited to be a member of the ACC and participate regularly in all ACC meetings. ACC
representatives must ensure that their local airport managers are fully briefed regarding the work
covered at each ACC meeting and the planned action for future meetings.
B 1 .3 K E Y P L A N N IN G IT E M S
This section provides an initial overview of the main considerations in any airport planning and
development activity. Further detail on each of these elements is provided in later sections of the
manual. These items impact the airport layout and the passenger terminal design and are considered
to be of major importance by the airlines. These key planning items include:
1. Runway/Taxiway Layout.
2. Road/Rail Access.
3. Terminal Design.
4. Check-in Hall.
5. CUTE.
6. Signage.
7. Security.
9. Airline Offices.
B 1 .3.1 R u n w a y / T a x iw a y L a y o u t
Runway capacity is the most critical component at an airport. It largely depends upon the number of
runways and their layout and spacing, the runway occupancy times of successive aircraft and the
approach spacing applied by ATC to successive aircraft in the traffic mix.
The key items that affect runway capacity are a combination of:
® Availability of exit taxiways particularly Rapid Exit Taxi ways (RETs) to minimise runway occupancy
times.
• Aircraft mix/performance.
B 1 .3 .2 A c c e s s to th e P a s s e n g e r T e rm in a l
The public road system and the non-public or service road system should be planned carefully in
order to avoid congestion near the passenger terminal. Traffic for the support facility areas of the
airport should be handled on a separate road system so that truck traffic can be kept away from the
main road to/from the passenger terminal.
All public roads should be clearly signposted. Clearly visible signs should be positioned on the roads
and on the terminal curbside areas well in advance of desired destinations to allow drivers to make
the necessary adjustments without abrupt changes. Signs should be properly lighted for night use
and lettering and background colours should enhance clarity and visibility. Messages should be
concise, quickly identifiable and easily understood. Colour coding for multi-terminals, airlines, car
parks, etc. is recommended.
Car park locations should be close to the passenger terminal. The connection between the car park
and the terminal should have weather protection and provide a safe environment with adequate
lighting.
Arrival and departure curbside should provide large weather protected areas for passengers getting
out of and into vehicles. It should provide dedicated areas for taxis and buses. Curbside check-in
facilities may be required in some airports.
IATA Planning
High speed rail systems should be considered for airport access. The increasing use of rail systems
should be encouraged by making it as widely available and as attractive as possible in terms of
relative speed, reliability, price, convenience, safety and comfort. The airport rail station should be
above ground, if possible.
If the airport is located close to the city centre and the city already has a subway system, then
consideration should be given to extending it to connect the airport to the existing public transportation
system.
B 1 .3 .3 B a s ic C o n s id e ra tio n s o f T e rm in a l D e s ig n
The design of passenger terminals must be related to the run way/taxi way system, apron configuration
and the airport access system. The extent and location of these areas are governed by the master
plan of the airport.
Certain basic criteria should be observed in the planning of passenger terminals and the selection
of a terminal concept. All terminals should be interconnected to allow for horizontal passenger flows,
and where walking distances may be too long for fast transfers then provision of powered walkways
or other people mover systems should be considered.
Provision for multi-alliance hubbing should be respected, allowing for different alliances to be located
strategically under a one-roof terminal concept. As alliances are not a stable element in planning, an
appropriate factor of flexibility will need to be incorporated into any terminal space planning. In
situations where future growth or even the diminution of a terminal’s size can be accommodated,
tremendous advantages in operational continuity will be seen.
@ Easy orientation for the travelling public approaching the terminal and within the buildings (self-
explanatory traffic flow and human dimensions).
• Shortest possible walking distances from car parks and rail station to the terminals and more
importantly, from passenger/baggage processing facilities to the aircraft and vice versa.
• Minimum level changes for passengers within the terminal buildings.
® Avoidance of passenger cross-flows.
• Shortest possible distance for the transportation of passengers and their baggage between the
terminals and the aircraft parking positions when walking is not possible.
@ Compatibility of all facilities with existing aircraft characteristics and built-in flexibility to accept
future generations of aircraft, as far as possible.
• Design should be modular to cope with future expansion of each subsystem, or to allow evolution
in regulations and changes in the nature of passenger flows and alliance groupings.
• Terminal design must meet all regulations for handling disabled persons.
B 1 .3 .4 C h e c k -in H all
The passenger terminal layout is largely influenced by the check-in concept, which is designed and
installed by the airport authority. It is essential therefore that airlines and handling agents be consulted
at an early stage in the planning process.
The airlines’ acceptance of passengers and their checked baggage takes place at the check-in facility,
which consists of a number of check-in counters with appropriate outbound baggage conveyance
facilities. Check-in counters may be either of the frontal type or of the island type. Within each of the
two main types of counters, several variants exist.
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Frontal type counters may be arranged in an uninterrupted, linear layout or be spaced so as to allow
passengers to pass between the counters after check-in (pass-through layout).
Island type counters are suitable for centralised check-in. Each island, the axis of which is orientated
parallel to the flow of passengers through the terminal concourse, may consist of up to 16-18 individual
check-in counters. The number of check-in counters per island can be doubled if two main baggage
conveyor belts are installed in parallel back to back. Normally 26m separation (face-to-face) between
adjacent islands is recommended.
The distance passengers must carry their baggage to the closest terminal check-in point should be
kept to a minimum.
Baggage trolleys should be available on the curbside, in the car park and at the railway station.
Departure flight information displays must be available within the check-in area as well as information
kiosks.
Consideration should be given to the latest automatic self-service check-in kiosks with a view to
maximising security, using biometrics, and minimising passenger check-in wait times.
6 1 *3 .5 C U T E (C o m m o n U s e T e rm in a l E q u ip m e n t)
Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE) is an airline industry term for a facility, which allows
individual users to access their host computer(s). The basic idea of the CUTE concept is to enable
airlines at an airport to share passenger terminal handling facilities. This includes such areas as
check-in and gate counters on a common use basis, enabling airlines to use their own host computer
applications for departure control, reservations, ticketing, boarding pass and baggage tag issuance,
etc., at such counters. CUTE may also be installed in airline offices (if cost justified).
CUTE provides potential savings to the airlines and airport authorities by increased utilisation of
check-in counters and gate space, thus lessening the need for airports to build additional counters
and gates. It may also permit an airline to automate its check-in and departure control functions when
costs of installing its own equipment would be either too high or precluded by another system or
equipment already installed, or not permitted by the airport authority.
The CUTE vendor should be selected in cooperation with the airlines. The system may be provided
either by the airport authority or directly to the airlines.
A Flight Information Display System (FIDS), connected to an Airport Operational Database (AODB)
should be provided and should be connected to the airlines host computer in order to provide all the
users at the airport with accurate real time information.
A powerful Local Area Network (LAN) infrastructure should be provided to allow data, video and voice
transmission in both public and administrative areas of the passenger terminal.
B 1 .3 .6 S ig n a g e
A well-conceived signposting system will contribute considerably to the efficient flow of passengers
and traffic at the airport. It is therefore essential to consider the signposting system in the early
planning and concept evaluation stages. The signage system may be a combination of fixed (boards,
panels) and dynamic (monitors) signage. The signage system should be clearly separate from
advertising.
Airline brand name and logos should be clearly visible, allowing passengers to easily find the airline
check-in or ticketing facilities.
Ideally, the passenger terminal building should incorporate self-evident passenger-flow routes through
the building, but where signs are required they must provide a continuous indication of direction.
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IATA Planning
The primary purpose of an airport signposting system is to move the travelling public through a myriad
of roadways and corridors using a concise and comprehensible system of directional, informational,
regulatory, and identification messages.
Consistent use of standard terminology in airports (including pictograms) will simplify the process of
making the transition from the ground mode to the air mode (and vice versa) for the travelling public.
It is important for signposting systems to adhere to a basic guideline of copy styles and sizes,
consistent terminology, recognisable and universally acceptable symbols, and uniform colours for
standard functions. Message content must be understandable by the unsophisticated as well as the
sophisticated traveller. Signposting should be in “mother tongue” and English.
B 1 .3 .7 S e c u rity
Security requirements must be taken into account in all new development, re-development and
refurbishment of airports, as stated in ICAO Annex 17. To do this, it is necessary to have clear
government security standards which can be used by airport planners in such a way as to maintain
the integrity of the local security programme, yet allow sufficient flexibility for them to be matched to the
circumstances of each airport and its operations. Security requirements must be realistic, economically
viable and allow for a balance to be made between the needs of aviation security, safety, operational
requirements and passenger facilitation.
Airlines and airport authorities should take note of the latest information on this subject in the IATA
Security Manual and should ensure that due allowance for the related requirements, including costs,
is made in all airport terminal and apron development plans.
A centralized or semi-centralized passenger and carry-on baggage security check point design is
favoured. They must be properly sized, and manned, in order to avoid long queues.
The design of the outbound baggage handling system must account for 100% Hold Baggage Screening
(HBS).
B 1 .3 .8 B a g g a g e H a n d lin g S y s te m
Baggage handling has become such a significant element of passenger processing that the baggage
system is of major importance to a smooth airline operation at the airport. The baggage handling
system must be able to sort large numbers of bags quickly and with a high degree of performance
reliability. With larger capacity aircraft anticipated in the next few years, the automated baggage
system will become the most critical system in the airport terminal.
The baggage system to be installed must be considered early in the passenger terminal design
process. Certain terminal concepts may require highly automated and costly systems, while others
may need only simple conveyor belts. Where automated distribution and sorting systems are
contemplated, it is generally desirable to select the baggage handling systems supplier early in the
project. This will enable the baggage handling supplier to participate in the system and facility design
process, thereby avoiding expensive redesign and time consuming delays during construction and
commissioning.
• Baggage flow should be rapid, simple and involve a minimum number of handling operations.
• Baggage handling arrangements within the building should be consistent with apron arrangements
and with the type and volume of traffic expected.
• Baggage handling systems should incorporate the minimum number of turns and level changes
as is practicable within the terminal design.
» Baggage flow should not conflict with the flow of passengers, cargo, crews or vehicles.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
• Provision should be made for the forwarding of transfer baggage to the departure baggage sorting
areas.
® Flow on the apron should not be impeded by any form of physical control or check.
® Space for 100% HBS should be provided.
® Facilities for oversized baggage must be provided.
• Plans for fallback handling in case of failure should be provided with all baggage handling systems.
B 1 .3 .9 A ir lin e O ffic e s
Airline passenger processing support offices are required in close proximity to the check-in counters.
The amount of space required by each airline and/or handling agency will vary depending upon such
factors as volume of traffic or type of handling service performed. Airlines will also require administrative
and additional offices located in other areas of the terminal with convenient access to the passenger
processing areas. Airline support offices are also required in the airside concourses close to their
aircraft operation areas. The individual airline space requirements may be obtained using the
questionnaire and procedure shown in Figure B1.3 at the end of this section.
B 13.10 A ir lin e C IP L o u n g e s
At many international as well as domestic airports, the airlines have a marketing requirement to
provide special lounges to accommodate their Commercially Important Passengers (CIP). This airline
requirement has grown significantly in recent years to become a major customer service element in
the way airlines handle their CIP passengers and set themselves apart from their competitors. Most
airlines will require generously sized spaces for their exclusive use lounges. These lounges should
be located on the airside of the terminal building and preferably on the departures level, with convenient
access to the airlines’ departure gates.
Larger airlines will tend to combine their exclusive requirements into multiple function rooms
differentiated by passenger categories (First Class, Business Class and others). These larger spaces
normally require their own exclusive toilets and showers, and access by elevators and/or escalators.
Also it should be noted that with the growth of airline alliances many future CIP mega-lounges will
be shared by several airlines. Details of the airline space requirements for such lounges at a specific
airport may be obtained using the questionnaire and procedure shown in Figure B1.3.
B13.11 T e rm in a l R e ta il S p a c e
Recent surveys on airports show that passengers want, and expect to see, shopping facilities at
airports where they can browse when they have sufficient time. At some larger airports up to 10-12%
of the terminal area is now dedicated to airport shops. With passengers willing to spend large amounts
of money on airport shopping, concession revenues can provide the airport with up to 50-60% of
their total airport revenues. The airlines support the airport authorities in their plans to expand airport
concessions provided:
® The commercial revenue earned by the airport authority is used to reduce aeronautical charges.
® The accessibility and accommodation for these facilities must be arranged so that maximum
exposure to the passenger and visitor can be accomplished without interfering with the flow of
passenger traffic in the terminal. 70-80% of retail concessions should be located airside.
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IATA Planning
B 1 3 J 2 D e p a rtu re G a te L o u n g e s
The departure gate lounge area should be an open area, allowing passenger circulation. There should
be seating in the area for 70% of passengers. This includes seating at F&B (food & beverage)
concessions. It should be a quiet environment, with an apron view, where passengers can relax,
work or enjoy themselves. It should include facilities such as working positions with modem/internet
and power connections, TV sets, smoking areas, children’s play areas and retail and food concessions.
B 1 3 J 3 B a g g a g e C la im H all
The baggage claim hall is the area in the terminal where passengers reclaim their baggage off arriving
flights. Claim units of a re-circulating type allow the passengers to remain stationary, while their bags
are delivered to them. Separate claim units should be available for over-sized baggage.
Passengers have high expectations that baggage delivery will be efficient and they will not have to
wait an unreasonable amount of time to collect their bags. Once the first bag is delivered on the
carousel or racetrack, passengers expect a steady flow of bags until the last bag is delivered on the
claim unit.
An 11-13m separation between baggage claim units is recommended to allow enough space for
passengers, trolley storage and circulation. A sufficient number of baggage trolleys should be available
at the entry to the baggage claim hall.
When passengers off international flights leave the baggage claim hall, they will pass through customs
inspection. Customs should use red/green channels to speed up the flow of exiting passengers.
B1.3.14 M e e te r G re e te r H all
Once passengers have claimed their bags and passed through Customs formalities, they enter the
Meeter/Greeter Hall where they can get organized before leaving the terminal. A well-designed
entranceway or corridor out of Customs in to the Meeter/Greeter Hall is required to allow arriving
passengers to avoid the congestion of greeters around the exit doors. Once in the hall, arriving
passengers may purchase local currency before proceeding to the curbside, car park or the train
station. Many arriving passengers are welcomed on arrival by friends or family and a meeting point
should be part of the design for the meeter/greeter hall. Important features of the meeter/greeter hall
include:
• Meeting Point.
• Toilets.
• Currency Exchanges.
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B 1 3 J 5 A p ro n L a y o u t
The key aspects of aircraft stand availability are:
® The number of stands provided for different types/sizes of aircraft.
® The availability of these stands as influenced by occupancy times.
® The flexibility of stands to handle different types/sizes of aircraft throughout the day.
• The ease of aircraft circulation and manoeuvring, including push back.
Increasing importance is placed by airlines upon terminal gate stands because they provide for more
rapid and comfortable handling of passengers, avoid the need for buses, and enable faster turnarounds
and shorter connection times.
Service roadways should be clearly marked, with the width of each lane able to accommodate the
widest piece of ground equipment.
Areas such as equipment staging and parking must also be clearly marked.
B 1 3 J © A ir c r a ft S e rv ic in g In s ta lla tio n s
Fixed aircraft servicing installations reduce apron congestion and permit shorter servicing periods.
However, where the apron is used by a variety of aircraft, and with wide variations in aircraft servicing
points, it is recommended that only the basic services catering to the majority of aircraft be provided.
Initial installation cost and the difficulty in adapting to changes in aircraft design preclude more
comprehensive installations, except possibly in the case of certain aircraft stands used exclusively
by one airline.
Hydrant fuelling systems are preferred over mobile tankers, as they permit faster turnarounds.
However, a decision to install any fixed aircraft servicing system should take place only after a careful
and comprehensive appraisal of the economic (return on investment) prospects has been made. The
economic viability of such systems depends on a large variety of operational factors and should be
assessed only in close co-operation and agreement with the headquarters specialists of the airlines
serving the airport.
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IATA Planning
• Cables/hoses between the aircraft and the installation should be as short as possible and should
not cross one another.
• Operation of the fixed installations should in no way impede other aircraft servicing functions.
® Pits, hydrants and other facilities connected with the fixed installations should not impede the
flow of apron traffic.
• Fixed service installations should, as far as possible, be located close to the corresponding outlets
on the aircraft and there must be close liaison between the airlines, the airport authority, the
fuelling companies and other suppliers concerning all aspects of design and installation.
B 1 .4 “W o r ld -C la s s ” A IR P O R T S
The IATA Global Airport Monitor (see section B1.6) and several other Passenger Surveys, which are
published annually, show how passengers have rated major airports around the world. The top rated
airports usually have airport layouts that allow for efficient airline operations and passenger terminal
designs that are passenger-friendly. These airports are called “World-Class” Airports.
B 1 .4 .2 A P a s s e n g e r V ie w p o in t:
1. Easy access to/from the airport by road and rail.
2. Short walking distances from curbside to check-in and fromcheck-in to aircraft gate, with no level
changes. Similarly short walking distances from the aircraft to the baggage claim area and then
from Customs to the curbside or the rail station.
3. Attractive architecture and landscaping to provide a pleasant, relaxing atmosphere.
4. Short queues at all check points such as check-in, security,passport control andboarding.
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B 1 .4 .3 A n A irlin e V ie w p o in t:
1. A master plan that optimises the location of key functions on the airport and allows for orderly
expansion.
2. A runway layout that m axim ises runway capacity and allow s adequate space for apron and
term inal expansion.
4. An apron layout with energy efficient aircraft ground support equipment, sufficient and well-located
staging areas for baggage, cargo and ground equipment with enough space for several ground
handlers, and no cul de sacs (dead ends) that impede aircraft manoeuvring.
5. An attractive work place for airline staff, but with a terminal that doesn’t put architectural design
ahead of an efficient airline operation and a terminal that provides sufficient and suitably located
airline accommodation space including the needs of alliance airlines.
6. A passenger terminal building with an efficient outbound/transfer baggage sortation system that
also supports short MCTs (minimum connecting times).
7. A passenger terminal that allows 90% of passengers to use passenger boarding bridges, with
aircraft parking on remote stands using buses to meet peak demand, and short walking distances
for commuter aircraft.
8. Excellent airport shopping for airline passengers that doesn’t interfere with passenger flows
between the check-in area and the aircraft gate, and yet provides the airport with commercial
revenues that help reduce airline user charges.
10. An airport authority that can see the mutual benefits of working with the airlines in planning major
facility changes.
B 1 .5 T Y P IC A L F E A T U R E S O F W O R L D -C L A S S H U B A IR P O R T
It should be noted that for an airport to become a world-class airport more than just good facilities
are required. The airport staff should be friendly and the public areas of the passenger terminals,
especially toilets, must be clean. Also, airline and government processes must allow passengers to
move quickly through the terminal building, from the departures curbside to the aircraft door and from
the aircraft door to the arrivals curbside.
To guide airport authorities towards becoming a world-class hub airport, the following is a checklist
of generic criteria that must be met:
® Geographically situated along a major world air-route, or at the cross roads of more than one
world air route.
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IATA Planning
B 1 .5 .2 A ir s p a c e I A T C (A ir T ra ffic C o n tro l)
• No restrictions on airspace capacity.
• No limiting curfews.
• All-weather operations.
• Regular and reliable transport links to closest major city; a rapid rail service is the preferred
option, if economically viable.
• Adequate private car parking at reasonable cost — including long-term parking with shuttle bus
service.
• Capacity to handle large traffic peaks with high activity during the peaks.
• Reliable airport services/utilities such as power supply, water supply, fuel supply.
• Dedicated locations for competing ground equipment parking and container storage racking.
B 1 .5 .4 P a s s e n g e r T e rm in a ls
• Sufficient airport and terminal facilities to allow airlines to meet their own airline service standards
at a reasonable cost (see Figure B2.1 for airline service standards that need to be converted into
physical airport facilities).
• IATA Level of Service C or better should be attained (subject toacceptable capital cost and
resultant operational cost limitations) — Refer to Section F9.1.2
• Apron configuration and capacity to not inhibit scheduling and to allow airlinealliance proximity
parking for hubbing operations.
• Sufficient aircraft stands to meet peak demands — buses to remote stands. 90-95% of passengers
(on an annual basis) should be served by a passenger boarding bridge.
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@ Sufficient terminal space to allow airline alliances to consolidate their space requirements.
• Logical flow and proximity between check-in counters, airline CIP lounges, and departure gates.
® Sufficient space for airlines to lease administrative offices, CIP lounges and staff amenities.
B 1 .5 .5 A ir C a rg o & A ir E x p re s s T e rm in a ls
@ A choice of competing freight and catering handling agencies.
• Direct access from the cargo and express terminals to the cargo apron.
• Sufficient freighter parking positions, with tether pits (nose wheel tie-down to maintain aircraft
balance during loading and unloading).
B 1 .5 .6 U s e r C h a rg e s
@ Sufficient airport and terminal facilities to allow airlines to meet airline service standards at a
reasonable cost.
® Transparent pricing mechanisms on “single till” basis (refer to Chapter D).
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IATA Planning
B 1 .5 .7 C o n c lu s io n s
It is a challenge for an airport authority to meet all of the planning criteria required to become a ‘world-
class’ airport. Nevertheless, it is important that airport authorities and their airport planning consultants
are aware of the airline industry’s views on airport service/planning excellence.
The following tables on Airport Passenger Terminal Planning Standards summarize airline
requirements for a ‘world-class’ passenger terminal:
Planning Element
Planning Standard Recommended
for Typical Busy Day Practice
Airport Access 90% of passengers can access the airport Express train service should be available
within 30 - 45 minutes of the CBD. every 1 5 -2 0 minutes.
Employee transportation plan is required.
Check-in Hall Business Class - Maximum Queuing Time Island layout is preferred. 16-18 counters
of 3-5 min. per side.
Economy Class - Maximum Queuing Time Separation distance between islands of 24-
of 15-20 min. 26m.
Tourist (Charter/ No Frills) Class - T1 JFK counters - a “benchmark" design.
Maximum Queuing Time of 25-30 min.
CUTE (Common Use Terminal Equipment)
system where a clear financial rationale for
its implementation is apparent.
For additional information on minimum and
maximum check-in waiting times, refer to Special counters for handling over size
Section F.9.8 Table 9.7. baggage.
Automated baggage system using IATA 10
Space - for passengers waiting up to 30 digit LP bar code tags or RFID (Radio
minutes. 1.8 m2 per international Frequency Identification) tags.
passenger. 1.3 m2 for domestic In-line HBS (Hold Baggage Screening)
passengers, incl. inter-queue space and system. BRS (Baggage Reconciliation
baggage trolleys. Refer to Section F9.1.3. System) preferred.
Ticket counters at head of each island, or
Seating for 5% of passengers. located ciose-by, with space for back office
& safe.
Proximity to Alliance partners.
Space for “e”- self check-in kiosks including
baggage acceptance.
Security Screening Maximum Queuing Time of 3-5 min.
Space for passengers waiting up to 10
minutes. 1.0 m2 per passenger.
Refer to Section F9.10.3
Outbound Passport Control Maximum Queuing Time of 5 min. Introduction of biometrics will speed up
Space - for passengers waiting up to 10 processing.
minutes. 1.0 m2 per passenger.
Refer to Section F9.10.2
CIP Lounges 4m2 per passenger Preferred location for lounges is airside in
normal passenger flow between check-in
and aircraft gates. Size sufficient to be
shared by Alliance partners
Arrival lounges may be required at large
terminating airports.
Departures Lounge Space - 1,2m2 per passenger standing &
1.7m2 per passenger seated.
Seating for 10% of passengers where
passengers do not have to wait; 60% where
passengers do have to wait.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
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IATA Planning
Planning Element
Planning Standard Recommended
for Typical Busy Day Practice
Baggage Claim Hall Wheel stop to Last Bag - Sufficient numbers to be provided to
Business Class allocate at least one 85m baggage claim
unit per B747 flight. Refer to Section U.5.3
NB - 1 5 min.
Separate device(s) for handling over size
W B -2 0 min. baggage.
Economy Class An 11 -13m separation between baggage
NB - 25 min. claim units
WB - 40 min. Sufficient baggage trolleys to be available
on entry to the baggage claim hall.
ATMs (Automated Teller Machines) located
Space - 1 ,7m2 per passenger (excluding
in baggage claim hail.
baggage claim unit)
Left luggage storage facilities should be
Refer to Section F9.10.6
located landside.
Inbound Customs Recommended use of Red/Green
Channels.
Meeter Greeter Hall Space - 1 ,7m2 per passenger & greeter. Easy access to train station
20% of space for seating.
Refer to Section F9.10.7
Passenger Arrival- Wheel stop to Business Class - passenger on the
Curbside curbside 20 - 25 minutes after aircraft
arrival.
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Planning Element
Planning Standard Recommended
for Typical Busy Day Practice
Passengers with Disabilities Airport facilities must comply with national
laws and regulations.
Retail/Concessions Airport Authority should obtain 50 - 60% of
total airport revenue from
retail/concessions.
70-80% of retail concessions should be
located airside.
Retail/concession facilities should not
interfere with passengers flows between
check-in and the departure gate lounges
M C I - (Minimum Connecting Time) Domestic-Domestic - 35-45 min,
Domestic-International - 35-45 min.
International-Domestic - 45-60 min.
International-International - 45-60 min.
Refer to Section U1.2.6 for specific
baggage connecting times.
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IA TA Planning
B 1 .6 IA T A G L O B A L A IR P O R T M O N IT O R
The Global Airport Monitor is a customer satisfaction benchmarking programme that analyses the
perceptions of international, domestic and transborder travelers and provides an up-to-date marketing
index to measure the service quality of participating airports. This benchmarking tool explores
passengers’ ‘on-the-day’ experience of an airport on a wide range of service elements on a worldwide
basis.
The questionnaire is distributed to passengers in the departure lounges (airside) 30-45 minutes prior
to departure. Each airport receives approximately 350 questionnaires per quarter. If an airport needs
a more robust sample by segment, e.g. Transborder/Domestic or per terminal for more detailed
analysis, an increased sample size is constructed. The survey is carried out according to a precise
sampling plan constructed with the airport management, ensuring the sample is representative of the
airport’s traffic mix.
The questionnaire covers 24 airport service attributes and 4 airline service elements as well as
demographic/ travel and connecting passenger profile. The 24 airport service attributes include:
1. Ease of finding your way through the airport/ signposting.
2. Flight information screens.
8. Shopping facilities.
9. Business facilities (i.e. computers, internet).
10. Washrooms.
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IATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Each year IATA publishes the results of the Global Airport Monitor surveys conducted at major airports
around the world. Figure B1-2 shows the rankings of the Top 10 Airports from 1998-2002.
B1 »7 IA T A F A C IL IT IE S P L A N N IN G Q U E S T IO N N A IR E
At an early stage in an airport project, specific airline space and facility requirements must be
determined. The recommended document for obtaining this required information is the IATA Facilities
Planning Questionnaire. See FIG. B1.3 at the end of this chapter.
It must be anticipated that the contents of the questionnaire may not be completely applicable at all
airports, but it is expected that the basic document can be used at all locations, with suitable notes
indicating items which should be ignored, deleted or possibly added. Therefore, before circulation,
the airlines and the airport authority should agree both on the sections to be used, and any variation
in their content. IATA will arrange the circulation of the questionnaire to all airlines operating at that
airport, and to non-airline handling agencies (where applicable) requesting completion in as much
detail as possible and return to IATA for consolidation and subsequent presentation to the airport
authority. Responses from each airline are kept confidential.
Estimates of rental rates for leasing space should be available to the airlines early in the planning
process. The rental rates usually affect the amount of space that an airline will request. If rates are
high, the airline may reduce its space requirements.
At airports where more than one terminal building is involved, it may be necessary to complete
separate questionnaire sections for each building.
Requirements associated directly with staff numbers should be based on the maximum number of
staff on duty on a particular shift. Care should be taken not to use cumulative figures of total staff
employed, although provision must be included for shift changeover, when assessing car parking
requirements, locker room areas, etc.
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IATA Planning
A irport:_________________________________
1. H A N D L IN G A R R A N G E M E N T S
1.1 P a s s e n g e r B a g g a g e H a n d lin g
Do you intend to perform your own passenger baggage handling function? YES / NO
1.2 A p ro n H a n d lin g
Do you intend to perform your own apron handling function? YES / NO
— If “NO” state name of handling agency/airline now used._________________________________
— If “YES” indicate whether in full or part. FULL / PART
— If “PART” indicate which functions you intend to perform and which are to be performed by the
handling agency/airline:
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1.3 C a rg o H a n d lin g
Do you intend to perform your own cargo handling function? YES / NO
— If “PART” indicate which functions you intend to perform and which are to be performed by the
handling agency/airline:
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lATA Planning
2. S P A C E /F A C IL IT Y R E Q U IR E M E N T S
2.1 P a s s e n g e r T e rm in a l
State your existing facilities and requirements for the forecast years specified above. Airlines intending
to be handled by third parties should only specify those requirements which would not be provided
by the handling agent.
No. Self-Service
Counters
No. CUSS Kiosks
Check-in nr rrt m^
Support Offices
No. Ticket/Sales
Counters
(not included above)
Administrative Offices
Operations Offices m2 m2
VIP/CIP Lounge m2 m2 m1
Communications m2 m^
Facilities (specify)
Line Maintenance m2
Offices/Stores
Ground Equipment m rrr m'
Parking
Other (specify)
2 .2 S u p p o r t F a c ilitie s
2 .3 C a rg o T e rm in a l (E x c lu s iv e A irlin e S p a c e O n ly )
B 1 .8 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
Experience has shown that the most effective and mutually beneficial course of action for the
airlines is to establish consultation with the airport authority and its consultants as early as
possible to explore alternative airport plans and terminal concepts. An ACC (Airport Consultative
Committee) is the forum to consolidate airline views and to provide a focal point for consultation
between the airlines and the airport authority concerning the planning ofa major airport expansion
or a new airport, in order to input airline functional requirements. A successful ACC has major
benefits for both the airlines and the airport authority. Where formation of an ACC is not practical
due to resource limitations, airports should still have a regular detailed dialogue with the relevant
airlines and handling agents.
The A irp o rt Passenger Terminal Planning Standards table summarizes airline requirements
for a “world'dass” passenger terminal. An airport authority should ensure that its consultants
planning the airport terminal incorporate these planning standards and recommended practices
into the design of the airport passenger terminal.
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IATA Planning
B2.1 N A T IO N A L P L A N N IN G C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
It is advisable for national governments to develop a strategic planning objective for the medium and
long-term development of airports within their national jurisdiction. The strategic proposal should look
at existing air traffic control as well as runway and terminal capacities and then should define strategic
objectives for the phased expansion or development of new or existing airports.
An example whereby this holistic strategic approach has been well adopted can be cited by the British
government (Department for Transport), which created and developed The South East and East of
England Regional Consultation Document. This specific paper was based on the results of the South
East and East of England Regional Air Services (SERAS) Study. This document included proposals
for different amounts of new runway capacity as well as options that limit development in the South
East of England at a strategic level. While the SERAS document is specific to the region in question,
it does demonstrate the necessary level of governmental strategic thinking that is required and
represents an excellent benchmark in this regard for governments worldwide.
Generally the formal planning sequence which is followed is denoted by the following stages. It should
be noted that national government planning sequence variations are likely to occur:
The national plan should be developed in consultation with all airport operators, national and
international commercial interests, airlines and IATA, and should address the following issues for the
perceived 30 year development period:
® National commercial and political objectives where government and financial institutions seek to
expand regions within a nation for development or continued expansion.
• Ecological and environmental impact of airport and flight operations to newor expanded existing
airports.
• Commercial impact studies on existing airports, airlines and handling agents, including those
pertaining to cargo operations.
• Identification and impact on areas of natural beauty, historic sites and religious monuments.
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Methods that may be employed to access the national airport planning document should be published
in appropriate press and government information sources. The document itself should be a realistic
interpretation of the facts developed by a wide cross section of the airport and airline industry, as
well as local community representatives. The document should include but should not be limited to
the following detailed sections:
B 2 .2 R E G IO N A L P L A N N IN G C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
The regional planning paper should be a more regionally focused and detailed derivation of the
national planning document. Typically, a regional area would contain no more than two large or
medium sized airports within its boundary. The concepts presented need not be detailed construction
solutions, although expert civil, structural and specialist engineering advice is still required so that
any solutions proposed can be realistically developed when need be. These might include:
B 2 .3 T H E A IR P O R T M A S T E R P L A N
The airport master plan is an airport-specific document which fulfills the objectives and requirements
of the national and especially the regional airports plan. The concept option recommendations within
the regional plan are produced for a specific airport, and should technically be more developed and
expanded upon. Typically, the master plan document should be developed as a 30 year forecast of
development options which would include the following topics:
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ÊATA Planning
The airport master plan should be used as a tool in the earlier stages of negotiations with the local
planning authority to explain the level of impact the various options would have, and to help generate
a forum for the authority’s concerns as well as those of the local community. The document should
support the subsequent formal planning application produced during the ensuing feasibility design
stage.
B 2 .4 L O C A L C O M M U N IT Y IS S U E S
The local community will be concerned with a variety of issues and will include groups in favor of
and less than amenable to future airport development. It is important that the developer addresses
and listens to the concerns and issues raised by the community. The developer should endeavour
to reduce uncertainty and misunderstanding by engendering regular and clear communication
channels with local community groups. Often the local community can make valuable suggestions
which, although simply a fine detail to the airport master planner, may be very important to the local
community as a whole. Indeed, detailed suggestions can and often are put forward by community
groups which might have little cost impact, but which can also dramatically improve living and working
conditions in the area.
The following issues should be addressed via regular discussion with local community groups:
• Confirmation of night flight movement schedules resulting from proposed development plans.
• Development of further runway plans.
B 2 .5 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
Regional planning documents should be a natural progression from any National planning \
strategy documentation developed in consultation with all interested parties. \
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C h a p te r C — M a s te r P la n n in g
Section C1: P rinciples
C1.1 Introduction ............................................. ................................................... 43
C1.2 The Master Plan — Ten Step Sequence .................................................. 46
C1.3 Step 1 — Stakeholders and O bje ctives........ ................................. ......... . 47
C1.4 Step 2 — Site Evaluation ...... ....... ................................................... .............. 47
C1.5 Step 3 — Airfield Configuration ....................................... .................... . 51
C1.6 Step 4 — Runway Orientation ........................................................... . 67
C1.7 Step 5 — A p ro n s ............................................................................. ............... 68
C1.8 Step 6 — Taxiway S yste m s............................................................ .......... . 70
C1.9 Step 7 — Passenger Terminal/Apron Complex Configurations ......... ...... 74
C1.10 Step 8 — Alignment of Terminal Building and Piers to Service Stands .. 76
C1.11 Step 9 — Alignment and Provision of Support Processes ......... .......... . 77
C1.12 Step 10 — Aircraft M aintenance........... ..................................................... 77
C1.12 Step 10a — Cargo ........ ..... ................................ ......... ......... ...................... 78
C1.13 Master Plan Deliverable — Preliminary Land-Use Layouts ..................... 78
C1.14 IATA Recommendations ............... ........................................ ...................... 86
Section C2: Forecasting
C2.1 Introduction and Forecasting Definition ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ....
C2.2 Objectives of Forecasting.................................... ...... ..................... . 88
C2.3 Forecast D a ta ......................... ................................................................. . 89
C2.4 Segmentation ....... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... 91
C2.5 Demands and T re n d s ............ ....... ................................................ ................ 92
C2.6 Forecasting Methodology ............ ...... ................................. ........................... 94
C2.7 IATA Recommendations .................. .............. ....... .................................... . 97
Section C3: Land Use Planning
C3.1 General Introduction ........... ............ ......... ......................................... .......... 98
C3.2 Long Term Vision ................... ........... ....................................................... 98
C3.3 Assessing Noise ....................................... ...................................................... 99
C3.4 Land Use Within Noise Zones .................................. .................... . 99
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C 1.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N
The airport master plan is created to guide the future development expectations of airports and to
establish their ability to expand and develop in a logical, sustainable and cost effective manner. Airline
market forces are discernibly linked to the master plan development proposal; i.e. as airport traffic
increases the facility’s development and operations should be phased to provide the appropriate
airport processes and sized infrastructure. Should an airline’s operations fluctuate, then the master
plan should also contain the flexibility to be able to respond accordingly.
Master plans can be created for new or existing airport locations and should be considered as active,
live documents which should be systematically reviewed at least every 5 years. This regular review
and update process should address variations in market forces and the operational requirements of the
facility’s airline clients. Existing master plans can be revised to accommodate unforeseen commercial
variations to the airport’s or airline’s operations.
The master plan will provide a detailed and accurate assessment of how an airport should deliver its
services to its airline and ground handling clients in an effective and controlled manner, with due
consideration for safety, development costs and the resultant realistic cost and profit recovery
mechanisms.
In this section the major attributes and details of an airport master plan are discussed. The master
plan ten point staged sequence is also provided for planners who may find themselves faced with
‘blank canvas’ airport development proposals. This sequence has been compiled to help airport
planners systematically construct the master plan, giving due attention to the primary and secondary
facilities being proposed and their subsequent placement on the airport site.
There may also be topographical or man-made features that restrict operations or impose payload
limits on certain aircraft types. Such restrictions can be removed but this usually comes at a significant
cost.
C 1 .1 .2 C a p a c ity C o n s tra in ts a n d D e v e lo p m e n ts
It is important for airport operators to know what currently constrains their airport capacity. If the
constraint is an operational process deficiency or an infrastructure provision deficiency or both, it needs
to be understood fully before the decision to expand or change the airport process or infrastructure is
made. If no constraints currently exist then they must look to the future and predict when individual
facilities or support infrastructure will fail to provide the required level of service. The reality is that
improving and expanding facilities can often be very costly. As airport operational costs will ultimately
be cascaded to the primary business partners of the facility, airport development expenditure should
be justified with a detailed supporting business case defining the reasons why airport growth should
be provided.
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C 1 .1 .3 P la n n in g H o riz o n s
Traditionally, the long-term planning horizon for airports extended no further than 20 years. IATA now
views this as being too short-sighted. Airport authorities should always endeavour to look to the
ultimate development potential and capacity of their site. Ultimate development potential may be
determined when the runway system is saturated, though in other instances stand availability or the
capacity limits of passenger terminals, support facilities or land-side access systems may be the
determining factor. Local considerations may confine development ambitions within the boundaries
of the airport perimeter.
Airport authorities and companies must determine the maximum or ultimate capacity possible that
can be adequately served by the existing and potential future apron and terminal provision. This
knowledge should be at the core of the airport master plan for each airport.
The design of new facilities should be as flexible as practically possible, with a building’s layout and
construction techniques promoting variations in the operational usage of the building at some point
in the future. The design of building envelopes should aid the expansion of the facility, which is almost
inevitable, through the use of modular design solutions where practical. Modular design solutions can
allow airports to modify their operations with minimum impact on airport clients, and the benefits of
this approach should be explored fully. All new airport facilities should be planned with future expansion
in mind to support the ultimate development potential of the airport.
Base carriers generally need to have a single point of operation in order for them to provide an
efficient and effective hub. By operating from one base, the base carrier can increase its percentage
of the transfer market by maximising the number of city pairs served. Any situation where they are
coerced into operating from two airports will weaken their ability to compete, as two operational bases
will result in unnecessarily duplicated costs. Airport authorities and companies should liase regularly
with the relevant airlines to establish their operational and business objectives so as to align the
design of their airport accordingly.
Multi-airport systems may only exist where there is no possibility of operating from a single base. A
multi-airport system needs to have sufficient traffic volume (20 to 30 mppa) to support entirely
independent operations. Success will be heavily dependent on each facility securing the support of
a major network carrier or an alliance grouping, and many high-volume individual routes operating
to both airports would be needed.
C 1 .1 .5 P o litic a l C o n s id e ra tio n s
It is often the case that local political interests will seek to manipulate market conditions by restricting
or forcing airlines to fly certain types of traffic from particular airports. This is principally apparent in
cities where a new airport project would likely cause the closure of an existing facility, and is generally
practiced to appease a local populace fearful of losing the economic conditions and benefits that are
associated with large airports. The serious operational and financial implications that this course of
action can have on the airlines in question should be fully appreciated by airport authorities and
companies, as these factors can ultimately impact on the basic viability of the region’s air travel
market.
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C 1 .1 .6 F in a n c ia l C o n s id e ra tio n s
For all airport developments large or small, the eventual benefits to the various stakeholder groups
must be positive and outweigh the cost of the development; e.g. a thorough cost benefit analysis
should be undertaken to support all capital expenditure (CAPEX). A financial model should be
established which shows the proposed method and time scales for cost recovery, which will in turn
allow the airlines to determine what the proposed impact may be on their yields and operating costs.
Where relocation of the entire airfield is being considered to a new ‘green-field’ or ‘blue-sea’ location,
financial support will be required from governments to offset the political costs of re-establishing
infrastructure at the new site. This is particularly true of large-scale developments that include surface
access system provision, primary utility supply and distribution networks, and preliminary site
preparation works that may be essential to support operations in the new location. It should also be
noted that any proceeds accruing from the sale of land or facilities at the former site should be used
to offset the cost of new facilities.
For further information on financial matters pertaining to airport development, please refer to Chapter
D, Sections D1 to D4 inclusive.
The main problem with existing airports concerns how to expand facilities that have run out of room
to develop in their present locations. A common operational dilemma may arise in these circumstances
whereby the airlines using an existing airport will usually want to continue to operate from that location,
and yet this in turn may prevent the facility from sufficiently limiting its operations to allow for the
required expansion and redevelopment. Airport operators in this case tend to take the view that the
existing operation should be expanded towards its limit, while in parallel a process is begun to develop
a replacement facility. The existing airport is then capable of possibly being redeveloped at a later
stage for a different aviation market, or indeed sold off as general real estate once decommissioned.
C 1 .1 .8 N e w A irp o rts
At ‘green-field’ or ‘blue-sea’ sites the planner essentially has a blank canvass upon which to compose
their airport master plan, which should ideally follow the ten step sequence defined within clause
C1.2 below. This sequence defines the primary and logical steps that all airport developers should
follow when creating a master plan. As with existing airports, the travel distance and accessibility to
the new airport site are primary requirements, and the apron area tends to be the central pivot point
of a balanced design approach. Refer to the development zones identified within Figures C1-1 to C1-
6 inclusive for further details in this regard.
The primary business functions and markets of the airport will need to be clearly identified and
balanced so that the correct functional emphasis can be placed on their development. Each proposed
function of the airport should be ranked and this should in part dictate the positioning of the process
within the airfield. It sounds obvious, but passenger processing functions should be highly ranked
within passengers airports. Similarly, cargo and mail processing functions should be highly ranked
within predominantly cargo and mail airport operations.
There are various permutations on how these functions can be aligned but the solution has to be
operationally viable from day one through to the ultimate phase. This may result in some master
plans, particularly in their early phases, looking somewhat generous in their approach to land use
planning. All other non-essential activities can then be positioned so that they do not interfere with
either the circulation routes or expansion zones of the primary facilities.
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Step 1 Determine the peak aircraft movements and resulting peak passenger movements required
in the final master plan design year (Refer to Section C2 for Forecasting Techniques).
Step 2 Collect via survey: geographical, geological, meteorological and environmental data
pertaining to the proposed airport site location.
Step 3 Select the runway configuration(s) which best matches the aircraft type and movement
requirements, ATC capability, geological limitations and meteorological conditions, and
which satisfies the environmental requirements as closely as possible.
Step 4 Align the proposed runway(s) to coincide with the prevailing wind directions.
Step 5 Determine and locate the number of aircraft stands required and the stand type (remote
or gate serviced) needed to meet the service standard.
Step 6 Provide the correct configuration and quantity of taxiways, ensuring that the runway(s) and
stands are serviced adequately, with due consideration to the dynamics of the aircraft on
the apron.
Step 7 Size and position the ultimate terminal building(s), pier(s) and control tower within the
appropriate development zone(s) (refer to Figures C1-1 to C1-6 inclusive). The space
requirement for the terminal building will be heavily dependent on the processes required
as defined within ChapterT, and the functional space requirements defined within Chapter F
— Airport Capacity, Section F9 — Passenger Terminal Facilities, and Chapter U — Airport
Baggage Handling.
Step 8 Align the ultimate terminal building and piers to service the aircraft stands accordingly.
Position fire services within the apron complex appropriately.
Step 9 Size and position airport support processes such as (but not limited to) rail, bus, coach
and passenger car access and parking facilities. See Chapter T for potential processes
to be considered and included.
StepIO Position secondary Cargo and Separate Express Facilities Terminal and stands, aircraft
maintenance hangars as required within the surplus development zone(s) (refer to Figures
C1-1 to C1-6 inclusive).
Historically, few airports worried about running out of space. Airfields were often located in relatively
isolated countryside positions and had multiple runways occupying vast tracks of land. The jet age
placed a reduced need on crosswind runways and as a result runways made way for aprons, small
finger piers and terminals. Development tended to be piecemeal and lacked co-ordination Terminal
buildings and airport support facilities merely spread out as required, with little or no thought for the
future. Expansion of existing facilities was not normally considered, so newer, multiple terminal
solutions were added. This situation, rather surprisingly, lasted until the late eighties. It is for these
reasons that the ten point master planning sequence described above should be adopted by airport
developers, so that logical airport developments can be designed and implemented in the most
appropriate and efficient manner.
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lATA Master Planning
All airports, regardless of their size, can no longer ignore their impact on surrounding communities,
who unfortunately in some instances may have been allowed (by the lack of land-use controls) to
encroach upon the airport’s boundary. Sustainability now needs to be considered and a greater
emphasis needs to be placed on the airport as a junction for modal interchange.
A master plan is required so that all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities can develop,
expand and improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their business in a structured, balanced
and orderly fashion, without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbours on or adjacent
to the airport. In so doing, the potential of the available land and the capacity of the airport’s runway
system can be maximized.
C 1 .3 S T E P 1 — S T A K E H O L D E R S A N D O B J E C T IV E S
0 *3 *1 S T E P 1a — S ta k e h o ld e r C o n s u lta tio n
Meaningful and effective consultation with all interested people, community groups, parties and
organisations (airlines, major tenants, the travelling public, surrounding communities, Civil Aviation
Authorities and support agencies) that may be impacted by the airport development is essential.
For further details on what groups should be consulted and what staged please refer to Sections B1
and V1.
0 *3 . S T E P 1 b - — B a c k g ro u n d S ta tis tic a l D a ta
All successful master plans are based on a combination of robust assumptions and facts. These must
be assembled and recorded with great care in order that they can stand up to external scrutiny by
those who may or may not wish that airport development should take place. Of particular importance
will be the forecasted data pertaining to relevant airlines and the base carrier(s). This will serve as
a sound base from which aviation market forecasts can then, at a later stage, be extrapolated.
C1.3.: S T E P 1c — F u tu re D e m a n d A v ia tio n M a rk e t F o re c a s t
A forecast of future aviation demand is required in order to determine if and when additional capacity
should be developed. It should not be used to determine the overall scale of the airport required, as
facility requirements should be closely matched against the chosen site’s ultimate development
potential so that all facility development is geared to reaching the ultimate level while maintaining
balance within the overall operational system. For further details on forecasting please refer to Section
C2 for Forecasting Techniques.
0 .4 S T E P 2 — S IT E E V A L U A T IO N
• Utility Provisions — primary supplies, the position of end nodes and transition point of supply
responsibility.
• Retrieval Systems — sewage, surface water and effluent retrieval systems.
• Adjacent primary and secondary surface access systems.
• Location, size, capacity, condition and age of all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities.
• Condition of runways, taxiways and aprons.
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• Meteorological conditions.
C 1 .4 .2 S T E P 2 b — G e o lo g y a n d T o p o g r a p h y
Significant variations in site levels will need to be recorded as these will determine the amount of
material that will be required to be excavated, transported or filled in order to produce a graded site
capable of supporting aircraft operations.
Soil conditions, particularly the ability of the site’s various terrains and substrata to safely and
adequately support the loads imposed by aircraft, vehicular traffic movements and building structures
need to be determined.
Some terrain may be of low bearing quality and may influence the planner’s choice as to where best
locate a major runway without incurring additional construction costs. Runways, if not constructed
properly, risk early cracks due to structural damage and resulting high maintenance costs. Soil analysis
and borings will be very important to determine which areas to map out for runway development. Soil
composition quality plays an important cost factor in determining the type of construction materials
required. The presence or absence of water on the site is also an important element to take into
consideration.
C 1 .4 .3 S T E P 2 c — S u rro u n d in g D e v e lo p m e n t & L a n d U s e
It is important to determine what use is currently being made of the surrounding land, what development
plans are proposed and what zoning procedures have been set in place to ensure that incompatible
developments are not permitted adjacent to the site. Particular attention should be paid to noise
sensitive developments, especially if these are located in close proximity to the airport and/or on the
line of existing runways and their respective aircraft approach and departure paths. For further details
please refer to Section C3 of this manual.
® Financial considerations.
® Environmental considerations,
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C 1 .4 .5 S T E P 2 e — M e th o d o lo g y
There are a number of basic steps that have to be taken in turn to determine which site offers the
most potential to satisfy the growth requirements of both airlines and airport authorities alike. The
following need to be determined:
5. Operational relationships.
6. Preliminary land use layouts.
7. Evaluation of criteria.
8. Recommendation of which site(s) should be considered in the second stage evaluation process.
C 1 .4 .6 S T E P 2 f — S ite a n d F a c ility S iz in g
For existing and proposed airports, the land available for development either between or adjacent to
the runways, when coupled with the annual capacity of the runway system, will determine the ultimate
capacity of the airport. If land availability is not an issue then runway capacity is the factor that
determines ultimate capacity. The total area available for development is fixed by the site’s existing
or proposed boundary.
In order for airport planners and airport authorities to understand the scale of the site required for
airport infrastructure development, the following tables have been assembled. These cover the primary
facilities exclusively and should be used for rough estimation purposes only.
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C 1 .4 .7 S T E P 2 g — A p p ro x im a te L a n d A re a R e q u ire m e n t
The following table highlights the land availability at 25 airports throughout Europe, North America
and the Asia Pacific regions.
iM M iillilliB M "otal
Total
Annua! Total
\ Mo. of Annua! Passenger Annusai Land Area
Atfpoirt J Runways Mvts. _ (SMMl -
Carqo. JM
North America
C 1 .4 .8 S T E P 2 h — S o c ia l C o n s id e ra tio n s
The placement of airports within populated areas will have a significant social impact which must be
fully assessed by airport planners. Please refer to Sections E2 and S3 of this manual for further
details in this regard.
C 1 A 1 0 S T E P 2j — E c o n o m ic C o n s id e ra tio n s
It will be essential for airport planners to consider the economic viability of the proposed site in
terms of the constructions costs associated within the region and resultant payback period for the
development. Additionally, the regional stability of the country where the airport is to reside will be
important to understand. Inflation and cost of borrowing within the region may preclude certain
desirable development options from being considered for the proposed airport. Some countries provide
special economic zones where major developments may benefit from less governmental taxation.
These factors need to be explored and considered fully.
C 1 .5 S T E P 3 — A IR F IE L D C O N F IG U R A T IO N
Airfield configurations are determined by the number, position and orientation of existing and proposed
runways and their support taxiway networks. This factor will greatly influence the position of all other
primary and secondary support facilities.
When determining the position of new runways, several related factors need to be assessed in order
that the new infrastructure can make best use of the existing or proposed new site’s unique conditions.
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C 1.5.1 S T E P 3 c — M e te o ro lo g ic a l C o n d itio n s a n d R u n w a y -
W in d O rie n ta tio n
The main criteria for the orientation of runways are the prevailing winds. Historical data will have to
be retrieved to determine their direction, frequency and strength. As a general rule, the principal traffic
runway at an airport should be oriented as closely as practicable in the direction of the prevailing
winds.
ICAO specifies that runways should be oriented so aircraft may land with crosswind components of
20km/hr or less at least 95 percent of the time for runways of 1500m or more. Optimum runway
directions are determined by using a wind-rose.
C 1 .5 .2 S T E P 3d — V is u a l C o n d itio n s
Visibility and ceiling heights are very much affected by weather conditions and will influence the
choice of runway operations; e.g. whether to select for operations under all weather or visual conditions
only. Fog, turbulence and abnormal rainfall may at times also reduce the capacity of runways.
In order for airlines to maintain regular schedules during adverse weather conditions, airports are
equipped with approach aids. The category of these aids depends on both the sophistication of the
equipment installed at the airport and on board the aircraft. This determines the minimum visibility
required for an aircraft to be able to land.
C 1 .5 .3 S T E P 3 e ■
— L im ita tio n s O f In s tru m e n t A p p ro a c h e s — S u m m a ry
The minima herein are acceptable only when full facilities are installed and no objects penetrate
obstacle clearance surfaces. Category III requires much more sophisticated equipment, which is not
commonly installed at airports or in the aircraft using them. Given the small benefit that Category III
gives compared to its costs, it is usually not installed at most airports. Cat III is most prevalent in
Europe where it is a necessity for the airlines to maintain normal schedules in poor weather conditions.
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High temperatures result in lower air densities which in turn cause lower engine thrust. When
determining runway length a correction factor needs to be applied on temperatures above 15 degrees
C or 59 degrees F.
Airports that experience excessively high temperatures during the day may find that their operations
are restricted due to insufficient runway length being available to support maximum possible take-off
weights. In these instances, cargo volumes and/or passenger numbers may be restricted or operations
may only be cost effective during cooler early morning or late evening periods.
Altitude, and its resulting effects upon air pressure and other temperature factors also plays an
important role in determining the most effective runway configuration for a given facility.
C 1 .5 .5 S T E P 3 g — O b s ta c le s /T e rra in
Obstacles often represent serious constraints to an optimal layout of runways or may in some
circumstances have a negative influence on the operation to/from a runway. ICAO Annex 14 specifies
that airspace around airports should remain free of obstacles so as to permit the intended aircraft
operations at the airport to be conducted safely and to prevent the airport from becoming unusable
by the growth of the obstacles around the airport.
Criteria for evaluating such obstacles are contained in the ICAO document Procedures for Air
Navigation Services — Aircraft Operations (PANS OPS).
Features within the natural landscape may also influence the orientation or length of proposed runways.
While small obstructions can be removed, cost and the subsequent additional benefits obtained will
be the determining factors when considering removal.
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2. Runway design Includes the length available, access to taxiways for entry and exit from runways,
the availability of high speed exits and entrances, etc.
3. Aerodrome design Considers the support infrastructure, including terminal design and access
to gates, and taxiway design, which can influence the ability to get to or from a runway, or to
change runways when weather or other conditions require. This factor also includes access to
precision landing or departure guidance, runway and taxi way lighting, etc.
4. Engineered Runway Capacity This is the number of movements (landings and/or departures)
that can be expected to occur on a particular runway, or set of runways, assuming that there are
no physical or practical constraints to accessing the runway(s). This means that aircraft are able
to vacate a runway at a stopping point, or roll directly onto a runway without stopping. It does,
however, factor the predicted wake vortex spacing for a known or assumed traffic mix, and
assumes known or assumed runway occupancy times for landing or departing aircraft. It is an
ideal figure, and cannot generally be achieved or sustained.
5. Operational Runway Capacity This is the maximum number of movements that a runway can
achieve and sustain in normal operating conditions. Note: “Mvts/Hr” denotes Aircraft Movements
Per Hour.
Configuration
Runway Operational
Runway Layout Runway
Configuration Figure Configuration Advantages Configuration Disadvantages Capacity
Single Fig C1-1 - Lesser impact on - Airport capacity restricted by 36-55 Mvts/Hr
Runway environment due to reduced single runway traffic movements
apron area and reduced aircraft capability.
movements per hour. - Runway emergencies and
- Runway utilization often high. maintenance more difficult to
- Recommended choice of manage.
IATA (subject to capacity - Cross wind take off and
requirements). landing can present problems.
Open “V” to Fig C1-2 - Increased runway Mvts/Hr - Not a recommended choice of 85-90 Mvts/Hr
“L” Runways yields increased airport ultimate IATA.
capacity. - Open “V” to “L” has larger
- Varied runway orientations impact on environment than a
can overcome seasonal single runway and some parallel
prevailing cross wind problems. runway configurations.
- Runway emergencies and - Open “V” to “L” layout
maintenance easier to manage occupies larger apron plan area.
(subject to case). - Open ‘V” layout does not
- Both runways can be used naturally lend itself to efficient
simultaneously (subject to ATC apron expansion.
control limitations) - One runway will always be
more compromised to prevailing
wind direction.
- Aircraft crash at apex of “V” to
“L” can render both runways
inoperative.
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Configuration
Runway Operational
Runway Layout Runway
Configuration Figure Configuration Advantages Configuration Disadvantages Capacity
Intersecting Fig C1-3 - Varied runway orientations - Not a recommended choice of 70-75 Mvts/Hr
Runways can overcome seasonal IATA. Qualification:
prevailing cross wind problems. - Both runways cannot be used Movements per
- Runway emergencies and simultaneously. hour based on
maintenance easier to manage - Intersecting runway layout has two intersecting
(subject to case). larger impact on environment runways
than parallel runway as apron
area increased.
- Intersecting runway layout
occupies larger apron plan area
than single runway or parallel
runway configurations.
- Intersecting runway layout
does not naturally lend itself to
efficient apron expansion.
- One runway will always be
more compromised to prevailing
wind direction.
- Aircraft crash at intersect
point can render two runways
inoperative.
Staggered Fig C1-4 - Runway utilization can be - Cross wind take off and 60 Mvts/Hr
Runways high. landing can present problems.
- Runway emergencies and
maintenance easier to manage.
- Dedicated takeoff and
dedicated landing runway
operations promotes safer
multiple runway operations.
- Runway layout naturally
lends itself to efficient apron
expansion.
- Recommended choice of
IATA (subject to capacity
requirements).
Dual Parallel Fig C1-5 - Runway utilization can be - Cross wind take off and 84-105 Mvts/Hr
high. landing can present problems
- Runway emergencies and
maintenance easier to manage.
- Dedicated takeoff and
dedicated landing runway
operations promotes safer
multiple runway operations.
- Runway layout naturally
lends itself to efficient apron
expansion.
- Recommended choice of
IATA (subject to capacity
requirements).
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Configuration
Runway Operational
Runway Layout Runway
Configuration Figure Configuration Advantages Configuration Disadvantages Capacity
Multiple Fig C1-6 - Runway utilization can be - Cross wind take off and 120-168 Mvts/Hr
Parallel high. landing can present problems
- Runway emergencies and
maintenance easier to manage.
- Dedicated takeoff and
dedicated landing runway
operations promotes safer
multiple runway operations.
- Runway layout naturally
lends itself to efficient apron
expansion.
- Recommended choice of
IATA (subject to capacity
requirements).
C 1 .5 .9 S T E P 3 k — R u n w a y U s e
Runways and their supporting taxiway connections should observe the following characteristics:
• Be linked to an efficient airspace system.
• Be supported by an air traffic control service provider that can maximize the potential of any
given runway system.
9 Reduce, to a safe working minimum, runway occupancy times through the provision of strategically
positioned rapid exit taxiways.
• Provide for the shortest possible taxiing times between runways and aircraft parking positions
for both arriving and departing aircraft.
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0 * 5 .1 0 S T E P 31 — R u n w a y E le m e n ts
Runways are made up of seven elements, all of which perform a different function. The table below
provides the formal ICAO definition of the stated apron elements.
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i w i W r n '- w :
MM
ilätSSS
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(ii) With respect to the table within Clause C1.5.8, the capacity estimates for this runway configuration
assume that the terminal facilities lie between the runways within the development zones defined
within Figure C1-2 below.
Figure C1-2: Typical Open “V” To “L” Shape Runway Zone Diagram
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(i) In many circumstances it will be advantageous from an aircraft operational viewpoint to stagger
the thresholds of parallel runways in line with the requirements defined within ICAO Annex 14.
Airports that do not possess the capability to lay out widely-spaced parallels may opt for a close
parallel alternative. In these situations the minimum amount of stagger is predetermined by
recommendations as laid down by ICAO in Annex 14. The distance between the runways should,
if possible, allow for aircraft to manoeuvre and hold prior to take off or to cross the other active
runway. This type of staggering may be necessary because of the limited land available for
runway construction.
(ii) From an operational point of view, the staggering of runways is only required when the separation
distance falls below 760m. For segregated parallel operations to continue ICAO recommends
that the specified minimum distance may be decreased by 30m for each 150m that the arrival
runway is staggered toward the arriving aircraft, to a minimum of 300m, and should be increased
by 30m for each 150m that the arrival runway is staggered away from the arriving aircraft. For
more detailed information please see ICAO Annex 14.
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On the condition that runways are spaced by at least 1034 metres, and are not staged by more
than approximately 1000 metres, they may be treated as independent or semi-independent.
Runways closer than 1034 metres are effectively the same runway in IMG — however, in VMC, may
be used to achieved capacity higher than a single runway — i.e., land on one runway, depart on the
close spaced parallel. A displaced instrument approach procedure and landing threshold on a close
spaced parallel runway can achieve a slight increase in arrival rates.
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C l 5.1 7 S T E P 3 m — R u n w a y C a p a c ity
The following table can be used as a basis for comparing differing runway options. There are a
number of factors that can impact on an airport’s ability to reach its theoretical maximum potential.
These can include operating restrictions (night curfews or environmental limits), infrastructure
deficiencies (insufficient or poorly positioned Rapid Exit Taxi way (RET) and/or holding bays) and
airport layout weaknesses (crossing of active runways).
Notes:
• Actual achieved runway capacities vary with aircraft mix. A large proportion of large aircraft or a
wide range of aircraft sizes will reduce total movement capacity.
® The inability to clear runways to allow following aircraft to land (insufficient or poorly positioned
RETs), to reposition aircraft prior to take-off (inadequate holding bays) and the need to cross
active runways will significantly reduced assumed movement maximums.
• 16.5 hour operating day (06:00 to 10:30), 365 day operation assumed.
• The theoretical annual maximum figures stated are based on a 100% take up of slots over each
day and throughout the year. 100% take up of slots is not possible or desirable. A more realistic
design expectation level would be 70% as stated within the table.
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C1.5.18 S T E P 3n — S p a c in g b e tw e e n R u n w a y s
The spacing between parallel runways dictates the mode of runway operation under IFR and VFR
and hence the capacity that can be obtained. The following table summarises the separation distances
of parallel runways:
Note:
(i) As a design consideration, to sustain independent parallel approaches in all weather conditions
the runways should be separated by at least 1.035m. If this cannot be achieved then dependent
approaches or segregated operations have to be applied, thus offering lower runway capacities.
(ii) Runways may be operated in mixed mode (e.g. arrivals and departures on the same runway) or
segregated mode (e.g. arrivals on one runway and departures on the other runway). Segregated
mode is a simpler operation with parallel runways, but because of wake vortices from heavy jets
it achieves less capacity. Mixed mode has to be used on single runways. On widely spaced
parallel runways it produces an increase in capacity providing independent approaches and
departures can be established.
C l .5.19 S T E P 3© — R u n w a y a n d T a x i w a y S y s te m s
The land area required to support the movement of aircraft on and around an airfield can often be
in excess of 50% of the total area requirement for an airport. The following table outlines the
approximate area required given twin parallel taxiways with associated clearance to object (with
code F separation) for a single runway of varying lengths:
Runway Length 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Area Required (ha) 104.9 129.6 154.4 179.1 203.9
Note:
(i) The above table excludes the areas required to support RESA, approach/departure & missed
approach surfaces, glide slope area & airside roads.
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Notes:
(i) MTOW, ISA +20°C/Sea Level, no wind & a dry runway, FAA add 15% for a wet runway. ** MTOW, ISA
+15°C/Sea level. When considering new runways at existing airports, it is important to consider the existing
and projected traffic mix. In this way the proposed runway length can be tailored to suit the predominant
traffic type so that planned capacity enhancements suit the largest percentage of forecast movements.
(ii) Boeing aircraft data courtesy of Boeing Aircraft Company Inc. Airbus data courtesy of Airbus Industries
website, via published Airplane Characteristics Manuals.
(iii) The runway lengths listed do not consider the effects of aerodrome elevation, runway slope, wind or obstacles.
Airport planners should refer to the document types listed below, which are provided by the relevant aircraft
manufacturer(s), and which also details the recommended landing and departing runway length data:
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C 1 .6 S T E P 4 — R U N W A Y O R IE N T A T IO N
Runways also need to be orientated (see figure C1-7) so that aircraft may land at least 95% of the
time while experiencing varying crosswind strengths. Varying crosswind conditions can be
accommodated but these are dependent on the Aerodrome reference field length available. A low
visibility wind analysis should also be undertaken.
The number of runways required is dependent on the peak hour number of aircraft movements to
be accommodated, the mix of aircraft types and the anticipated annual volume of passenger to be
handled.
Wherever possible, land should be reserved and protected to allow airports to extend their runway
systems so as to avoid imposition of aircraft operating restrictions (max. permissible take-off weight)
and to accommodate changing fleet mix and traffic type, without having to impact on surrounding
communities.
The layout in figure C1-7 also provides an indication of the large areas taken up by the primary
infrastructure systems. Here the runway separation is 2,250m, the runway stagger is 1,500m and the
total site area is 1,297.5 ha. The cross-over taxiways are separated by 195m. This dimension allows
a further code F taxiway to be inserted between the two shown at some later date. In this example
the area required to support the movement of aircraft represents approximately 53% of the total area
available.
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G 1 .7 STEP 5 — APRO NS
An apron is an airside area intended to support an aircraft as it loads and unloads passengers and
cargo or awaits entry into an aircraft maintenance facility. It also serves as a platform from which all
ground support vehicles, including refuelling, catering, baggage conveyors, toilet service, ground
power units, cargo loaders and transfer platforms can operate from.
C 1.7.1 S T E P 5 a — A p ro n S iz in g
The size and extent of aircraft aprons is dependent on the forecast fleet mix. Examination of the fleet-
mix by type of traffic (charter, domestic, international, etc.) will provide guidance as to the number
and type of aircraft to be accommodated in the peak hour, their principal dimensions and the clearances
required. Gate occupancy times will also have to be factored in at this stage.
Flexible-parking configurations or Multiple Aircraft Ramp System (MARS) aircraft stands should be
used, as outlined in Sections G1 and L3. A degree of flexibility also needs to be built into the depth
of the stand dimension to accommodate unforeseen expansion of the terminal/pier/satellite in later
stages.
0 * 7 - 2 S T E P 5 b — A p ro n P o s itio n in g
In airport planning, apron areas and passenger terminal facilities go hand in hand, both heavily
dependent on the other. As such, both must be planned together. When considering the location of
aircraft aprons the following factors should be considered:
• Aprons should be located as close to the runways as possible in order that taxiing distances and
the amount of time an aircraft spends on the ground is reduced to the absolute minimum.
® The apron should allow for clearances and separation distances as indicated in ICAO Annex 14.
® Aprons should provide maximum flexibility to accommodate varying aircraft types at differing
times of the same day.
® Aprons should be sized to allow for differing aircraft types on individual routes as a result of
seasonal variations in demand that require increases or decreases in capacity.
® Aprons should be planned such that the largest aircraft are positioned as close to the main
passenger processing complex as possible.
® Aprons should be laid out such that aircraft always have one route in and one separate route
out, thereby reducing the need to stop and hold to allow aircraft to enter or exit parking positions.
® Aprons should be capable of accommodating all associated ground equipment, aircraft servicing
vehicles and forward staging areas for baggage and cargo.
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C 1 .7 .3 S T E P 5 c — A p ro n S e rv ic in g
Aircraft, when parked on stands, require quick and efficient servicing by a wide variety of ground
handling equipment, services and vehicle types (refer to Section L5 and Fig L5-1). All vehicles must
be able to manoeuvre around aircraft on and off stand, between stands, and between stands and
terminals. As such adequate service road provision is essential.
In order to reduce delays and the potential for accidents between aircraft and vehicles traversing
behind stands, IATA recommends that service road locations should be restricted to the head of
stand.
C 1 .7 .4 S T E P 5 d — A p ro n s A re a s
The area required for aircraft aprons, both contact and remote, with associated taxiway clearance to
object for aircraft with varying wingspans is approximately:
Contact
Remote
C 1 .7 .5 S T E P 5 e — A ir c r a ft S ta n d D im e n s io n s
The table below provides the generic space requirements which should be typically allowed on an
apron to accommodate the indicated aircraft types.
65 m up to but
F not including A38Ö 73.00 79.80 20.00 97.50 57,50 85.00 30,00 2 5 -3 5 7.50
80 m
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These areas are based on the recommended separation distances for taxiways/aprons as outlined
by ICAO, and head of stand dimensions as recommended by IATA. It should be noted that IATA
does not recommend that a rear of stand service access road be provided for either contact or remote
stands. This aids in avoiding the potential for collisions between ground support equipment and aircraft
is removed.
C 1 .8 S T E P 6 — T A X IW A Y S Y S T E M S
The principal function of taxiways is to provide access for aircraft moving between runways and
passenger terminal areas, cargo areas and maintenance hangars. Taxiways should be arranged so
that arriving aircraft do not obstruct and delay departing aircraft.
The extent of taxiway layouts is determined by the volume and frequency of traffic to be handled in
the peak hour. Should peak hour movements not require a full parallel then a partial parallel layout
can suffice. In so doing construction costs can be minimised.
Taxi way layouts should not be unnecessarily complicated and should provide easy to follow, shortest
possible routes between runway ends and aircraft parking positions.
Simulation models will assist planners in determining exact taxiway system requirements.
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C 1.8.1 S T E P 6 a — T a x i w a y M in im u m S e p a ra tio n D is ta n c e s
The following diagram and tables highlight separation distances as recommended by ICAO Annex 14.
Notes:
(i) The separation distances shown in columns (2) to (9) represent ordinary combinations of runways
and taxi way s. The basis for development of these distances is given in the ICAO’s Aerodrome
Design Manual, Part 2.
(ii) The distances in columns (2) to (9) do not guarantee sufficient clearance behind a holding aircraft
to permit the passing of another aircraft on a parallel taxiway. See the Aerodrome Design Manual,
Part 2.
(iii) For further information pertaining to Code F aircraft taxiway clearances please refer to ICAO New
Large Aircraft Circular (Published Dec 2003).
Distance Between
Taxiway, Other
ICAO Taxiway Centreline Taxiway
Aerodrome Than Aircraft
& Runway Centre Line
Reference Stand Taxtlane,
Span Criteria Centreline To Taxiway
Aircraft Centre Line To
Code instrument Centreline
Object
Runway.
Type Length Span a b c
15 m up to but not
B CRJ 26.78 21.21 87.0 33.50 21.50
including 24 m
A319 33.84 34.10
24 m up to but not
c including 36 m A320-200 37.57 34.10 168.0 44.00 26.00
B737-800 39.50 34.30
A310-300 46.66 43.90
36 m up to but not
D B757-20Ö 47.33 38.06 176.0 66.50 40.50
including 52 m
B767-300ER 54,94 47.57
A340-600 75.30 63.45
52 m up to but not
E B777-200 63,73 60.95 182.5 80,00 47,50
including 65 m
B747-400 70.67 64.94
65 m up to but not
F A38Q 73.00 79.80 190.0 97.50 57.50
including 80 m
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C 1 .8 .2 S T E P 6 b — T a x i w a y C a p a c ity
The following table provides broad guidelines as to the range of hourly movements that can be
achieved from taxi way s.
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C 1 .8 .3 S T E P 6 c — E x it T a x i w a y s
Exit taxiways allow landing aircraft to leave a runway so that it is then clear for use by other arriving
and departing aircraft. At airports with peak traffic periods and continuous flows of arriving and/or
departing aircraft, the capacity of the runway is dependent to a large degree on how quickly landing
aircraft can exit the runway. An aircraft that has landed delays succeeding aircraft until it has cleared
the runway. Taxiways at right-angles are possible but this geometry restricts the speed of exit and
hence increases runway occupancy time. A RET, with exit angles between 25 and 45 degrees, permits
higher exit speeds. This in turn allows succeeding landing aircraft to be more closed spaced in terms
of time, or it might allow a takeoff to be sandwiched in between two successive landings.
The precise location of the Optimal Turn-off Segment (OTS) should be determined after considering:
• For which operational conditions runway capacity should be enhanced; i.e. peak period, special
weather conditions, particular group of aircraft, mixed mode.
• The representative fleet-mix that the exit is intended to serve after eliminating those with less
than 5 or 10% of the total.
• The separation distance between runway and taxiway; i.e. on non-instrument runways the
separation distances may not allow for design of a satisfactory RET.
• The characteristics of aircraft concerning threshold speed, braking ability and turn off speed for
differing wind conditions.
Should the above highlight more than one OTS, it may be necessary to consider construction of two
or more rapid exits. Note that a distance between exits of approximately 450m should be observed.
The OTS position should be closely related to the position of link taxiways.
Reference should be made to Annex 14 to determine the precise geometry required for radii of turn
off curves and fillets, straight distance after turn-off and the intersection angle of the rapid exit taxiway.
G 1 .8 .4 S T E P 6 d —- D u a l P a ra lle l T a x iw a y s
When planning new runways, sufficient space should always be allowed for a dual parallel taxiway
system to be located adjacent and parallel to all runways. Where availability of land does not permit
dual parallel taxiways, the airport planner should note that the capacity of the single taxiway could
then be the factor that determines runway capacity.
Dual parallel taxiways, unless constructed for replacement airports that will assume all existing
movements, should be constructed in phases, as demand requires. The absence of full dual parallel
taxiways would not prevent individual airports from functioning to their fullest potential. It would merely
reduce the efficiency of aircraft movements on the ground.
Dual parallel taxiways should also be incorporated into a master plan to cross between two widely
spaced parallel runways. The number of crossover taxiways should be related to the ultimate
development potential of the site and should be checked using a simulation model.
C 1 .8 .5 S T E P 6 e — T a x i-la n e s
Taxi-lanes are routes, bounded on either one or two sides by aircraft parking positions, by which
aircraft can only gain access to these parking positions. It should be noted that for taxi-lanes the
separation distances as outlined in clause C1.8.1 are less than those for the equivalent taxiway
separations.
When planning new airports, aircraft stand layouts that allow for only a single entry/exit taxi-lane or
cul-de-sac should be avoided. The resultant delays due to constriction of free movement would place
unnecessary financial inefficiencies on airline operations.
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C 1 .8 .6 S T E P 6 f — H o ld in g B a y s
Holding bays are designated positions intended to protect a runway, an obstacle limitation surface
or an ILS/MLS critically sensitive area, where aircraft hold.
At runway ends a holding position allows queuing aircraft awaiting take-off to be re-ordered as
determined by ATC. This optimised re-sequencing of aircraft (with airline approval) can assist in
relieving climb and en-route ATC constraints. The holding position should be designed to accommodate
two to four aircraft and allow sufficient space for one aircraft to bypass another. The area allotted for
a waiting aircraft will depend on its size and manoeuvrability. Holding aircraft should be placed outside
the bypass route so that the blast from the holding aircraft will not be directed toward the bypass
route.
Whenever possible, runway end holding positions should be orientated to permit aircraft departing
them to access the runway at an angle of less than 90. These runway access points can allow aircraft
a rolling start to their take-off and thereby reduce runway occupancy time. For aircraft operating at
or near maximum take-off weight, the entry point should be as close to the end of the runway as
possible. Small and medium sized aircraft that do not require the full extent of the available runway’s
length may be permitted to access the runway at intermediate access points leading up to the runway
end. This provides another means by which ATC can re-order departing aircraft. Such access points
should also have intermediate holding positions with all the associated and required clearances.
Peak traffic volumes at many airports may exceed the capacity of a holding position, resulting in
aircraft queuing on the taxiway leading to the runway end.
C 1 .8 .7 S T E P 6 g — H o ld in g A p ro n s
Holding aprons can be placed at a convenient location on the airport for the temporary storage of
aircraft. These can be required at large airports where the number of gates is insufficient to handle
demand during peak periods of the day. If this is the case, aircraft are routed by air traffic control to
the holding apron and are held there until a gate becomes available.
Holding aprons can also permit a departing flight to vacate a needed gate and to wait near the runway
without obstructing either the arriving aircraft onto stand or the departure flow, pending receipt of
ATC/ATFM (slot) en-route clearance. They can also be used for aircraft with long turnaround times,
where staying on stand would unnecessarily tie up capacity. This is particularly true of airports where
contact stands are limited.
Holding aprons are not usually required if capacity slightly exceeds demand. However fluctuations
in future demand are difficult to predict, and therefore a temporary holding facility may be necessary.
C 1 .9 S T E P 7 — P A S S E N G E R T E R M IN A L /A P R O N C O M P L E X
C O N F IG U R A T IO N S
The area available for the passenger terminal/apron complex is heavily dependent on the runway
configuration, the land available between or adjacent to the chosen runway configuration, and the
ability to handle the forecast mix of aircraft anticipated to use the airport. At existing airports, terminal/
apron options may be restricted by the type of development that has gone before or be limited by
the nature and extent of support infrastructure. The choice may be limited to a few basic concepts
governed mainly by the ability to park as many aircraft as possible in a limited space and still allow
for aircraft to manoeuvre on their own power to and from contact stands.
At new airports this should not to be the case, with the chosen configuration having been determined
by the requirements of preceding sub-sections in this chapter. To understand what has happened to
later generation ‘green-field’ and ‘blue-sea’ airports requires a careful analysis of the genesis of these
concepts. Some new airports have adopted generous and flexible concepts of various types, with
scope for built-in changes.
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‘Green-field’ or ‘blue-sea’ airports have emerged in the past few years and most have the ability to
become ‘mega’ airports. These new airports are sized in the 400,000 sq. m range and will generally
open with an initial capacity of approximately 30 MPPA. Each airport has been designed to be a hub
airport and to grow in a modular fashion, with some planned to eventually handle up to 100 MPPA.
The size and extent of the terminal/apron complex will be determined by demand and, in the later
stages, by the capacity of the airport’s runway system. All facilities on site should be developed in
balance so that the capacity in one facility is not disproportionate to others within the overall airport
processing system. The airport will be capable of expansion until one of the primary facilities within
the system fails to satisfy the demands imposed upon it.
There are many differing types of passenger terminal/apron complex concepts. These are explained
in detail within Section J2.
.ircraft
o Catering
’ 'o '
jmated
■ople
f t .
Figure 1.3.11.3
Airport layout Plan
Hong Kong - Chek Lap Kok
CLK
100 500 1000 or**
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PHP as % of Annual
Passenger 0.0035
SYD (Ini.) 15.0 204,000 13,600 4,286 150,000 48
NRTT2 17.0 284,000 16,706 4,857 170,000 58
TPE T2 17.0 308,000 18,118 4,857 170,OCX) 63
PVG 20.0 280,000 14,000 5,714 200,000 49
NGO 20.0 220,000 11,000 5,714 2ÛÛ.0ÛÛ 39
SIN T3 20.0 350,000 17,500 5,714 200,000 61
PHP as % of Annual
Passenger 0.003
SIN T1 21,0 276,100 13,148 7,000 245,000 39
SIN 12 23,0 358,000 15,565 7,667 268,333 47
KIX 27,0 293,000 10.852 9,000 315,000 33
PEKT2 27,0 320,000 11,852 9,000 315,000 36
ICN 27,0 496,000 18,370 9,000 315,000 55
KUL 35.0 480,000 13,714 11,667 408,333 41
BKK 45.0 560,000 12,444 15,000 525,000 37
HKG 47.0 550,000 11,702 15,667 548,333 35
PEK (2010) 55,0 730,000 13,273 18,333 641,667 40
PEK (2013) 68.0 900,000 13,235 22,667 793,333 40
PEK (2016) 80.0 1,000,000 12,500 26,667 933,333 38
HKG (2020) 87.0 1,035,700 11,905 29,000 1,015,000 36
Average Figs: 13,462 45
C 1 .1 0 S T E P & — A L IG N M E N T O F T E R M IN A L B U IL D IN G A N D P IE R S T O
S E R V IC E S T A N D S
Once the desired runway configuration has been selected and the runway has been aligned and
orientated correctly, the primary terminal and pier infrastructure should be located. The processes
that are required which will influence the size and proximity of the terminal and pier buildings will
typically included those defined within Chapter T. Section T1 deals with the terminal processes and
section T2 deals with the apron processes. All of these activities need to be considered, applied and
accommodated where appropriate within the correct zone as identified within figures C1-1 to C1-6
inclusive.
The piers should be sized and positioned to facilitate efficient aircraft movements and passenger and
baggage connection times. It will be important to ‘timeline’ parallel processes, which are inherently
dependent upon one another. The objective should be to ensure the synchronisation of walking
distances and connection times for passengers, passenger baggage movement connection times,
as well as the movement times for aircraft to and from the stand.
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BATA Master Planning
In practice the distances and the location of core terminal and pier functions can be 90% accurately
located within a master plan proposal without the need to perform simulations. It is however far more
effective to analyse the true dynamics and obtain the 100% confirmed best position of infrastructure
elements by using simulation tools at the earliest possible stage. While simulation activity has a cost,
the long term advantages of having the correct infrastructure placed in precisely the most effective
position can be very significant. The multiple parallel processes that interact within one another should
be dynamically understood and then the terminal buildings and piers should be aligned and sized to
achieve the optimum configuration, giving due consideration to the service standards that should be
observed.
The control tower and fire services provisions should be positioned to align with the recommendations
defined within ICAO Annex 14 and with Section C4 and Section X1 respectively.
The ground transportation processes need to be very carefully assessed within the master plan and
the facilities required will need to balanced against the requirements of locating the terminal building
and stands. The cost to provide links from national rail and road infrastructure should be of prime
concern to the airport planner, as these will have a dominant cost and environmental impact. With a
sound business behind it and the rail and road processes correctly matched to an efficient terminal
and apron layout, the result is likely to be an airport which is favoured by both passengers and airlines
alike, which should be the primary objective.
C 1.11 S T E P 9 — A L IG N M E N T A N D P R O V IS IO N O F S U P P O R T
PROCESSES
Airport planners should also take into account the numerous associated and inter-related facilities
that support the operation of the passenger terminal building and the apron services. Section T3 of
this manual defines some of the typical airport support processes.
The location and provision of general services can have a significant impact onairport master
plans. The ability to provide the correct quantity and location of electrical power, gas, water and
telecommunication infrastructure can often steer airports planners to develop a terminal and piers in
a particular manner. This is because of the very high costs associated within expansion of these
fundamental services.
The airport planner will need to understand if the existing services have the capability to provide the
capacity which would be required for a new or significantly expanded airport. Major airports can be
compared to small towns in their ability to consume power, water and to generate sewage and general
waste. The airport planner will need to establish if the national supporting networks have the ability
to meet the capacity and processing challenge. If the national supporting networks do not have the
capacity, then the airport planner would need to assess the cost and practicality of installing the
necessary support infrastructure.
As another example, the security management systems used within airport complexes are vital to
the support and effective operation and resultant planning of most airport terminals and pier facilities.
The airport planner will need to account and plan for the inclusion of these systems within their
designs both at a master planning level and during the detailed design stages which shall help locate
and shape the final proposal.
C 1 .1 2 S T E P 10 — A IR C R A F T M A IN T E N A N C E
Airports and aircraft maintenance bases have a relationship of interdependency. The maintenance
capabilities of an airport play an important part in determining it’s attractiveness to aircraft operators.
To build up these capabilities, airports depend on the services provided by airline maintenance
divisions and independent engineering companies who in turn rely on the airport’s infrastructure to
gain access to the aircraft that need servicing.
At large airports, with widely dispersed terminal locations and apron positions, there may be a need
to strategically locate smaller line maintenance facilities in more central areas to reduce the time
required for towing between operational stands and maintenance areas.
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The scale of the required maintenance operation is dependent on several factors. These can include:
C 1 .1 2 S TE P 10a — C A R G O
It is important that the need for a strategic link between cargo facilities and aircraft parking positions
is established at an early stage in the planning process. While at larger hub airports dedicated cargo
aircraft may be accommodated on a frequent, perhaps daily basis, it is normal to find a high percentage
of cargo transported solely on routine passenger flights. As such there is a strong interdependency
between cargo handling and passenger processing facilities, as well as a need for the two areas to
be located adjacent to one another in order that transfer distances are reduced to a workable minimum.
However this adjacency requirement creates a dilemma in so far as each requires significant land to
expand and exploit their full potential. Therefore for smaller airports, with less than 1.0 MPPA or
50,000 tonnes of cargo throughput, the individual facilities should be positioned apart such that each
can expand without restricting the growth potential of the other. In the short term this may result in
separation distances between the two being somewhat greater than appears necessary. However
airports should allow for unrestricted expansion to the ultimate stage wherever possible.
The distance between cargo processing facilities and dedicated cargo stands should be less than 1
km. The distance between cargo processing facilities and passenger stands (where passenger aircraft
will be used for the shipment of cargo) should be less than 2.5km.
It is also important to note the differing types of cargo that may need to be accommodated. These
can include general freight, express freight, airmail and freight forwarders. Please refer to Chapter O,
Cargo, for further clarification.
C 1 .1 3 M A S T E R P L A N D E L IV E R A B L E — P R E L IM IN A R Y L A N D -U S E
LAYO UTS
After the airport perimeter has been established, either for a new airport or for an existing airport
(where the perimeter has been redefined), it is important to double check that all major components
and airport support facilities can be properly located and accommodated within the overall airport
boundary. Each facility should be able to expand through to the ultimate phase of the airport. The
land use layout proposal should be balanced and the development strategy should be focused on
optimising the land use in the most efficient and logical manner throughout the various expansion
phases.
Prior to assessing individual functional requirements within an airport master plan, it is necessary to
subdivide the overall area into optimal sub areas, each capable of supporting an individual facility’s
growth towards the maximum capacity of the airport.
It is important to note that detailed layout information pertaining to individual facilities is not required
at this conceptual layout stage. All the individual pieces of the development jigsaw need to fit and
be correctly assembled and have the right interdependencies within the operational area. However
at this stage the detailed operational characteristics of each facility are not required.
Airport characteristics, as shown on the Airport Land Use Plans, should be the guiding tool for local
and regional authorities when determining the suitability of development on land surrounding the
airport.
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lATA Master Planning
Factors are assigned such that the total adds up to 100. Each factor can then be viewed as a
percentage of the total. The size of the figure allocated reflects the importance of that criterion
within the overall evaluation process.
From the example given columns 7, 10, 13, 16 & 19 reflect the basic score given to each site. If
possible the score should reflect the ranking of each site as given by the evaluation team for each
sub-criterion. Sites can be given equal scores. The scores given cannot exceed the maximum given
in column 5.
Using site A as an example, the weighted score is obtained by dividing the figure in column 7 by the
sub-total in column 6 multiplied by the weighting factor for the criteria in column 4. This exercise is
repeated for all scores and for all sub-criteria.
Individual scores for each sub-criterion should be explained within the evaluation report. This is
necessary as the evaluation process can:
• Be time-consuming (2 to 4 weeks on average); i.e. the reasoning should be recorded immediately
after the scoring has been determined.
® Be open to question and scrutiny by clients, site owners and competing airport planners.
C1.13.2 M a s te r P la n D e liv e ra b le — L a n d U s e R e p o rt
This interim report should be submitted such that base assumptions with respect to facility sizing,
surrounding land-use and operational relationships can be reviewed and tested. The report should
be concise & give a clear indication of any outstanding strengths & weaknesses. Recommendations
for future actions should also be given.
It is important to stress that information at this conceptual stage need not contain high levels of detail.
The information provided need only be sufficient to allow comparative analysis; i.e. to determine
which option moves forward into the next stage. As such, hand drawn information is acceptable,
providing the concept is easily recognised and understood by a broad, perhaps non-technical review
team. In this way preparation time and costs can be minimised.
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C l .13 3 M a s te r P la n D e liv e ra b le — L a n d U s e C o n c e p ts
Airport Land Use Plans drawn to scale should depict existing and phased development (including
intended land uses) up to and including the ultimate development stage. These should include:
® Airside infrastructure, including runways (all runway elements, taxi ways, holding bays, aircraft
aprons (including de/anti-icing)), engine test enclosures, location & specification of navigational
aids, vehicle parking areas, staging areas, access roads, runway lighting & markings, primary
utility routes, segmented circle, wind indicators and beacon and associated buildings.
9 Landside infrastructure, including passenger and cargo terminals, ground transport interchanges,
hotels, primary and secondary access roads and parking structures (at grade and multi-storey),
rail lines, vehicle fuelling stations.
9 Airport support infrastructure, including in-flight catering, aircraft maintenance, G.H. maintenance,
airport maintenance, police and security facilities, administration buildings, meteorological
compounds, rescue and fire fighting facilities, general aviation, fixed base operations, helicopter
operations, containment & treatment facilities and aircraft refuelling facilities.
9 Areas reserved for aviation related revenue producing development, such as industrial areas,
duty free zones, etc.
9 Non-aviation related property and land with the current status and use specified.
9 North point.
9 Pertinent dimensional data such as runway lengths, parallel runway and runway-taxiway
separation.
® Prominent natural and man made features such as wooded areas, rivers, lakes, coastlines, rock
outcrops, protected areas, etc.
80
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1 Financial Considerations 15 I O
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Approach & Departure Traffic Patterns 9 7 1.59 4 0.91 3 0.68 4 0.911 4 0.91 CD
Contingency Departure Routes 5 2 0 45 3 0.88 4 0.91 2 1 0,45 4 0,91 Q)
Local Traffic integration 8 ........5 1 14 2 0,45 1 0.23 7 1 59 7 1.59 £
22 3.18 2,06 1.82 I 2.95 3.41 <sD
3 Meteorological Conditions 5
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Capacity Potential
Passenger Convenience
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9 Environmental impact 10
10 Operational Efficiency 10
1! Social Considerations 5
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12 Site Conditions 5
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C l .1 3 4 M a s te r P la n D e liv e ra b le — A irp o rt L a y o u t
This stage sees the development of the preferred concept into a detailed, workable master plan. Here
the optimal layout is established. All users and stakeholders will have been consulted at regular
intervals as the plan developed from the initial pre-planning period to this final stage in line with the
IATA Project process requirements defined within Section V1.
The continuous process of reviewing and testing assumptions should continue after the plan is
published. It is essential to do this, as no master plan should be viewed as the perfect solution. The
changing nature of the airline business will ensure that the current solution will soon become outdated.
As such, master planning must be viewed as a near continuous process, with fundamental reviews
undertaken at regular intervals. The maximum assumed period between reviews should therefore be
no more than 5 years, however it is hoped that the main backbone assumptions hold true and stand
the test of time.
In order to do this, the airport authority or the cost airport planner working on its behalf must possess
a robust financial model that contains and defines:
® How overall project financing is resolved.
« All terminals and other primary and secondary revenue and cost centres, their breakdown revenue
targets and cost estimates for each cost centre.
@ Final estimated airport capital, maintenance and operating costs and related pricing policies for
airlines and other user space requirements.
Existing airports should possess a 10-year CAPEX document that shows their intended programme
of works over two consecutive 5-year periods. The programme should be reassessed annually after
consultation with the airline/IATA airport development specialists. The resultant impact of the
development programme on user charges should be discussed and agreed with lATA’s User Charges
Panel.
• Cost related, taking into consideration the operation of the ‘single till’.
Airlines, the principal users at airports, will be particularly interested in rental rates for land-side offices,
ramp level accommodation, gate hold rooms, check-in positions, common user terminal equipment
facilities, baggage handling systems, airline service desks and information counters. Security costs
should be assessed and accounted for. In many instances airport security costs should be borne by
the state.
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SATA Master Planning
Particular attention needs to be paid when new or alternate methods of operation are proposed. As
an example, when a new airport proposes to switch from a 100% remote stand operation to one
where 100% contact is possible, airlines, particularly if they operate within the charter or low-frills
markets, may have difficulty in accommodating the additional ground handling charges resulting from
the need to push back and perhaps use air-bridges. Airport operators must therefore be subject to
the discipline of assuring that user charges do not drive away carriers working on the margin of
profitability.
Should the review of proposed operating costs indicate that the proposed development has
substantially reduced the ability for users to make an adequate return, then the preferred concept
should be re-evaluated to determine if there is scope for CAPEX reductions and Operating Expenditure
(OPEX) savings.
In extreme cases, this may require base assumptions to be re-examined and alternative, more simple
and less expensive facility solutions to be brought forward.
0 *1 3 *6 M a s te r P la n D e liv e ra b le —- C o n c e p tu a l L a y o u ts
Conceptual layouts should clearly demonstrate how:
9 All users can operate efficient, effective and profitable operations within the proposed plan.
• Long term sustainable development can be achieved.
@ Projected growth in all types of traffic can be accommodated throughout the entire life of the
project until saturation is achieved in the ultimate stage.
® The environmental impact on surrounding communities and stakeholders will be minimised and
maintained at acceptable levels.
• Additional capacity can be brought into play without negatively impacting on current user
operations.
• Public transport systems can be introduced to increase the percentage of trips made by passengers
and staff when accessing the airport.
C1.13.7 M a s te r P la n D e liv e ra b le — D e v e lo p m e n t P h a s in g
If we assume that basic planning principals have been observed, then facility phasing and construction
should be determined by demand. Facilities should be expanded in a modular fashion and at intervals
to keep slightly ahead of demand and to maintain pre-determined and required levels of service.
Phased expansion should allow for periods where individual facilities can settle into routines such
that operational efficiencies can be maximised. In general terms this period should extend for a
minimum of 4 to 5 years after project completion. Longer periods of construction inactivity will be the
result of the over provisioning of facilities, with associated cost penalties that would invariably be
passed on through airport charges.
As master plans are drawn up, they should show the existing airport layout and as a minimum the
plans showing the first phase and/or development in years 5, 10, 20 as well as the ultimate stage.
Short term plans covering a ten year period should be supported by a rolling development programme
that is reviewed annually by the airlines and supported by a CAPEX document. IATA has developed
specific guidelines in relation to CAPEX documentation. Such guidelines are available on request.
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C1.13.8 M a s te r P la n D e liv e ra b le — T h e M a s te r P la n R e p o rt
A final master plan report should be submitted showing how the land-use option has been developed.
The report should be concise and give a clear indication of any outstanding strengths and weaknesses.
Recommendations for future actions should also be given.
For this report, drawn information needs to be of a higher quality, with precise dimensions clearly
noted such that the operational viability can be clearly demonstrated. The information must be capable
of standing up to intense scrutiny and questioning.
The report should identify how the phased implementation of the airport master plan will satisfy the
strategic brief for the region. The main elements defined within Clause C1.2, The Master Plan — Ten
Step Sequence should be clearly explained within the report.
® Executive summary.
• Environmental impact.
® Economic impact.
® ATC impact.
® Qualifications of master planning team.
• Explanation of how The Master Plan — Ten Step Sequence was observed.
• Provision of master plan phasing diagrams to ultimate airport development (in 5 year increments).
Final reports may be subject to comparative analysis; i.e. to determine which airport planner’s master
plan option is ultimately successful and moves forward into the final stage. Again the master plan
must be easily recognised and understood by a broad, perhaps non-technical review team. It is for
this reason that airport master plans should adopt a consistent format so that comparison of master
plans can be done on a like for like assessment basis.
01.13.10 M a s te r P la n D e liv e ra b le — B a s ic D a ta T a b le s
These tables contain data on airport conditions and information on existing and proposed runways
where applicable. The following table is an illustrative example.
Runway Data
Runway 1 2 - 3 0
Existing Ultimate
Effective runway gradient (in %) 0.19 Same
% Wind Coverage 91.4 Same
Designated Instrument Runway(s) / /
Runway length (metres) 3,600 3,900
Pavement Strength (see note 1) 605, SOD, 145DT Same
Pavement type (sod, asphalt, concrete).
Approach Slopes & Clear Zones 50:1 Same
Lighting HIRL Same
Marking All Weather Same
Navigation & Visual Aids ILS, ALS, VASI Same
RETs {rapid exit taxiways) & RATs (rapid access taxiways).
Notes:
1. Values given are gross aircraft weight in 1,000’ and type of main gear — Single (S) Dual (D) &
Dual Tandem (DT) Gear aircraft using the CAN-PCN system as appropriate.
Notes:
Miscellaneous Facilities — taxiway edge: lighting, centreline and sign system.
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« Revision details including number, description, who revised, who approved change and date.
G 1 .1 4 SATA R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
A master plan is required so that all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities can develop,
expand and improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their business in a structured,
balanced and orderly fashion without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbours
on or adjacent to the airport. In so doing the potential of the available land and the capacity of
\ the airport’s runway system can be maximised.
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Ilk
C1JR7 CÂPEX Plan — Documentation
Existing airports should possess a 10-year CAPEX document that shows their intended
programme of works over two consecutive 5-year periods. The programme should be reassessed
annually after consultation with the airline/IATA airport development specialists. The resultant
impact of the development programme on user charges should be discussed and agreed imth
lATA’s User Charges Panel.
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C2.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N A N D F O R E C A S T IN G D E F IN IT IO N
Airport traffic forecast studies use a combination of trend analysis, data extrapolation, expectation
surveys and professional statistical judgement. Extensive operational knowledge and a comprehensive
understanding of how the local environment in which the airport is situated is required. A close working
relationship with planning and forecasting experts of all major airlines operating at the subject airport
will also be necessary.
Particular attention is also given to comments and forecast inputs from other sectors of the travel
industry (e.g. tourist boards, tour operators, financial institutions, etc.) whenever possible to ensure
that the forecasts incorporate a wide range and broad base of views. As a result, any forecast
produced should reflect the views of the travel industry concerning future traffic development and
likely changes in operating patterns.
Air transport activity generates typical peak period demand that reflects user’s characteristics and
volume for a normal busy period. Traffic forecasts often are presented using the following
recommended projection periods:
C 2 .2 O B J E C T IV E S O F F O R E C A S T IN G
C 2.2.1 C a p a c ity P la n n in g
An important input to the capacity planning process is the airport traffic forecast. An accurate forecast
is essential since the sizing and the phasing of the airport project is dependant on its data. If the
forecast understates demand, the facilities will be built too small and the airport will experience a
capacity problem. If the forecast overstates the demand, the facilities will be over-sized and the
airlines will needlessly pay for under-utilised facilities. It is therefore critical to capture the correct data
from the airlines and the IATA user groups at the earliest opportunity. Please refer to clause C2.6.2
Data Availability, which confirms some credible sources for this data.
C 2 .2 .2 F in a n c ia l a n d C o s t B e n e fit S tu d ie s
Forecasts can also provide inputs for financial planning. At most airports, landing fees are determined
on the basis of a unit charge that is multiplied by the aircraft maximum take-off weight (MTOW)
tonnage of the aircraft. With an understanding of the likely aircraft movements it will be necessary to
compile a comprehensive financial and cost benefit study to support the forecast material.
The financial plan should include but should not be limited to the following data/factors:
C 2 .3 FO R E C A S T DATA
There are essentially three parameters that need to be covered in the annual traffic forecast: (a)
passengers and baggage volumes; (b) cargo; and (c) aircraft movements. To obtain this data will
require a clear understanding of the airline user requirements and calculated usage of the facility.
Since various categories of passenger traffic will use different facilities in the airport, it will be necessary
to forecast each passenger category separately in order to determine future requirements for
passenger facilities. Accordingly, IATA forecasts three types of passenger traffic:
9 Embarking.
9 Disembarking.
• Direct Transit.
These categories are further subdivided between scheduled and non-scheduled passenger traffic,
for which separate forecasts should be produced.
Following the implementation of 24-hour landside shopping, the terminal retail complex will also see
growth from the local community and casual visitors to the airport. This volume of the general public
should be added to the volume attributed to the traveling passenger.
The baggage forecast data will be derived by multiplying the passenger processing rates by the
passenger bag ratios for the various categories of passengers within the terminal. In practice the
following steps are used in this regards:
Step 4 — Passenger Bag Ratio(s) Applied to Passenger Rate(s) to determine Total Bag Rate/Hr.
For existing airports, airport planners should use passenger to bag ratios determined through surveys
at the relevant airport. In the absence of this data the following bag to passenger design ratios should
be adopted. It should be noted that this is only useful as a first cut forecast for the master plans
where the data is not readily available. Planners are advised to carefully review this data at subsequent
and more detailed design levels.
C 2 .3 .2 C o m m e rc ia l A irc ra ft M o v e m e n t
The forecast of aircraft movements (i.e., aircraft landing and take-off movements) determines the
planning requirements of airport airside facilities.
Aircraft movements include all commercial scheduled operations. Non-scheduled, general aviation
and military aircraft movements usually have little influence on the planning of runway and apron
capacity. These are generally excluded from forecasts unless their impact is deemed appropriately
significant.
C 2 .3 .3 C a rg o
When forecasting the perceived cargo tonnage it will be important to distinguish between the categories
of cargo goods. Cargo is the combination of freight and mail and these in turn are comprised as
follows:
Freight Includes express and diplomatic bags but not a passenger’s checked baggage.
Mail Refers to correspondence and other objects tendered by and intended for delivery
to postal administrations.
In the forecast, the combined number of tonnes of freight and mail handled at the airport are taken into
consideration. Also, in general, scheduled and non-scheduled cargo traffic are considered together, as
both are handled in the same cargo terminal area.
The forecast should differentiate between passenger and all-cargo operations, as each will have a
specific influence in respect of apron use. Express freight, for example, will have a dedicated facility
and apron area just as will perishable goods, and so it will be necessary to understand the split
between these categories of cargo volume.
Some of the key factors that influence the demand in cargo traffic are economic growth (both on a
regional and global level) as well as the costs associated with air cargo.
The GDP indicator has demonstrated a strong link to demand for aviation services, in cargo as well
as passenger transport. On a regional analysis there must be an assessment of the catchment area,
and what type of market segment can be captured if there is competition for the same service. As
the global marketplace expands, there is also a need to assess factors on the movement of goods
on a broader base, such as domestic trade policies, elimination of tariffs, etc., on a worldwide level.
Other factors, such as the ‘Just in time’ philosophy, increase the demand for a faster air cargo service.
The growth in e-commerce has also produced a new demand segment for the movement of products
and the dynamic tracking of goods. Forecasters should seek data from freight forwarding and freight
processing companies to understand market trends and cargo type distinctions.
For airport planning purposes, cargo forecasts must be broken down into sectors differentiating the
means by which the cargo is transported:
It is essential to make this split in the forecast as each sector has different operating requirements,
such as: apron requirements: type of terminal facility; type of aircraft stand; etc. This type of information
is crucial to the planning of cargo facilities where an understanding of client’s usage is required.
The combined tonnage of freight and mail handled at the airport should also be taken into consideration
in a cargo forecast. Scheduled and non-scheduled cargo traffic are generally considered together,
as both are handled in the same cargo terminal area. It’s generally not recommended to produce a
cargo forecast by origin-destination or by route area, but rather by inbound and outbound cargo traffic.
Because the distinction between freight carried on aircraft and freight carried on trucks is not always
clear, any analysis of cargo traffic must be made with great caution. There are cases when freight
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lA T A Master Planning
tonnes carried on trucks are included in air freight statistics due to this freight being covered by the
same airwaybill as pure air freight.
C 2 .3 .5 A ir c r a ft m o v e m e n ts
There are two ways of projecting passenger aircraft movements. One way is to project an average
number of passengers per flight and apply this parameter to the projection of passenger traffic to
derive the resulting movements.
The second way is to project the passenger load factor and the average aircraft size as two separate
steps. This approach provides a more solid projection of aircraft movements than the first one, but
it requires the construction of passenger load factors for the base year for each route area. These
are then projected for the whole forecast period and must reflect the potential room for improvements
in airline productivity.
The next step is to apply the projections of the load factors to passenger traffic projections in order
to derive the projection of total seats. Following this, forecasters will need to project the average
aircraft size to reflect as much as possible the expected evolution of airline fleet mix as well as airlines’
strategy to either intensify frequencies, to the detriment of aircraft size, or utilise bigger aircraft if the
level of frequencies is found to be suitable. In applying the average aircraft size to the projection of
total seats, we obtain a projection of aircraft movements.
It becomes important that, within each route area to be forecast, the projected evolution of aircraft
mix by size category remains compatible with the projected evolution of the average aircraft size
which is expected to take place. For example, if one projects the average aircraft size to decline
during a five-year period, the projection of the mix during that period should not reflect an increased
share of aircraft of the higher size categories.
In regard to cargo aircraft movements, the forecast needs a different approach. It should be based
on the projection of the share of total cargo likely to be carried on these cargo aircraft, and determining
an assumed average number of tonnes per flight, this would lead to the construction of cargo aircraft
movements. This however requires that the statistics are made available by the airport authorities in
question. A distinction in cargo tonnage carried on the passenger aircraft versus cargo carried on
cargo aircraft is required.
C 2 .4 S E G M E N T A T IO N
C 2.4 .1 T ra ffic S e c to rs
It is also important to distinguish between the different traffic sectors. Each individual airport will have
different traffic sectorisation comprised from the list below:
C 2 .4 .2 P a s s e n g e r C h a ra c te ris tic s
Originating, terminating and transfer passengers should be further subdivided between scheduled
and non-scheduled passenger traffic, especially with the growing market of the low cost carriers.
Given that air travel is a derived demand, it is essential to identify the different passenger characteristics
to have a better appreciation of the impact on the future development of the different terminal facilities
such as check-in, passport control, baggage handling system, business lounge, etc.
s a ta Airport Development Reference Manual
C 2.5.1 A n n u a l to P e a k P e rio d D e m a n d
For the purpose of facilities planning it is essential to know the likely requirements on an hour-by-
hour basis. Annual or even weekly forecast figures can be almost meaningless in this respect.
The relationship of annual traffic to peak period will depend on seasonal variations and passenger
characteristics. This relationship is projected separately for domestic and international traffic and
within each category for each route area.
0 2 .5 .2 S e a s o n a l T re n d s
Seasonal variation affects the relationship of peak month to annual traffic. Common influencing factors
in this regard include:
© Effect of economic growth on business or holiday market sectors (leisure traffic usually creates
peaks at certain periods of the year different from the peak created by business traffic).
• Whether airlines increase capacity during peak periods.
0 2 .5 .3 S p e c ia l E v e n ts
Peaks associated with special occurrences such as national holidays, religious festivals, and sporting
events should be excluded from forecasts. Plan to accommodate this above planning peak demand
at a lower level of service, by means of contingency plans, schedule coordination and other sound
demand/capacity management practices.
0 2 .5 .4 A s s e s s m e n t M e th o d s
Having established the magnitude and frequency of the forecasted data, it will be necessary to assess
it using proven assessment rules which will be used for the sizing of airport facilities. One approach
is to use a proportion (85th percentile) of the forecast profile as the basis to plan airport infrastructure.
Another approach is to select frequently occurring peak days or busy hour periods which are chosen
as the basis on which to plan airport facilities. These approaches can be summarised as follows:
@ 85th percentile.
@ 40th busy hour or day of the year (see CDG example ofthis method in Table C2-2 below).
• 30th busy hour or day of the year.
® The second busiest day in an average weekduring the peakmonth — an average weekly pattern
of traffic is then calculated for that month.
It is important that one the above techniques is used as it is inappropriate to plan the design of airport
infrastructure on the occurrence of either an isolated peak day forecast or an isolated peak hour rate.
Busy Day Schedule: Determining airport capacity largely depends on predicting the impact of
projected airline schedules on the various airport facilities. Capacity and level of service are based
on operating conditions and rules, but also upon the particular demand profiles created by the mix
of flights and flight sector for a typical busy day. The amalgamated airline schedules for a typical
busy day reflects the airlines strategy for an airport and how an airport is connected to the world.
The production of a single day forecast requires a detailed assessment of all the operational parameters
that underlie airline schedules: the operational suitability of aircraft types for given route structures;
reasonable aircraft roistering compatible with a high level of aircraft utilisation; and use of commercially
feasible arrival and departure timings throughout a route structure. This assessment is then
incorporated to form the amalgamated airline forecast schedule.
Selection of a ‘Busy’ Day: A typical ‘busy’ day is the second busiest day in an average week during
the peak month. An average weekly pattern of passenger traffic is calculated for that month, and
IÂTA Master Planning
peaks associated with special events such as religious festivals, trade fairs, conventions and sport
events are excluded. This single day analysis should assess:
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C 2 .6 F O R E C A S T IN G M E T H O D O L O G Y
C 2 .6 .1 S tu d y O b je c tiv e s
The objectives of the forecast study should be clearly identified prior to the collation of data. Informed
decisions should be made and forecasters should be focused on having the correct representative
statistics rather than a convenient series of numbers which perhaps do not convey the true behavioural
patterns of the airport and its traffic in the foreseeable future. Forecasters should aim to satisfy the
following high level study objectives:
® There should be three sets of statistics provided by the airport facility forecaster, which should
represent the low, medium and high magnitude data obtained and assessed. The forecaster must
specify which influencing factors have the largest level of uncertainty in regard to their future
evolution, in order to justify having both low and high projections.
• Operational and business assumptions should be clarified in every regardon forecasted
information with qualifications as regard their impact on the forecasted data.
® Data should be auditable whereby the forecaster should be able to trace the history of the
manipulation of data and to confirm the logic for the decisions made in every regard.
• Consultation groups should be identified along with their terms of reference. All of which should
be clarified in the record and the presented data produced by forecasters.
C 2 .6 .2 D a ta A v a ila b ility
There are three main credible sources of data for forecasters to access. This includes but it is not
exclusively limited to:
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lATA Master Planning
This data is created by the airline or airport from first principles and may reflect a combination
of historical data and new operational objectives on the use of newer aircraft or new airport
processes.
Econometric models do not take into account non-quantifiable factors which are of prime
importance in conditioning future traffic development, therefore it is recommended not to rely
entirely on a purely model-driven forecast.
The use of models implies some continuity in the level of influence of the factors considered
throughout the forecast period. Forecasting experience demonstrates that this is not always the
case.
This global survey is undertaken every year in August-September and covers all traffic flows
around the world (nearly 2,000 unduplicated country-pairs). This survey reflects the opinions of
all IATA member airlines serving these country-pairs concerning the future development of
passenger and cargo traffic during the next 15 years. It takes into account the influence of the
major economic variables as well as airline strategies that are intended to respond to future
demand. Airlines are asked to provide their opinion on total market growth trends and not simply
their own traffic.
Method 3: Special Survey-Based Forecasts
These are customised for specific airport traffic forecast projects. This consists of approaching
each of the key airlines and tour operators to obtain their forecasts of growth trends for a particular
destination compared with other similar destinations. It is important that their survey is not only
restricted to the travel markets where direct services now exist, or to airlines or tour operators,
but also includes other experts in the travel industry (e.g. tourist authorities and hotel chains).
¡a ta Airport Development Reference Manual
Extrapolations of historical data can be used typically where long-term trends are likely to continue.
Care should be observed with this principle as changes in operational processes, improvements
due to new technology and changes in legislation can seriously undermine the projection of data
into what can be realistically the ‘unforeseeable’ future. Extrapolated data:
• Fits a mathematical line to the historical data and then a projection of this line is given to
trend the data into the future. Growth patterns are fitted to smooth out data.
® Assumes there is an underlying pattern in historical data.
• Assumes that all factors influencing air traffic in the past will continue to operate in the same
way in the future.
This technique uses predominantly surveyed or historic data which is then subjectively assessed.
The subjective assessment may take into account a wide range of real process changes,
technology changes and logical factors which might affect the forecast. In summary:
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IATA Master Planning
C 2 .7 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
i:■:r;-- : ' 'Tv-: ; ■ : : ■ - ^ 7 ^ : : : v ;: ; . x i ■■■-':. ^v i S r - ^ i ■;^ ■:^ ^ : ? : - 3 i V : ; ! ; : K : ■ = ; - ;:.i: = : :i.: ■ V: : ; - ■ : ■ ■H ^ T ; ' - : J ^
Data should be obtained from any of the recommended data sources as defined within clause
................................................................................................. g iis ip f p ,,
p: ip::: : ;;i;;: r : y . : :v: ?ii : ; i V:-
C 3.1 G E N E R A L IN T R O D U C T IO N
The need for control of development in the vicinity of airports has been recognised from the very
beginning of commercial aviation. Initially, concerns concentrated on controlling the height of potential
hazards or obstacles. These centred on incompatible activities that could cause:
All of the above are still pertinent today. Noise did not enter into the equation until the introduction
of turbo-jet operations in the early 1960s, and there are various measures available to alleviate noise
around airports, including: reduction in aircraft noise at source; land-use planning; development
control or management; operational noise abatement procedures (when permitted by air traffic control
authorities); and local noise related operating restrictions.
Land-use planning is central to the overall process. Properly managed, it will effectively protect public
health and safety by minimising exposure to emissions and excessive noise. These management
principles need to be coupled with supportive legislation. Legislative frameworks regulating
surrounding land-use outside of the airfield boundary should be provided by National Governments,
as they are ultimately responsible for ensuring that the airport is interwovenintothe regional and
national socio-economic fabric. These should set the broad policy context withinwhichlocal authorities
can work, and ideally there should also be a consultation process by which the various stakeholder
groups (surrounding community, airport operators, and airline representatives) can comment on and
suggest changes to draft policies. The airport operator should also be consulted on monitoring the
effective application of the legislation.
The sustainability of air transport is heavily dependent on controlling environmental impact, with a/c
being noise the largest factor to be considered when undertaking land-use planning within and around
the airport boundary.
In this regard, Section C3 is intended to compliment ICAO Document 9184 AN/902 Airport Planning
Manual Part 2 — Land Use and Environmental Control.
C 3 .2 L O N G T E R M V IS IO N
Many of the available solutions to mitigate against noise in the vicinity of airports, including those
obtainable from land-use planning, can often only be realised in the longer term. However this should
not be seen as a reason by those responsible for seeking reductions in noise levels to apply minimal
effort. This particularly holds true for existing airports where the ability to make immediate changes
in land-use is limited.
For existing airports it is also important that a/c source noise reductions and the resultant contraction
of noise contours and population numbers impacted do not allow local authorities to relax their guard
against encroachment upon the airport boundary. It should also be noted that in this regard airlines
have made significant contributions by requesting efficiency gains from a/c manufacturers. Jet aircraft
are now significantly quieter than when they first entered into service over 40 years ago.
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C 3 .3 A S S E S S IN G N O IS E
Many factors influence noise level exposure. These include sound pressure levels, broadband
frequency distribution, spectral irregularities, duration, SIDS and STARS, frequency of operations,
application of operational noise abatement procedures, a/c mix, mode of runway operation, and
prevalent meteorological conditions.
Sensitivity to a/c noise will vary from one country or location to the next, and be dependent on
many factors. These can include land-use, building use, type of construction, distance from source,
background noise levels, sociological factors, the amount of diffraction/refraction/reflection due to
buildings and topography encountered on site, and the meteorological conditions prevalent at the
time of exposure.
All of the above can be modelled to determine anticipated noise exposure and community response.
C 3 .4 L A N D U S E W IT H IN N O IS E Z O N E S
The establishment of noise zones surrounding an airport is an important step when determining future
land-use. The number of zones, noise descriptors and noise exposure calculation methods used vary
from one country to the next. As a result the approach used is dependent on the individual country
concerned.
Whatever approach is applied it is important that local authorities apply strict controls over proposed
development in the zones around the airport. It is important to stress that the zones should be
calculated and based on the ultimate achievable throughput of the airport, i.e. when the runway is
saturated, such that long term development flexibility is ensured.
® Zone 1 — Where most land uses and developments are not permitted.
Noise zoning serves two purposes: to protect the airport from encroachment and to protect residents.
A single authority should have overall responsibility for developing land-use criteria. Zoning plans
should be created as a first step when establishing an airport, as retrospective steps are difficult if
not impossible to achieve.
In general terms noise sensitive development such as housing, schools, hospitals, offices and banks
should not be permitted in the first zone. It should be noted that building construction can be utilised
as a means to reduce noise exposure.
C 3 .5 LAND USE M A N A G E M E N T
There are many methods for regulating development or for modifying existing land uses in order to
achieve compatibility between the airport and surrounding communities. Building or land acquisition
can be employed, but this tends to be an expensive solution exercised in extreme cases only. As
noted above, zoning and building controls should be applied in the first instance.
Uncontrolled development within established airport noise zones will debase local authority control
and may impact on the long term development potential of individual airports. Short-term gains
resulting from the either the owner or developer’s desire to increase the rate of return from property
and land or by increased taxes to the Government should be avoided.
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0 3 .6 LAND USE C O N TR O L
Numerous strategies can be applied to control the use of land surrounding airports. Development
restrictions within pre-defined zones can secure the longer-term vision for new airports. Retrospective
noise insulation measures may go some way to redressing the balance for commercial and residential
properties of long standing at existing airports. However the means of control, regulation and finance
will vary from country to country and be dependent on national and local characteristics. There are
three differing forms of control, as outlined below.
C 3.6.1 P la n n in g
A comprehensive development or layout plan should be provided to local authorities and should be
used as a guide by authorities when establishing development restrictions and controls. For existing
airports this will assist in determining the compatibility of development proposals with Government
policy.
0 3 .6 .2 M itig a tio n
Measures can be employed that will help to alleviate the problems of aircraft noise. For new
construction, building regulations can ensure that building type, structure and materials provide an
adequate level of sound insulation.
Noise insulation programmes can also assist properties of long standing that are adversely impacted
by the development of existing or new airports. However the cost of applying adequate sound insulation
packages to housing can in some instances exceed the resale value or possible benefit from increased
rent. Also, additional sound insulation measures produce increases in construction and operating
costs and reduce flexibility of use to within the controlled building environment.
In extreme cases, land acquisition and relocation is a policy that can be explored by airport authorities.
However it is expensive and used primarily when no alternative will provide a satisfactory solution.
It may also in some instances have negative social implications.
Barriers can also be used to mitigate noise generated by manoeuvring aircraft or by ground handling
equipment. Barriers can be in the form of earth mounds located adjacent to runway thresholds and
holding aprons. Alternatively building structures, particularly those of main terminal buildings and
finger piers or satellites can be used, and sound attenuation barriers can also be employed. A
particularly good example is the reinforced concrete panels bordering the apron area to the western
side of T4 at London Heathrow. These have been attractively landscaped and in parts are now totally
enveloped by climbing plants and shrubbery. Such barriers can also contribute by doubling as security
barriers, particularly as these often occur in critical operational areas.
0 3 .6 .3 F in a n c ia l
Construction of new development in the immediate surrounds to the airport can be encouraged by
the existence of support infrastructure such as roads, utilities and community based facilities and
services. Similarly the absence of such capital improvement programmes can have the reverse effect.
Government tax incentives or reduction programmes can also direct development towards areas
where these are welcomed and away from those areas where it is not.
Noise related airport-charging systems could also be employed. For more information in this area
see section D.
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C 3 .7 A IR P O R T L A N D U S E P L A N N IN G
After the airport perimeter has been established, either for a new airport or for an existing airport
(were the perimeter has been redefined), it is important to double check that all major components
and airport support facilities can be properly located and accommodated within the overall airport
boundary. Each facility should be able to expand up to the ultimate phase of the airport. Balanced
optimised development, throughout the various expansion phases, is essential.
Prior to assessing individual functional requirements within an airport master plan, it is necessary to
subdivide the overall area into optimal sub areas, each capable of supporting growth towards the
maximum capacity of the airport. Airport facilities, in terms of building area, footprint and land area
required to support development, should be sized from an analysis of the maximum number of aircraft
movements and associated daily and peak hour passenger flows that the proposed runway system
can generate.
It is important to note that detailed layout information pertaining to individual facilities is not required
at this conceptual layout stage. All the individual pieces of the development jigsaw need to fit and
be correctly assembled and have the right interdependencies within the operational area. However
at this stage detailed operational characteristics of each facility are not required.
Airport characteristics, as shown on the Airport Land Use Plans, should represent the guiding tool
for local authorities when determining the suitability of development on land surrounding the airport.
C 3 .7 .3 A ir p o r t L a n d U s e P la n s
Airport Land Use Plans drawn to scale should depict existing and phased development (including
intended land uses) up to and including the ultimate development stage; i.e. when the runway is
saturated. The plans should include:
• Airside infrastructure including runways (including all runway elements — see section C 1.3.7.2),
taxiways, holding bays, aircraft aprons (including de-icing), engine test enclosures, location &
specification of navigational aids, vehicle parking areas, staging areas, access roads, runway
lighting & markings.
® Landside infrastructure including passenger and cargo terminals, ground transport interchanges,
hotels, primary and secondary access roads and parking structures (at grade and multi-storey),
rail lines, vehicle fuelling stations.
• Airport support infrastructure including in-flight catering, aircraft maintenance, G.H. maintenance,
airport maintenance, police and security facilities, administration buildings, meteorological
compounds, rescue and fire fighting facilities, general aviation, fixed base operations, helicopter
operations, containment & treatment facilities and aircraft refuelling facilities.
® Areas reserved for aviation related revenue producing development such as industrial areas,
duty-free zones, etc.
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® Non-aviation related property and land with the current status and use specified.
® North point.
• Pertinent dimensional data such as runway lengths, parallel runways and runway-taxiway
separations.
• Prominent natural and man made features such as trees, streams, ponds, rock outcrops, ditches,
etc.
Other more detailed information will be provided on the airport master plan, see section C1.
C 3 .8 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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C4.1 P U R P O S E O V E R V IE W
Historically, control towers housed both ground and airborne aircraft, air traffic control equipment and
staff. At busy airports today, tower ATC functions are more focused toward the control of aircraft on
the ground to the point at which they physically touch down or depart the apron. Tower ATC
communication and control of aircraft in general covers the following:
® Radio communication and control of aircraft on aprons, taxi ways, runways and in the air, when
possible by using ground radar equipment for the ground movements.
• Runway and taxiway lighting systems control.
@ Communication handover of the airborne aircraft to the neighboring Air Traffic Control Sector
(APP/ACC).
C 4 .2 D E S IG N C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S
The primary objective of a modern control tower is to permit the functions listed within clause C4.1
to be completed effectively, efficiently and moreover safely. The following design characteristics
should be observed by control tower and terminal building planners embarking on thedesign and
placement of new or upgraded control towers at all code letter categories of airports:
® Ability to clearly see without obstruction the stand perimeter of every stand on the apron (subject
to the requirements of the national ATC provider and operator).
• Ability to see and control all taxiways and runways systems.
• Provision of 360° anti glare, anti distortion ATC staff apron viewing glazing at the appropriate
height.
• CCTV monitor provision for the remote review stands or obstructed stands (subject to the
requirements of the national ATC provider and operator).
• Towers should not be placed too close to flight paths (see ICAO Annex 14).
® Provision of suitable security fencing and access control systems.
® Provision of dedicated heating, ventilation and power transformer systems whichshould be stand
alone, with provision of separate emergency back-up for each of these systems(subject to the
requirements of the national ATC provider and operator).
Designers should work closely with the ATC operator (private or national organizations) and obtain
design criteria standards provided by the national ATC infrastructure provider (e.g. National Air Traffic
Services — Civil Aviation Authority for United Kingdom airports; or Federal Aviation Authority — Air
Traffic Services, for US airports, etc.) pertaining to the country in question.
The ATC control tower building design and fit-out standards will vary slightly from country to country
though all should define the following generic building and ATC process requirements:
• Control tower height (line of sight requirements).
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Apron, runway and taxiway control rooms should, wherever possible, be consolidated into a single
elevated apron control room, with 360° unobstructed panoramic vision of the areas mentioned (subject
to the requirements of the national ATC provider and local operator). Dual elevated apron control
rooms maybe used (subject to the requirements of the national ATC provider and local operator)
where any one of more of the following situations have been met:
• Taxiways and runways are placed extra long distances away from the terminal apron stand areas,
which results in the need to raise the control tower for this purpose only.
• More controllers will have a better vision of specific areas of the apron.
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C 4 .4 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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C h a p te r D — A ir p o r t E c o n o m ic s
Section D1: A irp o rt Management
D1.1 General Airport Management — Economics ...... ......... .............................. 109
D1.2 Meeting the Capacity D e m a n d ............ .......... ........................ 109
D1.3 Financing Airport Capacity Expansion ..................................... ......... ....... . 109
D1.4 The Privatization Trend ........ ...... ......... ..................................................... . 110
D1.5 The Need for Economic Regulation ..... ................................. . 111
.
D1.6 Airport Performance and Efficiency .............................................. ............ . 112
D1.7 IATA Recommendations ................................................. .................. 113
S ection D2: A irp o rt C ost S tructures and Revenue Sources
D2.1 Airport Cost Structures ... ..................................... . 114
D2.2 Airport Revenue Sources ..... .......... ............................................................... 114
D2.3 IATA Recommendations ............................ ..................... ....... . 115
S ection D3: A irp o rt Investm ent D ecisions and Financing
D3.1 Airport Investment Decision-Making .... ...................... ......... .......... ........ . 116
D3.2 Airport Financing Options — Debt vs.Equity ................................. . 116
D3.3 Airport Financing Options — Pre-FundingThrough Charges .... . 118
D3.4 IATA Recommendations .... ............................................................................ 119
Section D4: A eronautical Charge P olicies
D4.1 Aeronautical C h a rg e s ........... ..................... ....... ............................................. 120
D4.2 Determining the Cost Base for AeronauticalC h a rg e s ...................... ......... . 120
D4.3 Aeronautical Charging Policies ................................................ . 124
D4.4 Market-Based O p tio n s ........ ....... .......... ...................... ........... ....................... 125
D4.5 Consultation with Users ........................................... .......... ........................... 128
D4.6 IATA Recommendations ................................................................................. 128
S ection D5: International C ost V ariations
D5.1 Airport Benchmarking Data ............................................................................ 130
D5.2 IATA Recommendations ... ....... ........... ............ ........ ........ ........................ . 133
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D1.1 G E N E R A L A IR P O R T M A N A G E M E N T — E C O N O M IC S
Up until the late 1970s, airports were seen as nothing more than an extension of government. Since
then, however, the links with government have progressively loosened and the pressure for airports
to become commercially viable enterprises has grown. This viability included running the airport as
a business, able not only to cover its costs (including capital costs) through revenues, but also to
arrange for the necessary financing of airport development programmes.
Invariably, this challenge has been met with much success. Airports have generally been able to
generate substantial profits and secure private sector financing for airport development programmes,
usually at a low cost of capital. Further, airports have been able to do this despite the fact that the
demand for airport capacity, facilities and services is derived indirectly from airline scheduling plans.
While an airline’s operating plan is more tactical, with scheduling decisions being made based on
short-term traffic forecasts covering the next 6-18 months, the airport planning cycle is more strategic
and long-term where the time frame from initial conception to completion may take 5-10 years.
This then is the primary challenge for airport management — matching capacity provision with demand
while maintaining financial viability or profitability and an acceptable level of service.
1. How to meet the long-term growth in traffic demand with the necessary runway capacity and
terminal facilities.
With respect to this latter point there has been an increased focus on developing the commercial
side of an airport and improving airport financial performance, while encouraging the involvement of
the private sector in both the management and financing of airport infrastructure.
D 1 .2 M E E T IN G T H E C A P A C IT Y D E M A N D
Apart from the short-term influences of the economic cycle, growth in air travel demand has generally
been outstripping the supply of infrastructure and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future.
However, passenger growth can be accommodated through higher load factors, increased aircraft
size, or increased frequencies. The primary capacity concern to airport managers therefore is the
composition of traffic in terms of aircraft operations; this will have an impact both in terms of the
infrastructure needed and the cost recovery of related expenditures. As already discussed in the
chapter on forecasting, how an airline will meet the demand through its operational plan is of significant
importance to airport planners.
D 1 .3 F IN A N C IN G A IR P O R T C A P A C IT Y E X P A N S IO N
Traditionally, the vast majority of airports around the world were directly owned and operated by
national, regional or local governments. In most cases the civil aviation authority or department, being
part of the transport ministry, operated the airport(s), and in some cases the CAA would also be
responsible for providing air traffic control and aeronautical meteorological services.
ICAO has, for a long time, promoted the concept of an autonomous authority that has managerial
and financial autonomy from government, yet is wholly owned by government. Aside from reducing
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the financial burden on governments, autonomous authorities have the advantage of creating a
business culture — improving financial performance and quality of service.
With professional management in place that is both financially accountable and able to undertake
and implement long-term development plans, the government-owned autonomous airport authority
has in a number of cases been a precursor to the privatized airport. Such was the case with the
British Airport Authority, established in 1966, which later became a limited company (BAA Pic) with
the Airports Act of 1986, owning seven airports. Shares in BAA Pic were subsequently floated on the
London Stock Exchange in 1987.
The airline industry generally favours the trend what is commonly referred to
as the privatisation of airport and air navigation entities in that the facilities and
services may be provided in a more cost efficient and effective manner. It is
concerned, however, that the process often leads to increases in the cost base
for charges, and thus, higher user charges. The requisites for industry support
for privatisation are: meaningful consultation with the user community prior to and
during the privatisation process; appropriate legislation obligating observance by
the commercialised/privatised entity of the ICAO Policies on Charges; and the
designation of an effective and independent economic regulatory mechanism
providing oversight of charging practices.
D 1 .4 T H E P R IV A T IZ A T IO N T R E N D
Privatization1 of, or private participation in airport management has usually taken the form of a long
term lease of all or part of the airport facilities and services, with the responsibility for their expansion
and development resting with the concessionaire. Such leasing arrangements can take the form of
build-operate-transfer (BOT), build-own-operate-transfer (BOOT), build-transfer-operate (BTO), and
other variants thereof.
Lease payments can take the form of an annual royalty payment or down payment toward an eventual
privatization. Examples of these airport leasing arrangements are most prevalent in Latin America,
although we also find examples in Africa, Australia and Canada. The problem with such leasing
arrangements is that government is in a position of strength vis-à-vis the concessionaire when it
comes to negotiating rights to operate facilities that have no alternative use and charge monopoly
rents. With the concessionaire in most cases being given the right to set aeronautical charges, in the
absence of effective price regulation, he can recover this cost from the users of the airports facilities
and services. The incentive for the concessionaire to negotiate the best deal possible with the
government is therefore low.
Degree of Commercialisation
Commercialisation factors o% 100%
Ownership: 100% State owned 100% Public Shares
Accounting Methodology: Cash accounts Commercial practices
Capital Financing Options: State budget All options
Employee Status: Civil servants Corporate
Legal Status: Government Private
Entrepreneurialism: Little Considerable
Management Reports to: Political Board of Directors
Taxation: Low As private companies
Management Focus: Government policies Profits/Share Value
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Private participation can also take the form of a transfer of minority ownership through the sale of
shares to a strategic partner or through a public issue. This has typically been the European model,
although we also find examples in Asia and South Africa. With the notable exception of BAA pic
and a few others, a fully privatized airport is a rarity. Governments have generally demonstrated
apprehension toward giving up full control of their airports to the private sector.
In summary, faced with budgetary constraints and the increasing financial resources required to fund
airport operations and development plans, governments have felt that airports could be better operated
and managed as commercially autonomous entities, having access to private sector capital. Moreover,
private participation and privatization in the provision of airport services has been seen as a source
of revenue.
Although the large majority of airports still remain under government or public ownership, either in
entirety or through a majority holding, indications are that private involvement in the ownership and
management will continue to increase. As the need for airport development funding continues to
grow, with governments being increasingly reluctant to contribute funds, the pressures to privatize
airports will continue. These pressures will not only come from governments, but also from the airport
management that desires full managerial and financial autonomy from government interference.
Typically, those airports already operating profitably as private companies are seen as mature
candidates for full privatization.
D 1 .5 T H E N E E D F O R E C O N O M IC R E G U L A T IO N
Due to the non-competitive nature of airports, it has long been argued and recognized that regulation
of airport charges is essential, especially when the airport is privately owned and motivated by the
profit imperative. Economic regulation can range from hard and administratively burdensome (for
both the airport and users alike), to soft regulation — where the authorities rely on industry approaches
based on consultation and contractual arrangements (most prevalent in North America).
In the case of BAA, tight controls were imposed:
• It has to produce more detailed accounts consistent with the Companies Act.
@ The CAA, working in conjunction with the Monopolies and Mergers Commission (MMC), can
investigate complaints of discrimination or abuse of monopoly position.
• Aeronautical charges, in terms of revenue per passenger, could increase by no more than the
retail price index (RPI) less an estimate of the expected increase in productivity, a negotiated X
per cent.
The significance of this latter condition — the “RPI minus X” formula that would be revised every five
years — is that it would force BAA to become more efficient and diversify into other revenue generating
activities that are not subject to price controls. Thus, through the ‘single till’ rate-setting methodology,
aeronautical charges could be kept within a targeted range. However, this so-called ‘single till’
regulatory mechanism has come under increased criticism and is not seen as shareholder friendly
as airport charges at Heathrow — one of the world’s most congested facilities — were expected to
fall 30% in real terms by March 2003 (the end of the regulatory review period).
In other States, similar price regulation formulae have been put in place that allow for inflation and
traffic growth. However, such schemes do not encourage efficiencies, which should be a key premise
for privatization if it is to gain support from the user community (especially if the airport wasn’t run
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efficiently in the first place). Other regulatory schemes are contractual, whereby the airport comes to
an agreement with the user community to cap charges at a certain level for a fixed term. Such is the
case at Copenhagen.
In other States a regulator may have been appointed to monitor the behavior of the concessionaire
of an autonomous airport authority, but is largely ineffective in carrying out its mandate. The main
reason for this is that the regulatory authority may not be sufficiently independent and entrusted with
the necessary enforcement powers. In many such situations the concessionaire has the lobbying
power to sway government officials and politicians, rendering the CAA virtually powerless. However
in the vast majority of cases of private participation or privatization of airports, examples of effective
and truly independent regulatory mechanisms do not really exist.
D 1 .6 A IR P O R T P E R F O R M A N C E A N D E F F IC IE N C Y
As airports are increasingly operated on a commercial basis, and the trend toward airport privatization
continues, the need for and interest in information on financial performance will grow. Since airports
enjoy a quasi-monopolistic position, demand for airport services is relatively inelastic and the potential
exists for abuse in extracting high revenues from airport customers. Airport profitability, therefore,
does not necessarily equate to airport efficiency. Aside from measuring airport quality of service
standards, airport managers will therefore have to measure an airport’s economic efficiency by
assessing the relationship between inputs (labour, capital, etc.) and outputs (passengers, aircraft
movements, work-load units, etc.) Not only are airport performance indicators useful to airport
managers for making decisions on the best use of resources, users will insist on them and regulatory
authorities may well impose them as a means to gauge whether the commercialization process is
delivering on the efficiency promise.
While performance indicators can be used to analyze and monitor past and current performance,
they can also be used to give an indication of the overall quality of performance when compared to
a standard that reflects industry best practice. However data comparability problems make inter
airport comparisons difficult to calculate and interpret. Every airport has its own method for charging
for its facilities and services, making it difficult to assess the relevant charge and its underlying cost
base. Aside from currency differences, accounting practices differ from airport to airport; some airports
are recipients of government subsidies, while others have to arrange for their own financing.
D 1 .7 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
D2.1 A IR P O R T C O S T S T R U C T U R E S
Capital charges (interest expense, depreciation and amortization) relating to investments in the
infrastructure represent a large portion of an airport’s total costs. For established airports with
continuous expansion plans, capital charges account for about 25-50% of total costs. For new “green
field” airports, investment-related costs are significant, with capital charges accounting for as much
as 90% of total costs.
In the earlier years of civil aviation, suitable land was more readily available, and the capital costs
related to the construction of basic infrastructure — runways, taxiways, and terminal and support
facilities — were more affordable compared to today’s standards. Airports were simply built where it
was cheapest to construct. Today, after decades of continued urbanization and environmental
restriction, there is a lack of suitable land close to the city center. New airport sites are further from
the cities they serve, requiring new road and mass transit infrastructure to be built for easy access.
These sites are usually of poor quality, such that the pre-construction or site preparation phase has
become a major component of the investment. This phase could, for example, involve leveling
surrounding hills or creating a man-made island. The most extreme example of such an airport
is Kansai (Osaka), in Japan. Together with the complex nature of today’s airport facilities, these
considerations make construction of new airports prohibitively expensive and almost always in need
of some form of government financial support.
Operations and maintenance costs — the costs to operate and maintain the investments in
infrastructure in good shape to prevent so-called capital deterioration — typically make up a third of
the total cost structure. Staff costs can make up as much as 40% or as little as 20% of total airport
costs, depending on the region and the airport in question. Staff costs as a proportion of total costs
tend to be low for US airports because they do not get involved in air traffic control or handling
activities, and because the airlines are much more involved in the operational activities of US airports.
Thus the unique economic, operational and financial characteristics of US airports sets them apart
from their peers in other parts of the world.
As pointed out in the chapter dealing with airport planning, an efficient, well-planned airport can save
the airlines money. The goal of reducing capital costs in order to be more cost-effective is too restrictive
an approach. The goal should be to minimize the sum of airport user charges and airline operational
costs. Optimizing a master plan by organizing the runway and terminal area layout whereby taxi
distances and times are minimized is recognized as good airport planning. Airline operating costs
also need to be considered when determining the terminal design — a sound approach to which
permits optimum airline staffing and quicker aircraft turnaround times.
Proper timing and phasing of an airport development programme is just as critical due to the effect
this has on airport unit costs. Investments in airport infrastructure, by their very nature, are lumpy
and have the tendency to produce a ‘step climb’ in capacity. Unit costs increase sharply and decrease
again over time as traffic builds up and the facilities are better utilized. To keep unit costs low or at
reasonable levels, airports may be inclined to hold off on development plans until such time that
increased congestion results in an increase in related costs; e.g. the cost of busing to remote aircraft
boarding sites. Furthermore, due to economies of scale, high utilization of limited capacity will also
make an airport more profitable. A rather extreme example of this effect is Heathrow.
0 2 .2 A IR P O R T R E V E N U E S O U R C E S
The two main sources of airport revenue come from aeronautical or traffic-related activities (i.e.
landing fees, passenger service charges, etc.) and non-aeronautical or commercial activities (i.e.
office-space rent, car parking, duty-free shopping concessions, handling agent concession fees, etc.).
Airports have traditionally relied more heavily on aeronautical revenue sources as their main form of
income — typically about 50-70%, while 30-50% comes from commercial activities such as leases,
duty free, car parking, airport ground handling services, etc. The smaller the airport and the more an
airport relies on domestic passenger traffic, the more dependent it will likely be on aeronautical
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revenues as its main source of revenue. However, if such an airport is to attract, retain and develop
traffic, it will have to set charges at reasonable levels. It is likely that these domestically-oriented
airports will not achieve full cost recovery and typically will rely on some form of subsidization. However,
as discussed in the section dealing with privatization, government subsidies are running dry and
airports have been pressured to become financially viable through the development of other revenue
sources.
ICAO has therefore recommended for some time that airports fully develop their non-aeronautical
revenue sources. Lesser reliance on aeronautical revenues is also one of the reasons why IATA has
supported airport commercialization. However the development of additional revenue sources through
concessions that are directly associated with the operation of air transport services; e.g. fuel through
put fees, catering concession fees, aircraft handling concession fees, etc., should not be considered
as opportunities for revenue enhancement since this only increases the cost to operate at an airport
and is therefore considered no different from increasing aeronautical charges.
The development of commercial activities has proven to be particularly profitable for certain airports,
leading some to take on more risky ventures or to get involved in non-airport-related activities. Aside
from offering consulting services, some airports have been making investments in other airports or
airport development projects, or getting involved in the provision of discotheques, casinos, or other
real estate projects.
The concern here is the potential for management distraction away from the core business of running
efficient and cost effective airport facilities and services. An equally significant concern is the potential
that users of the airport are exposed to the financial risk related to such ventures. Nevertheless, the
development of revenues from non-aeronautical activities has become the principle means by which
a growing number of airports have been able to recover their total costs in the case where losses
are made on the aeronautical side of the business. Under a ‘single-till’ rate-setting methodology,
charges can therefore be moderated and kept at reasonable levels. Further discussion on this topic
is included in the sections dealing with airport cost allocation and rate-setting methodologies.
D 2 .3 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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D 3.1 A IR P O R T IN V E S T M E N T D E C IS IO N -M A K IN G
A detailed business plan has to be drawn up as part of any airport development programme. It should
contain financial projections and forecasts of future activity at the airport. The basic elements that
should be included in this type of business plan are;
• Feasibility analysis; i.e.: will the airport’s overall financial performance be acceptable; can the
airport manage the additional cash flow requirements; will the proposed programme produce an
acceptable return on investment; etc.
© Financial analysis of costs and revenues, including: an operating budget; a financing plan; a cash
flow forecast; a debt servicing schedule; pro forma balance sheets and income statements;
financial ratio analysis; etc.
• Risk mitigation assessment, the primary areas being: technical risk relating to construction
completion; commercial risk relating to changes in traffic demand; cost risk relating to changes
in construction or capital and operational costs; financial risk relating to currency exchange,
inflation and interests rate changes.
For investment purposes, the next step is to draw up a financing plan. Critical to this plan is an
analysis of the airport’s ability to generate sufficient revenues to make the required payments for
operating & maintenance expenses, debt service, and other funding requirements that may be required
by bondholders or other creditors.
In most cases, airport management would do well by contracting with a reputable consultant with
expertise in project feasibility studies and airport financing programmes. Once a detailed business
and investment plan has been drawn up, an evaluation of the investment financing options can begin.
D 3 .2 A IR P O R T F IN A N C IN G O P T IO N S — D E B T v s . E Q U IT Y
In order for airports to gain access to private finance, certain institutional and legal changes will first
have to take place, usually by way of an airports act. Once these changes have occurred, an airport
will have the same choices to make about capital structure as any other private firm would. The
optimal or target capital structure is the desired mix of debt, preferred shares, and common equity
that will cause a firm’s share price to be maximized and its weighted average cost of capital (WACC)1
to be minimized.
This optimal balance between debt and equity financing has been the central question in corporate
finance for some time. All-debt financing typically provides a lower average cost of capital and, in
any case, for most airports the choice may be limited solely to debt. This is the case in the US where
airports have access to tax-free revenue bonds.
1 The Weighted Average Cost of Capital is defined as the weighted average of the cost of debt, rB, and the cost of equity, rs. Taking
corporate taxes into account, the appropriate cost of debt is the after-tax cost of debt since interest is tax deductible. The formula for
determining the WACC is:
S B t \
rwACC~ s T b " rs + s T F rB11 “ lo)
where rB (1 - Tc) is the after-tax cost of debt.
For regulated industries like gas, power, telephone, or railways, the cost of capital has been used to set prices so that the utility earns
this rate of return. If the cost of capital is set too low, then the company will not be able to attract sufficient capital to meet long-term
demands for service; if the cost of capital is set too high then customers will be paying too much for the service.
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Nevertheless, there appear to be some compelling reasons for airports to take on more debt vs.
equity. Profitable enterprises with stable, predictable cash flows and safe, tangible assets can afford
to take on more debt; unprofitable, risky firms with intangible assets less so. Utilities, such as airports,
typically can afford much greater leverage.
There is also a certain order in which firms go about seeking financing. New capital will first come
from retained earnings. Only after this option is exhausted or becomes difficult due to imposed
limitations on the build up of reserves, will a firm turn to lenders — whether the banks for loans or
lines of credit and/or the bond market. Only as a last resort does the firm turn to the equity market.
This being said, it has been observed that airports have surprisingly low levels of financial leverage
and, more importantly, they have significantly less debt than their peers; i.e. utility companies.
General obligation bonds — General obligation bonds are backed by the issuing government and
secured and serviced out of general tax receipts. They are sold at relatively low interest rates.
Total general obligation indebtedness of the relevant government may be a limiting factor in the
use of general obligation bonds.
Self-liquidating general obligation bonds — A variation of general obligation bonds are self-
liquidating general obligation bonds, which are secured by the good faith and credit of the issuing
government, but are serviced from airport revenues. They have the advantage of the low interest
cost, but are not subjected to debt restrictions and do not compete with other public works projects
for capital funding.
Airport revenue bonds — Airport revenue bonds, for which debt service is paid out of airport
revenue, have been the major financing mechanism at large and medium size airports in the US.
They are sold at slightly higher rates of interest due to greater perceived risk. Essentially, the
airport pledges that its future income will be sufficient to cover the interest and capital repayment
over the period of the bond issue. The coverage ratio typically ranges between 1.2-1.5 and level
of risk will be dependent on this coverage ratio.
Lease or special facility bonds — These bonds are guaranteed by the future rental or lease
payments of the airline or group of airlines that are going to use the facility, and are secured by
way of long-term lease/use agreements.
Growth of the airport sector in the bond and bank debt markets will depend heavily on the extent to
which borrowers and lenders can identify and control credit risk. Credit analysis is important and will
be a key element in the long-term growth of airport debt. An evaluation of an airport’s credit position
involves a fundamental analysis of its business and competitive position and its operations. As such,
the perceived credit quality of an airport is the product of its performance in a number of analytical
areas:
• Competitive position — O&D airports tend to carry less risk than do hub airports that rely heavily
on transfer traffic.
• Finances — operational comparables, benchmarks and financial ratios are used to assess an
airport’s strengths and weaknesses.
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• Debt profile — the amount, type and structure of the debt being issued are reviewed when
assessing an airport’s credit position.
• Ownership structure — generally speaking, direct government ownership that provides for a
guarantee against default improves an airport’s ability to access capital markets.
• Management —- aside from an assessment of the strength and quality of the airport management,
the nature of its relations with the airlines is also considered.
• Environmental issues — noise restrictions on runway usage have become a significant issue,
particularly for western European airports, as this can hamper growth and expansion. From a
credit perspective, the extent to which operational restrictions and opposition to expansion will
affect an airport’s position and impact its financial and strategic position needs to be assessed.
D 3 .3 A IR P O R T F IN A N C IN G O P T IO N S — P R E -F U N D IN G T H R O U G H
CHARGES
When the forementioned financing options are limited or unavailable, airports may turn to pre-funding
through charges as a means of financing capital investment projects. Pre-funding through charges
such as the US passenger facility charge (PFC) goes against the fundamental principles of cost
recovery, as does the build up of reserves from an excess of revenues over expenses. This was
recognized during the ICAO Conference on the Economics of Airports and Air Navigation Services
(ANSConf 2000).
However, during the Conference discussion there was general support for pre-funding under specific
circumstances where it is determined that it is the most appropriate or only source of funding provided
that strict safeguards are in place for users who will be paying for facilities they do not use. Such
safeguards should include effective and independent economic regulation, substantive consultation
and general agreement with users, limited time of application of the pre-funding charge, and
transparency of accounts to ensure the funds are used toward the agreed upon project.
For accounting purposes, care should be taken that once the facilities become operational the related
capital charges are not included in the cost base for charges. Doing so would have a double-charging
effect; only the related operating and maintenance costs are appropriate for cost recovery purposes.
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D 3 .4 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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D4.1 A E R O N A U T IC A L C H A R G E S
For most airports, aeronautical charges continue to generate well over half of their total revenues.
On the part of the airlines, airport charges are critical because they have a direct impact on operating
costs. However, due to a variety of factors, airport charges impact different airlines differently.
For a short-haul carrier with a high frequency hub feeder operation, airport charges can be significant
— as much as 20-25% as a proportion of total operating costs. For a long-haul carrier operating large
aircraft, airport charges can account for about 5% of total operating costs. Depending on the region
of the world, this figure can increase to 10-12% or be as little as 2-3%. In absolute terms airport
charges have more than doubled, and as new airport facilities and services become operational in
some regions of the world higher user charges can be expected.
In summary, since airport charges are an uncontrollable cost as compared to other costs, and have
been escalating faster than any other airline cost over the last decade, they will continue to be a
major cause of concern for airline management. It is for this reason that the topic of User Charges
has been among the top three priorities for IATA in recent time.
D 4 .2 D E T E R M IN IN G T H E C O S T B A S E F O R A E R O N A U T IC A L C H A R G E S
“The cost to be shared is the full cost of providing the airport and its essential ancillary
services, including appropriate amounts for cost of capital and depreciation of assets, as well
as the cost of maintenance and operation, and management and administration expenses,
but allowing for all aeronautical revenues plus contributions from non-aeronautical revenues
accruing from the operation of the airport to its operators. “
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The paragraph captures two important concepts for determining the cost base for airport charges.
First, the meaning ascribed to the terms ‘full cost’ emanates from the 1991 ICAO Conference on
Airport and Route Facility Management (CARFM) during which it was agreed to delete the word
‘economic’ between the words ‘full’ and ‘cost’ from previous version Doc 9082/4, ‘...to emphasize the
principle that only the costs actually incurred by the providers of airport and air traffic control facilities
and services should be charged...’
This recommendation was meant to reflect the growing trend toward airport autonomy and privatization,
and to indicate that the ICAO Statements by the Council on Airport Charges (Doc 9082/4) was only
to provide guidance on the cost recovery of the facilities and services provided to air traffic.
R a te -se ttin g m e th o d o lo g ie s
The second concept is the application of the ‘single-till’ principle, in that the cost base for charges
should be based on the cost of the airport facilities and services provided, net of contributions from
non-aeronautical revenue sources.
How much of a contribution should be considered has been the subject of much debate and contention
between airports and airlines. The airline industry has historically been of the opinion that airports
exist to facilitate air transportation services and that revenue from all commercial activities within the
airport perimeter should therefore contribute to the ‘single-till’ in the determination of the cost base
for charging purposes.
Further, considering that airports are increasingly developing their commercial potential through
involvement in non-core activities, it is also felt that the airline community should be consulted prior
to such initiatives in regards to what extent users should be exposed to the risk involved under a
‘single-till’ rate-setting methodology.
In the US, this trade-off between risk exposure and user-say has been captured in airline airport use
agreements. The residual approach1 to setting airport charges guarantees the airport will break
even, although some airports will ensure that an adequate surplus is made. In this case, the airlines
take the financial risk, but usually have veto power over airport investment decisions by way of a
‘majority-in-interest’ (Mil) clause, which gives airlines veto power over airport-development plans.
The other rate-setting methodology is the compensatory approach2, which on a total airport basis is
not set to necessarily break-even. A profit or loss can be made depending on the level of traffic and
commercial activity that is generated. In this case, the airport assumes the financial risk, but receives
the benefits of the concession revenues, usually during periods of traffic growth.
Airports employing this methodology have tended to produce larger surpluses and would also be in
a better position to use retained earnings for investment purposes. However, US legislation limits the
level of profit allowed and there have been cases when airlines have sued airports for the accumulated
surpluses. Nevertheless there has been a tendency for airports to move away from the residual
approach to adopt the compensatory or hybrid approach, which employs a mix of the two
methodologies, usually airside residual and landside compensatory.
Under the ‘single till’ or ‘global residual’ approach to rate setting, which IATA favours, big income
streams from areas like parking and retail have the effect of lowering airport charges to airlines, while
the airlines, in turn, assume the financial risk and ensure the airport is kept whole. However, the
‘single till’ has become a topic of heated debate, with the airports arguing that it is an economic
perversity since it subsidizes the airlines, especially so during times of capacity constraint, and creates
a disincentive to develop new sources of non-aeronautical revenue.
1 Residual Methodology — under this approach, which can be applied on a cost centre or total airport basis, non-airline revenues are
credited against costs to determine the net revenue required, which is then apportioned back to the airlines.
2 Compensatory Methodology — under this approach, rates and charges are calculated to fully recover the airlines’ share of operating and
capital costs without any credit for non-airline revenues. The airlines’ share of costs exclude concession and public areas, which would
be covered by non-airline revenues.
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“Airports may produce sufficient revenues to exceed all direct and indirect operating costs
(including general administration, etc.) and so provide for a reasonable return on assets at
a sufficient level to secure financing on favorable terms in capital markets for the purpose of
investing in new or expanded airport infrastructure and, where relevant, to remunerate
adequately holders of airport equity.”
In the context of airport privatization, airlines are of the opinion that they should not be made to pay
for the (at times) speculative returns sought by equity holders. Airport management will be tempted
to take on more risky ventures (e.g. international expansion through equity holdings) in order to attract
and retain investors. Further, the temptation would be to reduce the contributions of non-aeronautical
revenues to the cost base for aeronautical charges or abandon the ‘single till’ concept altogether.
This is therefore yet another reason for the need of an independent and effective economic regulatory
mechanism to help mitigate user exposure to such risk.
Given the debate surrounding the ‘single till’ principle to rate-setting and its link to the regulated return
an airport can generate, ACI and IATA developed a joint interpretation of sub-paragraphs 22(i) and
22(vii) which is reproduced below:
1. The existence of air traffic activity is a necessary precondition for the generation of airport non-
aeronautical revenues. Such revenues are then generated through management initiatives in
offering suitable products and prices. All aeronautical and non-aeronautical revenues from the
operation of an airport accrue, in the first instance, to the airport. Reaching a common
understanding on the contributions of non-aeronautical revenues to defray the cost base for
charges is an acknowledgement of the partnership between airports and users.
2. The non-aeronautical revenues in question do not normally include revenues earned by airport
operators from activities undertaken off-airport, or those undertaken by the airport in full
competition with other suppliers.
3. Given the different local circumstances and fast changing conditions, with respect to airport
ownership and management, as well as regulatory regimes, there are likely to be a range of
different appropriate treatments of non-aeronautical income by airports.
4. When determining the contributions from non-aeronautical revenues, high priority should be given
to the investment needs of airports, taking into account paragraph 24 of Doc 9082/6, which
addresses pre-funding of projects, while recognizing that there may be many alternatives to
finance infrastructure development.
5. The appropriate return on aeronautical activities should reflect differences in the level of risk from
non-aeronautical activities. Further, in order to provide incentives to the airport operator, high
levels of service and efficiency in aeronautical activities may be rewarded with higher returns and
vice versa.
6. When defining the contributions from non-aeronautical revenues, an accounting system should
be in place to identify the relationship between costs and revenues of non-aeronautical and
aeronautical activities (Doc 9082/6, sub-paragraph 17(vi) refers).
7. As stated in point 4 above, it may he appropriate for airports to retain non-aeronautical revenues
rather than use such revenues to defray charges. However, there is no requirement for airports
to do so and, in appropriate circumstances, there may be solid grounds for charges to be lower,
consistent with Doc 9082/6, sub-paragraph 22(viii).
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As a final point, in the event that aeronautical charges are determined without any contributions from
non-aeronautical revenue sources, then the cost allocation between aeronautical and non-aeronautical
functions and among landing (runways and taxi ways), parking/apron and terminal facilities should
be based on an accurate and appropriate methodology that is deemed to be reasonable and equitable
to users.
C o st a c co u n tin g
It should be evident from the foregoing that a proper cost accounting system is an essential tool,
both in providing the basis for determining the cost base for charges, but also for providing information
to airport management in its assessment of operating performance from a financial perspective. The
cost accounting system should help achieve the following objectives:
• Understand the composition of these costs and what the cost drivers are.
• Determine the efforts and accomplishments associated with programmes and delivery of services
and their changes over time in relation to costs.
In the determination of the cost base for charges, special attention needs to be given to the issue of
cost allocation, because so many of an airport’s costs are joint costs. First, the total costs by major
cost item (operating & maintenance, marketing, administrative, capital charges, etc.) have to be
determined. The second step involves allocating these functional costs to the various airport areas
or services and this will involve allocating certain costs that are attributable to two or more areas or
services by employing a sound cost allocation methodology such as activity based costing (ABC).
For example, there are many areas and facilities that are used both for passenger handling and
commercial purposes, and care must be taken to allocate costs fairly and equitably between
aeronautical and non-aeronautical activities. Likewise, in the case of airport networks, appropriate
amounts of overhead costs need to be allocated among the relevant airports. The principles of cost-
related and site-specific charges must be maintained.
Finally, arriving at an equitable cost base for charges will require an allocation of costs among different
user groups or categories, i.e. general aviation, military, and international and domestic civil traffic.
Once the costs attributable to civil air traffic have been established, the cost base for individual
charges can be estimated by determining the costs of the facilities and/or services the charge is to
cover. The relevant rate for a given charge (landing fee, parking fee, passenger service charge, etc.)
is then determined by dividing the relevant cost base by the estimated number of charging units. The
number of charging units in the case of a landing fee is generally the aggregate aircraft MTOW that
is estimated to take-off from the airport in the relevant year, or the number of departing passengers
in the case of a passenger service charge.
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D 4 .3 A E R O N A U T IC A L C H A R G IN G P O L IC IE S
The User Charges Panel (UCP) is the group that leads the IATA approach to user charges issues.
Its objective is to ensure charges are reasonable, cost-related, non-discriminatory and equitably
applied, and the panel enters into consultations with government and their designated charging
authorities for this purpose. The UCP operates within the framework of a terms of reference set by the
IATA Financial Committee, to which it reports, and consists of 10 airline experts who are geographically
representative of the IATA Membership.
The principles for the setting of aeronautical charges as contained in the Policies on Charges have
their origin in Article 15 — Airport and Similar Charges of the Convention on International Civil Aviation
(a.k.a. the ‘Chicago’ Convention). Article 15 of the Convention requires of a contracting State that:
uniform conditions shall apply to the use of airports and air navigation facilities by aircraft of other
contracting States; and charges imposed for use of such facilities shall not be higher for aircraft of
other contracting States than those paid by its national aircraft engaged in similar international
operations.
A ve rag e c o s t p ric in g
The requirements that airports be open to users under uniform conditions and that charges be non-
discriminatory form the basic underlying philosophy to airport charging policies. These basic principles
can also be found in bilateral air services agreements between States. It has also been widely
accepted that airports are public utilities and that air transport is a service of national importance.
Thus, traditional charging policies have also been based on recouping solely the costs of the facilities
and services provided. These principles have lead to an average cost pricing approach to charging.
However it was clear that larger, heavier aircraft needed longer and stronger runways and larger
handling facilities and thus imposed a higher cost on an airport. Further, larger aircraft with their
higher payloads were found to be better able to bear higher charges — the ability to pay principle.
Thus, many airports introduced specific charges for facilities and services such as aerobridges and
security and apron services. In the case of landing fees, an aircraft weight element (usually MTOW)
was included in the formula as a proxy for the cost it imposed on the airport. However, in the case
of terminal navaid (approach control) and other air navigation services charges, it was recognized
that larger aircraft are more efficient, able to transport more people in a single movement and requiring
no more air traffic management effort than was required for a small aircraft. In the case of such
charges, the practice has been to employ the square root of the weight factor as a trade-off between
the ability to pay and aircraft efficiency.
R ebates, d is c o u n ts a n d in ce n tive s
Of late, a number of airports have offered discounts on charges, or rebates, as a marketing tool to
increase traffic volume or attract new air routes. Some such incentives are officially published, while
others are not. The argument in favor of such discounts is that they are aimed at increasing the total
business, thereby benefiting all users, especially where the ‘single-till’ principle to rate-setting is
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applied. Airline start-up costs for a new route can be significant, and therefore airport assistance
through incentives for a limited time is acceptable and appreciated by the airline industry. IATA,
however, only supports rebates or discounts that are non-discriminatory and do not contravene Article
15 of the Chicago Convention. The non-discriminatory element should include the requirement for
such incentives to be published.
IATA publishes the Airport & Air Navigation Charges Manual, which is a complete compilation of up-
to-date information on airport and air navigation charges world-wide and is available for sale in print
and CD-ROM format.
D 4 .4 M A R K E T -B A S E D O P T IO N S
In light of the more commercially oriented environment in which airports now operate, there has been
some debate in recent years as to whether the traditional airport charging schemes result in the
efficient allocation of resources, and generate sufficient revenues to provide for an adequate return
on investment.
The traditional airport charging systems, that have developed under the auspices of ICAO guidance,
aim solely to recover the cost of providing the facilities or services through a combination of average
cost pricing and ability to pay, and do not provide adequate signaling mechanisms about the costs
airlines impose on an airport. This debate has become particularly acute in the case of congested
airports and environmental mitigation.
It is argued that average cost pricing offers little inducement to operators of new aircraft types to
minimize the cost they impose on the airport in terms of new facilities that are required. All users end
up contributing to the cost for accommodating the new aircraft type. It has been further argued that
average cost pricing offers no incentive for operators to move from peak to off-peak periods. Finally,
under an average cost pricing regime, the more congested an airport gets, the cheaper it gets to
operate.
These arguments have lead airport managers and regulators alike to explore the introduction of
economic pricing principles and marginal cost pricing — the cost that would be incurred to produce
one additional unit of output. Economists have long argued that the pricing policy that leads to the
most efficient allocation of resources is one where the price of a good or service is set to the marginal
cost of providing that good or service.
However, can such pricing policies be implemented in the airport environment and will they have the
desired effect? So called market-based options have been promoted as having a possible role to
play in relieving airline flight delays and congestion at busy airports, thereby improving airport capacity
management, enhancing competition and promoting the efficiency of the overall aviation system.
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Market-based options would therefore include all market pricing regimes that could encourage air
carriers to use limited capacity in a more efficient manner, potentially bringing into balance current
supply (airport capacity) and demand (number of flight operations) while longer-term capacity
expansion is pursued. Such market-based options could include:
• Auctions, which would allocate a fixed number of operations for some particular period of time.
• Congestion pricing, which contemplates charging air carriers not only for the costs they impose
on an airport, but also the delay costs they impose on other airport users.
® Peak period pricing, which contemplates imposing fees based on the higher costs an airport
incurs to accommodate demand during peak hours, or the cost an airport does not incur because
flights are shifted from busy periods of the day to less busy periods.
• Flat fees, which would restructure existing weight-based landing fees so that total airfield costs
are recovered through a higher average fee, thereby affecting the mix of aircraft that operate at
an airport.
IATA has held the view that in order to relieve airport congestion and delay, the primary objective
should be to improve the utilization of existing capacity and make available additional capacity, rather
than ration demand through market-based options that have not proven to be effective. In regards
to the specific options mentioned, lATA’s views are as follows:
Auctions — Auctions, which would allocate a fixed number of operations for some particular
period of time, would result in significantly higher costs for airlines and would not be practicable
in an international context, due to issues relating to reciprocity. The current process of allocating
limited capacity is done by way of slot allocation programmes in place at certain congested
airports. The processes to deal with congestion problems at airports need to be fair and equitable
for all air operators. Therefore, the current process of applying for and assigning international
slots is being done on similar terms at all airports. Slot applications are typically assigned as
requested. Auctions, on the other hand, entail a degree of uncertainty as to whether or not a slot
will become available, aside from the inflated price that will have to be paid. However, neither a
system of auctions or a slot allocation programme would do anything to reduce congestion, unless
the number of operations are effectively capped.
Congestion pricing — Congestion pricing, which contemplates charging air carriers not only for
the costs they impose on an airport, but also the delay costs they impose on other airport users,
relies on the correct and accurate identification of externalities. These are difficult if not impossible
to assess with any degree of accuracy, or to impose based on general agreement among
stakeholders. It would be difficult to demonstrate that congestion prices are cost-based, a
fundamental principle any airport charging scheme should adhere to as per ICAO guidance (refer
to Doc 9082/6). Further, what this concept appears to assume is that air carriers do not incur
delay costs. The fact is that air carriers incur significant delay costs, including the cost of extra
fuel burn, catering, hotel accommodation for inconvenienced passengers, etc.
Peak period pricing — Peak period pricing schemes contemplate imposing fees based on the
higher costs an airport incurs to accommodate peak hour demand, and lower fees based on the
cost an airport does not incur during less busy periods. Such a charging scheme should inherently
be revenue-neutral, however this has not been demonstrated where such schemes have been
in place. Due to difficulties associated with cost identification and allocation, airports have not
been able to identify with any great level of accuracy what their costs are at different times of
the day.
These supposed ‘demand-altering’ pricing schemes could only have an effect if operators had full
control over their demand patterns. This is not the case. An airline’s scheduling and fleet allocation
decisions are based in large part on the demand for air travel at particular times of the day. An airline
has therefore limited ability to adjust, in an efficient way, to a system of peak/off-peak charging due
to the complex task of scheduling its operations. Scheduling is one of the most difficult tasks an
airline has — trying to optimize aircraft utilization within the constraints of airport curfews, increasing
environmental restrictions, crew availability, and many other factors.
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Peak charges have therefore only increased the cost for those air carriers operating during the peak
periods and raises concerns of equity and discrimination. Furthermore, at most (congested) airports
it has become impossible to differentiate between peak and off-peak hours of the day — peak hours
could well constitute the entire operating day making it impossible to implement a peak period pricing
scheme. Experience has shown that where peak/off-peak charges have existed, it has not had a
significant effect on the distribution of traffic from peak periods to off-peak periods. The result has
been that, while a few airports around the world have introduced peak/off-peak charging schemes,
others have abandoned them. ICAO has similarly concluded, on the basis of a survey it conducted
in preparation for the Conference on the Economics of Airports and Air Navigation Services (ANSConf
2000), that “...peak pricing has proved to be of limited effectiveness for capacity management.” It is
for these reasons that IATA has strongly opposed any such system of peak/off-peak charging.
IATA objects to any system of peak period pricing, a scheme that arbitrarily
redistributes costs between different users. An airline faced with peak period
charges has no real opportunity to adjust to such a pricing scheme in an efficient
way due mainly to the limited flexibility it has in the scheduling of its operations.
It is clear that the three previously mentioned market-based options will have the effect of increasing
air carrier operating costs. Since air carrier demand for airport capacity is in fact derived demand,
the question is whether air carriers operating in a competitive market can effectively pass on the
increased operating cost to the ultimate consumer of air transportation services, and thus, influence
his/her behavior.
While the demand profile of a business passenger is relatively inelastic to that of a leisure passenger,
the air travel market has also demonstrated that it has a voracious appetite for cheaper fares. This
has been the basis for success of the low cost carrier and any attempt by certain carriers to raise
fares is not met with similar fare increases by other carriers. It is a known fact that airfares reflect
what an individual passenger is willing to pay and not a certain margin over an airline’s costs —
effective market segmentation and the law of supply and demand dictates airfares. Thus, what
these market-based approaches would accomplish is an increase in airline operating cost, with little
opportunity of recovering this cost through the fare structure.
Flat fees— A flat fee that would recover total airfield costs through a higher average fee, or alternatively,
a high minimum charge, has proven to be more effective in moving aircraft of a certain lower weight-
class from congested airports to secondary, reliever airports. This was confirmed as a result of the
same ICAO survey noted above. However, such a pricing scheme obviously results in limiting airport
access to a certain group of users and raises concerns of equal access.
Attempts to alter current average cost charging schemes with the introduction of market-based options
should consider capacity costs as joint costs to all airport users. All airport users benefit jointly from
the availability of an airport — it has not been developed for any single user group. All users contribute
their fair share of the joint costs. An average cost pricing regime, as employed in general practice,
is therefore considered to be the most fair, transparent and equitable charging regime. Market-based
options and any other demand-management mechanisms will distort the equity principle, inevitably
treating airport users differently, while not really addressing what is essentially a supply-side capacity
problem. Strategic, long-term airport development planning is therefore key to solving the capacity
problem.
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D 4 .5 C O N S U L T A T IO N W IT H U S E R S
Consultation is the cornerstone to a meaningful relationship between an airport and its user community.
The ICAO Council, in its Policies on Charges for Airports and Air Navigation Services, has recognized
this. The underlying philosophy of the consultative process is transparency of information and the
rational of decisions. The goal of consultation should be to reach consensus between the participants,
and this requires a spirit of openness and understanding from both sides. The timely provision by
the airport of financial information, including projections, and forecasts of future traffic activity, together
with other relevant supplementary data or information should serve as a prerequisite for a meaningful
consultative process. On their part, airlines should provide medium-to-long-term scheduling
information to an airport.
The ICAO Policies on Charges do state that failing agreement on charges issues, an airport would
be free to impose new or revised charges. While it is recognized that agreement cannot always be
achieved, decisions made by an airport on the imposition of charges should take into account airline
views and concerns. In the case where airline views are not acted on, the reasons for this should be
explained. In case of disagreement, and failing reasonable explanation, users should have the right
of referral to the competent regulatory authority.
Where significant new or revised charges are being contemplated, consultation should take place
well in advance, i.e. 4-6 months prior to implementation, and may require several meetings before a
final decision is made. It is important to note that consultation is a process and not an event where
a decision already made is merely announced and subsequently implemented. The airport should
seek comments on a proposal, take these comments into consideration and eventually come to an
informed decision. Ideally, a proposal should be framed as a number of possible options or scenarios.
I____ —I
r ™ — — ‘ -------------------------------1
60-day consi tation period
The benefit to the airlines of a meaningful consultation process is that they get to know what they
are paying for and have their opinions heard. The benefit to the airport is that it will implement changes
to their charging scheme based on a well-informed decision.
D 4 .6 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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o Non-discriminator]/ —- any discount or rebate offered must be available to all operators under
the same conditions.
® Are time-limited.
• Should be published.
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D5.1 A IR P O R T B E N C H M A R K IN G D A T A
The purpose and objective of this section is to provide a series of broad, indicative construction costs
for the primary facility components of an airport campus.
The given costs are drawn from historic data compiled from major aviation projects, undertaken in
both the UK and internationally. All costs have been reconciled to 4th quarter 2003 rates for the UK
construction market.
The given costs relate to new build construction work in an environment that is not excessively
affected by operational restrictions and logistical constraints. Such constraints can generate significant
additional costs — typically issues such as imposed phasing of the works, abnormal working hours,
operational safety and security requirements and working in an airside environment.
The main driver of construction cost levels for passenger buildings tends to be relate to prescribed
passenger service levels and the envisaged passenger experience. A ‘budget style’ regional airport
can easily cost less than 50% of the £/m2 rate of a high profile international facility.
There is a massive difference in the cost of constructing ‘identical’ facilities across the globe. We
have provided a conversion schedule for global adjustment from the given UK construction cost levels.
The adjusting factors take cognisance of labour costs, material costs, specifications and industry
standards.
F o u rth Q u a rte r 2 0 0 3
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Notes:
• These cost ranges relate to construction work in the South East of England in 4th Quarter 2003;
• The costs relate to new-build construction work in an environment which is not excessively affected
by operational restrictions and logistical constraints;
• GFA denotes Gross Floor Area.
• For international comparison, these costs (which represent 100%) should be adjusted in
accordance with the attached International Cost Factors identified within clause D5.1.1.
Africa Algeria 55
Africa Cameroon 67
Africa Chad 66
Africa Cote d’Ivoire 71
Africa Gabon 67
Africa Gambia 74
Africa Ghana 80
Africa Nigeria 65
Africa Senegal 67
Africa South Africa 26
Africa Zambia 45
Asia Brunei 40
Asia China 56
Asia Hong Kong 72
Asia India 19
Asia Indonesia 47
Asia Japan 110
Asia Malaysia 29
Asia Philippines 37
Asia Singapore 59
Asia South Korea 66
Asia Sri Lanka 21
Asia Taiwan 62
Asia Thailand 43
Asia Vietnam 47
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Europe Austria 80
Europe Belgium 84
Europe Cyprus 46
Europe Czech Rep 51
Europe Finland 80
Europe France 80
Europe Germany 72
Europe Greece 51
Europe Ireland 96
Europe Italy 73
Europe Netherlands 79
Europe Poland 56
Europe Portugal 52
Europe Romania 30
Europe Slovak Rep 33
Europe Spain 60
Europe Switzerland 89
N America Canada 56
N America USA 65
Oceania Australia 54
Oceania New Zealand 51
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• The factors relate to the materials, specifications and standards that are normal in the country
and this should be fully understood and appreciated when comparing costs;
® Factors relate to national averages and regional variations will apply. Construction costs in primary
cities will typically be approximately 20% above the national average.
D 5 .2 SATA R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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C h a p te r E — E n v iro n m e n ta l Is s u e s
Section E1: Main issues
E1.1 Introduction ................. ........... ..................... .............................................. . 137
E1.2 Environmental ManagementPlan ......................... ........... . 138
E1.3 IATA Recommendations .............................. .......... .................................... . 140
S ection E2: Social and P olitical C onsiderations
E2.1 Introduction ................................................. ......... ............................................. 141
E2.2 The Importance of Partnerships ................... .......... ...................................... 141
E2.3 Sustainable Development ........ ......... .......... ............................................... 142
E2.4 Airport Stakeholder Partnerships and Initiatives ... ....................... ............... 143
E2.5 IATA Recommendations...... ............................... ......................... ............... 144
Section E3: Noise
E3.1 Introduction ........................................ ......... .................. ..................... ........... . 146
E3.2 Aircraft Noise ........ ............... ..................... ......... ......... ......... .................... . 146
E3.3 IATA Recommendations ................................................................................. 151
Section E4: E m issions
E4.1 Introduction .......... ................. ....... ................... ................................................ 152
E4.2 Airport Emissions from Aircraft ................. ........ ...... ................................ 152
E4.3 IATA Recommendations ................. ......... ............................................... ...... 154
S ection E5: W aste Management
E5.1 General ................. .................................. ............................ ................... . 155
E5.2 Waste Treatment ......... ................................... ............................................ 156
E5.3 IATA Recom m endations...... ................... ........... ....................................... . 156
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BATA
The air transport industry is committed to meeting its customers’ growing demands in a sustainable
manner, thereby maintaining an optimal balance between economic progress, social development
and environmental responsibility. This means balancing the needs of passengers, society, the
economy and the environment, as well as making the best use of existing facilities while addressing
the challenge of new developments.
In delivering these benefits, air transport has had less of an impact on the world’s environment than
most people realise. Indeed, by continually improving its fuel efficiency, reducing noise and introducing
new, more sustainable technologies, airtransport has been able to reduce or contain its environmental
impact:
• Carbon dioxide (C 02) emissions: Continuous improvements in aircraft engine technology have
reduced C 0 2 emissions per passenger-kilometre (pkm) by 70% since the advent of the first jets
in the 1960s, to the extent that the fuel consumption of most modern aircraft does not exceed
3.5 litres per 100 pkm. Industry research efforts are aiming to achieve a further 50% reduction
in C 0 2 emissions for equipment entering service in 2020.
• Nitrogen oxide (NOx) and other emissions: Improved fuel efficiency has also meant that other
emissions (such as carbon monoxide, hydro-carbons and smoke) have come down by some
90% or more. The higher temperatures required to achieve these improvements have, however,
prevented similar progress from being achieved in the reduction of NOx emissions, which have
implications for both local air quality and climate change. Ambitious research goals in the European
Union and elsewhere are targeting a reduction of NOx emissions of future aircraft by 70% within
10 years, and by 80% within 25 years.
• Noise: Today’s aircraft are typically 75% quieter at take-off or landing than the first jets in the
1960s. Research efforts are targeting a further 30% reduction within 10 years and a 50% reduction
by 2020.
• Land use: Air transport generally uses less land than other transport modes. For example, per
passenger-kilometre, air transport uses less than 1% of the land required for the entire transport
network in the European Union.
In spite of these achievements, and the technological progress that lays ahead, the continuous and
growing demand for air travel tends to increase air transport’s absolute contribution to climate change.
Aviation emissions presently account for some 3.5% of man’s contribution to global warming and
could grow to 5% in 2050, according to the most probable scenario as identified by the IPCC1.
Such trends sharpen the public focus on aviation’s environmental performance. At the local level,
noise and increases in NOx emissions are the main obstacle to airport development. At the global
level, C 0 2 emissions and greenhouse effects at cruising altitude represent the main challenge for the
air transport industry in the coming years. This illustrates why some politicians and NGOs, especially
in Europe, consider managing growth through capacity constraints and taxation.
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E 1 .2 E N V IR O N M E N T A L M A N A G E M E N T P L A N
Airports are increasingly being held to account for their energy use, emissions and effects on the
environment, and many are introducing efficiency measures in the context of planning. An
environmental management plan is the first step for airports seeking to implement environmental
improvements, as it provides the framework for an airport’s environmental management activities.
The purpose of such a plan is to ensure that activities undertaken at the airport are carried out in an
environmentally-responsible manner; ensuring compliance with applicable laws, regulations and best
management practices, as well as with respect for community and public concerns.
The following are environmental considerations to be taken into account when developing a new
airport or an environmental management plan:
Airport design: The design of an airport is important, since each airport and its corresponding
infrastructure is designed for specific passenger or aircraft movement capacities. Legislation and
airport slot allocation subsequently control that capacity. The scope for environmental
improvement at an airport is determined by its physical layout in terms of the terminal and airport
buildings, facilities, taxiways, runways and their associated infrastructure.
For example, the provision of high-speed aircraft exits shortens aircraft taxiing time, and thereby
helps to prevent ground congestion — while the provision of fixed electrical ground power (FEGP)
and ground power units (GPUs) at gates and maintenance areas helps to reduce noise and
emissions. Rail access to airports can help take cars off the road, thereby reducing local emissions
and improving the environmental balance.
Ecology and natural habitat: Airports are often located in greenbelt areas. They therefore have
a role to play in the preservation and enhancement of the biodiversity of their surrounding areas
by maintaining and restoring these habitats and creating new ones where they have been
damaged. This could include, for example, involving local schools in a tree-planting scheme, or
complementing local authorities’ work in the local community.
Emissions: Managing local emissions involves both technical and operational changes relating
mainly to road vehicles and to aircraft operations at, and close to, the airport. Solutions can
include:
® Modifying road access to the airport to minimise congestion, or to provide dedicated public
transport routes.
• Discouraging private vehicle use through the construction of remote or centralised car parks.
• Encouraging greater use of public transport, providing electric charging stations for vehicles,
etc.
Energy consumption: Energy reductions within airports can be achieved in a variety of ways,
including technical improvements and raising staff and business partner awareness through
environmental campaigns. The former can include:
® The removal of older, outdated equipment in buildings and its replacement with new energy-
efficient technology.
• Energy conservation efforts assisted by automated systems for controlling heating, lighting
(with high yield bulbs or daylight sensitive lighting devices).
• The provision of FEGP and GPUs, so that the use of auxiliary power units (APUs) can be
minimised.
• Alternative heating methods in buildings can be used, such as the use of geothermal energy,
incineration of non-recyclable goods, solar power and heating from water used to cool inflight
simulator air conditioning units.
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Global climate change: Airports can work to reduce energy and ground fleet fuel consumption
that has a beneficial effect on C 0 2 and other emissions affecting climate change. Airports can
also influence the sources and types of energy and fuel, design for lower consumption, and
manage their use and storage of ozone depleting substances. For example, all CFC equipment
at airports can be removed and replaced by more modern equipment.
Noise: Managing and finding solutions to aircraft and ground noise is an important priority for
airports. Addressing aircraft noise requires working in partnership with airlines, air traffic control,
aircraft and engine manufacturers, national governments, international organisations and the local
community. Voluntary agreements with partners can be successful, as can developing technical
and operational measures to improve the noise environment (such as installing effective noise
measuring instruments).
Managing ground noise involves technical improvements to equipment. This can include: the
provision of fixed servicing equipment, which avoids the use of aircraft auxiliary power units and
ground power units, and; management instructions and controls to ensure that correct use is
made of equipment and that construction activities do not produce excessive noise. It can also
include the construction of special ‘noise suppression facilities’ used for engine ground running and
engine testing; and the construction of ‘sound walls’ to reduce noise disturbance for neighbouring
communities.
Land-use planning and zoning, land acquisition, noise protection or insulation programmes also
help to optimise the benefits from quieter aircraft, and to prevent the unnecessary encroachment
of residential development into noise sensitive airport areas.
Land use planning and management: Noise nuisance from overflight, take-off or landing is
primarily due to the absence of adequate land-use planning and management in and around
airports. In many countries, land-use planning and zoning is the responsibility of national, regional
and local municipalities. Each airport has its own geographical, political, economic and historical
characteristics and there is no single land-use planning and management approach. Compatible
land-use planning and management helps to minimise noise impact around airports and to
safeguard traffic growth.
Landscaping: Landscaping can improve the quality of the environment for people who work at,
travel to, or live near an airport. It can also play a role in integrating the airport into the surrounding
community if partnerships are developed with local communities, local authorities, environmental
charities and land owners.
Materials: Particular care must be taken over the management and treatment of hazardous waste
and chemicals. Environmentally hazardous materials like toxic chemicals, heavy metals, etc.
should, where possible, be replaced by more responsible alternatives.
Water quality: Water quality management and the avoidance of water contamination can be
achieved in a number of ways. Large infrastructure projects can be developed that protect local
watercourses from flood and pollution. Staff awareness and training programmes are important
to prevent careless behaviour and accidents, and clear instructions and controls can ensure that
potential contaminants are properly disposed of and that drainage systems are used correctly.
To monitor contamination levels, soil and water quality testing is recommended at servicing and
maintenance sites. To reduce the risk of water contamination, aircraft should be washed and de-
iced in specially-designed enclosed areas.
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Waste management: Solutions io waste management must generally involve the airport’s
business partners, since many airports handle waste on behalf of airlines, retailers and tenants.
These partners need to be encouraged to reduce waste generation and to recycle where it is
operationally practical. Other measures for consideration are how the recycled material and waste
is disposed of after collection — as well as specialised training and awareness programmes to
minimise the risk of air, ground and water contamination from fuel, chemical waste, dangerous
materials and oil spills.
E 1 .3 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
Particular attention should be given to the design of rapid exit taxiways, which should be designed
in accordance with ICAO Annex 14 clause 3.8. Particular attention should be observed to the
requirements of Figure 3-2, Rapid Exit Taxiway.
The airport operator and all its business partners should collectively work together to ensure
operational efficiency o f the airport by developing specific energy efficiency targets.
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E2.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N
Airports worldwide must be ready to handle current and future demand. However, many are
increasingly operating at full capacity. As a result, traffic must be transferred to neighbouring secondary
airports to free up capacity, new runways and terminals must be built, or brand new airport sites must
be found.
When a new airport is planned or a major expansion envisaged, it is important to consider not only
what effect the change will have on the airport within its boundaries, but also to consider what the
impact will be on the surrounding community. Airports can satisfactorily be integrated into the local
community fabric if due care is taken. For example, studies into private and public road traffic generated
by airport activities (e.g. passengers, cargo, staff, etc.) must be undertaken and the surrounding road
network designed to minimise negative effects on residential areas. Indeed, it is recognised that the
negative effects (noise and pollution) of airport road traffic are often worse than the more known
adverse effects of aircraft traffic.
The implementation of new airport projects is becoming more and more difficult despite the fact that
the lack of airport capacity is now identified as the main obstacle to future air transport growth. This
is mainly because of growing opposition from local residents surrounding airports, as well as pressure
groups that force governments to introduce complex approval procedures. As a result, air transport
capacity lags behind demand, thereby increasing congestion and delays, energy use, costs and
emissions, as well as undermining consumer satisfaction.
Conflicting situations when developing an airport are quite often the consequence of a lack of proper
land-use planning and management. Governments and local municipalities have the responsibility to
prevent residential areas from being built around airports to avoid future problem — despite the
attraction to new residents of good communications and other facilities. A delicate balance must
therefore be found between the interests of those affected by increased air traffic, the related effects
on the environment, and the recognised and quantifiable benefits that an airport brings to a region
in terms of economic wealth and employment.
Long-term planning, management and careful advocacy are required by airports to ensure that they
are able to secure capacity and meet demand through safe and sustainable growth. Furthermore,
airports should be prepared to work in partnership with other stakeholders to find solutions to the
unavoidable environmental constraints they face.
E 2 .2 T H E IM P O R T A N C E O F P A R T N E R S H IP S
Given that air transport is one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy, the challenge for the
entire industry, and for airports in particular, is to ensure that aviation grows in a sustainable manner
with a proper balance between economic, environmental and social considerations (see E2.3
Sustainable Development).
Environmental issues arising from airtransport growth are multi-faceted and complex. For this reason,
joint participation in decision-making is essential, as it helps to resolve local, regional and global
trade-off situations. Solutions are most likely to be found through coordinated action and partnerships
between as many relevant stakeholders as possible. Stakeholders in the air transport sector are
diverse and include manufacturers, airlines, airport operators, air navigation services providers,
governments, civil society (neighbouring associations and NGOs), architects, planners and research
organisations.
A variety of partnerships can be formed between these stakeholders to address different issues at
different levels. The following are some examples:
® Local partnerships with communities around airports in order to further reduce environmental
impacts and to better distribute air transport’s socio-economic benefits (in terms of employment,
creation of commercial activities, cultural sponsorships, etc.).
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• Regional partnerships with other transport modes in order to develop seamless intermodal
solutions, in particular between rail and air. Dedicated rail links can greatly facilitate ground access
to airports and also reduce road traffic emissions, while the complementary and coordinated
operations of short haul flights and high speed trains leads to the most rational use of existing
facilities.
• Global partnerships with other industries in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions on a
global scale. Open emissions trading schemes among industries have been identified by ICAO
as a potential long-term solution for aviation, subject to further assessment.
® Universal partnerships for development in order to improve transport accessibility and mobility
in the developing world. Air transport is indispensable for the development of tourism and trade,
which play a fundamental role in eradicating poverty.
By combining the complementary skills of different stakeholders and eliminating duplication of effort
through partnerships, substantial results can be achieved that will enable aviation to grow in a
sustainable manner.
E 2 .3 S U S T A IN A B L E D E V E L O P M E N T
The issue of sustainable development is gathering growing social and political importance amongst
airports, airlines and governments that are conscious of the need to respond to this major public
issue. In modern society we all face the sustainability challenge that requires maintaining a proper
balance between economic growth, social progress and environmental responsibility — the three
pillars of sustainability.
The air transport industry is a good example of an industry that provides a valuable and unique
contribution to the sustainable development of our global society. It includes efficient and affordable
access to markets — thereby improving living standards and fostering economic growth — which, in
turn, alleviates poverty and results in less environmental degradation and a more sustainable world.
Sustainable development policies require that airports conduct their operations and undertake
development in ways that “...meet the need of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs1”. This means that, for example, airport capacity cannot be
defined solely in technical terms, and must take into account the need for environmental and social
acceptance of airport infrastructure and operating decisions.
Airports today, therefore, must plan for the future and take account of their sustainable development
opportunities and challenges rather than proceeding with unchecked capacity expansion.
The ‘three pillars of sustainability’ apply to airports in different ways, as outlined below. Airports should
make sustainable development a high priority and assume a leadership role in its promotion and
integration into airport policies, programmes and operations.
E 2.3.1 S o c ia l S u s ta in a b ility
Social sustainability:
• Recognises direct impacts on daily quality of life: Air transport is a key ingredient in the
quality of life of many people — accordingly, air transport policies have a direct effect on people
and must take into account the characteristics of different communities and regions.
® Underlines the importance of protecting safety and health: Air transport systems must be
designed and operated in a way that protects people’s safety — which implies a commitment to
prevent accidents and to reduce any negative health and safety impacts of air transport.
1 Definition of sustainable development according to the World Commission on Environment and Development, Brundtland Report, 1987.
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• Promotes greater access and choice: Air transport should provide people with a reasonable
means of access to other places, goods and services — which implies the promotion of improved
and diversified air services, including additional frequencies and routes, improved services, more
diversified air carriers, etc.
E 2 .3 .2 E c o n o m ic S u s ta in a b ility
Economic Sustainability:
• Recognises the need for an air transport industry that is as efficient as possible to support
the national economy — which implies that airport policies, programmes and practices should
be innovative to support the economy and industry’s efficiency and competitiveness.
• Recognises the need for an air transport industry that is affordable for the movement of
people and goods — which implies that airport policies, programmes and practices should seek
innovative financing and implement cost-effective solutions that will ensure that airport facilities
and services are affordable.
• Recognises the need for an air transport industry that is priced to reflect the full costs
and benefits of facilities and services provided to users and society.
E 2 .3 .3 E n v iro n m e n ta l S u s ta in a b ility
Environmental Sustainability:
• Recognises the importance of protecting and conserving natural resources — which implies
that airports must apply sound environmental and conservation practices, and that airport
development must make efficient use of land, water, energy and other natural resources, and
preserve vital natural habitats, maintain biodiversity and repair damage.
• Recognises the importance of preventing noise, emissions and pollution before it occurs
— which implies that airports should work to ensure that the industry’s needs are met in a way
that avoids or minimises pollutants and waste; and reduces the overall risk to human health,
global warming and the environment.
• Recognises the importance for airport management that is led by example and
environmental stewardship — which implies that airports should continually refine their
environmental management systems so that internal operational practices support sustainable
development. Furthermore, airports should consider the potential environmental impacts of new
undertakings, and apply risk management and due diligence practices to their real property assets.
A new impetus to sustainability was provided at the United Nations’ 2002 World Summit on Sustainable
Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg, promoting corporate responsibility and accountability
as well as public-private partnerships. Working together with governments, other stakeholders, and
representatives of civil society is essential in order that sustainable development can be achieved
via good governance, best practice and voluntary agreements at local, regional and global levels.
E 2 .4 A IR P O R T S T A K E H O L D E R P A R T N E R S H IP S A N D IN IT IA T IV E S
The sustainability debate at the local level is the most important one for airports, since preserving
good relations with the local resident population — in order to maintain their acceptance — directly
impacts upon airport and airline development.
Airports produce positive effects to the surrounding community in terms of increased employment
and increased economic activity. If well integrated, airports can contribute to the healthy growth of
their surrounding communities. It is very important for the very survival of an airport within an area
that the positive aspects be highlighted and made publicly known; e.g. advantages that would otherwise
not exist without the presence of the airport.
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The partnerships that are of most importance to airports, therefore, are those addressing local level
concerns; e.g. partnerships between airports, local communities, NGOs and other interest groups.
Local level concerns can include, for example, public concerns regarding the environment (local air
emissions and noise), a desire to further reduce environmental impacts, or a better distribution of air
transport’s socio-economic benefits to surrounding communities (in terms of employment, creation
of commercial activities, cultural sponsorships, etc.).
In order to improve the local communities acceptance, several airports have launched specific
initiatives to address this issue, especially in Europe where in recent years sensitivity to noise and
emissions has increased. The following are some examples of typical local-level solutions to local-
level concerns:
• Compensation schemes: these involve generating jobs and implementing new fund-raising
mechanisms (for example via airport and related air transport revenues) to provide compensation
to neighbouring communities around airports.
® Land use management and planning: the airport operator should be given the means to
“neutralise” enough land in order to protect the airport from new residents who would be likely
to complain about noise.
• Improving rail connections to airports: access to airports by road increases local pollution.
Airport operators should explore improving their rail connections.
• Developing community initiatives: airports can provide support to local cultural and sporting
events, facilitate sponsorship opportunities, provide scholarships for local children, provide funding
for local educational projects, etc.
E 2 .5 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
Airport operators and their direct business partners should work together to share airport services
in an effort to ensure that airport equipment usage, space and efficiency is maximised. A good
example is the use of airport ground transport vehicles. These vehicles can often be shared,
and initiatives and business relationships should be developed to allow airlines and ground
handling agents to do so.
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i Airports and their primary business partners should be looking to work in partnership to optimise
I the airport operation, in order that when true capacity expansion is required it can be provided.
It should be noted that this course of action is also good commercial sense for the airport and
all of its users.
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E3.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N
Noise annoyance is a subjective matter and can be considered to have only a local impact on the
community surrounding an airport. Aircraft movements such as landings, takeoffs and taxiing, as well
as ground handling activities, contribute to the airport’s environmental noise impact. Efforts to reduce
and mitigate the airport’s overall noise impact should be managed and implemented in a balanced
way by considering and evaluating all available measures.
E 3 .2 A IR C R A F T N O IS E
The development of suitable ICAO standards and recommended practices (SARPS) is important to the
aviation industry as it assures and maintains consistency in manufacturers’ and carriers’ requirements
around the world.
International noise standards for the certification of subsonic jet aeroplanes were first introduced by
ICAO in 1969 and published as Volume I of Annex 16 to the Chicago Convention. The Chapter 2
standard was complemented in 1976 by the introduction of a more severe Chapter 3 standard. A
new Chapter 4 standard was adopted in 2001 for application to new aircraft types as from 2006.
Moreover, the ICAO Assembly agreed to give individual States the right to introduce the progressive
phase out of Chapter 2 aircraft between 1995 and 2002.
As with emissions, ICAO’s international certification regime for aircraft noise has brought about
significant improvements in the noise performance of aircraft through the progressive tightening of
standards. Since the 1970s, noise from aircraft has come down by at least 75% and industry continues
to look for further reduction.
It is internationally recognised that for noise management purposes, the noise surrounding an airport
should be assessed based on “objective, measurable criteria and other relevant factors1.” The results
of this assessment should be handled in a manner that takes into account the methodology of the
Balanced Approach for noise management at airports.
Airports experiencing noise problems may levy noise related airport charges. Such charges should
be based upon the aircraft certificated noise performance and should not recover more than the costs
for noise mitigation and prevention measures. The application of noise-related charges should follow
the specific principles developed by ICAO and contained in the ICAO’s Policies on Charges for
Airports and Air Navigation Services (Doc 9082), paragraph 30.
E 3.2.1 N o is e M a n a g e m e n t
The ICAO Balanced Approach concept provides airports with an agreed methodology to be used to
address and manage aircraft noise problems at individual airports in an environmentally responsive
and economically responsible way.
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Reduction of noise at the source is not limited to the development of new standards, or new, quieter
aircraft types. It can also be achieved as a result of technological improvement during the life cycle
of an aircraft type. Furthermore, by taking into account the pace of fleet modernisation and its
integration by the operators at an airport, it will result in improving the overall noise performance of
the fleet at that airport. The noise performance trend and fleet mix operating at an airport need
therefore to be considered in any noise assessment.
Land use planning and management aims to direct incompatible land use such as housing, schools
and hospitals away from the airport environs, and to encourage compatible land use such as industrial
and commercial development.
The problem of noise in the vicinity of airports can only be solved by pursuing all possible means for
its alleviation, and the benefits which can be derived from proper land use planning can contribute
materially to the solution. Efforts to correct situations detrimental to proper land use around airports
cannot be ignored simply because of the time required for such measures to be effective. This is
particularly appropriate to applications of land use planning to existing airports, where it is recognized
that the ability to make immediate land-use changes is limited, but where it is also important to prevent
additional encroachment of incompatible land uses as aircraft source noise decreases and noise
contours retreat closer to the airport boundary.
There are substantial benefits to be gained from the correct application of land use planning techniques
to the development of new airports. The value to be derived from proper land use planning and
management should not be underestimated and it is believed that more attention should be paid to
this useful tool.
Proper zoning of the airport environs is essential if encroachment is to be minimised and environmental
benefits maintained. Close coordination is required with local and regional authorities, as zoning does
not normally fall under the competence of the airport. Zoning will be subject to the noise index selected
by the airport, the noise contours developed and projected, and the number of people affected by
noise.
Available land use planning and management measures can be categorized as:
(a) Planning instruments: comprehensive planning; noise zoning; subdivision regulations; transfer of
development rights; and easement acquisition.
(b) Mitigating instruments: building codes; noise insulation programs; land acquisition and relocation;
transaction assistance; real estate disclosure; and noise barriers.
(c) Financial instruments: capital improvements; tax incentives; and noise related airport charges.
1 Aircraft mass is normally the maximum take-off weight (MTOW) for the aircraft however there are occasions where the maximum landing
weight (MLW) could be used
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Noise abatement operational procedures, both in-flight and on the ground, authorities should aim
to minimise the number of people affected by noise by reducing the level of perceived noise at
particular locations around an airport. These procedures can be used to optimize the noise contour
(according to the population distribution around the airport) by changing the shape and size of the
contours.
Safety remains the highest priority in aviation, and besides the use of approved noise abatement
operational procedures, airports must ensure that the necessary safety of flight is maintained by
considering all factors that might affect a particular operation. These include, but are not limited to,
weather, topography, runway conditions, available navigation aids, etc.
Where a noise problem has been confirmed, the available noise abatement operational procedures
can include, but are not limited to, the use of the following, provided it is consistent with the advice
provided in ICAO PANS OPS1:
When selecting procedures it should be noted that environmental benefits may vary due to the
potential variation in noise distribution as a result of the type of procedure used. This may result in
generating new problems elsewhere, especially if complementary measures are not taken to safeguard
environmental gains. It is essential therefore that the stakeholders — airports, airlines, air navigation
service providers and local communities — are in agreement with the noise objectives and resulting
procedures.
Operating restrictions are defined as any noise-related action that limits or reduces an aircraft’s
access to an airport. On assessing the identified noise problem at the airport, operating restrictions
may be part of a set of measures to be implemented to mitigate the noise problem. However, before
implementing or updating operating restrictions, the possible benefits to be gained from other measures
should be fully considered. The competent authority should ensure that any operating restrictions be
adopted only where such action is supported by a prior assessment of anticipated benefits and of
possible adverse impacts.
It is recognised that operating restrictions can improve the noise climate in the short term as they
lead to the limitation or prohibition of movements of the noisiest aircraft at an airport. However, in
order not to offset the benefits gained through operating restrictions, additional preventive measures,
such as land-use management measures, should be taken at the same time. This combination of
measures is the condition to durably improve the noise climate around an airport. Indeed, these
measures will be ineffective if lack of land-use planning and management measures enable urban
encroachment to continue as operating restrictions improve the noise climate.
As for other measures, operating restrictions should be assessed in a coherent and objective manner
with respect to the basic principles of transparency, cost-effectiveness, non-discrimination, and
avoidance of competitive distortion. Particular attention should be given to the potential impact on
current and future airline fleets. International policies and guidelines must be respected; i.e. ICAO
Assembly Resolution A33-7, which contains the unanimous agreement by States not to introduce
any operating restrictions aimed at the withdrawal of aircraft that comply with the noise standards in
Volume I, Chapter 4 of Annex 16.
1 See ICAO document titled, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, Aircraft Operations, Volume 1, Part V (ICAO Doc 8168)
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Operating restrictions can be partial, global or progressive and may be classified in two categories:
(a) Restrictions of traffic such as night curfews, or a cap on movements or noise energy.
(b) Restrictions on the use of aircraft with a particular noise, technical, or performance characteristic.
Ground Measures, although covered under the principal elements of the Balanced Approach, are
generally considered and implemented separately. They can include, but are not limited to, the
following measures:
(a) Limitation of engine ground running.
E 3 .2 .2 N o is e A s s e s s m e n t
The noise assessment should identify the level of noise from the airport to which the nearby community
is exposed. Whether a noise ‘problem’ exists depends on whether noise is worsening based on the
particular standard that the airport and/or the competent authority in which it resides currently employ.
The noise-related standard, or noise objective that is meant to be achieved, should be identified and
defined before the assessment is to begin. The baseline is the noise situation currently experienced
by the community surrounding the airport and projected into defined points in the future, taking into
account existing plans without revising current mitigation measures or providing additional measures.
If the baseline noise situation does not meet the noise objective that has been identified, a noise
problem may be determined to exist. Under the balanced approach program, in such a case, possible
new or revised noise mitigation measures under the elements of the balanced approach — sometimes
referred to as ‘action scenarios’ —■ would be considered.
To determine whether any such measure under an ‘action scenario’ might improve the noise situation,
the competent authority or airport undertaking the assessment would compare the baseline noise
situation with the noise situation that would occur were the new or revised measures adopted.
In light of the many factors contributing to the noise situation at a particular airport, methods to
measure the noise from single aircraft events or single points in time are not considered to describe
the noise situation at an airport. Instead, a noise index or equivalent parameter, comprised of
aggregated noise information, often is recommended. Although a calculated noise index for a particular
airport is a means of reflecting noise information, by itself it is not considered sufficient to describe
the noise situation at the airport. Usually one would want to place the information from the calculated
noise index into a larger context, so that the exposure of people to significant levels of noise may be
assessed over a given time period (preferably at least one year). One way of determining the potential
effect of noise on the surrounding community and assessing noise exposure changes over time is
to identify ‘noise contours’.
A noise contour is defined in ICAO Circular 2051as “a line of constant value of a noise index around
an airport, due to the noise of a traffic mix of aeroplanes under normal operating conditions and using
normal flight paths.” Essentially, a contour is a mapping of the noise exposure around the airport
using the chosen noise index. By comparing contours over time, under the ‘baseline’ and ‘action’
scenarios, the noise situation around the airport can be assessed.
1 ICAO Circular 2054, “Recommended Method for Computing Noise Contours Around Airports,” other useful documents for reference on
contours are ECAC Document 29 and SAE A21 Document AIR1845
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Noise M onitoring: Although noise annoyance generally is a subjective matter, it is recognized that
the noise surrounding an airport should be assessed based on objective, measurable criteria and
other relevant factors.
The noise at points on the ground, caused by aircraft flying into and out of a nearby airport, depends
on a number of factors. These include the types of aircraft using the airport, the overall number of
takeoffs and landings, the time of day the aircraft operations occur, the runways that are used, weather
conditions, and airport-specific flight procedures that affect the noise produced. Single, point-in-time
noise measurements cannot be expected to represent the overall noise situation at an airport. Instead,
noise monitoring and/or noise modelling may be necessary.
To the extent noise monitoring is used, it should be undertaken over time to reflect noise at the airport
under different conditions. A one-year monitoring period would be expected to provide noise data
that is representative of the periodicity of the traffic schedule, operational characteristics such as
payload changes, and meteorological data. The noise monitoring equipment should be capable of
capturing noise from aircraft alone, or a method should be employed for screening out non-aircraft
noise. Placement of noise monitors at different distances can identify noise energy in different areas
around the airport. However their placement should not be nearer to the airport than as defined for
noise certification in order to ensure at least proper measurement at the three-certification points.
Identification and Assessm ent of Measures: When identifying the noise problem at an airport and
analyzing the various measures available to reduce noise through the exploration of the four principal
elements of the Balanced Approach (noise reduction at source, land-use planning and management,
noise abatement operational procedures and operating restrictions), the goal is to address the noise
problem using objective criteria in the most cost-effective manner.
On implementing the concept of the balanced approach to noise management, particular attention
shall be given to the principal elements and the analytical and methodological tools that might be
needed to assess and compare those elements. Steps taken by airports to address local noise issues
should be consistent with the principal elements and ensure that the relationship between them —
in particular in the area of noise and emission trade-offs, the impact of short term versus long term
solutions, as well as local versus regional solutions — are fully addressed.
Environmental benefits (in terms of reduction of numbers of inhabitants severely affected by noise)
associated to the measures considered should then be compared to their respective cost of
implementation through the use of the cost-effectiveness analysis methodology. The measures will
be ranked both by potential environmental benefits and cost of implementation. For each measure
this will enable the definition of a unit cost per inhabitant that will not be further affected by noise in
the future.
This process will provide stakeholders with an assessment of benefits and costs associated with
each of the measures being considered. The appropriate measure, or a combination of appropriate
measures, should then be chosen from among the measures assessed, in consideration of the
objectives set forth at the beginning of the process.
Transparent Process: When developing or updating a noise mitigation program there is a need for
a transparent process which will include, but is not necessarily limited to, the following:
(a) Assessment of the noise situation including the evolution of the problem and expected
improvements resulting from current measures and fleet renewal.
(d) Provision for consultation on key aspects, including the assessment of the problem, the potential
impact of measures, and proposals for action.
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E 3 .3 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
. _ _ _ . _ _ _ _
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E4.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N
Airport emissions affect the environment in a variety of ways, most of them on a local scale. Aircraft
landings and takeoffs, taxiing, ground handling, maintenance, power generation, office buildings and
road traffic at and around the airport all contribute to the airport’s environmental footprint. Efforts to
reduce the airport’s overall impact should, therefore, ideally address all sources in a balanced way.
E 4 .2 A IR P O R T E M IS S IO N S F R O M A IR C R A F T
In the immediate vicinity of airports, aircraft emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) unburned hydrocarbons
(HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM, including visible smoke) contribute to local
air quality concerns. The effects on local air quality of other minor trace species such as sulphur
dioxide (S02), hydroxyl radicals (OH), nitrous and nitric acids, and chemi-ions are negligible and
mostly poorly understood. In spite of the relatively low levels, airport emissions are increasingly linked
to respiratory health problems among the local population.
As with noise, ICAO’s international certification regime for aircraft emissions has brought about
significant improvements in the emissions performance of aircraft through the progressive tightening
of standards. Since the 1960s, emissions of HC, CO and smoke from aircraft have come down by
at least 90%, to the extent that further mitigating efforts are no longer seen as a priority by regulators.
The combustion conditions required to achieve these reductions as well as noise reductions have,
however, led to a simultaneous increase in NOx emissions.
International emission standards for the certification of turbo-jet and turbo-fan engines were first
introduced by ICAO in June 1981, and published as Volume II of Annex 16 to the Chicago Convention.
The ICAO standard-setting process is important to the industry because it maintains consistency in
manufacturers’ and carriers’ requirements around the world. In 1993 ICAO subsequently increased
the NOx stringency limit by 20% (effective 1995) and by another 16% in 1999 (effective 2004). ICAO’s
Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP) is currently evaluating the potential for a
further increase in NOx stringency for new engines.
Additional reductions in aircraft NOx emissions require careful development and deployment of more
complex and more expensive combustor designs. Major industry research programmes focus on NOx
reductions of 70% for future aircraft within 10 years, and 80% within 25 years. These efforts will help
to meet new NOx standards in the future, such as the European Union limits regarding NOx emissions
around Community airports, expected to come into force in 2010.
Besides the continuous introduction of new engine technologies in their fleets (like, for example,
the DAC engine), airlines further minimise ground level emissions through a variety of operational
techniques, such as one-engine taxiing, being towed instead of taxiing, minimal APU-use, pilot shut
down of engines during ground delays, and delayed engine start.
As a consequence of the steadily growing number of aircraft movements at airports around the world,
authorities are, however, increasingly obliged to respond to local public and political pressures to
curb airport activities. For this reason, local NOx emissions are quickly emerging as a potential
constraint for airport capacity expansion.
IATA considers inappropriate the levying of taxes and charges with the aim to reduce aircraft emissions.
Not only would it appear that such levies are contrary to ICAO policies (e.g. Doc 9082 on airport
and air navigation charges) but studies have also demonstrated the environmental and economic
inefficiency of levies in this area. Instead, local environmental issues could be successfully managed
through a mix of regulation and voluntary measures aimed at encouraging improvements in
environmental performance, seeking the most cost-effective mix of measures.
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Given the multi-source contribution to local air quality around airports, and the fact that aircraft are
not the major contributors, it would seem appropriate that a balanced approach is used to improve
local air quality around airports, using a range of measures and involving all sources. Source-specific
contributions to local emission levels must be accurately measured and monitored in order to separate
aircraft emissions from other sources and to identify the appropriate basis for mitigation goals and
measures in a balanced way.
E 4 .2 .2 R e d u c in g E m is s io n s A ro u n d A irp o rts
Airports can themselves contribute to the reduction of NOx and other emissions by taking a variety
of measures, such as:
• Lighting and heating/cooling of terminals, hangars, parkings, and offices.
• Ground transportation of staff, passengers and cargo to and from terminals and aircraft.
• Clean airport access for passengers, visitors and staff by promoting use of public transport, trains
and other electric vehicles (buses), and even bicycles; encourage employee car-pooling.
• Alternative heating methods such as the use of geothermal energy, incineration of non-recyclable
goods, solar power, and Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plants.
• Energy conservation in office buildings assisted by automated systems for controlling heating,
lighting, and air conditioning.
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E 4 .3 SATA R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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E5.1 GENERAL
The volume of waste in many industrialised countries has considerably increased in recent years,
accompanied by an increase in the volume of materials harmful to the environment. In light of these
developments, airlines and airports regard better waste management as a major concern.
Category 1 — Toxins
Toxins cannot be degraded by the environment naturally and should be treated before release
to ensure that no harmful particulates are retained. Treatment of toxins should be in accordance
with national regulations. Examples of a category 1 waste are aircraft fuel spills which must be
chemically treated before controlled release into the environment, so complying with national and
best practice legislation.
Category 2 — Biodegradable
Biodegradable chemicals and produces can be naturally broken down by the environment and
do not represent a hazard to the environment upon their controlled release. Again, national
regulations on the volume and rate of release should be observed.
Major sources of Category 1 airline and airport waste at an airport include but are not limited to
the following:
• Apron vehicles.
• Air-bridge lubricants.
• Refrigeration plants.
® Flight kitchens.
Major sources of Category 2 airline and airport waste at an airport include but are not limited to
the following:
• Food waste.
E 5.1.1 P re v e n tio n o f W a s te
A detailed understanding of the component parts of the waste cycle is critical to the successful
prevention of waste. Having a total understanding of the composite parts mapped to mechanisms for
reducing the use of first generation materials and the use of recycling initiatives will be essential. All
organisations operating within the airport environment should seek to actively utilise recycled materials
as the primary source of materials rather than as a secondary source of materials.
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Staff and organisations should be made aware of how their individual contributions will aid the plan
to reduce waste, and should be given the necessary tools to achieve the reduction targets. In the
context of staff within the office, paper recycling initiatives should be carried out. Drivers of apron
vehicles should plan their routes to ensure that travel distances and dwell periods on the apron with
engines or electric motors running will be minimised.
Designers should seek in the preliminary stages to produce energy efficient facility designs which
are less dependant on fossil fuel sources for seasonal heating and cooling. Buildings should be
commissioned with thermal imaging cameras to confirm areas of undesirable heat loss giving rise to
excessive consumption of heating fuels or electricity.
Airport operators should seek to reduce energy consumption by employing smart systems on devices
such as escalators, conveyor motors and lighting systems, where power down cycles should be
employed in times of low or non usage.
The separation of waste is essential to reduce it. Therefore a whole network of collecting points
across the airport with different bins for separation is necessary. A management of these collecting
points will be necessary to achieve sustainable results.
Cabin waste originating from international flights must be removed and destroyed in conformity with
local health codes and airport authority regulations. Usually this involves incineration of the cabin
waste in a properly designed facility. Local environmental rules and regulations must be adhered to
with respect to emissions and proper disposal of the residue.
E 5 .3 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
Airport operators should employ energy efficient and monitored electricai systems to ensure
that power management strategies are employed.
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C h a p te r F — A ir p o r t C a p a c ity
Section F1: C apacity and Level o f Service
F1.1 Introduction ................. ......................................... .......................................... 159
F1.2 IATA Recom m endations..... .......................................................................... 160
S ection F2: C apacity D efinitions
F2.1 Capacity Measurement Overview .......... ............. ....... ...................... .......... 161
Section F3: A irp o rt System s
F3.1 Airport Systems Overview .......... ............. ........ .................................... ....... 162
F3.2 IATA R ecom m endations.... ................ ........................ ......... ....................... 164
Section F4: P lanning Schedule
F4.1 Planning Schedule O ve rvie w ........................................ ................................ 165
F4.2 Schedule Input Requirements .......... ......................... ................................. 165
F4.3 IATA Recommendations ... ........................ ........ .................... ........... .......... 165
Section F5: Runway System s
F5.1 Runway Systems O ve rvie w ........................ .................................................. 166
F5.2 Runway C a p a city ............................................. .......................... ................... 166
F5.3 Capacity Calculations ...... ............. ....... ......... .......................................... . 167
F5.4 Runway Movement Simulation ......................................... ............ ....... ....... 169
F5.5 Rules of Thumb .... .................... ................................................ ................. 170
F5.6 IATA Recommendations .................. ...................................................... ...... 170
Section F6: Taxi way
F6.1 Taxiway Overview ................................ ............................................. ............ 171
F6.2 Taxi way Functionality ...... ..................... ......................................................... 171
F6.3 Simulation ....................... ........................................................................... . 172
F6.4 SATA Recommendations ....... ......................... ........................ ..................... . 172
Section F7: A pron
F7.1 Apron Overview ...................................... ........................................................ 173
F7.2 IATA Recommendations ..... ......... ................................................................ 173
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F1.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N
The problem of traffic peaking at airports has been the subject of increasing concern by airlines and
airport operators around the world. This problem is a complex one and has tended to defy easy or
widespread solution. Extreme traffic peaking at airports generates congestion and severe economic
penalties, or delays to aircraft and passengers.
These problems may become even more acute if the timely expansion of airport facilities to
accommodate increasing levels of traffic cannot be undertaken, for whatever reason, but especially
due to environmentally imposed runway/airport curfews. Curfews do not directly affect hourly capacity
computations, but they do affect the total airport capacity. While a principal objective should be to
increase airport capacity to meet increasing demand, in the interim the need to maximize the utilization
of existing airport and airline resources is becoming more critical than ever before. Effectively managing
available airport capacity/demand in such an environment presents a major challenge to airport
operators and airlines alike.
Every reasonable effort should be made by the airlines, airport operators, and involved government
agencies to identify airport capacity limitations and potential congestion problems well before these
problems actually occur. Co-ordinated efforts can then be undertaken to avoid such problems to the
benefit of all concerned, and will require continuing and open communications and cooperation
between all parties involved. Demand/capacity and level-of-service investigations at airports where
congestion exists or is anticipated can be arranged in this type of co-operative climate in order to:
(a) Establish the time, degree and cause of congestion.
(b) Seek to agree on a methodology for determining the capacity of the airport, taking into account
the levels of service to be provided, and compare this with typical peak demand to identify capacity
limitations.
(c) Consider means of removing such limitations in the short term, at a relatively small cost, taking
account of the effect of any related delay factor. It is often possible to increase capacities
significantly through relatively inexpensive changes in procedures or personnel deployment.
(d) Where larger expansion is not possible, consider other temporary expedients, such as minor
construction or lower service levels, pending improvements in capacity in the longer term or a
significant infrastructure expenditure.
(e) Where capacity can only be increased in the longer term or at significant cost, produce estimates
of those measures required to increase appropriate capacity, and consider whether the capacity
should be increased either to a higher level, or to a lower level involving either increased delays
or the adjustment of schedules.
Although various alternative methods of managing demand to match capacity limitations have been
considered in the past, the most satisfactory one is that of schedule co-ordination. Such schedule
adjustments can best be made in an international forum at which airline scheduling experts and
slot coordinators can discuss the changes required at any airport concurrently with their numerous
re percussive effects at other airports.
The purpose of these conferences is to satisfy the objectives of all parties affected by the scheduling
of flights, and to ensure that their requirements are approved by the carriers themselves, acting fairly
and responsibly towards one another, airport operators and government authorities.
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F 1 .2 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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F2.1 C A P A C IT Y M E A S U R E M E N T O V E R V IE W
Capacity measurements vary from one subsystem to another. The term capacity has many definitions,
but it generally makes reference to a limit, when reached or exceeded, which affects an airport’s
operations and level of service.
Capacity is often use to describe the variable measurement of a specific airport system or subsystem’s
throughput, or the system’s capability to accommodate a designated level of demand. Comprehensive
capacity assessments are based on five fundamental measurements, noted in the following sub
headings.
F 2 .1 .1 D y n a m ic C a p a c ity
Dynamic Capacity refers to the maximum processing or flow rate of persons (i.e. occupants) through
a subsystem per unit time. The actual time unit selected as the measurement index (minutes, hours,
etc.) depends on the nature of the operation.
F 2 .1 .2 S ta tic C a p a c ity
Static Capacity is used to describe the storage potential of a facility or area, and is usually expressed
as the number of occupants that a given area will accommodate at any one moment. It is a function
of the total useable space available and the level of service to be provided; i.e., the amount of space
each occupant may occupy. Static capacity standards are stated as square meters per occupant
(m2/occ.) for each level of service.
F 2 .1 .3 S u s ta in e d C a p a c ity
Sustained Capacity is used to describe the overall capacity of a subsystem to accommodate traffic
demand, over a sustained period within the space and time standards of a particular level of service.
It is thus a measure of the combined dynamic and static capacities of the processors, reservoirs and
links. IATA recommends using level of service C to determine the sustainable capacity. The definition
for level of service C is shown in section F9.1.2.
F 2 .1 .4 M a x im u m C a p a c ity
Maximum Capacity refers to the maximum traffic flow which can be achieved for the chosen time
unit only, but not sustained for a longer period, in accordance with safety requirements and regardless
of delay or level of service.
F 2 .1 .5 D e c la re d C a p a c ity
Declared Capacity refers to site specific limiting capacities, in numeric terms, of individual facilities
and resources. These capacities are forwarded to the appropriate bodies to be used in the preparation
of flight schedules.
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F3.1 A IR P O R T S Y S T E M S O V E R V IE W
An airport is more than a large paved area, a set of plans or an architectural concept. An airport
should be seen and planned as a dynamic system that handles the flow of pedestrians, vehicles,
aircraft, baggage, cargo and mail. The passengers, baggage, greeters & well-wishers, vehicles and
aircraft must pass through inter-related systems to be queued, processed and circulated on various
links such as taxi ways, corridors, escalators, etc.
F 3 .1 .1 A ir p o r t F a c ilitie s /S y s te m s
Airport facilities should be planned according to the following principles:
® Airports should be developed to operate in an efficient manner, taking into account the safety of
the users and clients.
• Aircraft flows should be designed to operate with maximum efficiency across the airside sub
systems; i.e. the gate, apron, taxi ways, runways, and airspace.
• Vehicular flows should be designed to provide an efficient and reliable access/egress to the
terminal facilities.
® The passenger terminal building should be designed to provide an efficient and seamless flow
between the landside and airside elements.
« Airports should be designed to offer a balanced flow through the interface points of the system.
9 Each system should be flexible enough to accommodate future requirements in order to maintain
the balance of the overall airport system.
An airport can be subdivided into several main, interrelated systems. The airside network has a larger
space requirement, while the terminal building represents the transfer portion of the overall system
through which passengers move from theirground access modes to the apron, vice versa, or alternately
between flights.
The ground access/terminal building transition point is at the curb, while the apron/terminal building
transition point occurs at the bridge/gate. These transition or interface points between the systems
mark the points where the nature of the flow changes. In the deplaning process, for example, aircraft
flows become pedestrian flows, which then become vehicle flows. It is at these interface points that
the measurement indices of these flows must be converted to the appropriate unit, e.g., aircraft per
hour and vehicles per hour to persons per hour.
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F 3 .1 .2 C a p a c ity B a la n c e
A primary objective of the planning process is to find the correct, balanced capacity and level of
service between facilities, operations, rules & procedures and airline schedules. Balancing capacity
is primarily required to avoid displacing a bottleneck to another critical facility. It often means ensuring
the term inal, gate and apron system s do not limit the runway throughput. Six m ajor system studies
are considered when balancing capacity and determining the reliable throughput of the airport. These
being:
Terminal Airspace
Terminal airspace studies are undertaken to determine when existing capacity and limiting factors
require improvement prior to considering investment in new facilities. The maximum reliable
terminal airspace throughput for landings and departures is determined separately.
Runway/Taxiway
A runway capacity study is undertaken to determine the exiting and maximum reliable runway
capacity. The runway system is a critical component to the overall system, and runway capacity
ultimately determines a given airport’s maximum capacity. Every effort should be made to ensure
that other airport facilities are not limiting runway throughput and performance.
Apron
Simulation is often required to ensure that the apron acts as an effective link between the gate
and the runway systems and does not become a bottleneck.
Gate
The number of stands and aircraft parking positions for different types/sizes of aircraft is calculated
to meet the current and future year requirements up to the ultimate runway capacity. This
information is essential to develop realistic and cost-effective airport concepts.
Passenger Terminal
The number of counters/processors, a building’s reservoir (holding) potential, levels of service,
and requirements by facility or area are calculated for the passenger and greeter/well-wisher
flows for the passenger terminal.
Enplaning passengers must pass through some or all of a series of subsystems, while deplaning
passengers must pass through some or all of a separate series. In some cases, the same
subsystems are used by both flows. Additionally transfer passengers must be considered since
they utilize some of the subsystems of both passenger flows. In the case of ‘hub’ airports, the
volume of transfer passengers may be very significant. Passenger terminals also process baggage
flows. See chapter U for information on baggage handling systems.
Ground Access
The ground access/terminal transition points are the curb or the vehicle parking areas. An airport
road system connected to a regional road network system give access to the various airport
terminal facilities.
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Be capable of use by all airlines and not restricted to individual aircraft loads.
Be sufficiently flexible to permit the establishment of temporary channels which can be used
as by-pass routes by other passengers (e.g., for individual health control processing of a
particular arriving aircraft passenger load) or to permit regulation evolution.
Provide one flow route for departing domestic passengers and one for international
passengers.
One flow route for arriving domestic passengers and one for international passengers.
F 3 .2 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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F4.1 P L A N N IN G S C H E D U L E O V E R V IE W
Determining airport capacity and requirements largely depends on predicting the impact of projected
airline schedules on the various airport facilities. Requirements, capacity and level of service are
based not only on operating conditions and rules, but also upon the particular demand profiles created
by the mix of flights and flight sectors for a typical busy day.
Typical peak period or peak hour demand should be used wherever possible for planning purposes,
rather than annual figures. The typical peak is the maximum level of traffic, lower than the absolute
peak, reached in busy periods of a typical busy day. The second busiest day in the busiest or second
busiest week of normal airport traffic is a good example of a typical ‘peak day’, specifically excluding
peaks associated with, for example, religious or other holiday festivals.
De-seasonalized time series can thus be used to segregate monthly passenger and aircraft movement
data into their major cycle, trend, seasonal and random constituents. It is useful to identify repeatable
peak passenger and aircraft days of the week, distinguishing hard trends from random fluctuations.
Historical peak period statistics such as the 30th busiest hour in the year, the 90th percentile of peak
hour traffic, etc., can be correlated to annual activity to be used in the preliminary planning or with
rules of thumb. Historical peak statistics are, however, not necessarily events related to a typical day
of the week in the peak month, and should be used with that limitation in mind.
F 4 .2 S C H E D U L E IN P U T R E Q U IR E M E N T S
Detailed planning, concept validation, level of service assessment, facility optimization and design
studies should be conducted with site-specific planning schedules as a key input. Baseline planning
schedule(s) by cargo and passenger traffic sector should be developed and adapted from actual
schedules to reflect the existing and future fleet mix and route structure.
Planning schedules should reflect the basic traffic characteristics of the users of the systems being
studied. A passenger flow study would typically require more information than a runway capacity
study, including:
• Airline flown.
• Aircraft type.
• Aircraft ID.
F 4 .3 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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F5.1 R U N W A Y S Y S T E M S O V E R V IE W
The fundamental capacity constraint of any airport lies in the runway system. Runway capacity puts
a natural limit on the expansion capability of any airport and very careful consideration needs to be
given to identifying and eliminating factors affecting the reliable maximum aircraft flow that can be
processed by runways. Every attempt should be made to ensure that the other critical systems, such
as the gates and the terminals, are ultimately in balance with the maximum runway throughput. An
imbalance between runway capacity and gate capacity results in significant aircraft delays and reduces
the airport’s sustainable capacity. Delays and throughput are the main runway performance indicators.
F 5 .2 R U N W A Y C A P A C IT Y
Runway capacity is defined as the hourly rate of aircraft operations (departures, arrivals or both, as
indicated) which can reasonably be expected to be accommodated by a runway or combination of
runways, under specified local conditions.
TMA and runway capacity largely depends upon speed, runway occupancy time, the approach and
departure spacing between successive aircraft, and the design of the airspace. The mode of operation
is another important variable. Delays (including where and why they occur) determined by aircraft
flow simulation are a primary indicator of level of service, and demonstrate that capacity is being
reached or exceeded for a given system for a given baseline schedule.
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F 5 .3 C A P A C IT Y C A L C U L A T IO N S
It is recommended to get the most out of the existing runway system by improving operations before
considering investing in new facilities. Maximum runway capacity should be determined assuming
the best practices, proper facilities and equipment, good weather conditions (IFR VMC), and with the
fleet mix for a typical busy day. Runway capacity calculations require carefully observing the actual
traffic schedule at an airport, particularly during typical peak periods.
F5.3.1 W a k e T u rb u le n c e
Wake turbulence is used to describe the effect of rotating air masses generated behind wing tips of
jet aircraft which can affect aircraft operating behind them. Heavier aircraft generate more wake
turbulence. It is difficult to control an aircraft too close to a leading aircraft, which is why separation
minima are recommended. Small aircraft are more affected than heavier aircraft.
Aircraft separation is a critical factor in determining runway capacity. The successful implementation
of proper procedures, equipment and facilities which can result in reduced separation is an effective
way to increase runway capacity. ICAO wake turbulence separation minima are based on aircraft
mass. Table F5.1 shows basic provisions governing wake turbulence in use.
Wake turbulence minima separation also applies to departures. A minima separation of 120 seconds
is required following a heavy aircraft take-off. All other categories required a 60 second separation.
F 5 .3 .2 R u n w a y O c c u p a n c y T im e
A succeeding aircraft can’t touch down until the preceding aircraft clears the runway. Well-positioned
exit taxi ways ensure that the time an aircraft physically spends on a runway is kept to a minimum.
A minimum runway occupancy time of 50-55 seconds is sought-after. The spacing between successive
aircraft is increased and runway capacity decreased if the 50-second objective can’t be achieved.
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F 5 .3 .3 A T C P ro c e d u re s a n d E q u ip m e n t
The performance of radar equipment and ATC limitations sometimes impose a separation greater
than the minima shown in Table F5.1. These limitations should be dealt with prior to considering
investing in new runways.
F 5 .3 .4 T h e M ix o f A irc ra ft
As shown in Table F5.1, separation between aircraft depends on the aircraft category. Therefore, the
mix of successive aircraft operating will have an impact on the overall separation and the runway
capacity. For example, an airport operating with a majority of medium size aircraft will have an average
arrival separation of 3NM. The same airport serving a mix of small, medium and heavy aircraft will
have a separation of 3 to 6NM, depending on the sequence of arrivals, and will have a significantly
reduced runway capacity.
F 5 .3 .5 T h e M ix o f A rriv a ls a n d D e p a rtu re s
An airport is part of a network and has a mix of arrivals and departures during the day. Aircraft that
land at an airport will eventually take-off. The distribution of arrivals and departures has an impact
on runway capacity. ATC not only needs to consider separation between successive arrivals and
successive departures, but also gaps between arrivals preceded or followed by departures.
F 5 .3 .6 T h e M ix e d o r S e g re g a te d M o d e
Airports with two or more runways sometimes dedicate runways to departures and runways to arrivals.
However, the arrival and departure peaks rarely coincide, and the separation between successive
arrivals and successive departures are different. This results in gaps on one runway when another
is at capacity; in these situations mixing arrivals and departures as if operating with a single runway
can increase capacity.
F 5 .3 .7 R u n w a y C o n fig u ra tio n
Parallel runways with adequate spacing (1035 m or more) can process independent arrivals. Interaction
between runways is a constraint that limits capacity when the distance between runways does not
meet the minimum distance requirement or runways intersect. Independent parallel runways are
recommended for that reason.
The layout of an airport and the runway configuration is another factor having an impact on aircraft
delays and airport capacity. An airport requiring significant crossing of an active runway to get to or
from a gate will experience more delays than an airport with a terminal concept minimising runway
crossing.
F 5 .3 .8 P re c is io n R u n w a y M o n ito r (F A A )
The PRM is a surveillance radar that updates essential aircraft target information 4 to 5 times more
often than conventional radar equipment. PRM also predicts the aircraft track and provides alarms
when an aircraft is within ten seconds of penetrating the non-transgression zone. Use of the PRM
allows air traffic controllers to ensure safe separation of aircraft on the parallel approach courses and
maintain an efficient rate of aircraft landings during adverse weather conditions. In December 2001,
the FAA determined that the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) may be operated
in the resolution advisory (RA) mode when conducting a PRM approach.
The FAA has commissioned PRMs at Minneapolis and St. Louis, and at Philadelphia International
Airport in September 2001. PRM’s were scheduled for commissioning at San Francisco and John F.
Kennedy in late-2002, Cleveland in late-2004, and Atlanta in 2006, coincident with the completion of
the fifth parallel runway. The FAA has also approved procedures using a PRM to allow simultaneous
instrument approaches in adverse weather.
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F 5 .4 R U N W A Y M O V E M E N T S IM U L A T IO N
Simulations are strongly recommended to determine the runway capacity before and after proposed
improvements, procedures and rules are implemented. Delays (including where and why they occur)
are a primary indicator of level of service and that capacity is being reached or exceeded.
Simulation models, such as Total AirportSim developed by IATA, are effective to predict the impact
of projected airline schedules on the various airport facilities. They can be used to identify the nature,
location and degree of congestion and to measure delays. Care must be exercised in the provision
of accurate data and it must be recognized that operation of such software should be entrusted to
highly skilled and experienced operators who fully understand airport operations.
The sustainable runway throughput at airports not currently at capacity is calculated by increasing
the daily demand until the runway system is saturated, and by assuming the same hourly distribution
of traffic and fleet mix. Unlimited gate supply should be assumed.
Figure F5.1 shows an example where departure delays are greater than the arrival delays. Departure
is therefore the limiting factor.
a>
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3
O m Departures
x
0
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1
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Figure F5.2 shows the excessive queuing associated with peak departure demand exceeding
departure capacity. The number of aircraft queuing increases rapidly when runway capacity is reached
and typically takes a long time to dissipate.
F 5 .5 RULES OF THUM B
IATA proposes the following rules of thumb based on the ICAO departure and landing wake vortex
separation and assuming a runway occupancy time of 50 seconds or less.
F 5 .6 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
r , :
F5.IR1 Runway Simulation
The simulation of runway movements is recommended as defined within the ADRM Clause
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I AT A Airport Capacity
F6.1 T A X IW A Y O V E R V IE W
Taxi ways provide the necessary link between various parts of the airport, including to the gate/apron
and the runway system. As such, the individual elements constitute a network serving access and
aircraft movement functions.
Figure F6.1 shows schematically the basic functions served. The taxiways should be designed
(dimensions) according ICAO Annex 14 requirements for the future critical aircraft to operate at the
airport.
Access to Cargo
F 6 .2 T A X IW A Y F U N C T IO N A L IT Y
The taxiway system should be designed so as to optimise runway throughput. Implementation of
taxiway functionality such as Rapid Exit Taxiways (RETs), parallel taxiways and departing multiple
queuing taxiways improve the system capacity.
RET vacate landing aircraft from the runway. They are designed to minimize runway occupancy time
and therefore create the necessary conditions to optimise runway utilization, since a succeeding
aircraft can’t touch down until the preceding aircraft clears the runway. They can provide the necessary
conditions for High Intensity Runway Operation (HIRO), minimizing the occurrence of ‘go-around’
and enabling departures in-between continuous in-coming traffic in mixed mode operation. The number
and location of RETs depends on the aircraft fleet mix, the distance from the threshold to touchdown,
the aircraft speed at touchdown, the initial exit speed and the rate of deceleration.
De-icing pads are an integral part of taxiway systems at many airports. It is important to design and
locate de-icing pads to accommodate the peak demand and to match the maximum runway throughput
in bad weather conditions.
Space should be reserved at new facilities for two parallel taxiways designed to accommodate a code
F aircraft. Taxiways designed for queuing multiple departing aircrafts are recommended to maximize
runway throughput and minimize delays by allowing sequencing or re-sequencing of aircraft.
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F 6 .3 S IM U L A T IO N
Runways and taxiways are inter-related systems. The runway simulations described in section F5
should include the taxiways to get from/to the gate or aircraft stand in the model. Figure F6.2 shows
an example of ‘where’ departing taxiing aircraft are delayed from an aircraft flow simulation. Taxiing
distance and delays should be carefully studied considering their significant impact on operation costs
and performance.
F 6 .2 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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I ATA Airport Capacity
F7.1 A P R O N O V E R V IE W
The apron provides direct access to aircraft stands for purposes of loading and unloading passengers,
mail or cargo, or for fuelling, parking or maintenance. An apron’s taxilanes serve two main functions:
(I) The aircraft stand taxi lane, intended to provide access to the aircraft stand only.
(II) Apron taxiways, intended to provide a through route across the apron.
Apron and gate design should reflect the various characteristics and volume of traffic to be handled.
Significant ground delays can be experienced on aprons as they are an aircraft flow merging point
and provide an entry/exit point to aircraft for pushing back and powering up engines. The traffic
volume and characteristics can also change over time.
Single aircraft stand taxilanes giving access to more than 6-8 high-turnover cul-de-sac gates should
be avoided. Apron taxiways providing through taxi routes should be included in the ground aircraft
flow simulation for runway capacity studies in order to avoid displacing a bottleneck to the next link.
An apron aircraft flow simulation, including realistic gate assignment and push-back procedures, is
an effective way to ensure minimal delays and to identify and remove potential and existing bottlenecks
(see figure F6.2).
F 7 .2 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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Some schedules, particularly long-haul flights, require that aircraft remain for several hours. Home-
based aircraft are likely to remain at their stands overnight, however the majority of flights seek a
rapid turnaround.
There could be a shortage of gates either (i) because of demand exceeds capacity (ii) because there
is a higher than expected large aircraft demand or (iii) because aircraft remain in occupancy for an
extended number of hours or because of the current operations and rules applied. This highlights
that the key aspects of stand availability are:
® The availability of these stands as influenced by occupancy times (possibly ranging from less
than an hour to in excess of 6 hours).
C 130 20 10 15 25 45
D 250 30 15 30 45 75
E
1 DOOR 350 40 25 45 45 110
2 DOORS 350 25 15 45 45 85
F
1 DOOR 470 55 30 80 60 165
n
(*) IA T A Recommends two doors wherever possible for Code F aircraft. (**) A third door reduces the
turnaround time by only 10-15 minutes to a total of approximately 115 minutes. The boarding and
deboarding processing times are no longer in the critical path. The catering process is on the critical
path because of the high number of trolleys to be loaded and off-loaded.
F 8 .3 IM P R O V E D S T A N D C A P A C IT Y
Possibilities for flexible use of aircraft operational stands (e.g. two small aircraft on one large aircraft
stand) should be kept in mind when assessing the maximum capability of a layout. The parking
configuration adopted, for example nose-in versus self manoeuvring, may not impact on stand capacity
but could have a significant impact upon the apron capacity. Availability of facilities such as hydrant
refuelling, loading bridges etc., which help to reduce congestion, should also be considered.
Gate (contact) stands have a significant impact on the quality of service to users because they provide
for more rapid and comfortable handling of passengers, avoiding the need for buses and enabling
better turnaround times.
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® List of all contact gates and stands by range of aircraft accommodated and sectors accepted/
preferred.
® Policy regarding exclusive and/or preferential use.
0 Operational parameters, such as the buffer time between flights using the same gate (either on
a gate by gate basis or globally), minimum tow-on and tow-off time by aircraft, and minimum
ground time before an aircraft is considered a candidate for towing.
Gate assignment study results (i.e. the number of gates by class of aircraft and by sector) and gate
utilization can be shown in a Gantt chart.
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IATA Airport Capacity
F 8 .5 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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F9.1 P A S S E N G E R T E R M IN A L D E S IG N : IN T R O D U C T IO N
Terminal design and level of service should reflect the various characteristics and volume of
passengers and baggage to be handled. Managing terminal capacity and designing with level of
service in mind are key requirements in the development of competitive airports, and have long-term
financial and operational implications for passenger facilities. Once a terminal is built, its size and
features tend to be effectively permanent unless major additional investments are made with
commensurate financial commitments.
Planners and decision-makers must keep in mind that passengers visit an airport for one primary
reason: to catch a flight. Passengers’ expectations and needs should be at the very heart of the
planning process. The mark of a successful airport is its natural and unobstructed passenger flow
between objectives, easy navigation through the terminal, simplicity and cost-effectiveness.
Unfortunately, terminals are not always designed to take passenger attitudes and user needs into
consideration. This is partly related to how decisions are made. Too often, a maquette or elaborate
3-D drawings presenting the basic aesthetic approach or ‘look’ are presented to the selection
committee, and a given design will be chosen before airport specialists and operations consultants
can properly appraise it for effectiveness and efficiency. Changes to the chosen concept then tend
to be resisted and compromises only reluctantly considered. The result is often new terminals without
the required capacity and with an expensive juxtaposition of subsystems that leave users with a
disappointing passenger experience.
F 9 .1 .1 P a s s e n g e r C h a ra c te ris tic s
Different flight segments have different characteristics and needs. The amount of individual passenger
space required for comfort and adequate level of service is examined from the point of view of
changing passenger behaviours and perceptions. The space standards developed in the 1970’s,
for example, are currently being expanded to reflect newer segmented passenger behaviour and
characteristics.
Changes like these affect design attributes such as how much more queuing space might be required
for passengers who use luggage carts and tend to carry a certain amount of luggage (this varies
depending on their passenger segment). Demand always exceeds capacity at some point, and
providing space for the formation of a queue is part of terminal design. A fundamental question is:
How much space is required to offer an economical level of comfort?
The answer should go beyond the study of operations research specialists and should be done with
passengers behaviour and expectations in mind. Passengers are one source of uncertainty and thus
of fluctuation not only in demand but in capacity as well. Queuing phenomena at check-in counters
is a good example of this. The arrival pattern may change from flight to flight and from day to day.
The time to process passengers also fluctuates and is not entirely under the control of the agent.
Different passenger segments have different characteristics and needs. Space standards for a short-
haul flight with passengers with carry-on luggage only (e.g. business class flyers) should be different
than for a flight mostly with passengers on a two-week trip checking in two or three pieces of luggage
piled on a cart.
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BATA Airport Capacity
STANDARD
PEDESTRIAN
PEDESTRIAN WITH
ONE PIECE OF
LUGGAGE
170 mm
PEDESTRIAN WITH
TWO PIECES OF
LUGGAGE
F 9 .1 .2 L e v e l o f S e rv ic e
Level of service can be considered as a range of values, or as assessments of the ability of supply
to meet demand. To allow comparison among the various systems and subsystems of the airport
and to reflect the dynamic nature of demand upon a facility, a range of level of service measures
from A through to F may be used, similar to the standard employed in highway traffic engineering.
The evaluation criteria and actual standards for each subsystem are developed separately.
A — An Excellent level of service. Conditions of free flow, no delays and excellent levels of
comfort.
B — High level of service. Conditions of stable flow, very few delays and high levels of comfort.
C — Good level of service. Conditions of stable flow, acceptable delays and good levels of
comfort.
D — Adequate level of service. Conditions of unstable flow, acceptable delays for short periods
of time and adequate levels of comfort.
E — Inadequate level of service. Conditions of unstable flow, unacceptable delays and
inadequate levels of comfort.
F — Unacceptable level of service. Conditions of cross-flows, system breakdowns and
unacceptable delays; an unacceptable level of comfort.
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Since the traffic demand at each airport is dynamic and varies according to such factors as schedule,
flight sector, and aircraft size and load factor, the level of sen/ice measures must reflect these dynamic
aspects. In this sense, the nature of the traffic demand plays an important role in affecting the level
of service experienced by a passenger.
On the supply side there are various systems and services which comprise the airport complex. Level
of service space can be considered as a range of values, or as an assessment of the ability of supply
to meet demand, and combines both qualitative and quantitative measures of relative comfort and
convenience.
The framework of level of service measures permits comparison between often unrelated subsystems
within the airport complex. This aids management in the evaluation of airport components through
the use of common terminology. It is much easier to describe level of service in this manner and to
achieve capacity balance.
Level of Service C is recommended as the minimum design objective, as it denotes good service at
a reasonable cost. Level of service A is seen as having no upper bound. The total number of
passengers in an area provided for queuing tends to be fairly constant for any given flight. The space
per occupant when the queue overflows is seen by IATA as the frontier between level of service C
and D. Passengers manage to avoid experiencing a level of service lower than C unless forced to.
Passengers queuing in corridors that are sharing space with passengers walking through can however
experience a lower level of service.
F 9 .1 .3 C h e c k -In Q u e u e A re a
The area around the check-in facility should be large enough to accommodate passengers’ friends
without interference with the check-in process. Otherwise, the layout of the passenger check-in section
of the building should permit the separation of passengers from their friends at this point.
IATA recommends using four different sets of space standards at check-in, unless site-specific
standards are available. The classification is based on the characteristics described in the table below.
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IATA Airport Capacity
F 9 .2 P A S S E N G E R B E H A V IO U R
Many factors, such as passenger behaviour patterns, cultural backgrounds, psychological
requirements and passenger comfort can affect the space required in relation to the occupancy time.
Passengers don’t necessarily use all the space available to them at certain key points in the terminal
process, and they manage to secure a good level of space comfort even under congested conditions,
unless they are prevented to do so by a physical constraint or the threat to lose their priority in the
queue. Figure F9.1 and F9.2 illustrate that point for 8 economy-class counters served by a single
queue.
to5
ft Dtffl_a*
In their attempt to maintain a comfort zone, passengers do not use all the space available for queuing.
The number of passengers divided by the total area for queuing may represent a level of service
better than C but in reality passengers occupy the space for a good level of comfort and experience
a space level of service C.
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Figure F9.2 (below) shows the situation when the system is congested. The passengers waiting in
the queuing space area do not squeeze in, thereby lowering their level of service, to make space for
the passengers waiting behind in the corridor. Instead, the queue tends to overflow. This behaviour
is consistent with research showing that humans tend to maintain a buffer zone to prevent the chance
of intimate contact.
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IATA Airport Capacity
The peak demand load and the level of service C standards are translated into recommended planning
dimensions. As shown in figure F9.5, IATA recommends a 24 to 26 meter separation between adjacent
islands (32 — 34 meters per module) to provide 2.5 meters for processing and circulating in front of
the desk, 7.5 to 8.5 meters for queuing and 4 meters for circulation and passenger queue overflow.
Twenty-four (24) meters provides enough space for a maximum queuing time of roughly 30 to 35
minutes for the case 1, 2 and 3 of table F9.2. Twenty-six (26) meters provides the flexibility to process
heavy flights, or is required when the maximum queuing time exceeds 30 — 35 minutes on a regular
basis. More than 26 meters may be considered after a comprehensive demand/capacity study is
conducted to reflect site-specific particularities. Twenty-two (22) meters is sufficient at airports with
maximum queuing time of 30 minutes or less and for case 1 and 2 (see Table F9.2).
y i y y y y i y y y
..ProcessingJÏÎ.Ç!LCjrcuJating
Queuing
E
m
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Greater distances can be accepted provided a form of mechanical assistance is made readily available
to passengers. Such systems are costly and therefore a full cost/benefit analysis is necessary before
installation. In all terminals where progressive expansion must incorporate a people-mover system,
due provision for the necessary right-of-way and other related factors must be included in the original
planning.
If passengers are required to change levels when walking, escalators or moving ramps should be
provided, at least in the upward direction. Passengers should not be required to move baggage other
than hand baggage between levels. Experience has shown that the use of elevators to enable
passengers, other than disabled passengers, to change levels is not satisfactory from a capacity
point of view.
Pedestrians adapt their walking speed to the environment based on the following variables:
• The presence of searching or standing pedestrians obstructing the natural one-way flow.
Table F9.3 shows the space and speed for level of service C in various wait/circulate areas of the
passenger terminal.
-w-
0
m :-
2 I2 I2 I2 I2 I2 I i i
o
L = MAX#Q x 0.9 / #PCD L = Max#Q x LOS Standard / W
Where: Where:
MAX#Q is the maximum number of pax queuing MAX#Q is the maximum number of pax queuing
#PCD is the number of passport control desks staffed LOS Standardisée table F9.4
(see sections F9.9.2 and F9.9.5 for details) (see sections F9.9.2 and F9.9.5 for details)
The main criterion for determining the queue length for multiple queue systems is the average distance
between two individuals waiting in the same line (inter-person spacing). The comfort distance varies
from person to person and from culture to culture. IATA recommends using 0.8 to 0.9 metres if site-
specific standards are not available. Less than 0.8 metres is possible, but could conflict with other
passengers or carry-on luggage.
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Space requirements for a single queue at passport control is based on the space standards shown
in table F9.4.
F 9 .4 HOLD ROOM
A distinction should be made between space requirements for standing or seated passengers. 1.7
m2 is assumed for seated passengers and 1.2 m2 for standing passengers. The occupancy rate is
used to measure the level of service.
F 9 .5 T H E L O A D IN G A R E A
The flow of passengers between the terminal building and the aircraft should be smooth and
uncomplicated, with clearly defined flow routes which are safe and operationally acceptable.
Passengers should be able to enter and leave the aircraft without steep changes in floor level and
under protection from weather, blast and noise.
Use of loading bridges is favoured by the airlines where they can be justified by traffic requirements,
commercial strategies and weather conditions. Bridges foster smooth, undirected, embarkation and
disembarkation of passengers. They have proven particularly advantageous with high capacity aircraft.
At airports where loading bridges are not installed, and the aircraft is not parked in front of the exit
from the terminal building, transporters (buses, mobile lounges) should be used to convey passengers
directly between the aircraft and the terminal.
Having groups of passengers conducted across the apron is not encouraged by the airlines, as
passengers are exposed to the effects of weather and aircraft blast or noise. However in the case
of small commuter aircraft which are unable to use loading bridges, or where the latter are unavailable,
to minimise danger it is essential that passenger movement on the apron be constrained to clearly
marked walkways with a minimum number of access points onto the apron, and that such movement
is always strictly supervised. Passengers proceeding between the aircraft and the terminal building
should never be allowed to walk across apron taxiways.
lATA Airport Capacity
F 9 .6 B A G G A G E C L A IM U N IT
The space around a baggage claim unit serves distinct functions. Figure F9.8 shows a typical layout.
The baggage claim unit frontage provides the required positions or channels for the passenger to
wait and collect their luggage. The retrieval area is effectively the space required for the motion of
retrieving a suitcase. The peripheral area is used; to wait for an opening in the retrieval area; for a
passenger waiting for a spouse or friend to collect their luggage; to park the cart; and to circulate in/
out of the retrieval area.
The retrieval and peripheral area is a roughly 3.5 meter wide band around the unit. This area is used
to measure the level of service for the passengers waiting around the carrousel and the static capacity
(accumulation) of the unit. The capacity is determined by dividing the total area by the level of service
C space standard shown in table F9.6. An 11 to 13 meter separation is recommended to process
passengers, to circulate, and to store carts.
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F 9 .7 L E V E L O F S E R V IC E B A L A N C E
Passenger departure and arrival facilities are often on different levels of the same building. The
building grid/structural design may become a constraint when selecting the module’s dimensions to
achieve level of service C at check-in counters and baggage claim. It is recommended to select the
module’s width or grid to achieve level of service balance with the objective of providing level of
service C at the critical sub-systems. The impact of the building grid on a module’s width is shown
in figure F9.9.
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IATA Airport Capacity
F 9 .8 M A X IM U M Q U E U IN G T IM E
The occupancy patterns in various subsystems change rapidly and thereby affect the space available
to occupants. In addition, the occupancy time for a subsystem can vary, resulting in a change in
comfort. For this reason, time is a significant factor in determining the quality of service and must be
considered as a primary variable in level of service measures. It is very difficult to establish a precise,
quantified relationship between available space, time, and level of service. This may explain why
time is often neglected as a factor of level of service and standards are sometimes set purely to
space requirements.
ICAO has set a goal of 45 minutes for the clearance of arriving passengers, from disembarkation to
exit from the airport, for all passengers requiring not more than normal inspection at international
airports (ICAO Annex 9, ninth edition, recommended practice 6.28). Although this includes time taken
by government inspection services, it provides an indication of an acceptable time framework.
Table F9.7 shows maximum queuing time guidelines. It is however recommended to use site- and
airline-specific standards when available.
F 9 .9 C A P A C IT Y A N D L E V E L O F S E R V IC E A S S E S S M E N T
Capacity and level of service calculation is a key step in the following airport development processes:
7. Construction.
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Unlike the runway, where the laws of physics are used to calculate the capacity, the capacity of a
passenger terminal relates directly to the extent of congestion that will be tolerated. The sustainable
capacity should be based on the level of service C standard for each subsystem for the busiest 10-
minute period of a typical busy day.
Pedestrian flows in the terminal building are comprised of both passengers in the enplaning or
deplaning process, and greeters/well-wishers. Enplaning passengers must pass through some or all
of a series of subsystems, while deplaning passengers must pass through some or all of a separate
series. In some cases the same subsystems are used by both flows. Additionally, transfer passengers
must be considered since they utilize some of the subsystems of both passenger flows. In the case
of hub airports, the volume of transfer passengers may be very significant.
It should be noted that these surges tend to be sector-specific for both enplaning and deplaning
activity. Studies have shown that sector-specific behaviour patterns are generally stable and can
therefore be predicted. In this way, it is possible to calculate the maximum load before causing
saturation.
® Gate assignment.
9 Personnel deployment schedule.
Individual subsystems can either be designed against a given level of service, or evaluated to establish
what level of service is actually being provided at a given time.
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IATA Airport Capacity
F 9 .9 .2 S im u la tio n
When a flight arrives or departs at the terminal building, there is a surge of occupants into the
subsystems. As long as the arrival rate of passengers does not exceed the dynamic capacity of the
various components, there will be minimal delay and queuing. However congestion will occur when
demand is systematically greater than the sustainable capacity, and only simulation can properly
reflect the complex dynamic overflow/saturation interaction.
Airport capacity and level of service problems are usually simple to comprehend but may be difficult
to solve because of the inter-related systems and flows considered. Many tools are available, including
lATA’s Total AirportSim aircraft and passenger flow model, to predict the impact of an airline schedule
on the various airport facilities. The model was developed to reflect lATA’s worldwide experience and
expertise.
Simulation is used to analyse passenger flow throughout the selected planning period to determine
the performance, bottlenecks, level of service, Mean Connection Time (MCTs), total time in the
terminal, etc. Flights are assigned to facilities and the passenger demand pushed or pulled through
the inbound and outbound steps in the terminal according to the planning schedules. Information
regarding passenger arrival patterns, processing rates, discretionary time use, passenger/bag ratio,
rules for system operation such as the level of common check-in, rules for allocation of flights to
chutes/make up belts, and information regarding terminal area allocations are considered.
The first and often the most valuable benefit of conducting a simulation study is that it forces specialists
and management to closely look into the functional and physical passenger flows, into the rules and
procedures to define the causal problems, and to assess the impact on both upstream and downstream
processes to avoid displacing the problem. The maximum reliable throughput, level of service, limiting
factors and requirements of the major processors, reservoirs and links in the passenger paths can
thus be identified.
The terminal arrival and departure systems should be reviewed qualitatively to identify any areas in
which the layout could be negatively impacted by the configuration of facilities, and through simulation
to quantify the capacity of the various elements as well as the system as a whole. Where necessary,
the base year busy schedule can be augmented to represent future demand volumes to push a
concept or design to its limit and to optimise existing facilities.
It is natural to make the basic assumption in the calculations that flow between individual elements
is natural and unobstructed. However, the integrity of the capacity assessment can be compromised
and result usefulness diminished if the assumption is not realistic. Good simulation models, unlike
rules of thumb, do not require the making of such assumptions. Simulation should be able to consider
if the pattern is disrupted by the introduction of any obstruction in the flow, such as ill-conceived
concession locations and passenger cross-flows.
The information usually required to conduct a passenger flow simulation study is:
• Typical busy day schedule including arriving, departing and transfer passenger volumes per
sector of flights.
• Information regarding passenger arrival patterns, processing rates, discretionary time use,
passenger/bag ratio, passenger/visitor ratio, greeter arrival patterns, and transfer passenger
ratios.
A passenger flow simulation model should have the ability to simulate arrival, departure and transfer
passengers simultaneously for simple or complex terminal situations, and to provide realistic results
rapidly. Single or multiple terminals and multiple level terminals should be studied with reference to
entrance to gate (remote or contact), gate to exit including transferring capability, people movers
(trains, buses), corridors, moving walkways and retail activities.
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A graphic interface providing real time editing, simulation, and animation (including speed control) is
an asset. Reports and graphs on time, accumulation, flow, etc., should be built into the model to
provide instant results and an easy way to identify problems and bottlenecks, as well as reducing
the time to develop new ‘what if’ scenarios.
Using simulation tools to design or improve facilities requires expertise knowledge. A multi-disciplinary
team including demand/capacity experts, operations personnel and users is recommended.
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IA T A Airport Capacity
F 9 .1 0 RULES OF THUM B
The methodologies used to conduct capacity and level of service assessments can be more or less
elaborate, depending on the complexity of the system and the problem studied. Mathematical capacity
assessment methods can be employed to determine relevant facility requirements if actual or forecast
throughput figures are known. The capacity assessment of the elements of a terminal building is a
highly complex exercise involving elements such as queuing theory, simulation and statistical analysis,
together with detailed studies of people movement patterns to, within, and between these elements.
Those responsible for initiating a capacity analysis, or for sizing facilities, should carry out the exercise
in as much detail as possible in order to eliminate likely sources of error and bias that can result from
neglecting interaction from and to upstream and downstream systems.
However in some instances it may be necessary to obtain fairly quickly some idea of either the
capacity of an existing facility or the size that a facility needs to be in order to handle a given throughput.
A variety of simplified formulae have been developed for this purpose. The equilibrium between
supply, demand and level of service is expressed in these formulae.
It must be emphasized that such formulae employ many simplifications and approximations and are
not intended as a substitute for the detailed evaluation referred to above. Not all formulae will be
applicable to all airports since not all local factors are included.
Seven demand/capacity equations are proposed; four for departures and three for arrivals. The seven
sub-systems are:
1. Check-in.
2. Passport control departures.
3. Centralised security check.
7. Arrival hall.
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Check-in counters are key facilities with huge footprints and significant impact on level of service,
terminal development costs and operations. The following rule of thumb determines the requirements
for common use check-in counters.
Where:
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Step B: Determine intermediate result, S, which takes into account the MQT using
the following charts:
Where:
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Step C: Calculate the num ber of check-in servers: econom y class, com m on use
during peak period.
#C|Y = S x I
Where:
#CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use.
PTci = Average processing time at check-in in seconds.
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IATA Airport Capacity
Where:
#CI = Number of check-in servers including businessclass counters assuming common use.
#CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use.
#CIJ = Number of business class check-in servers.
Determine the number of check-in counters for a group of airlines processing 2500 peak hour
originating passengers on 10 international flights and a maximum queuing time of 30 minutes. The
hour before the peak hour has 1900 passengers (80% of PHP). The demand in the hour after the
peak period is 1500 passengers (60% of PHP). Most flights have business class passengers
representing about 15% of all passengers. The average processing time is 150 seconds. All check
in facilities are common use.
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MQT 10 |
MQT 20 |
MQT 30 |
i
MQT 40 !
#G|Y = S x g )
#CIY = 31 x p 0 s |m n d s X
#CIY = 38.7 = 39
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Step D: Number of check-in servers including the desks for business class
passengers.
#CI = 39 + 8 = 47
Step C: Calculate the number of maximum number of passengers in queue assuming a single
(bank) queue.
Where:
#CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use.
PTci = Average processing time at check-in in seconds.
%J = % of business class passengers.
Where:
#PCD = Number of passport control desks.
PTpcd = Average processing time at passport control in seconds.
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Where:
MQT Maximum queuing time in minutes.
#PCD Number of passport control desks.
PTpcd Average processing time at passport control in seconds.
Example
#PCD
= 175x©
#PCD = 4.5 = 5 desks
(5 x 5 x 60)
Max # Q =
15
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Where:
#CIY = Number of economy class check-in servers assuming common use.
PTci = Average processing time at check-in in seconds.
%J = % of business class passengers.
Where:
#SC = Number of security servers.
PTsc = Average processing time at security check in seconds.
IA T A Airport Capacity
Max#Q = ( H Q T x ^ x 6 0 )
Where:
MQT = Maximum queuing time in minutes.
#SC = Number of security servers.
PTsc = Average processing time at security check in seconds.
Example
PTqp
-z—r-
600
#sc=180x©
#SC = 3.6 = 4 servers
(3 x 4 x 60)
Max # Q =
12
Max # Q = 60 passengers
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F9.10.4 G a te H o ld R o o m
The Gate hold room space requirement is based on passenger load, the percentage of passengers
seated, and the percentage of passengers standing. The rule of thumb calculates the area required
based on aircraft capacity.
Exampie
Assuming an aircraft capacity of 420 passengers, 80% of the passengers seated and 20% standing.
Note: IA T A does not recommend enclosed single flight holdrooms. IA T A recommends open spaces
allowing shared space between multiple gates. The 80% aircraft capacity expressed within the equation
above should be replaced by the peak accumulation for an open hold room.
IATA Airport Capacity
Where:
S = Intermediate result.
PHP = Terminating peak hour passengers.
MQT = Maximum queuing time.
40
38
3b »MQT5 min
34
3?
4MQT 10 min
30
28
26
24 MQT 20 min
22
CO 20 „ ^ M Q T 30 min
18
16
14
1?
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
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/PTpca\
#PCD = S x
I 20 )
Where:
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BATA Airport Capacity
Max#Q = (MQTX#PCD_X60)
PTpca
Where:
MQT = Maximum queuing time in minutes.
#PCD = Number of passport control desks.
PTpca = Average processing time at passport control arrival in seconds.
Example
Determine the number of passport control desks for 2400 terminating passengers (PHP) on 12 flights
for a maximum queuing time of 10 minutes. The average processing time (PTpca) is 30 seconds.
One flight is a wide-body aircraft with two exiting doors. The total number of exiting door is thereforel 3.
Step A: Determine S.
X = 312
S = 13 (see chart)
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#PCD = S x
#PCD = 1 3 x ( | )
Max#Q = ( M Q T x # p C D x 6 0 )
PTpca
(10x20x60)
“ 1------- 30-------
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IATA Airport Capacity
F9.10.6 N u m b e r o f B a g g a g e C la im U n its
The number of baggage claim units is determined as follows:
Wide-body aircraft
Narrow-body aircraft
Where:
PHP = Peak hour number of terminating passengers, international/domestic transfer
passengers, where applicable.
PWB = Proportion of passengers arriving by wide-body aircraft.
PNB = Proportion of passengers arriving by narrow-body aircraft.
CDW - Average claim device occupancy time per wide-body aircraft (minutes) or assume
45 minutes.
CDN = Average claim device occupancy time per narrow-body aircraft (minutes) or assume
20 minutes.
NWB = Number of passengers per wide-body aircraft at 80% load factor or assume 320
passengers.
NNB = Number of passengers per narrow-body aircraft at 80% load factor or assume 100
passengers.
“Please refer to Chapter U — Baggage Handling Systems — Clause U5.3 for confirmation of
baggage reclaim sizes for wide body and narrow body aircraft.”
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Example
Assume 2375 terminating passengers, 80% of these passengers on wide-body aircraft and 20% on
narrow body aircraft.
Wide-body aircraft
Narrow-body aircraft
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IATA Airport Capacity
Where:
PHP = Peak hour number of terminating passengers.
AOP = Average occupancy time per passenger (minutes) or assume 5 minutes.
AOV = Average occupancy time per visitor (minutes) or assume 30 minutes.
SPP = Space required per person (m2) for level of service C or assume 2.0 m2.
VPP = Number of visitors per passenger.
Example
A = 2080 m2
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F9.11 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
/" " — - —
F9.IR1
Due consideration for passenger expectations, needs, characteristics and behaviour should be
taken into account when planning facifities and determining level of service.
MmlmâBËÊMSiê
FSJR.2
Level of service C should be used as the lower limit to design facilities and to determine the
sustainable capacity for the end of the design year.
F9.IR.3
The level of service A to E framework should be used to balance capacity between unrelated
subsystems.
lg _ ..
FS.HR.4i
lATA’s space and time standards should be used when site-specific standards are not available.
F9JR.5 |
Facilities should be designed with full consideration of the dimensions stipulated in clauses 9.2 \
to 9.5, unless a site-specific comprehensive study shows they can be modified to provide the i
required level of service.
lijlllill ®
Passenger flow simulation as stipulated in clause 9.8.2 should be used to optimise existing
facilities, to validate concepts, and when saturation or interaction between subsystems and \
overflow conditions are expected.
The passenger formulae defined in Clause F9.10 should be used as preliminary calculation
reference.
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F10.1 A IR P O R T C A P A C IT Y A N D T R A F F IC C O N G E S T IO N
The capacity of an airport is dependent on the demand for one or more of its limiting components,
such as the runway system, aircraft parking positions, gates, passenger terminal throughput (e.g.
check-in and baggage delivery) and surface access. Good management of these components will
determine the extent to which the airport can reach its full capacity potential.
The increasing demand for air transport services implies that all facilities at an airport will remain
under constant pressure to expand. The problems associated with expansion are complicated by the
fact that services must be provided to the maximum possible extent at times when the public requires
them. This causes demand peaks in certain seasons of the year, on certain days of the week and
at certain hours of the day.
Without an expansion in capacity or resolution of the problem by other means, an airport becomes
congested at certain times. This occurs when the demand for one or more of its limiting components
exceeds capacity in a certain time period.
To resolve the situation, airports, ATC authorities, governments and the airlines must continually find
the means to develop the capacity of their own elements of the system to satisfy public demand.
Increases in capacity should be undertaken to the point where the cost of doing so becomes
unreasonable, or where political, sociological or environmental factors form insurmountable barriers.
Additionally, all appropriate measures to mitigate congestion by making more efficient use of facilities
should be taken.
Overall, there are relatively few airports where all components of the facility infrastructure are fully
utilised over extended periods of the day. While these airports can generally meet the needs of their
customers, there are others that do not have the facilities or infrastructure to meet demand. Before
embarking on costly ventures to expand capacity, airports need to regularly assess the actual capacity
of the airport, taking into consideration internationally and generally accepted methods. Assessment
of airport capacity can often result in a more effective use of available facilities and resources, which
can be achieved quickly and with minimum cost.
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F 1 0 .2 L E V E L S O F A IR P O R T A C T IV IT Y
While airports will continue to come under pressure to maximise their capacity potential, the aviation
industry must deal with the realities of airport congestion and find ways to minimise its impact.
Depending on the level of activity at airports, certain procedures to ensure acceptance of airline
schedules have been developed to cover various situations.
For the purposes of schedule clearance, there are three broad categories of airports:
Level 1
Those airports whose capacities are adequate enough to meet the demands of users. Such
airports are recognised from a schedule clearance viewpoint as non-coordinated.
Level 2
Airports where the demand is approaching capacity and a more formal level of co-operation is
required to avoid reaching, if at all possible, an over-capacity situation. These airports are referred
to as schedules facilitated.
Level 3
Those airports where demand exceeds capacity during the relevant period and it is impossible
to resolve the problem through voluntary co-operation between airlines, and where after
consultation with all the parties involved there are no possibilities of resolving the serious problems
in the short term. In this scenario, formal procedures need to be implemented at the airport to
allocate available capacity and coordinate schedules. Airports with such high levels of congestion
are referred to as fully coordinated.
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IATA Airport Capacity
F 1 0 .3 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
When after a thorough capacity analysis and full consultation, it is necessary to change the
status from Level 1 to Level 2, the relevant authority should notify all interested parties (airlines,
airport managing body, government, IATA Manager of Scheduling Services) as soon as a
decision is reached to change the status. In any event, that notification in the change of status
should be made no later than April 1 for the next Northern Hemisphere Winter Season and
September 1 for the next Northern Hemisphere Summer Season. A change in status from
Level 1 to Level 2 sh o u ld o n ly be made after a thorough capacity analysis has been
com pleted b y the relevant auth ority a nd there has been fu ll c o n s u lta tio n w ith the airlines, |
g ro u n d handling agents, Im m igration, custom s and the a irp o rt authority.
Level 2 to Level 3
If elements of the airport infrastructure come under pressure from increased traffic levels, or if |
the schedules facilitator is unable to persuade the airlines to adjust their schedules in order to
cope with capacity limitations, the question of changing the activity level of the airport to Level 3
may arise.
In such a situation, the following will apply:
(a) when incumbent airlines representing more than half o f the operations at an airport, and/or
the airport managing body, consider that the capacity is insufficient for actual or planned
operations at certain periods o r
(b) when airlines wishing to operate through the airport for the first time encounter serious
problems in securing acceptable timings at the airport in question o r \
(c) when the government responsible for the airport considers it necessary, \
then the government concerned should ensure that a thorough capacity analysis is carried o u t j
as soon as possible, organised by the airport authority, and taking into consideration recognised
methods for capacity assessment
IS iS liillllllllS Il
The analysis should examine the critical subsystems and consider the practicalities o f removing
capacity constraints through infrastructure or operational changes, with estimates of time and
cost required to resolve the problems.
In the process of this analysis, the government concerned should ensure that airlines, g ro u n d
handling agents, im m igration, custom s and the a irp o rt a uth o rity are consulted on the
capacity situation. If there is no possibility of resolving the problems in the short-term, either
through removal of capacity constraints or by voluntary adjustment of airline schedules, then
the airport concerned should be designated as a fully co-ordinated airport.
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F11.1 C O M P U T A T IO N A L F L U ID D Y N A M IC S : O V E R V IE W
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis can add tremendous value to the design of airport
terminal buildings, where the internal and external environments can be predicted well before the
airport building ever gets built. This can allow the designer to refine designs to optimize the building
performance, safety and energy characteristics.
CFD is extensively used to predict the behavior of fires in or around a building. Fire prediction and
fire spread scenarios can be evaluated to determine the time it takes a fire to reach a critical point
in a building and how long people have to escape a building before heat and smoke takes total
control. It is possible to model the effects of sprinkler systems and their effectiveness using CFD
software. It is also possible to model the effectiveness of fire escape signage and lighting systems
using CFD where it can predict the time it takes for such items to be obscured by smoke.
CFD has been extensively used to model the behavior of CO2 from heating and cooling plants and
the affects of airborne emissions from aircraft engines, in an attempt to fine tune airports to have the
minimal impact on the local community and the environment.
Where advantageous the environmental performance of airport buildings should be evaluated using
CFD software, as it gives an approximation of running costs and extreme condition performance
characteristics of airport terminal buildings.
F 1 1 .2 W H E N T O U S E C F D S O F T W A R E E F F E C T IV E L Y
Figure F11-1 shows a typical medium sized departures hall and the resultant CFD study graphical
output (3D visualization is available) where a fire source has been placed in the airside lounge. CFD
software is used to statistically and graphically represent the behavior of the fire and the 3D spread
of smoke within the terminal. The results have been frozen at a specific time interval sometime after
the start of the fire. As well, a people movement evacuation simulation has been produced and frozen
at the same time interval, and both sets of data have been overlaid. The combined diagram explains
where the smoke would be, its intensity, and what the effectiveness of the size and location of the
emergency exits would be. It is likely these terminal exit variables would be changed to assess the
best evacuation sequence for the terminal. This use of CFD software is recommended for terminal
design.
CFD software can also be used in the following areas of terminal and support infrastructure design.
Please refer to the table below for areas where CFD software can be utilized effectively.
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AIRSiDE
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F 1 1 .3 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
___ ___ — _____ _____ ^ ______
Where it can be demonstrated that CFD studies will provide useful data, which might ultimately
improve the design and operation of the airport facility, then environmental performance of
airport buildings should be evaluated using CFD software.
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IATA
C h a p te r G — A ir p o r t F lig h t O p e r a tio n s Is s u e s
S ection G1: A irc ra ft C haracteristics
G1.1 Planning Parameters ....... ... ........... ....................... ..................... ................ 221
G1.2 Ground Servicing Equipment ................................................................... 232
G1.3 IATA Recommendations ............... .............................................. ............. 233
Section G2: Visual A ids
G2.1 Visual Aids: Introduction .... ............................................................................. 234
G2.2 Facilities and Requirements for Non-Precision Approach and Landing
Operations .................. ................... .......... ............................... ....... ... 234
G2.3 Facitities and Requirements for Precision Approach and Landing
Operations (Cat I) ...................... ..................................................................... 235
G2.4 Additional Facilities and Requirements for Precision Approach and Landing
Operations (Cat II/Ill) .... .................................... ........................................... 236
G2.5 Visual Docking Guidance Systems ................ ........................................ ...... 237
G2.6 IATA Recommendations .......... ........ .................................. ........ ............ ........ 238
S ection G3: Non-Visual A ids
G3.1 General — Non-Visual Aids ....... ......... ..................................................... 239
G3.2 Facilities and Requirements for Non-Precision Approach and Landing
Operations ............ ........... ...... ............ ..................... .................................. ........ ........... ........... 23
G3.3 Facilities and Requirements for Precision Approach and Landing Operations
(Cat I) ..................................... ......... ................................. ................................... 239
G3.4 Additional Facilities and Requirements for Precision Approach and Landing
Operations (Cat I I/I 11) ................................................................................. ........ ........... 241
G3.5 IATA Recommendations .......... ............ ........ .............................. ......... ... 242
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CHAPTER G — AIRPORT FLIGHT OPERATIONS ISSUES
G 1.1 P L A N N IN G P A R A M E T E R S
The layout of the apron and aircraft stands is dependent on many factors, both technical and financial.
With respect to the financial objective of an aircraft stand, it is essential for an airport to be as flexible
as possible so that the stand layout can accommodate the optimum number of foreseeable parked
aircraft combinations.
The planning of the aircraft stand may allow for either dedicated narrow or wide body aircraft.
Alternatively, certain modes of operation may require the stands to be configured to permit the mixing
of wide body and narrow body aircraft on a single Multi Aircraft Ramping1 Stand (MARS) layout. All
layouts must be technically in accordance with ICAO stand and taxiway layout directives as defined
within Annex 14, Part 1.
Figure G1-1: Typical MARS Arrangement Figure G1-2: Comparable Single Stand
It is essential that the airport can provide the necessary number of stand centerlines, and of the
correct type, to accommodate the perceived business forecast and need. To this extent the use of
future flight schedules to assess the ‘on ground, within stand’ times and aircraft types is a necessity.
The mix of parked aircraft on the ground and the perceived forecasted growth all then attribute to
layout requirements. These requirements are then mapped to the technical limitations of the location,
both from an availability of stand area, and to the more technically demanding assessment of soil
mechanics. Community environmental issues will need to be addressed and the impact envelope of
exhaust and noise emissions from aircraft approaching and parking on the stands will all need to
accounted for. Only when all of this information has been analysed can the decision to accommodate
a specific stand geometry be concluded.
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The aircraft apron is part of the terminal complex and is greatly influenced by the choice of terminal
concept. However it must also be considered in relation to the taxiway and runway system. The apron
can be divided into the following aircraft movement areas:
® Aircraft Contact Stands (Terminal gate or remote positions) — The area on the apron designated
for parking of aircraft.
@ Apron Taxi ways — A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to provide
a through taxi route across the apron.
® Apron Service Roads — Routes designated for the movement of service vehicles within the
apron area.
The apron must be planned in relation to the taxiway and runway system, as well as the terminal
buildings, to ensure maximum efficiency, operational safety and allow operational users to provide
cost effective standards of service.
G 1.1.1 G e n e ra l
The airport apron and airside concourse designer should review the following items and factor them
in when embarking on the design of future stand layouts:
® Capital costs.
® International and state safety regulations governing airline and airport operations (e.g. FAA, DfT
and ACI publications).
G 1 .1 .2 A ir c r a ft C h a ra c te ris tic s
For every aircraft type manufactured in the world, the aircraft manufacturer publishes a document
entitled Aircraft Characteristics for Airport Planning. This document, which may be obtained directly
from the respective aircraft manufacturers, contains the minimum aircraft data required for general
airport planning.
The data presented by manufacturers on aircraft manoeuvring represent the maximum capability in
terms of the geometry of each aircraft type. Since airline operational practices vary, it is always
necessary for this information to be modified in consultation with user airlines, in order to determine
values which are appropriate to the planned function of the apron prior to commencement of detailed
design.
The following figures listed within this section show the type of planning material that is readily available
from the Aircraft Characteristics for Airport Planning documents from most aircraft manufacturers:
• Aircraft Characteristics (FIG. G1-3a).
• Aircraft Servicing Arrangement — Typical Turnaround (FIG. G1-4. & FIG G1-5).
• Aircraft Servicing Points (FIG. G1-6).
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Airbus
A300-600 D 54.08 44.84 16.66 231 7700 68200 109.9
A310-300 D 45 55 43 9 15.8 220 9600 75470 79 9
I Boeing
7-200 C 3” £ - 3Q I Co 25-15 i ?fi ■>
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The IATA Ramp Services and Equipment Group has developed the above table of dimensions of
typical aircraft ground handling equipment for use in producing the layout of airport terminal aprons.
Numerous models of each type of ground handling equipment are produced by many manufacturers
in at least a dozen countries. The dimensions provided should be considered as typical of each type
of equipment and should be used as a ‘rule of thumb’ for general airport planning purposes.
Airport Planning Documents published by the aircraft manufacturers give for each model typical
servicing arrangements (in composite drawings) identifying each service vehicle. See FIG. G1-5
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R1 R2 R3 R4
STEERING R5 R6
INNER OUTER NOSE WING
ANGLE NOSE TAIL
GEAR GEAR GEAR TIP
(DEC) FT M FT M FT M FT M FT M FT M
30 122.4 37.3 164.8 50.2 168.8 51.5 253.0 77.1 177.4 54.1 207.4 63.2
35 97.2 29.6 139.6 42.5 147.7 45.0 228.1 69.5 157.7 48.1 186.1 56.7
40 77.6 23.7 120.0 36.6 132.3 40.3 208.8 63.7 143.6 43.8 170.3 51.9
45 61.7 18.8 104.1 31.7 120.7 36.8 193.3 58.9 133.2 40.6 158.0 48.2
50 48.4 14.7 90.8 27.7 111.8 34.1 180.2 54.9 125.3 38.2 148.3 45.2
55 36.8 11.2 79.2 24.2 104.8 32.0 169.0 51.5 119.3 36.4 140.4 42.8
60 26.7 8.1 69.1 21.0 99.5 30.3 169.1 48.5 114.7 35.0 133.9 40.8
65 17.5 5.3 59.9 18.2 95.3 29.0 150.2 45.8 111.1 33.9 128.3 39.1
70 (MAX) 9.0 2.7 51.4 15.7 92.1 28.1 142.0 43.3 108.5 33.1 123.7 37.7
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G 1 .1 .3 F u tu re A ir c r a ft D e v e lo p m e n t D a ta
The introduction of new aircraft types can have a significant effect on apron and stand design and
operations at airports. Please refer to Section L1, Current and Future Aircraft Types, of this document
for further details. For comprehensive details on aircraft manoeuvring and aircraft parking capabilities
please refer to the aircraft manufacturers directly. The implementation of full length of fuselage dual
deck aircraft, such as the ICAO code F rated A380, will have a large impact on the planning
requirements of aprons and of stands layouts. The following table details some of the differences in
size and weight between Boeing and Airbus aircraft.
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The following table is replicated from ICAO Annex 14, Table 3.1, and defines the taxiway minimum
separation distances for the various code letters.
(0 (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (T) (8) (9) (10) 0 0 (12)
C - - 168 - - 93 - 44 26 24.5
Note /. The separation distances shown in columns (2) to (9) represent ordinary combinations o f runways and taxiways. The
basis f o r development o f tim e distances is given in the Aerodrome Design M a n u a l Part 2.
Note 2. The distances in columns {2} to (9} do not guarantee sufficient clearance behind a holding aeroplane to permit the
passing o f (mother aeroplane m a p a ra lle l taxmay, See the Aerodrome Design. M anual, Part 2,
G 1 .2 G R O U N D S E R V IC IN G E Q U IP M E N T
The apron must also provide for the manoeuvring and parking requirements of the various units of
ground equipment employed in connection with aircraft handling and servicing. Please refer to FIG.
G1-6 for a summary listing of the more common ground equipment types and sizes. For more
comprehensive details in this regard please refer to the IATA Airport Handling Manual.
Aircraft ground servicing equipment varies considerably according to the types of aircraft and airline
methods of operations. Ground servicing equipment includes the following:
• Passenger boarding — All the devices used to transfer passengers between the terminal and
aircraft; e.g. airbridges, stairs and transporters.
® Baggage, cargo and mail processing — All equipment used to transport baggage, cargo and
mail between the terminals and aircraft or for loading or unloading at the aircraft. Among the
most widely used are tugs and baggage carts, container and pallet dollies, belt conveyors,
transporters, loaders and trucks.
• Aircraft catering and cleaning — All equipment used to provision the aircraft for passenger in
flight service; e.g. hi-lift catering trucks, lavatory service trucks, water trucks, cabin service vehicles.
• Aircraft towing — Tow tractors used for aircraft towing and push-out operations. The size and
weight of this equipment is related to the size of the aircraft handled.
• Aircraft fuelling — Including mobile tankers as well as hydrant dispensers.
• Other equipment — Including fixed facilities and mobile equipment such as ground power units,
air starters, air conditioners, de-icing vehicles, etc.
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G 1 .3 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
Useful typical aircraft manufacturer’s information can be obtained by viewing the following web
sites:
www.boeing.com
www.airbus.com
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G 2.1 V IS U A L A ID S : IN T R O D U C T IO N
Visual aids are designed to increase the conspicuity of the runway, provide visual reference in the
final stages of the approach and landing, and to expedite ground movement. Their importance
increases as visibility becomes limited. There are three basic groupings of visual aids used by pilots
for specific types of positional reference:
• Approach lighting, runway centre line, and runway edge lighting and markings allow pilots to
assess lateral position and cross track velocity.
• Approach lighting and threshold lighting and markings provide a roll reference.
• Touchdown zone (TDZ) lighting and markings indicate the plane of the runway surface and show
the touchdown area providing vertical and longitudinal reference.
The visual guidance derived from runway lights and/or markings should be sufficient to ensure
adequate take-off alignment and directional control for take-off and stopping, whether after landing
or in an emergency. Although additional instruments, such as head-up displays, may enhance the
safety of the operation, reference to visual aids is a primary requirement even when some form of
ground run monitor and displays based on the use of external non-visual guidance are being used.
The criteria for approach lighting, runway lighting and runway markings are contained in Annex 14,
Volume I.
Visual aids are also important for the safe and expeditious guidance and control of taxiing aeroplanes.
Special attention is required for taxiway lighting, stop bars and signs. Annex 14, Volume I, contains
specifications for markings, lights, mandatory- and information- signs (see Annex 14 Figure 5-6
Taxi way marking, Figure 5-7 Runway Hold Position Markings) and markers. Requirements may vary,
but they consist of markings and signs supplemented by taxi holding position lights to denote holding
positions, taxiing guidance signs and markings on the centre lines and edges of taxiways.
G 2 .2 F A C IL IT IE S A N D R E Q U IR E M E N T S F O R N O N -P R E C IS IO N
A P P R O A C H A N D L A N D IN G O P E R A T IO N S
For non-precision approach and landing operations the visual aids for paved instrument runways
required by Annex 14, Volume I are:
(a) Markings:
• Runway designation.
• Threshold.
• Fixed distance.
• Runway side stripe, where there is a lack of contrast.
• Taxi way centre line markings, from the runway centre line.
• Taxi-holding position marking.
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(b) Lights:
• Runway edge lights, where the runway is intended for use at night.
G 2 .3 F A C IL IT IE S A N D R E Q U IR E M E N T S F O R P R E C IS IO N A P P R O A C H
A N D L A N D IN G O P E R A T IO N S (C A T I)
For Category I precision approach and landing operations the visual aids for paved instrument runways
required by Annex 14, Volume I, are:
(a) Markings:
• Runw ay designation.
• Threshold.
• Fixed distance.
• Touchdown zone.
• Taxi way centre line markings, from the runway centre line.
• Taxi-holding position marking.
(b) Lights:
• Approach slope indicator system (PAPI, VASIS).
• Precision approach Category I lighting system.
For Category I precision approach and landing operations the following visual aids are also
recommended by Annex 14, Volume I:
(a) Markings:
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Signs may also be needed to identify taxiways. Taxi way centre line lights or taxiway edge lights and
centre line markings providing adequate guidance are required for Category II and III operations. The
conspicuity of runway markings and taxiway markings deteriorates rapidly, particularly at airports
with higher movement rates. Frequent inspection and maintenance of markings cannot be over
emphasised, especially for Category II and III operations.
Stop bars can also make a valuable contribution to safety and ground traffic flow control in low visibility
operations. The primary safety function of the stop bar is the prevention of inadvertent penetrations
of active runways and Obstacle Free Zones by aircraft and vehicles in such conditions. Stop bars
when provided should be used at least in visibility conditions corresponding to RVRs to less than
350 metres (CAT III). They also may contribute, in conjunction with other elements of the SMGCS,
to effective traffic flow when low visibility prevents ATC from effecting optimum flow and ground
separation by visual reference.
It may also be advantageous to partly automate the operation of selected stop bars so that the air
traffic controller will not be required to operate them manually every time, thus avoiding possible
human errors. For example, manual switch-off of a stop bar after issuance of a movement clearance
would be followed by an automatic re-illumination by the crossing aeroplane. Or a ‘limited visibility’
setting on the control panel would automatically illuminate stop bars across taxiways which are not
to be used in limited visibilities.
It will be possible that some lights in a particular system may fail, but if such failures are distributed
in a manner that does not confuse the lighting pattern, the system may be regarded as serviceable.
It is both difficult and expensive to provide monitoring of individual lights, except by regular inspection
of all sections of the lighting system, and consideration may, therefore, be given to monitoring only
the lighting circuits. To help safeguard recognisable patterns in the event of failure of a single circuit,
circuits should be interleaved so that the failure of adjacent lights or clusters of lights will be avoided.
Requirements and guidance on the design, maintenance and monitoring of lighting circuits is contained
in Annex 14, Volume I, and the Aerodrome Design Manual (doc 9157) Part 4.
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G 2 .5 V IS U A L D O C K IN G G U ID A N C E S Y S T E M S
With the adoption of nose-in parking and use of aircraft loading bridges, it is necessary to provide a
guidance system to assist the pilot in positioning his aircraft accurately. The Civil Aviation Publication
(CAP) 637 entitled Visual Aids Handbook, produced by the Civil Aviation Authority in the United
Kingdom, should be referred to as current best industry practice on AG NI S/PAPA installations and
their subsequent usefulness.
The following are topics which must be addressed during the planning and development of visual
docking guidance systems:
Pilot Responsibility
The pilot should be provided with a system which guides him accurately to the final parking
position for his aircraft without ambiguity, and indicates to him his rate of closure with the desired
stopping position.
Accuracy
The system must provide the accuracy of parking which is required on the particular airport or
apron, and this should be established by airport authorities and airlines jointly. Points to be
considered include:
• The clearances involved. For some aircraft this includes distances between the pitot tube
probes and the forward edge of the passenger door when open (i.e. B737).
• The space required for all apron servicing activities including ULD loading/unloading.
When fixed loading bridges are installed, the docking guidance system must be particularly reliable
as the accuracy of this system must match the tolerance of the proposed fixed bridge. On aprons
serviced by apron-drive loading bridges, parking accuracy requirements may be less stringent.
Multi-Aircraft Type Capability
The system must accommodate as many different aircraft types as are likely to operate and this
factor should be established by airport authorities and airlines in joint consultation. In a multi
aircraft system the problem of providing stopping guidance is more difficult and it is important
that the correct stopping position for the specific aircraft type using the stand should be clearly
identifiable by the pilot, irrespective of his height above apron level.
The system should be compatible with aids employed for landing and taxiing, and should be
operable under similar weather and other operational criteria.
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G 2 .6 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI) — As the ICAO International Standard, replacing
the present VASIS Standard after January 1, 1995.
VASIS and 3-bat VASIS — Specified in Annex 14 as the International Standard until
January 1, 1995.
Regardless of the protection date of January 1, 1995, for VASIS and 3-bar VASIS, IATA
advocates the immediate installation of PAPI.
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G 3.1 G E N E R A L — N O N -V IS U A L A ID S
The term ‘non-visual aids’ refers to the approved radio and radar aids used to assist the pilot in
carrying out approach and landing under cloud or other visibility-impairing conditions. In conditions
of moderate cloud base and visibility, the purpose of the aid is to establish the aircraft in a position
from which the pilot can safely complete the approach and landing by visual means, and in such
conditions a relatively simple aid may well suffice. In very low cloud base and/or visibility conditions,
visual contact may not be available to the pilot and a much more accurate and reliable system will
be required to effectively locate the aircraft.
Specifications for radio and radar aids are given in ICAO Annex 10, Volume I. The criteria for terminal
area fixes and information on the construction of instrument approach procedures are given in PANS-
OPS (Doc 8168), Volume II.
The non-visual aids for which standards have been defined range from non-precision aids such as
VDF, NDB, VOR, surveillance radar, ILS localizer only and MLS azimuth only, to the precision
approach aids PAR and complete ILS/MLS. In general terms the non-visual aids can support operations
in decreasing cloud base and visibility conditions in the order listed.
G 3 .2 F A C IL IT IE S A N D R E Q U IR E M E N T S F O R N O N -P R E C IS IO N
A P P R O A C H A N D L A N D IN G O P E R A T IO N S
Non-precision approach aids provide azimuth and/or distance information only. When using a single
non-precision aid for an instrument approach, the position of the aircraft can only be fixed by over
flying the facility. Position fixes may also be obtained by an intersection of bearings or radials from
more than one navigational facility, or by the use of DME or marker beacons in association with
azimuth guidance. En-route surveillance radar generally may be used to provide fixes prior to the
final approach fix. Terminal area radar may be used to identify any terminal area fix including step
down fixes after the final approach fix.
It is essential that all non-precision aids be ground- and flight-checked at the time of commissioning,
and at regular intervals thereafter.
G 3 .3 F A C IL IT IE S A N D R E Q U IR E M E N T S F O R P R E C IS IO N A P P R O A C H
A N D L A N D IN G O P E R A T IO N S (C A T i)
Precision approach aids provide vertical (i.e. glide path) information in addition to azimuth guidance
and, possibly, distance information. The ICAO standard non-visual precision approach aids are ILS
and MLS.
ILS is the aid in common use while MLS is in the process of evaluation/introduction. PAR is also
recognised as a precision approach aid. ILS ground equipment comprises a localizer, a glide path
and at least two marker beacons, or, where the siting of marker beacons is impracticable, a suitably
sited DME, provided that the distance information so obtained is operationally equivalent to that
furnished by marker beacons. ILS may be used for all categories of operations, but the beam structure
specifications, monitoring requirements and continuity of service requirements are more stringent for
Category II and III operations (see clause G3.4).
MLS ground equipment comprises azimuth and elevation transmitters, DME and for some installations,
a back azimuth capability. It is desirable to provide for coupled approaches to low height, with provision
for automatic landings and roll-outs, by ensuring that the ILS/MLS installation meets the applicable
ICAO standards referred to above.
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It is essential that all ILS/MLS installations be ground- and flight-checked at the time of commissioning
and at regular intervals in accordance with the requirements of Annex 10, Volume I, Part I, to ensure
an adequate and uniform standard of non-visual guidance. In the event that a facility fails to meet
the requirements for which it was commissioned, or if a routine flight test cannot be completed within
the appropriate time interval, its status must be reviewed and the facility downgraded as necessary.
Users should be advised of changes in ILS/MLS status through the AIS. Guidance material on flight
testing is contained in the Manual on Testing of Radio Navigation Aids.
To ensure that the integrity of the guidance signal radiated by the ILS/MLS is maintained during
aircraft approaches, all vehicles and aircraft on the ground must remain outside the ILS/MLS critical
areas as described in Annex 10, Volume I, Attachment C to Part I. If a vehicle or aircraft is within
the critical area it will cause reflection and/or diffraction of the ILS/MLS signals which may result in
significant disturbances to the guidance signals on the approach path.
Diffraction and/or reflection may also be caused by one or more large aircraft or vehicles in the vicinity
of the runway. This may affect both the glide path elevation and localizer azimuth signals. This
additional area, outside the critical area, is called the sensitive area\ The extent of the sensitive
areas will vary with the characteristics of the ILS/MLS and the category of operations. It is essential
to establish the level of interference caused by aircraft and vehicles at various positions on the airport
so that the boundaries of the sensitive areas may be determined.
Critical areas must be protected if the weather conditions are less than 800 ft (250 m) cloud base or
3000 m visibility when instrument approach operations are being carried out.
Various ILS ground installations of suitable quality are routinely used to gain automatic approach and
landing experience in visibility conditions permitting visual monitoring of the operation by the pilot.
They should therefore be protected by interlocks from interference due to the simultaneous radiation
of opposite direction localizer beams (Annex 10, Volume I, Part I). Where this is impracticable for
technical or operational reasons, and both localizers radiate simultaneously, pilots should be notified
by the appropriate ATS unit, by ATIS broadcast, by NOTAM, or in the relevant part of the AIP.
Similar harmful interference can occur if aircraft in the final phase of approach or roll-out pass closely
in front of the ILS localizer antenna serving another runway. The provisions listed above should
therefore be applied to any such installations where experience shows this to be necessary. The
interim policy for MLS protection should be the same as that outlined for ILS mentioned above, until
such time as more definite information is available and has been operationally validated.
It is possible for ILS signals in space to be affected by the presence of signals from radio and television
transmitters, citizen band radios, industrial plasma welders, spark erosion equipment, etc. The MLS
system design and signal spectrum protection have been selected to protect against interference.
Periodic measurements should be made, the level of any signals detected, and then these can be
compared with an accepted maximum. Such measurements can be made by positioning a wide
frequency band receiver in the vicinity of the middle marker.
Complaints by flight crews of signal disturbances should be investigated, and special flight checks
should be made when there is reason to believe that serious interference is occurring. Every effort
should be made to identify and eliminate the cause of the interference.
1 Terminology and protection criteria for ILS/MLS critical and sensitive areas may vary between States. For example, some States use the
term ‘critical area’ to refer to both ICAO critical and sensitive areas as specified in Annex 10. Thus, when terms used or protection provided
require clarification, information should be made available to relevant operators or States.
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G 3 .4 A D D IT IO N A L F A C IL IT IE S A N D R E Q U IR E M E N T S F O R P R E C IS IO N
A P P R O A C H A N D L A N D IN G O P E R A T IO N S (C A T ll/lll)
The ILS ground equipment must meet the facility performance requirements specified in Annex 10,
Volume I, Part I. The guidance material in Attachment C to Part I of that document also provides
information for the planning and implementation of the ILS.
The Manual of Testing of Radio Navigation Aids (Doc 8071) provides guidance on ground and flight
testing of radio navigation aids; Volume II of the manual is concerned with ILS facilities. The quality
of the ILS signals in space is not determined solely by the quality of the ground equipment; the
suitability of the site, including the influence of reflection from objects illuminated by the ILS signals
and the manner in which the ground equipment is adjusted and maintained, also has significant effect
on the quality of the signal received at the aircraft. It is essential that the ILS signal in space is flight-
checked in order to confirm that is meets in all respects the appropriate standards of Annex 10,
Volume I, Part I.
All facilities associated with the ILS ground equipment must be monitored in accordance with the
requirement of Annex 10, Volume I, Part I. Guidance material on monitoring is contained in Attachment
C to Part I of Annex 10, Volume I.
ILS critical and sensitive areas must always be protected if the weather conditions are lower than
60 m (200 ft) cloud base or 600 m RVR (i.e. CAT ll/lll conditions) when instrument approach operations
are being carried out. In the latter case, aircraft which will overfly the localizer transmitter antenna
after take-off should be past the antenna before an aircraft making an approach has descended to
a height of 60 m (200 ft) above the runway.
Similarly, an aircraft manoeuvring on the ground, for example when clearing the runway after landing,
should be clear of the critical and sensitive areas before an aircraft approaching to land has descended
to a height of 60 m (200 ft) above the runway. The protection of these areas when the weather
conditions are better than the minimum specified above will facilitate the use of automatic approach
and landing systems, and will provide a safeguard in deteriorating weather conditions and when
actual weather conditions are lower than is reported.
To ensure that the integrity of the guidance signal radiated by the ILS is maintained during aircraft
approaches, all vehicles and aircraft on the ground must remain outside the ILS critical and sensitive
areas as described in Annex 10, Volume I, Attachment C to Part I, when the aircraft on final approach
has passed the outer marker. If a vehicle or aircraft is within the critical area it will cause reflection
and/or diffraction of the ILS signals which may result in significant disturbances to the guidance
signals on the approach path. Additional longitudinal separation between successively landing aircraft
contributes to the integrity of ILS guidance signals.
Diffraction and/or reflection may also be caused by large aircraft in the vicinity of the runway which
may affect both the glide path and the localizer signals. This additional area, outside the critical area,
is called the sensitive area\ The extent of the sensitive areas will vary with the characteristics of the
ILS and the category of operations. It is essential to establish the level of interference caused by
aircraft and vehicles at various positions on the apron so that the boundaries of the sensitive areas
may be determined. Since it is obviously not practical to develop precise criteria covering all cases,
the size and shape of the sensitive areas for a particular category of operation must be determined
by Airport Authorities.
1 Some States do not distinguish between critical and sensitive areas as defined in Annex 10. These States define instead an area, larger
than that defined in Annex 10, but still called the critical area. In addition, this area is protected when an arriving aircraft is within the
middle marker, or when cloud and visibility conditions are below specified values. This affords protection equivalent to that described
above.
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The reliability of the ILS ground equipment is a measure of the frequency of unscheduled outages
which may be experienced. Reliability will be increased by providing on-line standby equipment and
by duplication or triplication of key functions, including power supplies. The lowest value of operating
minima can only be achieved with ILS that have high standards of reliability. The specifications in
Annex 10, Volume I, Part I, indicate the total maximum periods of time allowed outside the specified
performance limits for each ILS facility performance requirement.
For Category III operations it is requested to publish the classification of the ILS ground equipment
in the Aeronautical Information Publication
G 3 .5 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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C h a p te r H — A ir p o r t S e c u r ity
Section H I: General P rinciples
H1.1 Airport Security: Introduction ...... ................ ..................................... ........ . 245
H1.2 IATA Recommendations ................... ......... ................... ........... ................ 245
S ection H2: Passenger O perations
H2.1 Introduction and General Principles ........ ............ ........ ........... . 246
H2.2 Site Evaluation and Layout of Facilities ......................... ............................ 246
H2.3 Isolated Aircraft Parking Positions .............................................................. . 247
H2.4 Support Operations ............. ..................... .................................. ........... . 248
H2.5 General Aviation ............................................................................................. 248
H2.6 Minimising the Effects of an Explosion ........ ......... .................................. . 248
H2.7 Minimising the Effect of an Attack Upon People ........... ............ . 251
H2.8 Passenger Terminal Building ................................. ......... .................... 251
H2.9 Access Control ..... ................... ..................................................... ................ 254
H2.10 Passenger Security Screening Areas ........................................................... 255
H2.11 VIP F a cilities.............. ............... ................................... ........ ...................... . 255
H2.12 Perimeter S e c u rity ..... ................................... .................... ............ ................ 256
H2.13 Vulnerable Points ......................... ..................... ....... ........ .................... . 257
H2.14 Security Lighting ....... ............... ............ ................... ........... .......................... 257
H2.15 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) ....... ....................................... .......... . 257
H2.16 IATA Recommendations .......................................... .................... ........ . 258
S ection H3: Cargo O perations
H3.1 Cargo Security Overview ............................... .................. . 260
H3.2 Regulated Agent Status .......... ..................... ..................... ...... . 260
H3.3 Known Shipper/Consignor ...... ............................... ......... ...... ....... .............. 261
H3.4 Valuable C a rg o ........................ ..................................................................... . 262
H3.5 Post Office Mail ........ .................... .................... ...................... ......... . 262
H3.6 Courier and Express Parcel Consignments ........... ..................................... 263
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H 1.1 A IR P O R T S E C U R IT Y : INTRODUCTION
ICAO Annex 17 to the Chicago Convention requires that the architectural and infrastructure
requirements necessary for the optimum implementation of civil aviation security measures are
integrated into the design and construction of new facilities, as well as into any alterations that might
be undertook to existing facilities.
To take adequate account of aviation security requirements in all new facilities, redevelopment of
existing facilities and redevelopment of airports, it is recommended that the appropriate authority
establish national criteria which should be used in planning and design so as to maintain the integrity
of the nation’s civil aviation security programme. The criteria should allow the architects and designers
sufficient flexibility to respond to the circumstances of each airport and its operations (accomplished
by allowing a range of options for achieving the desired objective), and by encouraging architects
and designers to identify innovative approaches.
There is also need to consider and judge the degree of exposure or risk to which a building or facility
may be subjected if the threat level increases, and the steps that may become necessary to upgrade
buildings or facilities and their operation to meet the increased threat.
In establishing any criteria, it is essential that the security requirements be kept realistic and
economically viable, and that they be able to allow for the appropriate balance between the needs
of aviation security, safety, operational requirements and facilitation. The criteria should also include
provisions to ensure that the airport design facilitates the implementation of contingency measures.
Once the criteria are established it is essential that they be made available to designers, who will
need to understand the security problem and the manner in which the criteria meet the requirements.
While the designers may not be fully informed about the basis of the threat analysis, they do need
access to information on structural security considerations, such as the area pressure created by a
potential bomb or the identification of protective materials to prevent firearm damage.
The criteria should also be made available to the appropriate authority within the administration to
ensure that the interaction and discussions with the designer are in harmony with the national policy.
H 1 .2 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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H 2 .2 S IT E E V A L U A T IO N A N D L A Y O U T O F F A C IL IT IE S
When designing or redesigning airport facilities, there are many factors which could influence site
evaluation and the layout of facilities. When designing or redesigning airport facilities the security
considerations and implications should take into account:
H 2.2.1 T e rm in a l B u ild in g (L a n d s id e A re a )
In deciding the layout of the terminal building landside area, special security consideration should be
given to the following:
• Road layout.
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H 2 .2 .2 A ir s id e D e v e lo p m e n t
• Physical security measures for the airport perimeter and restricted security areas.
• Perimeter and security area vehicle and pedestrian access points, including automatic access
control systems.
• Isolated aircraft parking positions for searching aircraft subject to a specific threat or an act of
unlawful seizure.
• Facilities for the kenneling and training of explosive detecting patrol dogs.
• A simulation chamber.
If the installation of an automatic access control system is envisaged at a later stage of airport
development, provision should be made at the earliest stages of runway and taxiway construction
for an automatic access control system power supply, as well as data transmissiontrenches and
conduits. Similar provisions for the future installation of intrusion detection systems, electronicalarms,
and video and data transmission networks should also be made in terminal buildings and at vulnerable
point locations.
H 2 .3 IS O L A T E D A IR C R A F T P A R K IN G P O S IT IO N S
An isolated aircraft parking position should be located at the maximum distance possible from other
aircraft parking positions, buildings or public areas, and the airport perimeter. Planners should keep
in mind that the isolated aircraft parking position can also be used in the event of an aircraft hijacking
or bomb threat. If taxiways or runways pass within this area, they may have to be closed to normal
operations when a ‘suspect’ aircraft is in the area. Planners should seek input on ideal locations for
these positions from the security or law enforcement agencies which would respond to such incidents.
The isolated aircraft parking position may also serve as a ‘security parking area’, where an aircraft
threatened with unlawful interference may be parked as long as necessary, or else positioned for the
loading or unloading of passengers. It may also be necessary to remove and examine cargo, mail
and stores from an aircraft during bomb threat conditions.
Care should be taken to ensure that the position is not located over underground utilities such as
gasoline or aviation fuel networks, water mains, or electrical or communications cables. Such parking
areas would ideally be located so as to eliminate the possibility of unauthorized persons physically
reaching or being able to launch an attack against the aircraft. Consideration should also be given
to the prevailing wind direction and aircraft landing and takeoff routing at the airport, so as to minimize
disruption to airport operations and the surrounding locality in the event of an aircraft fire or release
of dangerous substances form the aircraft.
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H 2 .4 S U P P O R T O P E R A T IO N S
A precise inventory of support operations and other non-aviation activities should be drawn up at the
initial planning stage so that a decision can be made concerning the location of each of these activities.
The following basic principles should govern this decision:
(a) Except for those which have a direct and permanent link with air transport operations, the number
of non- and para-aviation activities located on the airside should be restricted as much as possible.
Hotels and freight forwarders’ buildings and facilities should not be located on the airside.
(b) When facilities for support operations and other non-aviation activities do have to be located on
the airside (for example to enable them to have access to the runways), they should:
• Be located away from the airport’s passenger and cargo buildings and vulnerable points.
(c) Private airside access points through those buildings or facilities should:
® Be controlled.
H 2 .5 G E N E R A L A V IA T IO N
Here the security principle to be followed is that of segregation; the purpose of which is to keep
movement of persons and vehicles between the general aviation area and the main terminal areas
to the strict minimum. These movements relate mainly to fuelling operations, meteorological services
and the airport control reporting office.
H 2 .6 M IN IM IS IN G T H E E F F E C T S O F A N E X P L O S IO N
An explosive or incendiary device brought into the vicinity of a terminal or infiltrated onto an aircraft
is likely to contain up to 5 kilograms of high-performance military explosive. Such a device can be
concealed in a wide variety of containers.
Explosive devices produce two types of fragments: primary and secondary. Primary fragments are
created from the device and its containers (timing mechanisms, buckles and zips of bags, locks and
hinges of briefcases, waste bins and their contents, etc.). The primary fragmentation effect can be
enhanced by the inclusion in the device of metal objects (bolts, screws, nails, etc.). Secondary
fragments are created by the blast wave destroying friable materials (glazing, masonry, false ceilings,
lightweight partitions, etc.) as it travels out from the explosion’s source.
Typically, the distance over which primary fragments can cause casualties is approximately twice
that of secondary fragments. Therefore, to be reasonably certain of preventing casualties from the
fragmentation effect of a device introduced by hand into a public area, a clear zone greater than 60
metres in radius would have to be formed around the suspect object.
While prevention is the ideal, it is for practical operational purposes almost impossible to achieve in
a normal airport environment. The most practical position is to accept the possibility that, despite
surveillance, patrolling, security awareness of all staff and the public, an explosive or incendiary
device may still be brought into a public area of a terminal and a detonation can still occur. It is,
however, possible to minimize the effects of, and reduce the casualties resulting from, the
consequential explosion or fire by:
• Designing the terminal areas accessible to passengers and the public to facilitate patrols and
surveillance, and to reduce or eliminate places where explosive or incendiary devices may be
concealed.
• Using the appropriate glazing securely fixed into robust frames or mullions and transoms with
sufficient rebate depth. The frames or glazing support systems to be securely fixed to the structure.
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• Ensuring that roofing, cladding, false ceilings, etc., are securely fixed, as large panels or items
which become detached can cause considerable injury and damage.
• Employing materials used in the internal fitting-out of the public and retail areas of the terminal
that will minimise casualties and damage following an explosion, or fail in such a way which will
minimise the formation of secondary fragments.
• Ensuring that items such as waste receptacles are portable, so that they can be removed in the
event of an increase in threat, or be of a type which will facilitate inspection to ensure that nothing
dangerous has been concealed inside. Alternatively, litter receptacles may be constructed into
walls in a manner which would allow garbage to be deposited into an external container.
• Ensuring that materials used within terminal buildings, for example as upholstery on seating and
for false ceilings, are fire resistant and do not give off toxic fumes or smoke.
A vehicle bomb is likely to contain large amounts of explosive. It is difficult to prescribe practical
measures to strengthen a structure to withstand totally the force of such an explosive device. Some
measures are discussed below; they all depend to some extent on the building’s structure. Modern
framed construction will experience less damage than load-bearing masonry. The following table is
an assessment of the damage a vehicle bomb with the power of 70kgs of high explosive would have
on the two types of construction:
It is apparent that a building of modern framed construction will experience less damage. The key
elements of modern frame construction are:
(a) The building is of frame construction, having reinforced concrete or structural steel and concrete
floor slabs (precast concrete frames and floor slabs should be avoided).
(b) The frame is designed to be sufficiently robust whatever the building height. The horizontal shear
forces at a given floor level should be calculated as an equivalent of a minimum of five storeys
above.
(c) In the case of steel frame construction, beam/column connections should be designed for load
reversals).
(d) Additional robustness for steel frame construction can be achieved by encasing the perimeter
beams and columns in concrete.
(e) Generally, the construction of the roof should be similar to that of the floor slabs. Architectural
and other features can then be applied above the roof slab. If a lightweight roof is required, then
the structural support framework should be designed in accordance with a) and b) and the roof
cladding securely fixed to the structure.
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Windows may be broken at distances of up to 120 metres, although glass may fall from a building
at a distance of 60 metres. Unprotected normal annealed glass can break at a distance of up to 50
metres from ground zero. This distance can be reduced to 30 metres by the application of anti-shatter
film, which has the further advantage of reducing the time required to clean up, since large quantities
of the glass remain glued to the film.
While some terminal designs minimize the use of glazing on their outer skin, most normally incorporate
the maximum use of such materials and so it is essential to understand the failure mechanism of
glass types. While it is not practical to undertake substantial re-glazing of existing facilities, there are
a variety of steps which can be taken to reduce the risk of injury caused by flying glass.
It is preferable that the external landside aspect of the terminal building be as low as possible and
have as little glazing and cladding as possible. This may be achieved by having offices or similar
facilities backing onto this aspect. It is recognized that such an arrangement is unlikely to be practical
for many locations, and that many such aspects will continue to contain a great deal of cladding and
glazing. Where forecourt areas are covered by canopies it is recommended that they be so constructed
that structural components will remain in place in the event of an explosion, but that the interconnecting
or roofing panels are able to vent the explosion in some way (for example, by peeling upwards or
backwards).
All vehicles should be kept at least 50 metres away from the frontage of the terminal. Ideally, the
forecourt roads should be at a lower level, creating a sloping ramp which would act as a blast deflector
should a car bomb be detonated. However, this solution usually conflicts with facilitation and design
and is therefore unlikely to be adopted in most locations. An alternative is to ensure that no short-
or long-term vehicle parking is allowed within 50 metres of the terminal and that the forecourt roads
are sufficiently policed to ensure that no unattended or unauthorized vehicle is allowed to be left on
them. Efficient response and rapid vehicle removal are required, especially when short-term vehicle
parking is permitted at the passenger terminal curbs. The pavement area of the forecourt should
have solid posts placed at intervals or some form of barrier system to prevent any vehicle from
mounting the pavement or entering the terminal.
H 2.6.1 M a te ria ls
When fitting out the public areas of the terminal, materials should be used that will fail following an
explosion in such a way as to minimise the formation of secondary fragments and thus casualties
and damage. The following actions should be taken:
® Avoid brittle materials such as glass or rigid plastics which can break into sharp fragments.
® Use materials which are flexible and strong (e.g. polycarbonate, metal sheet and possibly
toughened glass), ductile (metal sheet, laminated glass), or weak and soft (plasterboard,
hardboard wood wool, foam-filled sandwiches).
® Provide appropriately strong fixings, ideally with the same resistance capacity as the material
being secured. This may mean recommending that inner sheets (away from a blast) be screwed
rather than nailed or screwed through additional surface plates or battens to prevent screws being
torn out.
• Minimise opportunity for collapse of light structures. This may mean that booths, concessionary
accommodation, etc., should be designed to resist blast loads even though they will be within
the sheltered concourse.
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H 2 .7 M IN IM IS IN G T H E E F F E C T O F A N A T T A C K U P O N P E O P L E
The concern addressed here is that of an attack against a specific group of passengers or staff, either
because of their nationality or the nationality of the carrier with which they intend travelling. Such an
attack would probably use automatic weapons and grenades. It is also possible for such an attack
to be indiscriminate.
Within multi-storey terminal buildings, the likelihood of having landside balconies overlooking check
in areas is high. It is equally likely that the public has access to them and that commercial exploitation
demands that the facilities available on the first floor or balcony area be readily seen from the ground
floor or check-in area. Unrestricted access to areas overlooking a check-in zone should therefore not
provide a line of fire or the ability to throw grenades. As it is an unrestricted public area, the
considerations already discussed in relation to glazing and building materials also apply.
To allow natural light to enter the building, and so as not to diminish unnecessarily the visual impact
of the balcony facilities, screening should normally be of glass, the choice being between toughened
or laminated toughened. Ideally, the glazing should reach from floor to ceiling but, where this is not
possible, the minimum height of such screening should be 2.3 metres. The space between the top
of the screen and ceiling should be filled so as to prevent the lobbing of explosives. The manner in
which this can be achieved will depend upon environmental and ventilation needs, weight constraints,
aesthetics and cost. Access to the first floor or balcony from the ground floor or check-in area should
be similarly protected from the balcony level down to a height above the lower floor at which line of
sight and fire is no longer possible. A suitably designed ‘glazed cage’ can achieve the required results
if the glazing is of the necessary standard.
At major airports and those handling certain high-risk flights, there is a need to protect designated
check-in operations against attack, by means of either a permanent, protected facility or temporary/
portable screening which can be moved into place. The screening of high-risk flights should have
protective qualities capable of minimizing the effects of an attack which may involve the use of firearms
and grenades as well as suitcase bombs. A normal check-in area can be converted into a protected
check-in area by means of ceiling-hung bullet/blast resistant screens, which can be pulled into place
when needed.
The check-in screening should be opaque, lightweight, durable and easy to store, and should where
possible be of specifications that would limit the possible use of lobbed explosives (at least 2.3 metres
high with netting suspended from the ceiling down to the top of the screens). With advances in
materials, it may be that adequate protection can be afforded by ballistic screens or curtains made
from suitable lightweight material.
An alternative to protecting a specific check-in desk handling a high-risk flight is to conduct all check
in procedures for that flight away from public access areas. This has the added advantage of a
dedicated handling route for hold baggage and provides a dedicated route for the passengers and
their cabin baggage to access the centralized search area. However, such segregation may not find
favour with carriers who wish their passengers to be facilitated in as normal a way as possible.
H 2 .8 P A S S E N G E R T E R M IN A L B U IL D IN G
To attain the general objectives of security planning, as well as those of over-all airport planning, the
key to success is the simplicity resulting from the following principles:
• Transit and transfer passenger and cargo flows, preferably in both domestic and international
operations, should be physically separated.
• The number of security checkpoints should be minimized (this can be achieved by centralizing
the screening points at a spot where the passenger and baggage flow routes converge).
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• The number of points where pedestrians can have access to the airside area and, particularly,
the security restricted areas should be minimized (this can be done after a rigorous analysis of
ground personnel flow routes and by applying the basic principle of developing the over-all plan
for the permit system).
@ All passenger departure areas between the screening checkpoint and the aircraft are to be
considered a security restricted area into which access must be controlled.
The following considerations should be given to any landside public spectator terraces or areas which
overlook aircraft parked on the apron or passenger handling operations:
• The areas should be enclosed, or contain barriers to prevent unauthorized access or the throwing
of objects at parked aircraft or into security restricted areas.
® Access control features should enable them to be secured and closed to the public when required.
Each baggage storage facility to which passengers and the public have access should be constructed
in such a way as to minimize the effects of an explosion occurring in an item being handled or stored,
and should be capable of being secured when not manned. Provision should be made for the hand
search or screening of all items by X-ray by trained staff before they are accepted for storage.
The airside and security restricted areas should be designed and constructed to prevent the passage
of articles from non-sterile areas. For example, links or connections between plumbing, air vents,
drains, utility tunnels or other fixtures in restricted security area restrooms and restrooms in non-
sterile areas should be avoided to limit the possibility of articles being passed from one area to the
other. When planning the construction of non-restricted or public access suspended walkways or
balconies over or adjacent to sterile areas, it is critical to ensure that they not facilitate the passing
of items into those areas.
The maintenance of the security integrity of passenger areas can be enhanced by designing built-in
fixtures such as railings, pillars, benches, ashtrays, etc., to prevent concealment of weapons or
dangerous devices. This could help reduce the difficulties and costs associated with monitoring such
areas, which also includes closets, utility rooms, restrooms, lockers, storage areas, stairwells, recesses
housing fire extinguishers, and fire hose storage cabinets. Closets and utility rooms should be capable
of being locked when not in use.
The objectives of fire safety and crowd control provisions and those of security provisions may appear
contradictory. Optimum safety aims at enabling people to be evacuated in the event of danger,
while security aims at controlling people’s movements and limiting their access to certain areas.
Reconciliation of these objectives should be based on a search for a preferred airside to landside
evacuation direction. Each airport area should be the subject of specific evacuation planning to ensure
security is not compromised.
In evacuating the landside area, including those areas not freely accessible to the public, evacuation
should be done towards the landside curb. If architectural constraints require evacuation in the
opposite direction, the emergency exits to the airside should be secured when not in use.
Evacuation from the airside area to the landside area is preferred, but an effort should be made to
keep the number of emergency exits and points of passage to the minimum required for safety
reasons. Evacuation should only be done towards the airside area if architectural constraints or the
length of the evacuation routes so require. In any event, all emergency exits on the airside should
be secured.
The number of entrances and exits along the curb should be kept to the minimum compatible with
smooth traffic flow. Furthermore, it is preferable that these entrances and exits be equipped with a
master locking system which will allow the simultaneous locking of all doors in an emergency.
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Signs should be installed along the curb indicating that parking is limited to the time needed to offload
passengers. It is recommended that the positions reserved for private vehicles be separated from
those reserved for buses and taxis. Bus and taxi parking positions should be placed away from the
manoeuvring lanes to permit them to load and offload their passengers along the curb.
If the airport is served by rail, outdoor or underground stations should preferably be located away
from the passenger building and be connected with it by pedestrian walkways.
In planning and designing passenger buildings, provision should be made for the installation of the
following airport security features:
H 2.8.1 S e c u re d P a s s e n g e r R o u te s
Secured passenger flow routes extend from the screening point to the aircraft door. Depending on
the circumstances, they may cross the following areas and points:
(a) Immigration control point.
Rest lounges.
Food and beverage facilities.
Washroom facilities.
VIP lounges.
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(b) When an automatic access control system is provided for, the following doors and exits should
be secured and controlled:
(d) Departure lounge partitions should reach the ceiling to prevent objects from being thrown over
them or, if that is not possible for reasons of ventilation, protective nets should be installed.
(e) Restaurants and rest areas should in no case have terraces overlooking the aircraft parking areas
unless they are equipped with fixed and sturdy windows.
H 2 .9 ACCESS CONTROL
Maintaining the integrity of airside/landside boundaries plays a critical role in deterring unauthorized
access to, or attacks on an airport or an aircraft. Effective airside security relies heavily on the
integrated application of physical barriers, identification and access control systems, surveillance and
detection equipment, and on the implementation of security procedures.
Consideration should be given to reducing to a minimum the number of access control points, both
inside and outside, to airside and other security areas. Effective access control can be achieved by:
(a) Having plant and maintenance facilities landside (but with controlled access) and, where ducting,
piping, cabling, other plant or inspection panels (such as those provided in toilet areas) pass
through the security restricted area boundary, ensuring that they cannot afford unauthorized
access.
(b) Planning kitchen and catering facilities carefully. Increasingly, airports are planning one catering
facility to serve airside and landside. Where this is so, the facility should be situated landside,
with the means to service airside areas via security airlock hatches rather than having staff moving
between landside and airside.
(c) Having baggage reclaim areas outside the security restricted area to reduce the risk of passengers
backtracking through the exit doors. To meet customs requirements for international reclaim
areas, these should be non-public areas and serve as a buffer to protect the security restricted
area.
(d) Providing adequate facilities for staff within the security restricted area in order to reduce the
number of times they need to pass control points in the course of their duties.
(e) Co-ordinating landside, non-public access and airside/security restricted area access control.
This can be achieved by having one strategically placed point to control access to the apron,
elevators to plant rooms on the roof and, by the use of parallel corridors (one landside, one
airside), all landside and airside deliveries.
(f) Having a single, suitably located access point for staff. This should, where possible, be a dedicated
facility not encumbered by other forms of traffic or other distractions.
(g) Planning a means of baggage trolley return (such as a security airlock) which eliminates the need
for staff to move between the landside and airside/ security restricted area.
(h) Having a single, suitably located access point for deliveries, or (for larger operations) having a
single delivery point landside from which deliveries are shuttled in dedicated vehicles into the
security restricted area or airside. This arrangement would also facilitate the introduction of security
measures should the threat increase.
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(i) Wherever possible, avoiding locating landside toilets back-to-back with security restricted area
toilets, or ensuring that, if they are, they are designed and constructed so that it would be difficult
to penetrate the airside boundary through the walls or roofs.
Wherever possible, maintenance areas, service areas, miscellaneous activities areas, and buildings
or controlled areas should be located landside with controlled access to airside.
To prevent unauthorized access, doors or gates leading from landside to airside security restricted
areas and to controlled areas which are not under surveillance should be equipped with locks and/
or alarms.
Buildings and other fixed structures may be used as a part of the physical barrier and be incorporated
into the fence line, as long as measures are taken to restrict unauthorized passage through them.
Care should also be taken to ensure that roofs or other structures do not provide an easily accessible
route for unauthorized access to the airside.
H 2 .1 0 P A S S E N G E R S E C U R IT Y S C R E E N IN G A R E A S
In the selection of suitable locations for passenger security screening areas at which walk-through
metal detectors and X-ray equipment are to be used, it is essential that sufficient reliable power
outlets be provided. It is also necessary to consider the possible effects of electrical fields generated
by other types of equipment such as elevators, conveyor belts, etc. The mass of structural steel in
terminal buildings may also have an adverse effect. It is not possible to recommend minimum distances
from sources of such interference because of the variables of each location. Further guidance is best
obtained from the manufacturer of the equipment to be used.
The location and size of passenger security screening areas will be dictated primarily by passenger
volume. Careful attention should be given to the number, type, configuration and positioning of
screening areas so as to facilitate the flow of passengers through the terminal. Consideration will
need to be given to the issues of queuing, physical search, and passengers requiring additional
processing.
Generally, international and domestic passenger flows are kept separate. However, this is not always
possible, particularly at small and medium-sized airports. In such situations, passenger screening
areas may be combined and the passenger flows controlled by either a door or a partitioning system
to direct passengers to their boarding lounges. The international boarding lounge may be preceded
by an immigration or customs control point.
H 2.11 V IP F A C IL IT IE S
VIP facilities require careful consideration as the individuals using them may be subject to a high
level of personal threat. Facilities should allow for control of the VIPs and those involved with their
reception and departure procedures. The facilities should incorporate a dedicated screening area for
check-in and processing passengers, and for keeping cabin baggage and hold baggage separate
from the normal passenger operations.
Where for ease of use the facilities straddle the landside/airside boundary, the standard of access
control should be no less than at other access points and arrangements for the use of these facilities
should ensure the integrity of the boundary between the landside and the airside. VIP facilities must
be secured when not in use.
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H 2 .1 2 P E R IM E T E R S E C U R IT Y
In deciding what form of perimeter or restricted area security is required, many factors need to be
taken into account. These might include national and local threat assessment, vulnerabilities and
asset values. The topography of the site should be one of the foremost considerations, together with
general location, areas to be protected and the life expectancy of any materials used. It is important
to note also that the physical components of perimeter security (fences, perimeter intruder detection
systems, closed circuit television, etc.) should not be viewed in isolation but rather as an integrated
whole.
The following perimeter detection technologies should be considered and their merits evaluated as
a minimum:
® Infra-red Systems.
• Microwave System.
® CCTV Systems.
® Chain Link.
• Welded Mesh.
Where airport perimeters are close to public walkways, roads or rivers, the perimeter should be under
surveillance either by patrol or by automated detection system. Signs should be placed at 50m
intervals which clearly advise the public that perimeters are under surveillance. Airport perimeters
should be complete and to a consistent standard throughout the whole perimeter. Areas within the
terminal complex which border with vulnerable areas such as vehicle and staff gate posts should be
monitored with CCTV systems with data recorded on 24hour 365 days a year digital recordings.
Other vulnerable areas recommended for CCTV surveillance which may bridge the perimeter include
but are not limited to:
• Power plants.
® Fuel farms.
• Control tower.
• Drinking water reservoirs (within the perimeter and serving the airport terminal and infrastructure).
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When designing security systems for airport perimeters the detection systems should have full
redundancy capability. If a single component fails within a system the systems overall integrity should
remain intact. Field devices such as fence detectors should provide indication to the central control
room that failure has occurred and where the failed field device resides.
Waterways which intersect the perimeter boundary should be protected and it should not be possible
for unauthorised access beneath runway or terminal complexes without prior detection.
H 2 .1 3 V U L N E R A B L E P O IN T S
A vulnerable point is any facility on or connected with an airport, which, if damaged or destroyed,
would seriously impair the functioning of the airport.
Control towers, communication facilities, radio navigation aids, power transformers, primary and
secondary power supplies and fuel installations both on and off an airport must therefore be considered
as vulnerable points. Communication and radio navigation aids which, if tampered with, could give
false signals for the guidance of aircraft need to be afforded a higher level of security.
Where such installations cannot be adequately protected by physical security measures and intrusion
detection systems, they should be visited frequently by the relevant maintenance technicians or
security staff. Manned installations should have strict control of access measures and admission to
the installation should include the requirement to produce valid identification cards.
H 2 .1 4 S E C U R IT Y L IG H T IN G
Security lighting can offer a high degree of deterrence to a potential intruder in addition to providing
the illumination necessary for effective surveillance either directly by the guards or indirectly through
a CCTV system. Security Lighting can make an important contribution to physical security but,
incorrectly applied, it can assist intruders more than guard forces. Good security lighting should:
Security lighting acts as a particularly good low-cost deterrent. Even a low level of illumination will
deter most potential intruders and vandals. If CCTV is installed, the lighting level and uniformity must
be such that it helps to present a clear monitor picture to security guards.
H 2 .1 5 C L O S E D C IR C U IT T E L E V IS IO N (C C T V )
The use of closed circuit television (CCTV) for surveillance can save manpower, especially when
used in conjunction with intruder detection and automatic access control systems and may supplement,
extend and make more effective an existing security system. It also enhances the effectiveness of
perimeter security, particularly if used to verify the alarms signalled by a perimeter intruder detection
system (PIDS). It can also lead to improved working conditions for security guards who may not need
to be exposed to danger, inclement weather or other inconveniences of routine patrolling and related
tasks.
If CCTV is to be used, a clear operational requirement should be developed and security CCTV
systems should be commissioned, and subsequently audited, using appropriate methodology.
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H 2 .1 6 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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• Another airline.
® A regulated agent.
• Postal service.
® A freight forwarder.
® A direct shipper.
Whatever source tenders the cargo for carriage, action needs to be taken to prevent the introduction
of explosives or incendiary devices into air cargo. Airlines reserve the right to examine, or cause to
be examined, the packaging and contents of all cargo, courier and express parcel consignments and
to enquire into the correctness or sufficiency of information or documentation tendered in respect of
any consignment. The right to examine the contents of consignments does not extend to post office
mail.
ICAO Annex 17 requires (Standards 4.5.2 and 4.5.3) Member States to secure the operations of
regulated agents concept, freight forwarders and airlines. This is achieved through the provision of
the Airline Security Programme and the Regulated Agent Security Programme.
Reference is made throughout this Section to regulated agents, freight forwarders, courier service
companies and airlines. Although that is the case, airline operations that are away from the home
base are generally handled by agents or contractors. The airline is responsible for the cargo operation
regardless of what the handling arrangements might be.
H 3 .2 REGULATED A G E N T STATUS
For a freight forwarder to be designated as a ‘regulated agent’, that status must be obtained through
the appropriate authority within the State where the business is conducted. To achieve this status it
requests the production and continued compliance with a Regulated Agent’s Security Programme.
(1) Regulated Agent’s Security Programme, written by the freight forwarder, courier service company,
etc., and its compliance acknowledged by the appropriate authority.
(2) Manuscript Security Programme, published by the appropriate authority for acceptance by the
freight forwarder, courier service company, etc.
The programme details methods of meeting the provisions of Annex 17. Arising from the programme,
freight forwarders, courier service companies, airlines, etc., when meeting set standards, may be
registered/listed by the appropriate authority as ‘regulated agents’.
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Although reference is made to cargo, it should be understood that cargo also includes within its
definition unaccompanied baggage, mail, courier and express parcels. Cargo consigned directly to
an airline and not via a freight forwarder needs to be dealt with by virtue of the provisions of the
Airline’s Freight Forwarder Security Programme. In the case of airlines, they will also be bound by
the provisions of the National Aviation Security Programme.
H 3 .3 K N O W N S H iP P E R /C O N S IG N O R
A Known Shipper/Consignor is the originator of property for transportation by air for the individual’s
own account, and who has established business with a regulated agent or an airline on the basis of
the following criteria:
• Establishing and registering the individual’s identity and address, as well as the agent authorised
to carry out deliveries on the individual’s behalf.
(c) Protects the consignments against unauthorised interference during preparation, storage and
transportation.
(d) Certifies in writing that the consignment does not contain any prohibited articles as listed in
the ICAO Security Manual — Prohibited Goods.
(e) Accepts that the packaging and contents of the consignment may be examined for security
reasons.
Once a shipper/consignor meets the necessary requirements, the regulated agent may declare the
person or corporation a ‘known shipper/consignor’ and add the name to an official list held by the
agent. The list shows the known shipper/consignor’s name and address.
Cargo from shippers that meet the known shipper/consignor status may be security cleared (accepted)
under certain conditions:
(a) The employee accepting the cargo is satisfied that the person delivering the cargo is or represents
the regular customer.
Cargo from regulated agents may be security cleared (accepted) under the following conditions:
(a) The employee receiving the cargo has examined the regulated agent’s ID of the person delivering
the cargo and there is no sign of tampering with the cargo.
(b) If the consignor delivers, or arranges delivery of the cargo, the employee receiving the cargo
acknowledges it was delivered by the person nominated on a security declaration and there is
no sign of tampering with the cargo.
(c) The regulated agent has provided a security declaration that the cargo has been cleared in
accordance with the Regulated Agents Security Programme.
(d) Another regulated agent has provided a notice that the cargo has been partially cleared (ID
sighted) in accordance with the Regulated Agent’s Security Programme.
Partial cleared cargo shall be deemed to mean cargo not able to be fully cleared by a regulated agent
due to size and shape, heavy volume or equipment breakdown. Another regulated agent (e.g. an
airline) with screening equipment capable of screening the consignment may do so to ensure that
the consignment is fully screened.
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Partially cleared cargo may be accepted from other regulated agents or forwarded to airlines for
security clearance. Details of the partial clearance shall accompany the air waybill. The screening
process may include X-ray, other approved technology or procedures including physical inspection.
It is usual for an appropriate authority to introduce an audit programme for the purpose of examining
compliance with the Regulated Agent’s Security Programme. This should include the physical
inspection of the agent’s premises and an examination of the known shipper/consignor client list and
other documentation.
Valuable cargo is defined in IATA Cargo Services Conference Resolution 012. Generally it includes
gold bullion and other precious metals, precious stones, bank notes, valuable securities, works of
art, etc. Blank airline documents, such as miscellaneous charges orders (MCOs), air waybills (AWBs)
and ticket stock, should also be dealt with as valuable cargo.
Valuable cargo, by the nature of its contents, should be subject to a close inspection on the part of
the airline and checked against the details on the air waybill. The airline should adopt security
measures for handling valuable cargo in cargo terminals, during aircraft loading, unloading and ground
transportation.
Local security regulations should be instituted as the result of a review carried out by the chief security
officer of the airline and the cargo terminal management. This review should be ongoing and take
into consideration various levels of threat in and around the airport. As a general rule, valuable cargo
must be booked with the airline and any special arrangements made for it prior to its acceptance.
Details of value, contents, routing and storage must be kept confidential.
Mail carried on passenger aircraft shall be subjected to security controls by airlines and/or regulated
postal authorities before being placed on board an aircraft. Global postal services are members of
the Universal Postal Union, which, in turn, is a sub-committee of the United Nations (same status as
that of ICAO).
The Universal Postal Union Convention (UPU Convention) sets security standards for the protection
of mail services and specifies the standard of forms to be used for the purpose of forwarding the
mail. Such forms will be completed by the post office.
(b) Such mail bags will be tagged with ‘airmail bag labels’ and secured with the prescribed secure
ties.
(d) A copy of the ‘delivery bill’ will be signed by the airline and returned to the postal authority, other
copies of the document will be retained by the airline as a form ofquittance (proof of payment/
receipt).
A post office, as a member of the UPU, when conducting business with an airline, shall provide
security controls that are acceptable to the ‘appropriate authority’ in respect of mail. The ‘appropriate
authority’ may increase the levels of security involving the carriage of the mail where there is a
heightened threat assessment involving the State, the airline or civil aviation.
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Airlines should take certain actions to ensure the integrity of the mail delivered to an airport mail
centre before loading onto a flight. Those actions are:
(a) Ensure the number of bags stated in the delivery bill coincides with the number bags received
from the postal authority.
(b) Make a visual inspection of the mail bags to ensure they have not been subjected to tampering.
(c) Assure that the integrity of the mail bags and seals should be verified upon the receipt of the
mail.
(e) Ensure that only persons with the necessary form of ID card and a reason to be there be permitted
into the mail storage area.
Documents handed to airlines by post offices or handed over at the point of transfer should be stowed
in the flight portfolio or where flight documents are kept. They should be extracted immediately upon
arrival of the aircraft at its destination.
Although the airline or its agent does not normally have the right to examine the mail, the airline may
refuse uplift during times of increased threat. The mail, which also incorporates ‘registered parcels
and registered letters’, is attractive to a person intent on dishonesty and should be subject to special
security handling from the point of acceptance to the point of delivery.
Those involved in the movement of time definite mail should not provide booking details to shippers
unless they are known shippers/consignors or regulated agents.
H 3 .6 C O U R IE R A N D E X P R E S S P A R C E L C O N S IG N M E N T S
It is usual that courier and express parcel corporations are regulated agents. Such corporations would
be expected to meet the same standards as those of other regulated agents. Courier and express
parcel consignments should have an affixed courier baggage identification label.
Although airlines may have IATA Recommended Security Standards within their programmes, it
should be understood that Member States of ICAO can impose more stringent standards. Individual
standards can differ from State to State, therefore it is necessary for an airline to understand and
interpret the requirements of the States into which it operates.
H 3 .7 UNKNOW N CARGO
The uncontrolled acceptance of cargo from persons unknown to the regulated agent, and its
subsequent carriage on an international passenger carrying aircraft, is a security risk. Although it is
not feasible that all cargo can originate from known shippers, there is a need to control the risk factors
when considering the carriage of the cargo of unknown shippers.
H 3 .8 U N K N O W N S H IP P E R S
Shippers not known to the regulated agent and/or carrier should be called upon to provide proof of
identity and submit the consignment to a prescribed method of screening. Proof of identity will entail
the unknown shipper providing a valid form of identification, which may include:
• A valid passport.
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® The equipment should be regularly maintained and meet manufacturer and other regulatory
specifications.
• The screeners must be competent in screening techniques and be trained to a standard
required by the responsible authority.
® The regulated agent will keep a record of the operatives and their training in screening
techniques.
® Trace detection.
0 And in some cases hold for a specified period of time (e.g. 24 hrs or flight time plus 2 hours,
etc.).
(d) The multiple use of the above means of search may be best to achieve the necessary degree
of satisfaction that the cargo is not a danger for carriage on passenger aircraft.
(e) The search shall be as thorough as possible to verify the consignment is consistent with the
description in the accompanying documents.
(f) Cargo shall be protected against unauthorised interference during preparation, storage and
transportation.
Once the consignment of an unknown shipper is screened to the satisfaction of the Regulated Agent’s
Security Programme, a declaration should accompany the airway bill, which contains all relevant
information. Cargo from unknown shippers may be exempt from screening under special
circumstances. These circumstances will need to be ascribed to by the responsible authority and
should be contained in the Regulated Agent’s Aviation Security Programme. Those circumstances
may include:
® The package weighs less than 450g (16 oz: some States may use a more restrictive limit such
as 250g).
• Livestock, pets or animals (accompanying materials such as feed cages and containers) should
be cleared as prescribed in (a) and (b) above.
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• A diplomatic bag.
• Human remains and necessary packaging, if the shipper/consignor is a bona fide funeral director
and a copy of a death certificate has been examined.
H 3 .9 U N A C C O M P A N IE D B A G G A G E
Unaccompanied Baggage is defined as baggage that is transported as cargo and is not carried on
the same aircraft with the person to whom it belongs. There are obvious dangers in transporting
unaccompanied baggage on passenger carrying aircraft. Stringent standards must be implemented
to overcome these dangers and the shipper/consignor of the baggage will be considered as an
unknown shipper.
The following security measures should be implemented for unaccompanied baggage that is being
shipped as cargo:
e The baggage will be subjected to the same security checks as that of an unknown shipper.
• The shipper/consignor must be the holder of a valid airline ticket to the destination to which the
baggage is directed.
• The baggage will be handled by a regulated agent or directly checked into the cargo terminal of
the airline on which the passenger will travel.
In some cases States may exempt unaccompanied baggage from additional security screening if the
passenger had no control over being separated from their baggage. This is provided the baggage
has been subjected to security screening at origin. IATA Passenger Services Conference Resolution
740 deals with the various forms of baggage tagging which indicates easy identification.
H 3 .1 0 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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C h a p te r I — A ir p o r t A c c e s s
S ection 11: Roads
11.1 General Airport Road Considerations: Introduction....................................... 269
11.2 Environmental and Security Factors Associated with Traffic ....................... 270
11.3 Traffic Data ................... ......................... ........... .................... ........................... 270
11.4 Road System Planning Requirements .... .......................... ................ 271
11.5 Commercial Landside Vehicles ............... ........................ ......... .................. 274
11.6 IATA Recommendations ... .... ........................................................................... 275
Section 12: Rail
12.1 General Considerations .... ............ ............ ............ ........................... .............. 277
12.2 Typology .............................................................. .................... ........................... 277
12.3 Geography and Economics ............ ............ ....................................... . 278
12.4 System Characteristics ............................................... .................................. . 279
12.5 Good Practice .............................. ................................... ....... . 280
12.6 Cargo and Rail ................................. ......................... ........................................ 280
12.7 Objectives and Benefits ............... ........... ..................................... 280
12.8 IATA Recommendations ....... .......... ...................................... ................ 281
Section 13: Interm odality and A irp o rt A ccess
13.1 Principle of Intermodal Travel ...... .............. ............... .................................... 282
13.2 Ferry and Jetfoil Services ............................................................ ..................... 283
13.3 Interfaces ............. ............................................... ............................................. . 285
13.4 IATA Recommendations .................................................................................... 285
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11.1 G E N E R A L A IR P O R T R O A D C O N S ID E R A T IO N S : IN T R O D U C T IO N
Traffic generated by the airport is a major influence on the surrounding environs. The influence
increases with the size and throughput of the airport and its proximity to the built up residential area.
Fast, convenient, economic access is essential for the airport to function properly, but it needs to
impinge on the neighbouring locality with as little disturbance as possible.
At the planning stage, a full analysis of the airport access system is required, with the capacity of
the system needing to match the terminal and airside capacity. Close co-ordination between airport
planners, local planning authorities and local transportation providers is necessary to ensure that
proper and timely provision for the requirements, current and projected, is in the local or regional
transportation plan and in the appropriate capital expenditure programmes.
The demand for ground transportation between the airport and the metropolitan area it serves is
generated by: originating and terminating passengers; meeters and greeters and other visitors
(including those shopping or on business at the airport); airport and airline industry employees; cargo,
express services and mail; and airport support and supply services.
Advance planning is highly important. Surface access development plans should be part of the airport
masterplans and development plans for the surrounding area. The forecast modal split — between
rail-based access and road-based access (private car, taxi, bus and other) — can either be an input
to or an output from these plans. If the airport or local planning authority have a specific target split
for a specific reason, it will be an input: if it emerges from constraints on transport infrastructure
elements, it is more in the nature of an output.
Planning for the road network will need a traffic model to forecast vehicle trips by vehicle type and
their origins and destinations, as well as the peak volumes. From this will come the need for highway
capacity — on access roads, airport roads and on key junctions outside the airport.
11.1.1 R e s p o n s ib ilitie s
Responsibilities for access provision can be divided, and can rest with organisations other than the
airport authority. Hence there is the potential for a clash of priorities on the timing of capacity provision.
This needs to be taken into account, and appropriate steps should be taken to ensure that construction
off and on the airport is co-ordinated as failure to do so will constrain capacity. Funding is another
area where responsibilities may be divided and, particularly if the airport has been privatised, local
authorities may look on it as source of capital funding. How far the funding needs of non-airport traffic
should be met by the airport authority is a matter for local debate and agreement.
11.1.2 O b je c tiv e s
The objective of surface improvements needs to be accepted and understood. It can be to encourage
a particular modal split (and therefore the use of public transport rather than the car), improved links
to terminals (enhancing the attractiveness of the airport for passenger or cargo traffic), or merely
accommodating growth in demand. The objective, especially if it is the first, needs to be an integral
part of the masterplan.
Surface access links are best improved in an integrated way, and in a way which furthers the objective.
The most successful plans are those which improve access for both public and private modes, both
road and non-road. The design of all of the facilities needs to recognise the alternatives of minimising
capital expenditure, minimising running costs, or minimising construction time. An appropriate balance
is needed in this regard.
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As surface access is upgraded, increased use of public transport should be encouraged by making
it as widely available and as attractive as possible in terms of speed, image, reliability, convenience,
safety, comfort and cost. The transportation network provided for access will also be attractive to non
airport users. In the planning stage, this needs full consideration, namely: will all demands be met,
or will the design and the pricing structure be geared to discouraging non-airport traffic?
Within the airport boundary, traffic is generated by the airport itself. The amount will vary in nature
and volume with the size and type of airport. It will include transfer passengers where there is more
than one terminal, and adequate transfer systems (moving walkways, buses and shuttles, automated
people movers) need to be evaluated and developed.
11.2 E N V IR O N M E N T A L A N D S E C U R IT Y F A C T O R S A S S O C IA T E D W IT H
T R A F F IC
Measures to meet surface access requirements should balance the need for capacity with
environmental and security concerns, at both local and global levels. The airport can only grow with
the consent of its neighbours, who have legitimate concerns about pollution, noise and congestion.
Airport access traffic is a significant part of local traffic: ground traffic is responsible for a significant
part of the total pollution from the airport. Separate road access for passenger and cargo facilities
may be beneficial.
Electric or low emission vehicles should be considered for on-airport traffic and for aircraft servicing.
Off-airport consolidation of deliveries has also been successfully used to reduce traffic. Road design
can reduce noise, severance and congestion impacts, and pedestrian routes which are designed in
a way which encourages their use are more beneficial than those merely designed to minimise the
interaction between foot and wheeled traffic.
Security concerns may restrict vehicular access. A general rule of thumb is that unexamined vehicles
should not be allowed to park within 300 feet (100 metres) of a terminal building, although this may
be modified according to the specific design of the terminal (would it be screened from a blast from
a bomb in a car park, or conversely are there large exposed areas of highly lethal glass?). Such
considerations are less relevant with public transport access: passengers on public transport are far
more likely to be under surveillance than car drivers, and have a far lower capacity for bringing in
bombs. The movement of public transport vehicles is also far less predictable and far less controllable
by terrorists than cars.
Modal split policy should ideally result from a cost benefit analysis with the objective of providing the
most convenient service at the lowest total cost for the community and for the users.
11.3 T R A F F IC D A T A
A significant proportion of airport ground transport demand is from originating and terminating
passengers. However as a rule of thumb, there are about 1000 employees for each million passengers
through the airport each year, and each employee makes around 10 trips a week. So a million
passengers equates to approximately 4000 passenger trips and 2000 employee trips a day. Employee
traffic volumes and peaks will reflect on-airport employment situations; for instance, is it only related
to day to day operations, or is there, for example, a major maintenance facility? Is it strongly peaked
by time of day, days of the week, or season of the year? Is there a curfew or is it a 24 hour airport?
Delivery traffic can be significant especially if the airport has a large retail and catering operation.
Cargo traffic will vary with the amount of cargo through the airport, and much air cargo, especially
short haul, travels by surface mode anyway.
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Meeters and greeters may create a significant amount of traffic, according to local custom: shoppers,
spotters, sightseers and business partners all contribute too. On-airport traffic — hotel and car rental
courtesy vehicles, transfer passengers — can also be significant. If the airport is a public transport
interchange point, or a convenient park and ride point, there can also be large volumes of non-airport
traffic.
11.3.1 D a ta R e q u ire d
For calculations of passenger-related vehicular traffic and the resulting facilities and capacity needed,
the design year average day and peak hour forecasts will provide figures for volumes of originating
and terminating passengers, as well as for transfer passengers for inter- and intra-terminal traffic. To
estimate volumes of vehicular passenger traffic entering or leaving the airport, there is a need for
forecasts of:
• Arrival rates for arriving and departing passengers for the average day of the peak month. Peak
hour and peak minute information may also be required. Factors can be applied to each vehicular
mode if necessary: for example the number of goods vehicles or buses, which take up more
space than cars, may need to be weighted more than cars and taxis.
• The percentage of passengers by type of vehicle (park and ride, kiss and ride, taxi, bus, rail,
water) to determine the transport mix.
• Meeters and greeters — which can be significant according to the local culture and customs.
• Occupancy of each vehicle (occupants: car) relevant for vehicle numbers and curb requirements.
Total passenger related vehicle trips by mode can be estimated and added to other trips to determine
peak hour, peak day and annual vehicle volumes. This is needed for planning the size and number
of entry and exit points, the airport road requirements, and taxi queue and hold space. If this volume
cannot feasibly or economically be accommodated, there is a need to re-plan — perhaps for a better
share for public transport.
In general, short term parking (less than 8 hours) should be reasonably close to the terminals Long
term (over 8 hours) can be remote, with shuttle bus or people mover access. Pricing policies can
have interesting and sometimes unintended effects: increasing car park charges to improve the use
of public transport and decrease car trips, for instance, can backfire by encouraging kiss and ride
(4 trips) rather than park and ride (2 trips).
Incentives are needed. For example, ensuring that passengers leaving terminals see the train station
before they see car parking and taxi/car hire areas is a valuable indicator of the priority the airport
ascribes to the rail mode. Much of the necessary information can only be obtained from surveys —
of passengers, employees, cargo handlers and support services.
11.4 R O A D S Y S T E M P L A N N IN G R E Q U IR E M E N T S
Planning of airport roads, especially for high volume airports, is a specialised subject and expert
advice should be sought. At all airports there will be public (landside) roads open to all traffic, and
non-public (airside) service roads restricted to authorised vehicles (for cargo, catering, maintenance,
fire and rescue, fuel, baggage, security and the like).
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At large airports, it is preferable to separate service-related traffic long before arriving at the passenger
terminal curbside area. This results in a double network of roads: those for passengers, visitors and
probably employees; and those for delivery of goods, services, cargo, kitchen supplies and so on.
11.4.1 P u b lic (L a n d s id e ) A ir p o r t R o a d s
The landside road system serves a number of categories of traffic, namely:
® Passengers.
• Private cars.
® Taxis.
® Shuttle and courtesy vehicles for hotels, car rental and car parks.
0 All public roads should be clearly signposted. Clearly visible signs should be positioned on the
roads and on the terminal curbside areas well in advance of desired destinations to allow drivers
to make any necessary changes without abrupt changes of lane and direction. Signs should be
properly lighted for night use, and lettering and background colours should enhance clarity and
visibility. Messages should be concise, quickly identifiable and easily understood. Colour coding
for multiple terminals, for specific airlines, or for major facilities like car parks, is recommended.
0 Links between the external public road system and the non-public or service road system should
be planned carefully in order to avoid either congestion or reductions in the potential for future
expansion.
® Main through roads should bypass the road along the face of the terminal building.
o Roads running along the face of the terminal building should be wide enough to permit passing
of stopped vehicles and should have a minimum of three lanes. These should be wide enough
to allow space for loading and unloading bags.
0 There should be no access to the apron, taxiways or runways from public roads.
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« Where the public road system accommodates service vehicles, it should connect with terminals
for delivery of goods at designated locations only.
• Roads connected to cargo areas must have sufficient height and clearances to accommodate
existing and projected cargo carrying vehicles.
• At large airports, special lanes may be reserved for high-occupancy vehicles, and the curbside
area should segregate buses and taxis (inner lanes) from private vehicles (outer lanes).
• Provision should be made for a future people mover system (note that such systems can be
elevated above highways).
• Adequate facilities for two-wheeled vehicles should be provided: secure parking spaces should
be available near work areas and public transport stops. Safety can be improved by the provision
of a segregated network for two wheeled or un-powered vehicles.
• Specialist vehicles like tow tractors or main deck loaders are not normally operated on public
roads but are used extensively airside. Occasionally they are required to operate on landside roads
and therefore proper consideration should be given to their non-standard physical dimensions.
• Access to the non-public road network must be effectively restricted to service vehicles directly
linked with aircraft handling activities.
• The service roads must be capable of accepting ULD transporter equipment between the cargo
terminal and the aircraft.
• Adequate bearing strength, height clearances and turning radii must be provided to accommodate
existing and projected service and ground support equipment, including tow tractors, where
applicable.
• Airport service roads should have a minimum width of 10m, preferably 12m, and a clearance
height of 4.2m, but preferably 4.6m. The latter is of particular concern with regard to service
roads directly located in front of parking positions which pass under sections of the terminal
building and/or passenger loading bridges. It should be noted that the figures provided are design
guidelines and should be adjusted to the local situation prevailing at the specific airport concerned.
Service roads should be designed to accommodate self-propelled equipment with a swept turn
radius of at least 8m.
• Adequate separation in accordance with ICAO Annex 14 must be provided from runways, taxiways
or other areas where aircraft manoeuvre.
• Where necessary, adequate roadway width to permit overtaking of slow-moving ground support
equipment must be provided.
In planning for airside road systems it must be recognized that many restrictions exist especially in
those areas where aircraft ground handling activities are in progress. Safety and security aspects
together with the special needs of slow traffic (e.g. tugs and dollies), wide and very high vehicles, all
need to be taken into account. Exclusive use of part of the system by some categories may be
necessary. Special attention should be given to:
• Ground handling equipment, which should be moved via service roads and not across aprons.
Designated handling and parking areas should be properly marked. The size of aircraft loaders,
passenger buses, mobile lounges, fire fighting equipment and fuel tankers may require special
arrangements for manoeuvring and storage.
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• Aircraft tow tractors may have to operate at right angles to service roads. Special provisions may
be necessary.
• Between the front of the aircraft stand and the terminal building.
Each location has its advantages and disadvantages. Since a lot of operational activity tends to occur
around the forward portion of the aircraft, a frontal service road is sometimes preferred. However the
disadvantage with this type of service road is that the clearance height necessary to allow certain
types of service vehicles, i.e. aircraft catering, to pass underneath may create a major problem with
the height or slope of the passenger boardng bridge or the elevation of the departure gate lounge.
When the service road is located in front of the terminal building adequate room must be provided
for the aircraft push-back tractor to manoeuvre, i.e. the tractor which is at 90° must not encroach into
the service road. However this often occurs and traffic congestion on the service road follows.
Though not a recommended solution by IATA, it may therefore be in certain instances more
advantageous to locate the service road to the rear of the aircraft stands. In this case the service
road should be very clearly marked and must not be allowed to infringe on apron taxiway operations.
Proper clearance must be defined and maintained from the rear of the aircraft to the service road to
the apron taxiway. Rear service roads will involve traffic coming off the service road past the aircraft
wings and engines when approaching the front of the aircraft. Movement around aircraft wings, etc.,
must be done with extreme caution.
11 »5 C O M M E R C IA L L A N D S ID E V E H IC L E S
11 .5.1 T a x is
The requirement to provide a continual supply of taxis to the arrivals curbside loading area can be
accommodated by creating a taxi pool staging area. This needs to be reasonably close to the terminal
area, and provision for orderly staging and sequential dispatch of taxis to the curb is necessary. A
means of alerting drivers to the need for taxis at the curb (and, in multi-terminal airports, which curb),
is also needed.
• Charter and tour buses need dedicated curb space. This is often provided at the end of the
terminals or in a dedicated transportation centre. There is also a need for waiting and parking
space, ideally with some form of communication for drivers meeting inbound passengers.
• Hotel shuttles. These also need dedicated curb space for loading and unloading, and facilities
for waiting passengers (including phones for communications with hotels). In order to reduce on-
airport traffic, some airports have consolidated hotel shuttles into a number of fixed route services,
each one serving a number of local hotels.
• Long distance buses and coaches. These are usually accommodated at a dedicated transportation
centre. This can be a valuable facility for local residents, who generally are more likely to need
a bus than a plane. A dedicated transportation centre needs a good walking route or a people
mover to the terminals.
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• Local buses. These are particularly valuable for employees. A number of airports have provided
a direct subsidy, start-up funding, or assistance with marketing for buses on core routes, especially
those operating 24 hours a day. Some are demand-responsive, deviating from a fixed route if
pre-booked — a useful answer to personal security concerns. Some airports have introduced
free or discounted travel schemes for employees to reduce car traffic and to increase their pool
of labour. The reputation of the airport depends in part on the quality of (often low paid) retail
and cleaning staff, and increasing the ability of all shifts to get to work at an acceptable price is
useful. A few large airports have negotiated free-fare zones around the airport to encourage
employees to use the bus for travel between on-airport sites (for example to meetings) rather
than to use a car.
11 »6 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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12.1 G E N E R A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
In the planning stage, a full analysis of the airport rail access system is required: the capacity of the
system needs to match the terminal and airside capacity. Close co-ordination between airport planners,
local planning authorities and local transportation providers is necessary to ensure that proper and
timely provision for the requirements, current and projected, is in the local or regional transportation
plan and in the appropriate capital expenditure programmes.
The demand for rail ground transportation between the airport and the metropolitan area it serves is
generated by: originating and terminating passengers; meeters and greeters and other visitors
(including those shopping or on business at the airport); airport and airline industry employees; cargo,
express services and mail; and airport support and supply services.
Advance planning is highly important. Surface rail access development plans should be part of the
airport masterplans and development plans for the surrounding area. The forecast modal split —
between rail based access and road based access (private car, taxi, bus and other), can either be
an input to or an output from these plans.
12.2 TYPO LO G Y
• Metro rail.
• Light rail.
The characteristics of each type should be reviewed to decide which is best for the transfer processes
in hand. Each type has evolved to meet local requirements.
The most common types of metro rail system are the subway, metro extension or station on a local
commuter network. These are particularly good for employee access (because they are usually part
of a network serving residential areas, and because the fare structure is geared to frequent travellers).
An advantage to the railway operator is that many employees — and air passengers — travel out of
or against the local peaks and therefore make good use of the spare capacity inherent in a commuter
operation.
However some North American variants of commuter rail only have a few peak trips in the peak
direction only. Clearly this is unsuited to airport traffic and an expansion of service (to both directions,
reverse commute, and trips throughout the day) would be required.
This type is less good for air passengers — especially those travelling long haul, with much baggage.
There may not be appropriate accommodation on the trains, and the airport needs to be alert for
problems and to be ready to liaise if necessary with the transport provider. There is a need for balance
between providing seats and providing baggage accommodation: sensible compromises are possible.
For example, a number of railways provide some vehicles with an open area with tip-up seats, usable
for seating in the peak and for baggage, bikes and strollers/buggies out of peaks.
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12.2.2 H ig h S p e e d D e d ic a te d
The most popular type among passengers is the high quality dedicated airport express. There are
about a dozen of these around the world, characterised by high speed limited stop services, and
trains with a business class ambience and purpose built luggage accommodation. In some cases
these provide in-town check-in. Many make a commitment to punctuality and reliability, with a scheme
offering compensation for delays. In a number of cases, the timetable is such that there is always a
train waiting for passengers — they can wait for departure in the train rather than on the platform.
12.2.3 R e g io n a l
A regional rail service is valuable for increasing the airport catchment area as it can feed in traffic
from nearby towns and cities. Frequency may be an issue, especially at hub airports; because trains
serve a larger market than the airport, timings may not suit the classic hub and spoke operation with
waves of inbound and outbound connecting flights.
12.2.4 L ig h t R ail
Light rail is increasingly becoming a solution to the airport access problem, although as with suburban
and metro systems it is more suited to employees than air passengers due to the types of rail carriages
provided and their ability to deal with cumbersome baggage. However those passengers with only
hand baggage especially may find its penetration into the conurbation valuable.
12.3 G E O G R A P H Y A N D E C O N O M IC S
All types of rail access require investment plus the correct geography. If a rail line runs nearby, how
easy would it be to connect it to the airport? If there is not an existing railway nearby, how can rail
best be used to access the conurbation centre? New construction is costly and significant new build
would require either a large airport or long distances from the centre (where the speed advantage is
most beneficial) to justify the outlay. But when built, it can be highly attractive — rail has a better
image than bus and is therefore more efficient in changing modal share. A key lesson is that it needs
to go where people want to go — although if the airport is big enough and the service good enough,
commercial development will be attracted to the city terminal area, making it a destination in its own
right.
The economic viability of different types of public transport — bus, light and heavy rail — will vary
with the size of the market, local transportation policy and the nature of the market:
• If the majority of users live locally, for example, they will be more likely to know about the public
transport alternatives but are more likely to have a car available.
• If the majority are inbound tourists they will not have a car available.
9 If the majority are on inclusive tours, they are more likely to have buses pre-arranged for onward
travel.
The potential market share for public transport can be as high as 50%, although this needs dedication
and excellence — not least in marketing. Travel time on a dedicated high speed link can be significantly
lower than on any other mode, and reliability significantly higher. A high public transport modal share
leads to reduced congestion, noise and pollution, reduced need to invest in new parking facilities,
and increased landside road capacity generally.
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(ii) The speed and frequency of the train operations required to meet the demand,
Facilities include:
• Baggage trolleys. This can be an issue between the railway and airport. For understandable
safety reasons, train companies prefer those where the brake is on unless released by a user.
Many airports prefer those where the user is actually required to apply the brake when necessary.
• Accommodation for change of level can include moving walkways, although here and on escalators
trolley policy needs to be considered. Convenience and safety need to be balanced. Lifts/elevators
are valuable especially for those with reduced mobility: they need to be designed to carry a
stretcher if necessary. Ideally a choice should be provided — some people are claustrophobic
in lifts.
• Check-in, away from the platforms but on the natural route from the platforms to the terminals,
is valuable. It will facilitate passenger circulation and relieve stress by disencumbering them of
their bags as early as possible. It reduces the need for trolleys and for circulation space on the
route to the terminals, and may even reduce the need for check-in space in the terminals.
• In-town check-in — and in-town check-out — needs to be considered for the downtown terminal
or at major interchanges. The facilities can range from self-service machines for those with just
hand baggage via baggage drop systems, to full hold baggage check-in. Although these
alternatives are popular among passengers, so far the economic case for them has been difficult
to make. Everyone benefits, but matching the flow of costs and the flow of benefits can be difficult.
Certainly baggage is a significant element in choice of modal split: the presence or otherwise of
bags is a key determinant of mode choice (another is the need to change vehicle, although the
weight to be attached to this is a matter of debate and varies with the market).
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Many high speed dedicated services charge a premium fare to reflect the premium product they are
providing. There is little significant customer resistance to this, especially if there is a choice of rail
service and especially if the airport has a high proportion of business users (who value their time
highly). A premium fare for a non-premium service — cashing in on a captive market — does lead
to customer resentment and resistance.
Except in special cases (code-sharing, and airports with limited numbers of flights) it is not generally
worthwhile attempting to co-ordinate flight times with train times. There is an unpredictable amount
of time between the scheduled flight arrival time and arriving passengers finding the train — flights
can arrive early or late, and the need to reclaim baggage and complete arrival formalities are key
factors. It is better to provide good information and a frequent service — at least hourly for regional
and high speed network, every 10 — 15 minutes for high speed dedicated and more frequent still
for metro, suburban and light rail.
12.6 C A R G O A N D R A IL
The scope for the use of rail for air cargo varies. Rail is well suited to carrying high bulk, low value
products like building materials — and most airports are building sites.
Rail is valuable for bringing in fuel, where the choice is often between a pipeline (highly capital
intensive but with low running costs) and a railway (lower capital cost, higher running cost).
The use for pure air cargo is more complex. There have been few successes, usually where air cargo
and domestic cargo can be consolidated on a single train. There is rarely enough air cargo between
two points to cover the costs of a dedicated rail service: it needs to be combined and this tends to
need the skills of a consolidator.
1 2 .7 O B J E C T IV E S A N D B E N E F IT S
A good rail system will ease the journeys of passengers and employees, willreduce traffic on access
roads and the airport road system, reduce the need for car parkinvestment, and help the local
environment by reductions in pollution, congestion, noise and severance.
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• State of readiness from competing taxi and bus infrastructure and degree of market sales
share likely.
• Assessment of travel times for all comparative modes of transport during normal and peak
times.
The environmental impact o f providing or not providing a rail system should be evaluated. The
effects to the local community in either situation should be established and informed decisions
made accordingly.
I2JR3 Promotion off Rail Services over Conventional Modes off Transport
Rail services should aim to attract staff and the travelling public by providing both cost effective
and convenient travel to and from airport facilities through the operational day and night periods
• Have the capability with further investment in some cases to meet the operational requirements
o f the airport for the next 30 years.
* Meet the needs of the passengers and the local community on opening,
o Offer in-town or remote hotel check-in coordination, providing mechanisms, systems and
railway carriages dedicated for moving and handling passenger check-in baggage and hand
cabin sized baggage.
® Design systems which interact with one another thereby providing passengers seamless
transition from the rail system to the airport environment
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13.1 P R IN C IP L E O F IN T E R M O D A L T R A V E L
Passenger and staff travel via car to the airport is both attractive and convenient. Intermodal travel,
which in this context means the principle of using one or more modes of transport to supplement the
single mode of vehicular transport travel to and from the airport complex, is actively promoted by
IATA. It is advantageous to the short and long term aspirations of airports to progress plans of
intermodal travel, since it offers the airport complex the following advantages:
• Passenger and staff car parking facilities become far less onerous in size and complexity.
• The resulting volume of road traffic and the environment impacted upon is lessened.
® Car parking road space saved can be used for expansion plans by the airport operator.
13.1.1 In c e n tiv e s S c h e m e s
It is difficult to change the mindset of passengers and staff, who often own expensive cars, to forego
the convenience of their own vehicles for multiple modes of public transport to get to and from the
airport. Clearly, to make this change viable, certain incentives should be made as a policy for the
travelling staff and public:
• Staff traveling at peak times could be offered discounted rail travel as an incentive.
• Staff which sign up to airport managed car sharing schemes could be given priority parking
positions closer to the airport. Care is needed with these schemes to ensure that vehicles have
the correct level of maintenance and insurance coverage.
® Passengers could be offered total door to door services with the use of integrated taxi and train
ticket packages.
13.1.2 D is in c e n tiv e S c h e m e s
Similarly, to make this change viable, certain disincentives should also be made policy for staff
travelling to and from the airport complex:
• Passenger parking rates can be raised (though there are realistic limits to this, as high rates can
ultimately deter passenger from travelling via aircraft).
• Staff car parks can be located on the airport perimeter, rather than close to passenger short and
long term car parks, with bus links to the terminal.
• Staff APM car parking facilities can be offered to staff, but only with a payment.
• Other bonus schemes can be developed providing staff with a financial incentive to leave the
APM car at home.
13.1.3 D e v e lo p in g a n In te rm o d a l S tra te g y
The airport operator must work with the local community, as well as with local transport companies that
support the operational airport, to ensure together that a network and fare structure is advantageous to
staff and passengers.
The key attributes of well developed intermodal airport strategies can include:
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• A strategy than aligns with the masterplan aspirations for the developing and expanding airport
operation.
13.2 F E R R Y A N D J E T F O IL S E R V IC E S
This is valuable for airport access where water exists and where the geography is favourable. There
is often little congestion and it is a popular way to get around — especially with tourists. Boats, ferries
and hovercraft are even efficient for crossing estuaries or significant volumes of water. It is important
to include and consider all potential modes of transport to and from the airport and, where facets of
the airport perimeter are waterways, the use of these facilities can be a favourable option for reducing
road and rail traffic.
Since ferry and jetfoil services require little infrastructure and no track, they are often a cheaper
alternative to rail or road provision but should not be considered as options on there own. The effects
of tides, adverse currents and weather can have a negative affect on services, and supplementary
road and rail access provisions should be the primary mode of transport, especially for airports where
passenger traffic exceeds 1MPPA.
Ferry and Jetfoil services should be co-ordinated and controlled by harbour masters and suitable
water navigational services, incorporating equipment to aid safe travel to and from the airport complex.
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Europe
Amsterdam 15 yes 10 4 7,685,000 9,000,000 33% 4% 16% 46% 3 29,900
Brussels 12 yes 20 4 2,342,816 13% 2% 20% 54% 11% 6 9,900
Copenhagen 8 yes 12 6 3,000,000 3,500,000 37% 4% 33% 26% 13 6,550
Frankfurt 15 yes 10 4 to 6 3,076,000 27% 6% 19% 47% 2 36,500
London G w 46 yes 30 4 21% 9% 17% 50% 3% 4 27,000
London Hrw 24 yes 16 4 8,800,000 22% 12% 26% 39% 1% 9 18,220
Madrid 13 yes 12 12 4,000,000 6,000,000 14% 7% 40% 33% 6% 13 15,217
Manchester 15 yes 13 6 1,350,000 2,200,000 6% 11% 28% 55% 10 17,461
Munich 30 yes 40 6 28% 7% 12% 53% 37 31,500
Paris CDG 27 yes 29 4 9,548,248 aeoo,ooo 20% 10% 37% 30% 7 15,970
Paris ORY 14 yes 34 5 2,945,401 13% 16% 27% 43% 7 14,891
Rome 25 ves 35 15 27% 5% 32% 36% 16,500
Stockholm 35 yes 20 4 2,500,000 2,500,000 15% 17% 16% 27% 25% 5 16,000
Zurich 11 yes 10 12 7,000,000 8,000,0CX3 4200% 5% 10% 40% 3% 7 20,000
North America
Manta 18 yes 15 15 12% 6% 52% 30% 5
Baltirrore 23 yes 34 3 283,660 379,860 1% 14% 7% 77% 1% 9 25,400
QicagoOFC) 29 yes 46 6 4% 8% 21% 65% 5 43,127
Cindnati re 0% 1% 98% 2 11,500
Dallas 28 no 33% 12% 55% 20 31,100
Denver 35 no 40 25% 5% 70% 5 27,400
HondlÉU 6 no 5% 10% 80% 5% 15 7,®»
Las Vegas 3 no 10% 50% 40% 4 12,868
Los Angeles 24 yes 45 12 0% 16% 13% 71% 25,653
Marni 11 no 20 0% 21% 23% 56% 2 7,650
Mnneapdis 9 no 9% 10% 81% 5 16,800
Newark 26 yes 40 4 290,000 6% 4% 29% 60% 1% 8 20,000
NY JFK 24 yes 60 4 800,000 3,800,000 2% 8% 42% 46% 2% 8 12,000
NY La guancia 15 no 7% 52% 41% 8 10,400
Orlando 15 re 23% 8% 69% 6 18,800
San Francisco 20 no 28 8% 11% 51% 30% 536
Seattle 19 no 1% 3% 58% 38% 1 11,232
Toronto 27 no 14% 32% 54% 4 18,788
Asia-Pacific
Bankok 24 yes 3 9.024
Beijing 25 no 34% 35% 31% 1 5,616
Hong Kong 34 yes 23 6 24% 33% 15% 28% 5 4,200
Osaka 38 yes 29 10 15,000,030 44% 14% 40% 5,533
Seoul 17 yes 55 3 6,502,124 30% 35% 6% 29% 7 6,460
Sydney 8 yes 10 6 to 12 8% 18% 16% 51% 7% 5 7,573
Tokyo W O 20 yes 16 20
Tokyo NRT 66 yes 60 7,400,000 25 8,405
Latin America
Mexico City [ 0 vc* | i5 | 5 1 j | 10% | 15% f 25% T 50%Ì | 4 j 5,902
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13.3 IN T E R F A C E S
13.3.1 C a rs B u s e s A n d T a x is
Private cars, taxis and buses will need to interface with the terminals at the curbside. A major issue
is curbside capacity and the potential for congestion, as well as the avoidance of queues and accidents.
• Departures passengers drop off — accommodating park and ride bus schemes.
• Arriving passengers pick up — temporary stop on load and go areas for cars and taxis.
It is essential that signage is clear to all passengers and that simple routes to and from the areas
dedicated to the above functions are adequately sized and positioned. Buses usually use fixed
stopping points: there is a need to ensure that these are reasonably convenient for terminals.
It is advantageous to accommodate taxi standby parking remotely (off airport) and provide a dedicated
holding area for taxis so that the terminal complex does not become congested with competing taxi
traffic. Taxis can be controlled into the airport complex by on-demand flow management processes.
This ensures the taxi areas are adequately supplied with taxis at the correct time and that all taxi
companies with licences to operate at the private airport have equal opportunity to pick up fares. The
major advantage of controlling taxi traffic flow is that emergency vehicles have unhindered access
to the airport frontage at times of emergency, and that security can be monitored appropriately.
13=4 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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C h a p te r J — P a s s e n g e r T e rm in a l
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J1.1 G E N E R A L IN T R O D U C T IO N
The main objective of this chapter is to identify the principal considerations in planning the passenger
terminal complex, to describe the factors which can impact on the passenger experience and level
of service provided, and to offer criteria and terms for evaluation of the inputs necessary for the
planning process.
The terminal building, and its surrounding apron, is the primary processing interface that lies between
the various modes of surface access and airside infrastructure systems; i.e. taxiways and runways.
The level of satisfaction gained while passing through the structure when departing, transferring or
arriving will, to a large extent, impact on the willingness of the passenger to repeat the experience
of flying through that country and airport again. The experience gained will also in part influence the
passenger’s view of the airline flown, as the two are inextricably linked.
From a passenger’s viewpoint, base expectations rarely exceed the provision of quick, easy and
comfortable transfers from one point in the terminal to another. Building aesthetics, while important,
are just one of many factors that have secondary influence on the overall terminal experience.
To the airline the terminal building is a much more complex facility. The speed in which their passengers
are processed is fundamental to their overall operational effectiveness. While airlines can control
delays attributable to check-in and (to some extent) on time departures and arrivals, they must also
be prepared for any possible variance with respect to passenger processing at customs and passport
control.
To many airport authorities the terminal building is the vehicle by which they can extract valued
revenue from the airport users; namely the airlines and their passengers. While the airlines recognise
and accept that a degree of commercialisation is required, particularly if this is implemented within
a ‘single till’ user charges framework, they have difficulty in coming to terms with facilities that have
the ability to adversely impact on the efficiency or effectiveness of their routine operations, or that
detract from the airport level of service anticipated by their passengers.
Finally, to many consultants and airport authorities, the terminal building can be viewed as an
exceptionally complicated piece of airport infrastructure which is difficult to analyse and plan. It should
not be viewed this way. The following basic considerations, if used and applied properly, will contribute
to the alleviation of many potential problems.
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J 1 .2 T E R M IN A L C O N C E P T
J 1 .2.1 B a s ic C o n s id e ra tio n s
The design of passenger terminals must be related closely to the run way/taxi way system, apron
configuration and the airport access system. The requirements of the major airline users should be
fully understood. The base carrier and/or airline alliance group strategies should be equally evaluated
and considered. This will play an important role in the layout and flexibility of the airport terminal
building. The types and category of aircraft that can be accommodated by the runway system will
dictate the permissible terminal concept layouts. The terminal concept will also relate closely to the
type of airline and passenger business markets proposing to use the facility.
The overall extent and location of the terminal building will be governed by the ultimate development
potential of the airport, as contained within the airport’s master plan. The size of the individual phases
leading up to the ultimate development stage is determined through an analysis of the schedules of all
the airlines serving the airport, their annual movements, the average passenger per aircraft movement
measurement and the resultant total peak hour flows for departing, transfer and arriving passengers.
As developed further in this chapter, certain basic criteria should be observed in the planning of
passenger terminals and the selection of a terminal concept. The criteria include those considerations
outlined below.
• Primary & centralised holding areas; i.e. the main departure lounge.
• Secondary & dispersed holding areas; i.e. finger piers and/or satellites containing gate hold rooms.
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In order to simplify the process as much as possible, the number of choices available needs to be
reduced to an absolute minimum; e.g. one passenger terminal complex. In this way passengers and
their meeters and greeters have no alternatives to choose from. Consider the difficulties inherent in
facilities where passengers have multiple terminal departure variables to choose from at a single
airport.
Passenger orientation within the terminal can be greatly enhanced by adopting a transparent building
philosophy. There is no simpler way to orientate passengers than to allow them to see their final
terminal destination. For departing or transfer passengers this means partial or unobstructed views
of aircraft. For arriving passengers this means sight lines towards land-side surface access systems
and/or meeter/greeter areas. The clear glass approach can only be applauded in this respect.
Passengers can be effectively led from one area to another through the passenger handling process
without the need for extensive and expensive signage systems. Directional information should only
be needed to support ancillary facilities that m ay be aw ay from the prim ary, clearly evident circulation
routes; i.e. to information/transfer counters, to CIP lounges, to toilets and associated support functions,
etc.
Passengers should not be subjected to changes in direction greater than 90 degrees and should not
be made to perform repeated 90 degree turns within a short distance. In no instance should passengers
have to backtrack or walk against passenger flows.
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At all times where departing and arriving passengers are with hold baggage they should be provided
with assistance in the form of baggage trolleys. Terminal systems (lifts, escalators and moving
walkways) should permit passenger movement without the need to off-load and reload trolleys when
changing levels. They should also permit other passengers to overtake, with or without baggage
trolleys.
On the airside of the passenger terminal complex, baggage trolleys should be smaller, more user
friendly and reflect the need to only carry permitted cabin baggage. They should be capable of being
accommodated within all concession outlets.
Passenger flow routes should not be deliberately manipulated such that they are redirected through
concession areas, especially when shorter, more direct routes are possible. Passengers who wish
to make quick, easy and direct routings through terminals should be allowed to do so. Dedicated
fast-track procedures, especially for premium traffic, may be warranted.
In extreme cases, where difficult site conditions, existing operations or building structures leave no
alternative, then multiple level changes are certainly required and should be achieved by unbroken
escalators. Multiple escalators deliberately designed and configured to route passengers through
concession areas should not be viewed as good practice.
Parking structures and bus and rail interchange stations should be well lit, with short, direct, easily-
observed links to terminal buildings. Payment areas and/or cash dispensing outlets should be easily
recognised and be located within the main terminal building. Remote and isolated payment stations
should not be considered.
Unlicensed taxi operators should be discouraged from soliciting business within the airport’s boundary
where practically possible and culturally acceptable. Standardized fares for city centres and
surrounding areas for all modes of transport should be regulated and clearly visible.
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This is particularly important where piers and satellites (that achieve segregation by positioning arriving
and departing passengers on separate levels) also afford the opportunity to airport authorities to
achieve a high degree of flexibility — especially when needing to serve different markets and/or
percentages of traffic types at differing times of the same day.
For more detailed information on passenger security and screening considerations, please refer to
Chapters H and K in this manual.
J1.2.1.11 Centralisation
In the process of planning a terminal concept, airport authorities and/or their consultants must
determine the degree of centralisation of the processing activity required, or the degree that can be
accommodated by the base carrier, alliance partnerships and other carriers.
In centralised concepts all the major components — including surface access systems, passenger
processing and baggage handling systems — are all located in a single passenger terminal complex,
independent of any particular traffic segment. In this type of configuration airlines and alliances can
avoid unnecessary duplication of activities, common facilities can be shared and associated CAPEX
and level-of-user charges can therefore be reduced.
As the degree of centralisation decreases the individual components become more dispersed, with
functions spread out over a number of self-contained centres. In a completely decentralised concept,
all of the processing facilities are developed on an individual gate basis.
J 1 .3 M A J O R F U N C T IO N A L A R E A S
J1 .3.1 C u rb
(See Chapter Q for details).
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Check-in Facilities
For maximum flexibility, space should be allocated for two inter-linked take-away belts within each
check-in island. Each belt should be capable of supporting up to 20 desks (maximum). The two
reversible belts should be linked by means of a 180-degree turn, thereby providing maximum flexibility
and a high degree of redundancy (should feed conveyors with the BHS fail or be off-line for maintenance
or repair).
Check-in facilities should also take into account the needs of passengers travelling on e-tickets. Self-
service counters need to be conveniently located, with some requiring direct feeds for self tagged
bags onto baggage conveyors. See sections J9 and U2 for further details.
Airline Offices
Airline passenger processing support offices are required in close proximity to the check-in area. The
amount of space required by each airline and/or handling agency will vary depending upon such
factors as the volume of traffic or the type of handling service performed. Airlines will also require
additional administrative offices, which may be located in other areas of the terminal but with convenient
access to the passenger processing areas. Airline support offices are also required in the airside
concourses close to their aircraft operation areas.
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• Number of peak hour departing passengers (including the number of transfer passengers not
processed airside).
• Level of service required, including area allowed per passenger and permissible max. queuing
time.
• Visitor-to-passenger ratio.
• Average processing time.
J 1 .3 .3 B a g g a g e H a n d lin g S y s te m s
See Chapter U for details.
J 1 .3 .4 P a s s p o rt C o n tro l — O u tb o u n d & In b o u n d
See Chapter K for details.
J 1 .3 .5 S e c u rity P o s itio n s
See Chapter H for details.
J 1 .3 .6 D e p a rtu re L o u n g e s
J1.3.6.1 General
Common departure lounges, gate lounges and transit lounges may occur in terminals as three separate
areas, in combination, or as one. The design layout depends greatly on the traffic characteristics,
government controls and airline procedures, as they apply to the three main categories of passengers
who use departure lounge facilities, namely:
• Transit passengers arriving at the airside and continuing their trip on the same flight, who should
always remain on the airside.
When determining the various departure lounge requirements, duplication of space and manpower
should be avoided by giving full consideration to combining, where possible, the various lounge
functions. Similarly, a lounge combination will facilitate the consolidation of concessions, which may
reduce overhead costs and yield higher revenues for the airport. Analyses of alternative passenger
flow simulations should be employed in order to obtain the optimum solution to the foregoing points.
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The following functions should be considered for inclusion in the common departure lounge:
® Adequate seating to accommodate the forecast passenger loads; this requirement varies with
the boarding procedures to be used by individual airlines.
9 Flight information displays to indicate the departure time, gate, and boarding status of each flight.
® Airline information desks to provide assistance to passengers; these may include processing
counters for transfer passengers.
• Toilet facilities.
• Public address systems to announce gate variations and/or delays.
In order to determine the size requirements of the departure lounge, it is recommended that a
passenger flow model be developed which takes into account flow rates, transit and transfer passenger
requirements, availability of gate lounges, average load factors, etc. Using the passenger figures
derived from the model, the space calculation for the departure lounge area (excluding concessions
except bar/restaurant/snack bar) should be based on the passenger space provisions referred to in
Section F9, Fig. F9.3.
At airports with a large percentage of transfer and/or transit passengers, the required space allocation
will be considerable.
Requirements for government controls, as well as the location of these controls (landside/airside)
and their effect on passenger flow must also be considered.
It will be important for the main individual airport processes (check-in/immigration/passport control/
retail/passenger movement systems/etc.) to be in balance with one another so that each individual
process supports the one immediately following it by providing a steady stream of passengers in a
timely fashion.
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The gate lounge is provided as an assembly area for passengers in transition between the main
processor and the aircraft, and under certain conditions for passengers in transit. Usually, concessions
are not located in the individual lounges, but may be located within the pier or satellite. Where a gate
lounge is designed to serve high capacity aircraft which will be boarded through more than one door,
access to the lounge should be arranged so as to allow passenger a direct and simple flow through
to the appropriate door.
Passengers usually have access to the passenger loading bridge through a security door, after having
their boarding pass checked and automatically recorded by an airline agent as part of & passenger/
baggage reconciliation process. Because of the requirement to separate departing and arriving
international passengers, a ramp is often used to move passengers from the gate lounge level down
to a bridge node at a lower level before entering the loading bridge. The use of escalators to move
passengers from the gate lounge on one level, to the entrance, to the passenger boarding bridge on
a lower level is not acceptable for safety reasons. Passenger queues will form at the entrance to the
passenger boarding bridge and passengers coming down the escalator may be injured due to
congestion problems at the foot of the escalator.
The gate lounge may serve multiple aircraft positions and be divisible into separate areas for
passengers (separation according to airline boarding procedures). In such cases, some concessions
may be located in the combined lounge area.
When required, the gate lounge may include those facilities necessary for the operation of a gate
check-in system; e.g. communications, check-in desks, baggage acceptance, etc.
Toilets are not normally required in each gate lounge but should be in a general area, conveniently
located with respect to each lounge. If, however, a decentralised gate security check is to be
implemented, it will be necessary to construct toilets in each gate lounge.
The following table is offered as guidance in assessing the space requirements for individual departure
gate lounges. The following assumptions are made:
• Only 70% of passengers will be accommodated in the gate lounge simultaneously (column 2).
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(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
J 1 .3 .7 A irlin e C IP L o u n g e s
At many international as well as domestic airports, the airlines have a marketing requirement to
provide special lounges to accommodate their Commercially Important Passengers (CIPs). This
requirement has grown significantly in recent years to become a major customer service element,
and most airlines will require generously sized space for their exclusive use. These lounges should
be located on the airside of the terminal building and preferably on the departures level, with views
and convenient access to the airline’s departure gates. Larger airlines will tend to combine their
exclusive requirements into multiple function rooms by passenger category (First Class, Business
Class and others). These larger spaces normally require their own exclusive toilets, showers and
kitchens, and access by elevators and/or escalators, for which the airlines are generally willing to
pay a reasonable rate.
Airlines may also request facilities for arriving premium passengers. These are generally located
land-side, adjacent to the arrivals concourse.
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At airports with a large percentage of transfer traffic, provision must be made to permit the direct
transfer of passengers between two international flights without a requirement to clear government
controls.
Circulation areas may narrow as the extremity of the pier/satellite is reached. Pier/satellite circulation
areas should allow for moving walkways (one in each direction when distances exceed 300m) and
sufficient space to accommodate walking passengers with baggage trolleys, wheelchairs and vehicular
traffic on either side. 8 — 10m is an assumed maximum width for this circulation zone. In piers and
satellites, moving walkway lengths should be determined with convenient gate access points in mind.
The area for ground service personnel may consist of separate areas related to cabin service,
line maintenance, sanitation and ground servicing equipment. Such areas may include storage and
workshop facilities. Secure areas for fragile or valuable items and for the storage of volatiles (with
appropriate safeguards) may also be required. Normally, it will not be necessary to locate some of
the foregoing (e.g. equipment maintenance shops) in the vicinity of the aircraft parking position.
Current and forecast requirements for the airlines in the operational area should be carefully evaluated
in relation to the areas available or projected. Expansion requirements beyond the initial area provided
are generally small.
Although baggage delivery to the reclaim area should be in advance of passenger delivery, it would
be prudent to locate support facilities such as cash dispensing machines and toilets in this area, as
well as baggage trolleys, free of charge. See Chapter U for details.
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J 1 .4 IATA RECOMMENDATIONS
|::yit;;::
J1.IR1 Passenger Terminal Design
The Passenger Terminal Complex should be designed in a modular fashion such that expansion
o f the terminal’s inter-connected sub-systems can be easily and cost effectively achieved, without \
\ negatively impacting upon existing airline operations. i
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J2.1.1 Introduction
The primary question to be answered at the beginning of the conceptual design process is whether
to have a single centralised passenger processing area, or a series of multiple terminal units. The
decision is influenced by many factors, including the need:
® To provide and maintain facilities that allow comparable levels of service to be provided;
• To be flexible to accommodate the changing needs of the primary user; i.e. the airlines;
• To recognise the economies of scale.
While airlines do compete for market share, they do so increasingly by working together from common
operational platforms. While they prefer to work from facilities that advertise their location and corporate
identity, this does not automatically mean stand-alone facilities. Airlines need a connections system
capable of delivering transfer passengers efficiently and effortlessly. The passenger of today respects
no boundaries and will freely switch between airlines in a relentless pursuit of cheaper fares and
better levels of service. In the same way the regular passenger will not suffer poor facilities and will
quickly switch his or her preference from one transfer airport to another.
J 2 .1 .2 Centralised System
A centralised system is usually comprised of an area that provides the processing for all passengers
and baggage regardless of their originating airline. For large airlines, particularly if they are the base
carrier with all-day operations, dedicated check-in facilities will be established which will in turn be
used by their alliance partners. Separate shared facilities will also be provided for those airlines with
infrequent operations, and services and concessions are also centralised both land-side and airside.
Passengers proceed to gates via airside corridors or passenger transport systems (TTS and/or bus).
The main advantage of this system is the economies of scale achieved by the intensive use of services
(check-in desks, Government Inspection Services, baggage reclaim, etc.) within the main processor.
The cost effectiveness of the terminal is increased by the maximum use of space that is only possible
with each airline contributing into the overall system. This achieves one of the basic planning objectives,
to maximise the use of all facilities. As a consequence, it is difficult to argue in favour of decentralised
facilities due to the inherent benefits and economies of working under one roof or operating without
the need to duplicate facilities or operating systems.
One of the possible disadvantages of this system is that once the airport reaches a certain threshold
size, the passenger inconveniences may outweigh the economic gains. The inconveniences can
include long walking distances to and between gates, the difficulties of handling and accommodating
large volumes of passengers and the resultant difficulties of way-finding and orientation within a large,
perhaps complex building. If the terminal exceeds a certain size, the facilities may need to be duplicated
to properly serve both extremities of the terminal. There may also be a need to physically separate
differing traffic sectors (International, Domestic, Schengen and non-Schengen in Europe, and trans-
border in Canada/USA).
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The disadvantages of this system include separate service facilities (check-in desks, Government
Inspection Services, baggage reclaim etc.) for one or a small number of gates. This increases the
cost of equipment and personnel. The layout is linearly distributed resulting in long distances between
gates. This can be frustrating for transfer passengers at larger airports.
It is therefore essential for the planners to know what the airlines require. Effective and meaningful
consultation is a prerequisite in the preparation of conceptual terminal designs. Inadequate or non
existent levels of consultation may result in abortive work, programme delays, disputes or unnecessary
expense to accommodate design alterations during later stages of the design process.
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Ranking 1 5 -2 8
1 Dubai Copenhagen Singapore Changi Atlanta Hartsfield
2 Athens Eieftherious Sydney Minneapolis/St Paul's Chicago
3 Vienna Incheon Amsterdam Dalias Fort Worth
Ranking s m im m m m m m m s .
1 Dubai Copenhagen Singapore Changi Frankfurt
2 Bermuda Taipei Hong Kong Chicago
3 Athens Eieftherious Vancouver Amsterdam Dallas Fort Worth
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® Pier/finger.
• Linear.
® Open apron.
• Satellite.
A description and a tabulation of the major advantages and disadvantages of each of the above
concepts is given in the following sub-sections. It should be noted that there are many variations in
the respective shape of each of the noted major categories.
In the past, airport authorities satisfied demand for new passenger processing facilities by constructing
unit terminal systems. These consisted of a combination of the above concepts (i.e. satellites, piers/
fingers, linear, etc.) in various shapes and sizes. Previous thinking was that each unit could function
independently. This has proven not to be the case.
While in the past space was not at a premium and facilities could be placed on demand and with
ease within a site, this is no longer the case. Greater attention needs now to be paid to how the
airport should be planned efficiently and effectively in the longer term (see Chapter C — Master
Planning).
In recent years there has been a tendency, certainly at ‘Greenfield’ and ‘Bluesea’ airports, to move
towards mega terminal systems (e.g. Hong Kong CLK at 87 mppa). Economies of scale, functional
design, compact single operational systems, modularity and expandability are now the fundamental
driving forces behind modern day terminal design.
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Description
The Pier/Finger Terminal Concept consists of a main centralised passenger processor and a series
of piers (airside concourses). In large examples of this type, such as Amsterdam Schiphol (shown
above) with approx. 39.6 mppa in the year 2000, the main processor may consist of several semi
centralised check-in/baggage reclaim areas fed by a common departures/arrivals curb.
All Originating & Departing passengers and baggage are directed through the central processing
area to and from the aircraft parking positions, which are connected to the central building by piers
(airside concourses).
Departing passengers are processed at centralised check-in facilities and walk to the respective
gates, assisted by moving sidewalks installed in the piers.
Baggage of all departing passengers is collected at the central check-in counters and conveyed to
the baggage sorting areas from where it is transported to the aircraft by mobile apron equipment or
fixed conveying systems.
Arriving passengers and their baggage are processed in the reverse flow.
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• Permits low Mean Connecting Time (MCT) if flight pairs are properly co-ordinated.
® Allows variable expansion possibilities of the piers, independent of the main processor.
• Expansion can be undertaken in small incremental steps as demand requires.
® May require airlines to have secondary CIP facilities in piers to accommodate individual traffic
segments.
• May require secondary concession outlets in piers.
9 High capital, operating and maintenance costs for passenger conveyance and baggage handling
systems.
• Clear signage systems required to overcome passenger way-finding and orientation difficulties.
9 The area of land required to support pier/gate development is large due to the need to incorporate
dual taxi-lanes between sets of piers that can accommodate in excess of 10 — 12 aircraft total.
Other examples: Bangkok, London Heathrow T3 and Zurich.
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J 2 .2 .2 L in e a r C o n c e p t
Notes: The site for T4 is constrained on all sides by one of the primary runways, the cross-wind
runway and by the primary road access system. As such, expansion of the terminal has only been
possible by the addition of a remote single sided pier at some considerable distance from the main
processor.
Description
The Linear Terminal Concept consists of a main centralised passenger processor with expansion
capability to either side. On the front or airside face of the processor is a finger type concourse which
may be straight or in another geometrical form. Aircraft are parked at the face and in some instances
the rear of the concourse. An airside corridor may be located parallel to the terminal face with access
to the terminal and gate positions.
Departing passenger and baggage processing can take place either in a central area or at semi
centralised groups of check-in counters.
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Depending on the internal layout, the walking distance between the car park and the aircraft can be
reasonably short, but in the case of a centralised processing system the distance may become
unacceptably long.
The size of baggage conveying and sorting systems depends on the internal layout of the building.
This concept is mainly used if there is only confined space available between the landside road
system and the runway.
Possible Advantages
® Simple construction of the main terminal with relatively easy incremental expansion.
® If required, separation of arriving and departing passengers is relatively easy using two levels.
« Adequate curb length.
® Compact baggage conveying/sorting systems if remote drop points are not utilised in concourses.
Possible Disadvantages
® Long walking distances especially for passengers transferring between extreme ends of
concourses.
® Long walking distances if passenger processing is centralised and the pier system (airside corridor)
is extended.
® May require airlines to have secondary CIP facilities in concourses to accommodate dispersed
traffic segments.
® Aircraft movements to the rear of the concourse may be restricted due to the need to reduce
engine noise levels.
® As a stand alone facility it is incapable of supporting large volume (in excess of approx. 15 mpppa)
hub traffic.
Other examples: Munich, Singapore Changi T2.
lim T Passenger Terminal
J 2 .2 .3 O p e n A p ro n C o n c e p t
Note: Mirabel (YMX) is predicted to cease commerical passenger operations from Autumn 2004.
Description
The Open Apron Terminal Concept consists of a main passenger processor with expansion capability
on either side. Passenger transfers between the main processor and remote aircraft positions are
accommodated by the use of apron drive busses or mobile lounges. There is no direct connection
between the processor and aircraft parking positions.
Departing passengers are processed at the central processing area and proceed through Government
Inspection Services to a common departure lounge. From this point passengers can be handled in
one of two ways:
• They can be called to remote gate hold rooms, usually located at apron level, and then transported
to the aircraft by bus.
• Or they can be called into mobile lounges which double as gate hold rooms and as transporters
between the building and the aircraft parked at remote apron positions. The mobile lounges work
with a scissor lift system that enables the lounge to operate at varying floor and aircraft sill levels.
Baggage for all departing passengers is accepted at central check-in counters and conveyed to the
baggage sorting area from where it is transported to the aircraft by mobile apron equipment.
Arriving passengers and their baggage are processed in a reciprocal flow system.
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Possible Advantages
® Operations can be expanded without significantly impacting onthe existing main processor.
Possible Disadvantages
® Very low percentage of contact stands.
• Increased loading/unloading processing times.
• Requires right of way/control of transporters due to high collision potential of transporters &
aircraft.
• Additional cost for larger number of ground vehicles for crew and baggage transport.
® Increased minimum connecting times.
Other examples: Washington Dulles & Paris Charles de Gaulle (CDG). Note CDG no longer mobile
lounges.
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J 2 .2 .4 S a te llite C o n c e p t
Description
The Satellite Terminal Concept consists of a central processing building for passengers and baggage
and remote concourses around which aircraft are parked. The remote concourses or satellites are
connected to the main terminal by above- or below-ground links to facilitate the movement of
passengers between the satellites and the main terminal. These links can be formed by either APM
(Automated People Mover) systems or by underground walkways with travelators.
Baggage from departing passengers is collected at the central check-in counters and conveyed to
the baggage sorting area from where it is transported to the aircraft by mobile apron equipment or
mechanical systems.
Arriving passengers and their baggage are processed in a reciprocal flow.
Possible Advantages
• Normally provides for the centralisation of airline and government inspection services staff.
• Variety of incremental expansion possibilities to both the main processor and piers.
• Perm its centralisation of m ajor concession outlets (i.e. restaurants, duty-free, etc).
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® Linear satellites permit direct aircraft routing between stands & runways.
® Separation of arriving & departing passengers within satellites can be easily achieved if required.
• Facilitates control of passengers, if required.
® Short walking distances (to/from APM).
® High capital, operating and maintenance costs of the APM system between the main terminal
and satellites, especially if these are below ground.
• High capital, operating and maintenance costs of baggage conveying/sorting systems with
potential for baggage mishandling.
• May require airlines to have secondary or multiple CIP facilities in satellites to accommodate
individual traffic segments.
• Due to distance and need to locate, wait and use APM system, minimumconnecting times
between flights in different satellites are increased.
• Early check-in and close-out times.
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J 2 .2 .5 C o m p a c t M o d u le U n it T e rm in a l C o n c e p t
Description
The Compact Module Unit Terminal Concept is a system witnessed in the past at small, medium and
large airports. In the USA it has proved popular at airports where individual modules could be owned,
occupied, dedicated or assigned to individual carriers. Within Europe it has sometimes been utilised
to differentiate between individual traffic segments, i.e. Schengen or Non-Schengen. However, the
hubbing needs of base carriers and/or the major airline alliances has resulted in this type of solution
becoming increasingly unpopular or obsolete with partnerships preferring collocation under one roof.
Expansion is demand driven and carried out through construction of additional modules. The transition
of passenger and baggage from landside to airside and vice versa is directed through a compact
facility which provides the shortest possible distance from the car park to the aircraft.
Departing passengers and their baggage are processed either at a gate check-in or a semi-centralized
flight check-in facility. Passenger moving equipment and outbound baggage sorting devices are
usually not required within each module. The gate check-in procedure allows a very late check-in
and close-out time.
Arriving passengers and their baggage are processed in the vicinity of the gate in the reverse flow
on the lower level.
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Possible Advantages
® Greater curb lengths are provided than for centralised processing terminal units.
• Only simple baggage handling systems are required within each module. As a consequence the
percentage of mishandled bags is low.
• Within the terminal, only a simple flight information display system is required.
Possible Disadvantages
These occur when there is more than one terminal and include:
® A requirement for comprehensive flight information display and sign-posting systems, including
signage along the airport access routes to orient departing passengers and/or meeters & greeters
to the correct terminal.
® A complicated system is required to transfer passengers and baggage between terminals.
Depending upon volumes & the number of terminals, the high costs of such a system may also
be an adverse factor.
« Higher manpower requirement —- airline and government staff members will increase in order to
operate multiple terminals. This also requires more careful allocation of all manpower.
® Reduced ability to offer industry competitive minimum connecting times due to high number of
transfer (terminal) variables & the distance between modules.
• An adverse impact on any high speed rail access system (local or international) due to the inability
or need to serve multiple stations, the varied and complex transfer routings and the increased
transfer times from/to and between inter-modal access points and terminals.
J 2 .3 P R O C E S S IN G L E V E L S
Three arrangements of passenger processing systems are possible.
J2.3.1 S in g le L e v e l
This system is represented by a single level roadway/curb/terminal building with all arrival and
departure processing provided at grade (ground) level. In general terms departing passengers occupy
one side of the building while arrivals occupy the other. Passengers move between the main processor
and remote aircraft parking positions by either walking (along controlled/supervised routes), by bus
or APM.
This type of operation is normally restricted to small-scale operations under 5 mppa. The exception
to this broad rule would be London Stansted airport, which employs many unique features (APM to
remote satellites, fully automated BHS, building services and building supplies/servicing all located
on levels beneath the single passenger level). Stansted’s single level terminal building was expanded
in 2002 to accommodate 16 mppa.
J2.3=2 1 1/2 L e v e l
This system is represented by a single level roadway/curb serving both arrival and departing
passengers. The terminal building is predominantly single level, although the airside face has two
levels with the arrivals level located either above or below the departures level. The two levels on
the airside face can be restricted to an arrivals corridor with simple airbridge connections to aircraft
stands located along the front edge of the terminal. Alternatively the two levels can extend out onto
the apron by means of twin level piers.
In rare circumstances, single-level roadways can support two level terminals. Examples of this type
of design solution can be found at London Heathrow in both T2 and T3. In T2 there is also a unique
feature insofar as the arrivals and departures post check-in facilities are located at a level above the
road access. Check-in is performed at road level and passengers move upstairs to process through
outbound passport control and security channels to the gate.
J2„3„3 T w o L e v e l
This system is represented by a two level roadway/curb/terminal building with arrival and departure
processing separated vertically on two levels. The upper level is usually the departure level with
the lower level accommodating arrivals. This arrangement should be considered where volumes of
passengers, baggage and vehicles justify vertical separation. The two levels can extend out into the
piers or satellites, but this is dependent on the degree and extent of passenger segregation requested
by the Government in question.
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J 2 .3 .4 L e v e ls w ith in P ie rs a n d S a te llite s
With segregation of arriving and departing international passengers recommended by ICAO (see
ICAO Annex 17 Clause 4.3.3 and clause K3.2 of this manual) it is becoming increasingly common
for airport authorities to make provision for at least two processing levels in piers and satellites. To
provide for greater flexibility, authorities may provide a third processing corridor to allow passengers
to transfer in isolation between international and domestic traffic segments (refer to Chapter K for
further details). In this way individual gate positions can accept aircraft serving both types of traffic
without the need to push back and reposition aircraft as they switch from serving international to
domestic or from domestic to international routes.
With two or three levels possible within piers and satellites, safe, efficient and cost effective ways of
delivering passengers to the required entry level to the passenger boarding bridge must be found.
There are two ways of achieving this.
The first relies on a combination of mechanical systems (lifts and escalators) and stairs (as a fall
back in the event of mechanical failure), to transfer passengers between levels. However these
systems are expensive to install, operate and maintain. All three systems are generally provided for
by the necessity to provide unrestricted access to wheelchairs.
A simpler solution is to rely on ramps. In this way installation, operation and maintenance costs are
kept to an absolute minimum. The ramps can lie either parallel or perpendicular to the face of the
pier or satellite. Perpendicular solutions have two advantages. Firstly, they do not obscure sight lines
from within the building onto the aircraft apron. Secondly, they can allow differing rotunda off-load
levels, thereby allowing varying bridge configurations to be employed from the same ramp and pier
layouts.
J 2 .4 D E S IG N A N D C O N S T R U C T IO N
The building should be designed to ensure functionality, maximum operational efficiency, passenger
convenience at a reasonable cost, and be capable of further modular and incremental expansion.
Such considerations as space for concessions and facilities for the general public should always be
subordinate to the passenger space for processing and flow requirements.
Extravagant architectural statements and/or unique structural systems should not elevate sqm rates
or unit costs above accepted industry norms.
The structural elements of the building should be such that it is relatively easy to undertake internal
modification or overall expansion in order to meet changing demands without major interruption to
daily operations. The main functional elements in the terminal building should be arranged in such
a manner that the expansion of one element does not necessitate the relocation of other elements
which may not require expansion. For instance, expansion of the departure baggage area should not
require relocation of the check-in lobby or the baggage claim area.
Wherever economically feasible, terminal design should encompass a two-level structure to shorten
walking distances and allow direct access to the aircraft without change of level. Passenger boarding
bridges will substantially improve passenger control, orientation, boarding and disembarking.
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J 2 .5 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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J3.1 S M A L L A IR P O R T T E R M IN A L S O V E R V IE W
The standards defined within ICAO Annex 14 and Annex 17, as well as those noted in this manual,
will need to be observed by small airports and large airports alike. These types of facilities will
generally make use of the same high-level processes, though with reduced capacity, throughput and
infrastructure characteristics due to the difference in the scale of the equipment being utilised.
Small airports often deal with higher volumes of propeller driven commercial and privately owned
aircraft. As commercial propeller (turboprop) aircraft require less automated passenger docking
equipment than commercial jet aircraft, support infrastructure such as push back tugs are infrequently
used since the aircraft are generally less connected to the terminal infrastructure and utilize more
‘remote’ stand philosophies (see Section L3). Passengers are often bused or even walk between the
gate room areas and the aircraft and vice versa, using dedicated apron walk routes and staff supervised
protocols.
While commercial propeller driven aircraft will require tarmac runways, there is the possibility of
adjacent grass runways that can be made use of, predominantly for non-commercial light aircraft.
Small jet powered aircraft will also use small airports, provided that the runway specifications and
support infrastructure is adequately in place. Runway management protocols and equipment should
be developed and provided respectively in accordance with the requirements at larger airports, befitting
the code category of aircraft being accommodated.
All smaller airports will require effective and well-placed control tower facilities, which should enable
them to function safely and in a commercially viable manner for the ground movement of aircraft and
aircraft approach guidance.
Baggage handling facilities can be limited and geared around the processing of a specific flight rather
than the processing of multiple outbound and inbound flights baggage simultaneously, as is the
situation in larger airports. The processes and protocols for these smaller installations will still require
to be modeled on the recommendations defined within Chapter U, Airport Baggage Handling, including
the same level of integrity for hand and hold baggage security screening hardware and operational
practices.
Ground transportation at small-scale airports can be scaled down to the requirements of the airport
flight traffic requirements, which can mean less equipment redundancy in the event of transportation
failure. This needs to be carefully balanced to ensure that correct service standards are maintained.
Information displays may be less frequent and located at critical areas only, as passenger way finding
should theoretically be less arduous given the smaller infrastructure. The flight information display
signage standard should be aligned with the requirements defined within Section J12. Able and
disabled passenger processing will also be required in the facility.
The small airport will likely need to provide limited retail, restaurant and passenger and staff public
rest areas and public toilets. Limited retail will be useful for passengers and will enable small airports
to create parallel revenue streams to support and help grow their airport operation.
Emergency response and emergency management should be completely aligned with the
requirements defined within Chapter X, Airport Fire Services.
Effective security management systems and protocols will be required, particularly for sensitive areas.
Surveillance and intruder detection should be provided to counter known risks that could occur. For
further clarification refer to Chapter H, Airport Security.
Building management systems and Information Technology systems shall be required, though their
size and complexity will align to the requirements of the size of the building being managed. Please
refer to Chapter Y, Networks.
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Aircraft fueling at smaller airports will likely be accommodated by fuel container and dispensing
vehicles. Please refer to Chapter M, Aviation Fuel Systems, for clarification of physical requirements
and protocols to adopt.
J 3 .2 T E R M IN A L S P A C E & F U N C T IO N A L IT Y
The terminal building in the small airport will be sized in accordance with the recommendations defined
within Chapter F, Airport Capacity. Section F9 will define the space requirements for the critical
terminal building functions such as check-in, passport control, passenger hold rooms, passenger
centralized security and baggage claim areas, etc. A listing of the processes in operation at airports
can be found within Chapter T. Section T 1, Terminal Processes, is a guide for airport planners
embarking on the design of large and small airport terminals.
Whilst rare, there will be situations where smaller airports will exploit a terminal space or equipment
for multiple functions so as to maximize their utilization. An example of this is where inbound transfer
flight baggage may be processed through predominantly departures screening equipment using
agreed protocols. In this situation it should be noted that passengers and their baggage should be
processed in accordance with the requirements defined within Chapter K, Passenger Facilitation,
Chapter U, Airport Baggage Handling, and Section U3, Transfer Systems, respectively.
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J4.1 A U T O M A T E D P A S S E N G E R P R O C E S S IN G
The degree of automation required for passenger processing and baggage handling systems at a
particular airport will be determined by the extent of the individual airline system-wide operation, as
well as other criteria such as size of terminals, economic evaluations, etc.
Automation implies installation of computers, printers (document printers and specific printers for
tickets, boarding passes, baggage tags) at many points along a passenger’s route. These may include:
® Ticket/sales counters.
® Check-in counters.
® Boarding gates.
® Transfer counters.
• Information desks.
Each airline needs to connect this equipment to its own central reservations system.
The requirements for self-handled airlines to use check-in counters only a few hours a day can lead
to a requirement for extra check-in counters. To avoid over supply of check-in desks, the concept of
CUTE (Common Use Terminal Equipment) was established. CUTE does not eliminate dedicated
airline check-in counters but does enable the sharing of counters when airline schedules permit.
Rental rates for the check-in area are very expensive so the airlines need to ensure this area is
optimally utlized.
J 4 .2 CUTE
Common Use Terminal Equipment (CUTE) is a generic airline industry term (not to be related to
vendors’ products and services) for a facility which allows individual users to access their host
computer(s). CUTE undertakes all airline EDP functions, using the same entries and getting the same
responses as they would through their own terminal equipment.
The basic idea of the CUTE concept is to enable airlines at an airport to share passenger terminal
handling facilities. This includes such areas as check-in and gate counters on a common use basis,
enabling airlines to use their own host computer EDP applications for departure control, reservations,
ticketing, boarding pass and baggage tag issuance, etc.
CUTE provides potential savings to the airlines and airport authorities by increased utilization of
check-in counters and gate space, thus lessening the need for airports to build additional counters
and gates. It may also permit an airline to automate its check-in and departure control functions when
the costs of installing its own equipment would be: too high; precluded by another system or equipment
already installed: not permitted by the airport authority.
• Airlines access their own applications systems from CUTE work stations.
® Possibility for agents to use the transaction formats of the system they are accessing.
• Optimum use of airport facilities with no need to dedicate special areas for different airlines.
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• Security of access.
• Permits airlines to control their own reservations, check-in and departure control functions, thus
not requiring them to use systems provided by airport authorities or handling agents which might
not be compatible with their host computer systems.
• Is there a need or desire for users to share EDP equipment now? In the future?
Once the particular local automation issues have been defined, the possible technical solutions which
would best solve these problems for the carriers concerned must then be evaluated, both functionally
and economically.
Because of the highly technical nature of each of these solutions, and also to ensure consideration
of carriers’ longer term planning not known to local airline managers, it is imperative that this evaluation
is carried out by head office specialists in data processing, communications, terminal planning and
handling procedures.
Therefore the members of the ACC or AOC must refer the local automation problems which they
have defined to the respective department(s) in their head office as early as possible. In turn, the
head offices of these carriers will then instruct their local managers on the course of action they
should take.
J 4 .2 .2 C U T E L o c a l U s e r B o a rd (C U T E C lu b )
Based on the instructions which the local managers have received from their head offices, a CUTE
Local User Board should be established at the airport by the AOC. The board shall be comprised of
all carriers engaged in the definition of local automation issues, and must include head office specialists
in terminal and handling facilities planning, data processing, communications, costs/charges and
handling procedures. This CUTE Local User Board shall then undertake the following steps:
• Decide if the airport authority, in its capacity as landlord and/or handling agent, should be invited
to become a full member, or alternatively an observer of the working group.
• Inform the airport authority officially about the intention of the group.
• Specify short-term and long-term requirements of the system by written documentation, giving
due consideration to the specifications of a local CUTE system.
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® Consider and agree on potential general contractors/administrators for the total local CUTE
system.
J 4 .2 .3 E q u ip m e n t
The nature of the CUTE workstation equipment at an airport will depend on the specific total system
specifications agreed for a local CUTE system. The type and manufacturers of such equipment may
vary from airport to airport, subject to agreement between the users and the contractor/administrator.
Equipment configuration requirements may vary at different airport locations. Typical CUTE
workstation equipment types can be (but are not limited to):
• VDU/CRT.
• Ticket printer.
• Readers.
J 4 .2 .4 R e q u e s t fo r P ro p o s a l
A proposal shall include a quotation on the price of the provision, operation and administration of the
total system, broken down as follows;
(a) Investments:
• Terminal equipment.
• Telecommunications equipment.
• Depreciation.
• Financing charges.
• Contingency.
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J4.3 CUSS
Common Use Self-Service (CUSS) is a facility that allows the provision of self-service applications
(e.g. check-in) to customers on a shared kiosk. The CUSS platform accesses the airline’s own self
service application directly from their host computer(s).
The basic idea of the CUSS concept is to enable airlines to share self-service facilities (e.g. kiosks),
without having to install and run proprietary hardware. Certified IATA CUSS compliant applications
can be run on any IATA CUSS certified platform. The platforms can be equipped with a variety of
hardware devices, including biometrics, according to local requirements.
CUSS provides potential savings to the airlines by increasing the availability of self-service applications
throughout their network. It also permits an airline to provide self-service functions when the costs
of installing its own equipment would be either too high or not permitted by the airport authority.
CUSS reduces the need for airports to provide space for individual airline kiosks in common use
areas. As the kiosks can be located anywhere (e.g. car parks, railway stations, etc.) the check-in
process can be de-centralised.
The major benefits of CUSS are:
• Passengers can access the airline’s own applications from CUSS platforms.
• Little preliminary investment for the airlines — CUSS certified application required.
• Supports any CUSS certified application (e.g. car hire, hotel reservations, etc.).
J4 .3.1 IA T A C U S S M A N U A L
The IATA CUSS Manual is a web-based publication available on subscription from
www.iataonline.com. The CUSS Manual comprises three parts:
• Technical specifications.
• Certification requirements.
• Service Level Agreement template.
Information on Certified CUSS platforms and airline applications are also published on the CUSS
Manual website.
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J 4 .4 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
Where CUSS equipment is required, it should be located evenly across the check-in areas. As
the use of CUSS check-in facilities becomes more and more commonplace, the replacement
o f traditional check-in facilities with newer CUSS facilities will be required. It is therefore
recommended that when designing check-in systems for traditional check-in arrangements, the
j retrofitting of CUSS equipment should be considered both in terms of the design of the mechanical
layout and the resultant control systems infrastructure.
I When providing departing concourse CUSS check-in facilities, which do not have in-built self
service conveyors, the furthest distance from any CUSS check-in desk to the airline manned
baggage input point should be no greater than 75m.
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• Services Protocols.
J5.1 IN T E R N E T C O N N E C T IV IT Y
Functionality:
It is technically possible to provide a general-purpose, multi-use, often remotely managed application
platform for airport and airline desktops and peripherals including operational check-in printers,
scanners and boarding gate readers that provides a single infrastructure for both common use and
dedicated areas. The platform can focus on supporting Web Services and CUSS applications and
provides support for multi-channel applications and client types such as PC, kiosk, thin client (reduced
services) and PDA’s. Security devices can also supported such as optical scanners and biometric
devices. Support for IP printing and ATI specific peripherals is provided while the platform also
accesses an industry standard CUTE peripheral manager. Device profiles allow devices to be
controlled by remote management systems, and the platform includes sophisticated statistics and
billing interfaces with a high level of built in authentication and security. Other features can include
Single Sign On (SSO) and the ability to deploy applications in standard software containers that do
not require certification in a multi-user environment.
Typical Platform :
A Wintel based platform, uses fast gigabit Ethernet campus connectivity linked to external gateways
for VPN and Wide Area Network access. Devices may be connected using both IP or USB connections
and Platform Services.
The platform may be used as a transport and integration layer for other airport sub-systems that
utilize the airport’s campus backbone, such as Access Control, Public Address, Fire Detection and
CCTV.
bata Airport Development Reference Manual
J 5 .2 S H A R E D E X T R A N E T C O N N E C T IV IT Y
Functionality:
The shared extranet type system can provide access to airline hosts for DCS, check in, reservations,
ticketing, other back office applications and access to airport applications, such as CUTE, Bag System
Messaging (BSMs) and Baggage Management System (BRS) and alert text messaging tools. In
addition to providing end-to-end TCP/IP support these type of systems can also support legacy airline
protocol support for P1024B/C, IP, AX25, EMTOX and MATIP. Features can include fully redundant
links into the service provider networks and can feature a high level of security provided by firewalls.
The firewall service can be fully managed and monitored remotely by a specialist security group. The
extranet provides end-to-end IP with security and traffic prioritization using Cisco ALPS technology.
Typical Platform :
A pair of Cisco routers (CS26xx or CS36xx) with dual Checkpoint Firewalls connected via dual frame
relay links to dual service provider centers (where possible).
J 5 .3 IN T E G R A T E D W ID E A R E A N E T W O R K S (W A N ) & L O C A L A R E A
N E T W O R K S (L A N )
Functionality
The objective of this arrangement is to integrate the dedicated service provider wide area networks
with airport and airline local area networks. The service providers aim is to link airport networks and
desktop portfolios and bring them together and make them available to the airport user in a coordinated
and effective manner.
WAN Services
• Carrier Access
Depending on the local telecom regulations, an airport can use the service provider to act as a
wholesaler of PTT services to airport tenants and provide planning and co-ordination for local
access and long distance service, including the provision of data and voice circuits.
• Data Services
— Service providers can provide secure, shared extranet for the airport environment linking a
vast number of airports world wide and providing access to airline Departures Control Systems
(DCS) and other third party airline systems.
— Managed Bandwidth: Where a suitable relationship can be formed with the local PTT, Service
provider can provide secure, resilient shared access to PTT exchanges with no single point
of failure.
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— VPN Integration: Provides a VPN termination point so that devices on the campus network
can join and leave tenants wide area virtual private networks (VPN) securely. Both dedicated
(VLAN) or shared (VPN) connected devices can access the WAN VPN and data, voice and
video is supported.
— Internet Access: Can be secure managed internet access for all airport tenants and VAS
providers. Services are available for both operational, non operational and consumer access,
providing a single, resilient access to the internet for all fixed and wireless Internet access
needs. For smaller applications, services for operational data can also be made available via
the Internet using secure access VPNs from a single workstations where no LAN exists.
LAN Services
• Provision of LAN connections to support multiple quality of service (QOS). Using QOS supports
data, voice and video applications and provides usage feeds to enable capacity management
and billing, which can be down to the device level.
• Support for VLAN and VPN security segmentation, supporting applications in tenant dedicated
and shared environments.
Voice Services
• PBX access: Provides basic airport PABX access and facilities with options to access tenants
own PABX systems.
• Handsets: Provision of a variety of handsets to support internal and external applications with a
choice of analogue, digital or VoIP phones.
• Integrated VoIP: Provide VoIP solutions which, when the phone is positioned with a shared
workstation, are tied into the user id used to logon. Supports download of dial plans associated
with logon and access to legacy PABX as well as CISCO call manager.
• Voicemail: Provision of voice mail systems for digital and VoIP phones.
• Broadcast: Broadcast voice systems for general and targeted announcements and paging,
including automated messaging.
Video Services
• Surveillance: Provision of surveillance infrastructure including cameras and control rooms based
on video over IP technology. Provide integration facilities for existing CCTV technology.
• Broadcast: Video broadcast facilities for use with intelligent signage including information and
advertising material. Management and billing for broadcast content.
Wireless Services
• Provision of a single, managed wireless infrastructure for the airport including providing segmented
capacity for operational data, operational voice (2 way radio and wireless VoIP) and consumer
data.
• Provision of the operational network management element for public wireless services at the
airport.
• Provision of spectrum management and policing of usage policies within the airport environment.
• Co-ordination with airport and external service providers for the provision and billing of wireless
voice and consumer data facilities.
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Security Services
® Access control — Integration of access control systems and management of the central server
complexes. Access control systems can be installed with biometric support that will also be
integrated. Single Sign On (SSO) can also be supported.
® Government control authority interfaces can be provided over this infrastructure allowing airport
planners to design for convergence of passenger and staff security processing.
• Managed Firewall — The service provider, can provide a managed firewall service as part as
the managed Internet access. This can be supplemented with a managed firewall service within
the LAN environment to segregate various parts of the LAN.
J 5 .4 C U T E T Y P E S Y S T E M S C O N N E C T IV IT Y
Functionality:
CUTE type systems are intended for airports wishing to maximize the use of scarce check-in and
gate infrastructure facilities by providing a common use platform to run airline host-connected and
stand-alone applications. CUTE type systems can provide a workstation environment with attached
ATB, BTP, BGR and other ATI specific peripherals. The CUTE software allows the airline applications
to interact, in a standard way, with the ATI specific peripherals. Please refer to clause J4.2 for general
overiew of CUTE systems.
CUTE type systems can provide a secure environment allowing multiple users to share one
workstation. This is enforced by processes, application certification, software containers and directory
services based on remote management. CUTE platforms are made additionally secure by the use
of dedicated VLANs that allow secure transactions on an airport provided network access airline host
connections or IPSEC clients on the workstation allowing for a secure IP tunnel through the airport-
shared space to the airline’s application server.
CUTE type systems can allow airline applications to access their host DCS systems via a legacy
CUTE gateway supporting P1024B, P1024C and X.25 and direct IP connections, in addition to the
extranet. Current CUTE systems support fat Windows clients (preferably Win32), web services clients
and CUSS agent-facing applications.
Typical Platform :
CUTE type systems can be based upon the Windows range of operating systems and therefore the
Workstation and Server hardware will likely be Windows XP and 2003 Server compatible.
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J 5 .5 W IR E L E S S C O M M U N IC A T IO N S
Functionality:
Wireless is the shared communications network at an airport based on Wireless Local Area Network
(WLAN) or WiFi technology. Solutions can be based on IEEE 802.11b WLAN standard as this is a
common and appropriate solution in many cases. Support for the higher speed standards, 802.11a
and 802.11g is also available. Wireless communication can accommodate local as well as wide area
network connectivity and allows access to air transport applications and passenger communication
services via standards-based, commercially available wireless devices. Wireless communications is
offered as a comprehensive service that covers the design, installation, operation and maintenance
of wireless access points, the WLAN infrastructure, and the ongoing management of the airport
wireless environment.
Typical Platform :
Wireless communications can be based on CISCO or Symbol wireless access points supporting
VLAN technology, and can be built on a switched Ethernet VLAN based network utilizing a radius
server, firewall router, HP Openview and other systems determined by the design requirements.
• Wireless Applications: Support for known and expected wireless applications and their
requirements need to be considered in the design. These would include performance, coverage
and security requirements.
• Public vs. Private use: The requirement from the airport may be for either of both of these options.
Public use would allow the passenger to use the wireless network to access services and the
Internet, while private use allows only the airport and its tenants use of the network.
• Accounting: Accounting and billing requirements need to be considered.
• Neutral Host: Most Airports require a neutral host environment where tenants and the public can
have equal access into the network within a given priority level of access. For example each
wireless ISP (WISP) doing business at the airport would be able to provide service at the airport
for their subscribers.
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J 5 .6 IA T A R E C O M M E N D E D P R A C T IC E
:s; ®w ■■■; ::y;: :
p g . ' : : » i i P W
| J5.IR1 internet Connectivity Solutions
Internet based systems as defined within clause J5.1 should be considered where an airport
wishes to support a variety of airline and other tenants who use different protocols and
applications on their desktop. It is a flexible, open environment suitable for supplemental, charter
and low cost carrier functions, as well as for major carriers and airline alliances who may have
more sophisticated desktop requirements. It should be specified where an airport wishes to
appoint a third party to manage its campus operations and develop a broad range of IT services
to resell to its tenants.
........ ....
p iilB IIIiillil»
; J5.IR3 TCP/IP Integration ;
Service provides now offer new generation LAN and WAN services offering TCP/IP integration, \
voice and video over IP in a highly secure environment These should be evaluated and
considered by the airport planner.
illlllltt
CUTE type systems are an ideal solution for an airport implementing a workstation environment
in a shared environment (an environment where different airlines share the same check-in desks
and gates). These check-in desks can either be shared over a short space of time (i.e. multiple
users in 24 hours) or give the airport the flexibility to move airlines around over longer time
frames.
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J6 .1.1 F lo w R a te s G e n e ra l F lo w C h a rt
General flow charts should be established showing originating, destination, transfer and transit
passengers, split by all traffic types (no-frills, charter, scheduled) by sector (domestic, international,
European Community, Non-European Community, etc.) and by short/medium and long haul routes.
(See Fig. J6-1 & Fig. J6-2). These are determined from statistical data and air traffic forecasts and
should be prepared for existing and projected traffic covering years 0, 5, 10 and 20 of the forecast
period.
In this way forecast data can be translated into annual and peak hour flows such that an understanding
of the scale and scope of the facilities can be realised.
J 6 .1 .2 O rig in a tin g P a s s e n g e rs a n d B a g g a g e
The rate at which originating passengers arrive with their baggage at various points of the terminal,
e.g., curb, check-in counters, government inspection services, etc., forms an important part of the
planning process in determining the size and capacity of the main functional areas. These passenger
flow rates should therefore be carefully analysed, particularly where volumes are large. As the
characteristics of domestic and international passengers are frequently different, the volumes and
patterns of each category, if significant, should be recorded separately.
This type of analysis may be produced in a format similar to that shown below where the passenger
flow rate at the check-in counters is recorded for the design day in increments of 10 minutes,
commencing approximately two hours prior to the first aircraft departure. The data given below is
only an example and similar data must be obtained for each specific terminal in order that the
recommended analyses can be conducted.
Historical Data
Historical open and closed flight times can be obtained from the overall baggage handling Management
Information Systems (MISs) and from airline specific Departures Control Systems (DCSs) which is
the best and recommended source of historical data. Most modern MISs and DCSs are able to
provide data output in the form of spreadsheets/data tables which can be graphed/mapped into the
conventional flight schedules as depicted within Fig. J6-1.
The modern MIS can also present Standard Time of Departure (STD) ‘minus time periods’ associated
with the processing of early passengers and their baggage. It should be noted that MIS data is usually
not airline specific. It should also be noted that the use of MIS data is dependent on the manner at
which passengers are processed prior to check-in. Concourse screening versus in-line screening will
present variations in passenger arrival profiles.
Where the recommended airline specific DCS historical data is used, this information can be collated
airline by airline from all participating airlines to produce an accurate overall and realistic current flight
schedule for the airport.
The use of MIS or DCS data output tables allows the airport facility and systems designer to appreciate
how passengers arrive at the check-in desks.
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The following is a step by step guide which should be used when establishing passenger profiles
resulting from departing flights:
Step 1:
Establish typical flight check-in pattern(s) for the terminal in question. Note that different check-in
patterns may apply to different periods of the day, and different type of flights (long-haul, short-haul,
charter or no-frills). It must also take into account grouped originating passengers arriving by rail or
bus.
06:00- 10:00 0 0 1 2 6 10 20 26 20 12 3 0
10:00-18:00 0 1 3 8 11 15 17 18 15 10 2 0
18:00-24:00 3 4 6 9 11 14 15 15 15 7 1 0
Step 2:
Apply appropriate check-in patterns to the design day forecast passenger load per flight.
o
CO
Time 06:00 06:30 07:00 07:30 08:00 08:30 09:00 09:
I
AB 111 280 Passenger CD 222 320 Passenger
3 6 17 28 56 73 56 33 8 0 3 6 19 32 64 83 64 39 10 0
I I! I
EF 333 180 Passenger AB 444 94 Passenger
2 4 11 18 36 47 36 21 5 0 1 2 7 11 22 29 22
j I I
GH 555 90 Passenger
1 2 5 9 18 24 18 11 2 0
1 3 8 13 26 34 26 15 4 0
Total 0 3 6 19 32 67 92 94 85 54 42 37 34 43 55 59 81 94 75 61 39 22 0
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Total (14.94)
0.10 0.05
0.25 03 5
.10 2.01
Legend________________________________________________________________ Notes__________________________________________________
NEC Non European Community Transfers from same segment to same segment counted once.
L.H. Long-Haul
Traffic Split & Figures are given for illustration purposes only.
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Dom.
Land side
Legend__________________________________________________________________________Notes_________________________________
Dorn. Domestic Transfers &Transit counted twice.
EC European Community
NEC Non European Community
S/M. H. Short-Medium Haul Figures derived from Passenger Forecast.
L.H. Long-Haul
Traffic Split & Figures are given for illustration purposes only.
J 6 .1 .3 D e s tin a tio n P a s s e n g e rs a n d B a g g a g e
The flow rate of destination passenger and baggage is different from the originating flow rate just
described. These passengers will enter the terminal upon aircraft arrival in groups directly related to
the aircraft capacity, discharge rate (e.g. one or two passenger boarding bridges) and passenger
load factor. As a consequence, the flow rate of passengers and baggage is directly related to the
aircraft arrival rate and passenger load factors. For further information please refer to Chapter F of
this manual, Section F6.
J 6 .1 .4 T r a n s it a n d T r a n s fe r P a s s e n g e rs
At airports where the volume of transit and transfer passengers is large, the flow rates of these
categories of passengers will also require careful analysis. As in the case of destination, the flow
rates of transit and transfer passengers are directly related to the aircraft arrival rate, discharge rate
and passenger load factors.
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J 6 .1 .5 Aircraft Type
The number and size of aircraft must be taken into account with respect to both arriving and departing
passenger and baggage flow. The forecast mix of aircraft may change with the growth of passenger
traffic (especially the ratio of wide-body aircraft processed at the airport) and can have a significant
impact on the passenger terminal complex. If large aircraft predominate, the possibility of larger
surges of passengers in all functional areas of the passenger terminal area is greater than with smaller
aircraft.
J 6 -2 FLOW RO UTES
J6.2.1 General
In accordance with the outline philosophy defined within Chapter K (Sections K1 to K6 inclusive)
passenger flow routes should:
• Be as short, straight and direct as possible, unimpeded by obstructions from passenger cross-
flows or concession facilities.
• Be capable of use by all airlines and not restricted to individual aircraft loads.
• Permit multiple routings and be designed to give passengers a choice of government control
positions in order to avoid bottlenecks.
• Be sufficiently flexible to permit establishment of temporary channels which can be by-passed
by other passengers (e.g., for individual health control processing of a particular arriving aircraft
passenger load) or to permit regulation evolution.
• Departing passengers after security check-points must be physically separated from arriving
passengers.
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J 6 .2 .2 F lo w In T e rm in a l A re a
A number of factors which affect passenger flow in the terminal area should be taken into account
as design targets; these include:
(a) Walking Distances
Walking distances for passengers should be as short as possible. In determining the distance between
major functions in the terminal, the planner must consider whether baggage is to be carried or not,
the type and availability of baggage trolleys, changes in level, and the accessibility of the aircraft
without resorting to ground transport.
The suggested maximum walking distance between the major functions (i.e., car park to check-in/
baggage claim and check-in/baggage claim to gate lounge) is 300m.
Greater distances can be accepted provided a form of mechanical assistance is made readily available
to passengers. Such systems are costly and therefore a full cost/benefit analysis is necessary before
installation. In all terminals where progressive expansion is envisaged, incorporation of a people-
mover system, and due provision for the necessary right-of-way and other related factors must be
included in the original conceptual design. This subject is covered in more detail within Chapter J,
Section J10 — People Mover Systems.
In line with the requirements of Section K3 and for domestic traffic, separation should not necessarily
be mandatory, but under certain circumstances or regulations, arriving and departing passengers
may have to be separated (Refer to Section K3 for further details).
For international traffic, in all terminals, originating passengers have to be separated from their friends,
from domestic passengers and from arriving passengers at the point where the security check is
carried out.
The use of escalators to transfer departing passengers to lower levels at confined air bridge rotundas
is not recommended.
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Special care should be taken to ensure that concessions are conveniently located and do not interfere
with the passenger flow.
Passengers should not be intentionally routed through concession areas, especially when more direct
routes are possible.
(h) CIP Lounge Location
In line with the functional requirements of business lounges defined within Section P3 — Hotels &
Business Centers, airline CIP/business lounges should be located in a central position on or
immediately above primary passenger circulation routes. Direct access to concession areas may also
be advantageous.
Terminating International passengers should be able to join meeter/greeters immediately outside the
point where they clear the final inbound controls. To assist the orientation of both parties, consideration
should be given to providing a transparent screen between the reclaim area and the arrivals concourse.
(I) Transit and Transfer Passengers
In line with the requirements of Chapter K (Sections K1-K4 inclusive), the terminal design must permit
international transfer and transit passengers to proceed to and from aircraft without being subject to
Immigration and Customs controls (were government regulations permit). Unless a one-stop security
policy is in place, passengers and their hand luggage will be required to undergo a security check.
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J 6 .2 .3 F lo w to A irc ra ft
The flow of passengers between the terminal building and the aircraft should be direct and
uncomplicated, with clearly defined flow routes which are safe and operationally acceptable.
Passengers should be able to enter and leave the aircraft without steep changes in floor levels and
under protection from weather, blast and noise.
Passenger flow at the aircraft will obviously be affected by the apron system and layout employed.
The following points are pertinent to this aspect:
In line with the requirements of Section J11 — Passenger Boarding Bridges, this system is favoured
by the airlines where it is justified and supported by a cost/benefit analysis which demonstrates an
achievable high utilisation rate. Passenger boarding bridges foster smooth, relatively uncontrolled
individual embarkation and disembarkation of passengers. Passenger boarding bridges have proved
particularly advantageous with high capacity aircraft.
For Code E aircraft, consideration should be given to the provision of two bridges, to improve the
rate of passenger flows.
For Code F aircraft, and in particular the A380 with two main decks, consideration should be given
to the provision of two bridges, one to both levels, to improve the rate of passenger flows. A third
bridge may also be employed depending upon individual airline requirements.
(b) Apron Transport
At airports where loading bridges are not installed and the aircraft are parked remotely, buses should
be used to convey passengers directly between the aircraft and the terminal.
(c) Direct Apron Access
This system is not generally encouraged by the airlines as passengers are exposed to the effects of
weather, aircraft blast and noise. However, for low frills carriers, whose business models cannot
support additional on-costs, expenses related to air bridges are often not permitted. Also, it is essential
that passenger movement on the apron is constrained to clearly marked walkways with a minimum
number of access points onto the apron, and that such movement is always strictly supervised. This
is particularly relevant for small commuter aircraft (particularly in the case of a running engine) which
are unable to use loading bridges, or where bridges are unavailable. Passengerproceeding between
the aircraft and the terminal building should never be allowed to walk across taxi-lanes or taxi way s.
J 6 .2 .4 A c c e s s C o n tro l
When planning new airports, or major redevelopments to existing ones, consideration should be given
to reducing to the minimum the number of staff, authorised persons and vehicles requiring access
to the airside areas. In this way the number of access control points inside and outside all buildings
can also be reduced to the minimum. This can be achieved by:
® Having plant and maintenance facilities landside.
® Providing adequate facilities for staff within the restricted zones (RZ) to reduce the number of
times they need to enter and leave it in the course of their duties.
® Having a single, suitably located access point for deliveries, or for larger operations having a
single delivery point landside, from which deliveries are shuttled to airside in dedicated vehicles.
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J6*3 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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*Denotes recommended.
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J 7 .2 L O C A T IO N O F R E T A IL F A C IL IT IE S
J 7 .2 .1 P a s s e n g e r F lo w
Concession sales are governed heavily by the principle of passing trade and advertising. Successful
concession programs are employed primarily on enplaning passenger flows, but without impeding
these flows or causing complex routings. Passenger dwell times tend to be longer than they were in
the past, leaving many passengers ample time for shopping and dining.
It is fairly common for enplaning passengers to locate their gate and then return to concession lounges
once they have a clear understanding of the time that they have available.
Concession areas that complement efficient and operationally successful terminals usually:
• Have a clear distinction between directional signage and concession signage or advertising.
• Have flight information displays at frequent intervals in the concession areas so that passengers
can judge their timelines appropriately.
• Have clusters of concessions in areas differentiated from the remainder of the terminal.
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During concession planning, the convenience retail (news stands) are separated from other duty paid
retail, because these units tend to be repeated throughout the terminal, often are located near gates,
and are viewed as both a concession and an important passenger service. In larger terminals, there
is often a core area of food, including restaurants and a food court, but also satellite food and beverage
units in gate areas. Concessions to serve arriving passengers and greeters tend to be more limited.
Arriving passengers are focused on leaving the terminal as quickly as possible.
J 7 .2 .2 L a n d s id e R e ta il
Landside concession facilities should incorporate both retail and food concession facilities. The size
of these facilities should be aligned to cater for the volume of passengers, landside staff and well-
wishers/greeters that are likely to use the facilities. The retail element of this facility will typically
account for 20%-30% of the total retail space provided within the terminal. This reduced percentage
of retail entices passengers to progress through security and immigration as quickly as possible, and
then proceed to duty free or duty free priced sales areas.
J 7 .2 .3 A ir s id e R e ta il
it is recommended that airside concessions should account for 70%- 80% of the total concession
space within the terminal. Retail facilities should be sensitive to cater for national and international
passengers. Successful airside retail areas are well illuminated, heated and ventilated (refer to Section
Y2 for recommended lighting and heating levels), providing a suitably wide cross spectrum of product
sales. It is essential that airside retail sales do not impair the functional characteristics of the passenger
terminal.
Use of airside concessions by passengers reduces space demands on hold rooms, and 25-40% of
the seating provided in airside restaurants and food courts can be counted as contributing to available
airside seating.
J 7 .2 .4 R e s tric te d R e ta il G o o d s
Some products are inappropriate to be sold within the airport terminal because of security
requirements. Harmful goods may include pen-knives, scissors, letter openers, etc. Reference should
also be made to the IATA Security Manual, which defines products that are inappropriate to be sold
within airports. No goods which could be used in a harmful way should be sold within airport shops,
landside or airside. Particular attention should be given to those products sold airside, as these
products may fail to be screened.
It is recommended that retail concessionaires be required by their leases to submit for approval their
list of products to the local security division, in order to ensure that no harmful goods are sold. If in
any doubt seek guidance from ICAO or IATA.
J 7 .3 S IZ IN G R E T A IL C O N C E S S IO N S
Retail concessions are planned based on supportable space. Using market research, comparisons
with successful concession programs at other airports of similar size and traffic characteristics, and
historical concession performance at the airport, sales per enplanement (SPE) in the six concession
categories are forecast. These annual SPE’s are then combined with forecast annual enplanements
and typical concession sales productivity (sales per unit area) to arrive at supportable concession
space.
Concession rents are typically calculated on the basis of percentage of gross sales. Where concessions
are appropriately sized and competitively tendered, these rents will typically deliver 3 to 5 times the
annualized floorspace cost of the terminal (considering terminal capital and operations) and provide
an excellent source of revenue to the airport.
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J 7 .4 C O N C E S S IO N S E R V IC IN G & S T O R A G E
Terminal planners should consider concessions servicing and storage during terminal planning and
design, including:
• Secure truck bays for the delivery of supplies and stock to concessions and the removal of waste.
® Back of house service corridors and service elevators so that food, food waste and retail stock
is not moved through the passenger areas.
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J8.1 IC A O R E Q U IR E M E N T S
Clauses 9.4.1 to 9.4.32 inclusive from ICAO Annex 14 explain the mandatory requirements for all
member state airports to have maintenance programs in place and fully operational to ensure that
airport buildings, aprons and support infrastructure systems are maintained appropriately and
diligently. Sample ICAO Annex 14 Chapter 9.4 text includes:
9.4.1 Recommendation.
Note 2. “Facilities” are intended to include such items as pavement, visual aids, fencing, drainage
systems and buildings.
9.4.2 Recommendation.
The design and application of the maintenance programme should observe Human Factors principles”.
In addition to ICAO International legislation, there can be and often is national legislation which requires
airports to instigate maintenance programs with similar mandatory objectives. Airport designers are
recommended to design facilities which can be maintained safely and easily.
J 8 .1 .1 O b je c tiv e s O f A ir p o r t A s s e t M a in te n a n c e
All building structures will require some form of maintenance to ensure that they remain capable of
functioning safely and appropriately. The level of maintenance will depend on many factors, which
may include but is not limited to:
The following assets should, as a minimum, be included within airport active maintenance programmes
(where applicable). Other airport assets may need to be assessed and maintained and included.
Airport designers should design airport assets which allow airport operators to maintain assets easily.
Airport designers are recommended to liaise with airport operators at project handover to provide
suitable inventories of assets and maintenance schedules for the assets listed below:
Terminal Buildings
• Building structure
• Lighting systems.
® Car parks.
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• IT infrastructure systems.
9 Baggage systems.
• Fire escapes.
• Road/Aircraft bridges.
• Etc.
Apron Systems
• Etc.
J 8 .2 P R E V E N T A T IV E M A IN T E N A N C E S T R A T E G IE S
Preventative maintenance is used as a tool to retain service levels of equipment and infrastructure
while minimizing the operational impact of system downtime on the airport. This is achieved by
conducting servicing in planned non-operational periods for the airport and its clients. While all
airports should develop preventative maintenance strategies, the precise details of airport maintenance
strategies will vary from airport to airport, according to the size and complexity and the operational
duty of the airport.
Preventative maintenance strategies should learn from historical data on items such as Mean Time
Before Failure (MTBF) for equipment and infrastructure. Equipment should be replaced or maintained
before the next MTBF occurs. There are maintenance scheduling software packages available which
are able to predict and list actions and trends on equipment which can reduce long term operational
maintenance costs in parallel to improving performance of airports and availability and safety without
failure during operational periods.
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Predicted Maintenance
Last Repair remaining time K it /
Asset Code/ Date/Duration before failure Staff Skills and Documentation
Name of Fix Date/Time Maintenance Cost Required
ID 3014 15th July 2002 31st January Passenger Boarding Kit 3014-B1
Passenger (2 hours) 2003 Bridge Rotunda Hinge
Boarding 1x Certified Service Pivots Greasing
Bridge Technician
GOLF 22 GBP 950
ID 1077 1st June 2002 1st February General Structural Kit 1077-D1
Baggage Hall 4 Hours 2003 Technicians Building Column
Column X3 Protective Barrier
Protectors GBP 5750 Repair
The maintenance fixes are prioritized according to commercial and safety risk, and by asset MTBF
date/time which is managed by the computer and the maintenance software.
J 8 .3 T Y P IC A L S T R U C T U R A L / IN F R A S T R U C T U R E F A U L T S
There is a wide range of faults that can occur within an operational airport that can be avoided by
correctly applied preventative maintenance. Some faults are predictable, some are not, and certain
faults will be associated with poor design, poor installation or poor historical maintenance. Often
internal building systems (HVAC, etc.) are properly maintained, while the actual building structure is
overlooked (most steel and concrete structures require regular maintenance).
One of the most common and most serious structural maintenance faults is associated with the
damage of building internal or external columns which are hit by airside vehicles. Concrete column
protection footings and/or steel column protectors can often be frequently hit by airside vehicles, such
as baggage tugs, aircraft towing tractors, airside passenger buses, etc. While the occasional lighter
contact (though not recommended) can be usually accommodated by good structural design, where
this type of contact is frequently occurring and protection systems are degraded over time, serious
structural problems can result. Airports operators should consult a qualified structural engineer in
areas of any doubt.
Concrete degradation is common, particularly where climates necessitate the use of road salts for
negative weather temperatures. Delaminating steel beams and columns are frequently observed in
wetter climates where water dispersal within the structure is poorly designed. Expert structural
evaluation is required on a case by case basis to ensure that structures can withstand the intended
design loads and usage requirements. It is recommended that designers should produce structures
which promote ease of maintenance inspections and adequate water drainage systems.
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J 8 .4 ÏA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
ià
J8.IR1 Airport M&mtemnœ Strategies
In line with the requirements of ICAO Annex 14 Chapter 9.4, airports should have a fully
implemented and airport wide systems maintenance strategy.
v.
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J9.1 GENERAL
The layout of the check-in hall in the passenger terminal is largely influenced by the check-in concept
planned by the airport authority. It is essential therefore that the airlines and handling agents are
consulted early in the terminal planning process to ensure optimal operational effectiveness.
The allocation of check-in counters to the various airlines and alliances should be considered early
in the planning process. There should be a logical flow for all passengers, and particularly alliance
passengers, between check-in, CIP lounge and the departure gate lounge.
J 9 .2 T Y P IC A L C H E C K -IN C O N C E P T S
There are three typical check-in concepts that can be selected:
1. Centralized Check-in.
2. Split Check-in.
3. Gate Check-in.
J 9 .2 .2 S p lit C h e c k -in
The check-in function is split between two or more locations within the terminal complex. For example,
passengers and baggage may be accepted at central check-in counters, or alternatively at other
locations around the airport including but not limited to:
Attention must be paid to baggage acceptance at these remote locations. It is much more complex
to take baggage from remote locations to the central sortation hall.
The physical layout of terminals with split check-in systems varies widely because of the variety of
types of procedures available.
The airlines prefer a centralized check-in layout since split check-in layouts require additional airline
check-in staff.
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J 9 .2 .3 G a te C h e c k -in
Passengers proceed with their baggage directly to the gate and are processed at check-in counters
immediately in front of the appropriate gate lounge. A good example of this type of check-in layout
is Hanover, Germany. This concept:
J 9 .3 C H E C K -IN H A L L
The airlines acceptance of passengers and their checked baggage takes place in the check-in hall,
which consists of a number of check-in counters with appropriate baggage conveyance facilities.
Check-in counters may be placed in either a linear type layout or an island type layout. Within each
of the two main types of counter layouts, several variants exist.
The distance a passenger must carry his/her baggage to the closest terminal check-in point should
be kept to a minimum.
Most check-in layouts now include a CUTE system (see Section J4).
The layout of the check-in hall is changing quickly to accommodate an increasing number of self-
service kiosks. The airlines are introducing these kiosks as a means to speed up the check-in process,
lower costs by reducing the number of passenger agents required, and increase security at counters.
It is estimated that 33-50% of check-in counters will be self-service based on recent experience in
Europe and North America (see clause J4.3). Approximately half the self-service kiosks are designed
for passengers with baggage.
Where traditional check-in counter layouts (island or linear) are required in a contemporary airport
design, provision should be made to allow for the gradual replacement of these counters with self-
service kiosks. The baggage system planned for should also contain a similar degree of flexibility.
Limited seating should be included in the check-in hall for some well-wishers to use while passengers
are checking-in.
Many airlines now use stanchions in front of the check-in counters so passengers can be processed
in a single queue or a few queues separated by class of service rather than processing passengers
in multiple queues.
Most typically, an airline will use 8 check-in counters to process passengers for a 747-400 flight. One
counter is used for first class; two counters for business class and the remaining five counters for
economy class.
Departure flight information displays (FIDS) must be available within the check-in hall. The FIDS
monitors should show which airlines are operating from which check-in counters.
Appropriate systems for the conveyance of passengers’ baggage from the check-in counters to the
baggage make-up area must be provided. The type of system may include a number of transitions
and can be relatively complex, as is the case with centralized check-in, or very simple in the case of
gate check-in. The maximum number of check-in counters per baggage conveyor belt must be carefully
considered. If feeder belts are installed to convey baggage from the check-in counter/scale to the
main conveyor, normally a range of 10-20 counters per main conveyor should be planned. In such
instances, careful consideration should be given to incorporating methods for phasing the baggage
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flow from each feeder belt, so as to prevent congestion or jamming of bags when they merge on the
main conveyor. Automatic controls to ensure that bags from any counter have equal opportunity of
access to the main conveyor may also need to be incorporated.
Specially designated counters are required for the acceptance of oversized baggage. These counters
may be located in each check-in island at clearly identified positions, usually one per check-in island,
or they may be located at the head of the check-in hall at one or several positions. These check-in
positions will have wider baggage belts with a straight feed down to the outbound baggage room.
They usually also have easy access to a freight elevator that will allow large pieces of baggage to
be placed on a cart and taken down to the outbound baggage room.
J9 .3.1 L in e a r T y p e C h e c k -in L a y o u t
Linear type layouts may be used both for centralized check-in and for gate check-in. The counters
may be arranged in an uninterrupted, linear layout or be spaced so as to allow passengers to pass
between the counters after check-in (pass-through layout). This type of check-in layout is not favoured
since the check-in hall becomes long and narrow when a large number of counters are required. This
layout usually tends to promote congestion in the check-in hall.
J 9 .3 .2 Is la n d T y p e C h e c k -in L a y o u t
Island type layouts are suitable for centralized check-in. Each island, where the axis is orientated
parallel to the flow of passengers through the terminal concourse, may consist of 10-20 individual
check-in counters on each side. This number of counters on each side of the check-in island will
require two main baggage conveyor belts installed in parallel back to back. Commonly 20-30m
separation between adjacent islands is evident. The IATA recommended distance is 24-26m. The
island check-in layout is favoured by ACCs over the linear check-in counter layout.
The head of each check-in island should be used for airline sales, ticketing and information counters.
Each side of each check-in island should be identified with a letter or number. In some cases the
area between two check-in islands is identified.
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J 9 .4 C H E C K -IN C O U N T E R D E S IG N
Airlines/handling agents must be consulted in the design phase of the check-in counters, as the layout
of the counters will depend on the procedures they will use for passenger check-in and baggage
handling.
The check-in counter design must consider the ergonomic requirements of both passengers and the
airline staff. The computer monitor and keyboard should be adjustable to suit different sizes of airline
staff. A mock-up of the check-in desk should be built and airline check-in staff encouraged to test
the mock-up model before the new counters are manufactured.
In designing the check-in counter, adequate space must be provided for all possible airline computer
equipment. The dimensions and exact location of such equipment should be determined by consulting
the airlines/handling agencies concerned at each specific airport. Computer equipment dimensions
are constantly changing, therefore flexibility is required in the design of areas in/on the counter where
the equipment will be placed.
Most airports tend to re-invent the design of the check-in counter. To save airport authorities the time
and money to do this, the ACCs have been promoting the check-in counter designed for Terminal 1
at JFK. These counters meet airline requirements and should be used as a benchmark for check-in
counter design.
J9 .4.1 C h e c k -in E q u ip m e n t
The equipment which will be housed in the check-in counter includes:
• Document/itinerary printer.
® Passport reader.
® Telephone/interphone.
• Conveyor controls.
J 9 .4 .2 C h e c k -in S ig n a g e
Good signage is required over each check-in counter so passengers can easily identify the airline
operating from that counter. The signage should also identify:
• The destination(s).
There are several types of monitors that are used for check-in signage. These include:
J 9 .4 .3 G e n e ra l C o u n te r D e s ig n R e q u ire m e n ts
Some of the general requirements that need to be considered in designing the check-in counter are:
• Keyboard shelf with adjustable height as an option to having the keyboard placed on the desk
top.
• Adjustable footrest.
• Waste basket.
• Selection of materials that provide ease of maintenance, possibility of future modifications, reduced
glare (matte finish) and resilient enough to withstand heavy wear and tear.
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• If equipment is to be located within the counter, printers should be on a shelf which pulls out for
easy refilling and maintenance. The pull-out shelf should be lockable.
• Good cabling management should provide easy access from the back side of the counter for
repair/replacement of computer equipment.
• Adequate space/drawers should be provided so that the desk looks neat and organized at all
times.
• For security reasons all drawers and pigeon hole arrangements containing baggage tags, ticket
stock, boarding passes, etc. should be lockable.
• Where possible, the desks should be based on a modular system of basic units.
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Notes:
1. Dimensions based upon an average passenger eye level of 1.60 m.
2. Dimensions C + G should be max. 1.00 m.
3. Provision of shelf at passenger side of desk is optional.
4. Provision of feeder belt system is optional. If scale/platform used, dimensions E, F, K, L and M are not applicable.
5. Careful attention should be paid to slope of weighing belt (max. 10%).
6. Optional waste basket shown at bottom of agent knee well. This only valid for combined standing/seated agent position.
7. Where double counters are proposed which will be used by a single airline, and that carrier chooses to share equipment, counter storage/
equipment space can be less than twice the requirement for a single counter.
IATA Passenger Terminal
J 9 .5 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
i y - ; : ; ;::;i;:::::r-,:: ; : ; ■ ; ;V;■;:■;'■7;;';:::i:::i:-;:-;v:^:i :;■
i : :i;:::■:;;;j i :;i i :;;i; ^ I ; ;iv
J9.IR1 The favoured Check-Sn Hail layout includes Island Check-In with:
® 10-20 counters per side.
® A CUTE system.
& T 1 JFK check-in counters used as the benchmark design.
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J10.1 A U T O M A T E D P E O P L E M O V E R S (A P M )
Automated People Mover (APM) equipment has become more and more commonplace, particularly
within the confines of the airport perimeter. APM systems are a transportation alternative often used
to transport passengers travelling greater distances within airports. An APM system is basically an
automated driver-less train, in which individual vehicles or trains operate at frequent intervals on
dedicated guideways. APM systems are designed to carry large numbers of passengers within high
density activity areas such as airports.
As new airports are developed and existing airports are expanded to accommodate these
requirements, the distances which passengers must travel within the airport increase. Conventional
pedestrian modes such as moving walkways are acceptable for short distances, but do not provide
a sufficient level of service to passengers when greater distances are involved.
APMs offer lower cost alternatives to traditional rail provision as drivers are rarely if at all needed
(APMs can be operated often in manual mode with a driver on-board). Track infrastructure is both
cheaper and easier to install with fewer track-placed signals.
• CCTV systems.
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Planning for new and existing airports continues to indicate the need to accommodate additional
aircraft and greater numbers of passengers. More gates and/or reconfigured gate layouts are often
required to accommodate these aircraft.
The reasons that APMs are used extensively on the airport complex include:
• The volume of people being moved is relatively small: typically 150 people at a time though up-
to 500 passengers is possible.
• Often the travel distances are relatively short, with distances below 1km being common.
• The destinations or the drop-off and loading points for passengers are limited, often less than 5
destinations on a single track and commonly only 2 destinations are provided.
These combined factors steer the designer away from manned services, such as full gauge rail and
buses, and lean them toward APM technology. Planners of almost all large airports envision the
implementation of an APM system at some point in its development. Even at airports which do not
initially anticipate an APM system, space and rights-of-way should be reserved so that APM systems
can be accommodated if needed in the future.
J 1 0 .2 A P M A P P L IC A T IO N S A T A IR P O R T S
APM systems can be planned to satisfy several different transportation requirements at airports. The
principal applications for APM systems can be classified in the following groups:
® Terminal to gate connections — APM systems connecting main terminal processing areas to
aircraft gates in satellites or piers.
• Landside connections — APM systems connecting unit terminals and landside airport functions
such as remote parking and car rental facilities.
• Intra-terminal connections — APM systems serving as connections between aircraft gates within
one terminal or satellite to facilitate the movement of intra-line transfer passengers.
Some airports have multiple APM systems serving different transportation functions.
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J 1 0 .3 A R M P L A N N IN G C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
After identifying potential APM applications at an airport, it is important to define the service to be
provided by the system and to identify and analyze its APM car occupancy characteristics and demand.
The airport elements which require interconnection should be identified. These points of service can
include:
• Satellites or piers and a main terminal, in the case of terminal to gate connections.
• Unit terminals, parking areas, car rental facilities or other landside functions, in the case of landside
connections.
The potential station locations within each element can be developed later, based on the physical
configuration of the elements, level of service criteria, and the demographics of the potential APM
car occupancy .
J 1 0 .4 L E V E L O F S E R V IC E C R IT E R IA
Goals should be established for the level of service to be provided to passengers. The key criteria
affecting APM system planning are maximum walk distance, minimumconnection times, and
passenger waiting time for trains. Many other airport level of service criteria also apply to the planning
of APM systems, including criteria such as minimizing passenger level changes, minimizing transfers
between trains, and maximizing the visibility of the system to passengers.
• Passengers:
• Arriving international.
• Departing international.
• Flight Crews
• Employees
• Airline.
• Other.
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« Visitors
• Meeters/Greeters.
• Well Wishes.
• Other.
The APM car occupancy demand numbers can later be applied to alternative system configurations
to determine the capacity requirements of the APM system.
J 1 0 .7 C H A R A C T E R IS T IC S O F A P M C A R O C C U P A N T S
The characteristics and special requirements for each type of APM car occupant should be identified.
Some key characteristics include the following:
• The need for separation between types of APM car occupants, such as sterile and non-sterile,
or secure and non-secure passengers must be defined.
• The space requirements for each APM car occupant category can vary greatly depending upon
the amount of baggage present. Landside systems, in which passengers have baggage which
will be checked or has been claimed, have a much higher space requirement than passengers
with APM carry-on baggage only. International passengers generally have higher space
requirements than domestic passengers. Employees typically have a lower space requirement
than passengers.
These key APM planning considerations, together with the unique requirements of each application,
can be used to develop and evaluate alternative APM system configurations.
J 1 0 .8 A P M C O N F IG U R A T IO N S /O P E R A T IO N A L M O D E S
In planning a new airport or the expansion of an existing airport, it is very important to address the
APM systems in the earliest stages. An efficient and cost effective APM system configuration can be
a key factor in determining the feasibility of some types of airport layouts.
In early planning, alternative APM configurations and operational modes should be developed,
analyzed, and evaluated. These early planning analyses will assure that adequate rights-of-way and
space provisions are made for the APM system, and that the selected airport and APM configurations
are compatible.
Numerous variations and combinations of APM configurations can be developed. Some systems use
multiple overlapping routes with off-line stations, or switching and crossovers between shuttle systems.
The best APM system is usually the simplest system which will satisfy the planning criteria. Added
complexity can increase the cost and reduce the reliability and availability of an APM system.
The APM configurations and operational modes can be different for each airport layout. The most
appropriate configurations should be determined by detailed analysis and evaluation of alternatives
performed by APM specialists.
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J 1 0 .9 A R M T E C H N O L O G IE S
In airport and terminal planning, it is important to develop configurations and operational concepts
which reflect the capabilities of proven APM technologies. Also, since there are a relatively limited
number of APM suppliers, accommodating as many technologies as possible in the planning phase
will help to assure a competitive source for the APM system in the procurement phase of the project.
The term APM applies to a diverse group of technologies with a wide range of physical and operating
characteristics. New technologies are constantly being developed and marketed, and existing
technologies are refined with each new application.
Technologies vary in size, performance, propulsion type, suspension type, appearance, and numerous
other aspects. For planning purposes the key characteristics are as follows:
• Size — Technologies vary in vehicle size and train length, from single vehicle trains of 8-12
passenger capacity, to 4 to 6 vehicle trains of 75-100 passengers per vehicle.
« Speed— The maximum cruise speed of various APM technologies ranges from 25 to 100km
per hour. In applications where the distances between stations are very short, the differences in
speed make very little difference in the overall travel times. In layouts with longer distances
between stations, the higher speed technologies can reduce the travel times significantly.
® Propulsion type — APM technologies can be classified into 2 general groups, self-propelled
and cable propelled. Self-propelled technologies include those propelled by convention or linear
induction motors located either on board the vehicles or continuously along the guideway. Cable
propelled technologies use passive vehicles attached to a cable which is propelled by drive
equipment at a single point along the guideway.
• Suspension type — APM technologies have a wide range of suspension types, including rubber
tired, monorail, steel wheel/steel rail, air levitated, and magnetically levitated technologies.
For planning purposes, APM technologies can be placed in general groups with similar performance,
capacity, and physical space requirements. These general groups can then be analyzed and evaluated
to determine whether they satisfy the APM planning criteria. Provisions can then be made in the
airport and terminal layout to accommodate the physical requirements of the appropriate generic
technology groups.
J 1 0 . 1 0 A P M S Y S T E M IN T E G R A T IO N IN T O F A C IL IT IE S
The most successful APM systems are those which are well integrated into the airport and terminal
facilities. Since the planning and design of the airport and terminal facilities is normally started before
an APM supplier is selected, the integration should begin by using physical requirements of the
appropriate generic technology groups. The use of simulation tools is also useful to determine by
modelling the frequency and track movement dynamics.
• Passenger stations.
• Guideway.
• Maintenance facilities.
• Equipment rooms.
Well integrated systems allow convenient passenger flow and access to stations, and allow good
visibility of the system, improving passenger awareness and understanding of the use of the system.
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J1 0 .1 1 lA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
• The distance between airside security boundary and remote satellites or piers is more than
OJSKm.
% More than 3000 persons per hour need to be transported between a distance of no less than
OJSKm on the airport complex.
• If the cost of installing, running and maintaining an APM’s is less than the cost to provide
alternatives modes of transport when totally calculated over a 15 year period with appropriate
depreciation etc.
» If the use of an APM dramatically removes an internal airside road traffic congestion problem.
• Where Mean Connection Time (MCT) for passengers need to be reduced or improved.
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J11.1 O B J E C T IV E S O F P A S S E N G E R B O A R D IN G B R ID G E S
The passenger boarding bridge is used by large and smaller airports worldwide. It can be used to
assist the airport operation by:
APRON DRIVE
GEARBOX
WHEELS
U . ----------------------------
The passenger boarding bridge can significantly reduce disembarkation and embarkation times when
compared to conventional steps and vehicle lifts. Passengers typically move nearly 25% faster through
passenger boarding bridges than compared to other alternative processes, since the process does
not incorporate movement of buses with corresponding passenger dwell periods.
Passenger and staff are also less likely to injure themselves using a passenger boarding bridge when
compared to alternative devices.
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Passenger boarding bridges improve the passenger experience particularly in more extreme climates,
since the passenger can be transferred to and from the aircraft in controlled climates and away from
adverse weather such as rain, snow and extreme humidity and sunshine.
Passenger boarding bridges offer improved access for disabled passengers and reduce injuries to
staff handling disabled passengers that would normally use alternative, non-automated means of
access.
J 1 1 .2 T Y P E S O F P A S S E N G E R B O A R D IN G B R ID G E
There are three types of passenger boarding bridge:
• Axis 1 — Vertically up and down about the pivot point on the rotunda.
It is typically possible to serve smaller or lower aircraft such as the Fokker 28/100 series, through to
the large higher aircraft such as the Boeing 747 series and Airbus A380 aircraft using the apron drive
unit. The apron drive unit usually comprises two or three telescopic tunnel sections attached to the
rotunda unit. It is affixed close to the terminal link bridge and has a rotating cab at the aircraft end.
Three section tunnel apron drive units are recommended to be used where the range of aircraft height
differential varies the most. It is a common fact that, the greater the slope length, then the shallower
the resultant slope gradient will be on all passenger boarding bridges.
The cab which docks with the aircraft comes in two variants: non-leveling and self-leveling. Self
leveling cab units are recommended, even though they produce the less effective slope length, as
they are safer for passengers and staff particularly when the telescopic sections are on a maximum
gradient.
The apron drive passenger boarding bridge is more flexible, in that misaligned aircraft can be more
easily accommodated because the cab can be moved to account for the parking error (rather than
having to move the aircraft, which is the requirement with nose loader passenger boarding bridges).
J 1 1.2.2 T h e N o s e L o a d e r P a s s e n g e r B o a rd in g B rid g e
The nose loader passenger boarding bridge is most commonly used to support aircraft which share
similar or closer door sill heights, as the nose loader passenger boarding bridge can only move in
two axis of freedom, namely:
• Axis 1 — Vertically up and down about the pivot point on the rotunda.
Since the distance from the rotunda pivot point to the cab is usually limited to being (significantly)
less than half the stand width, the effective slope length then also becomes limited, which in turn
restricts the permissible aircraft height range.
It is common and recommended for the nose loader passenger boarding bridge to be used in situations
where the aircraft to be served are: small only, small to medium, medium only, medium to large, or
large only, as the rotunda height can be set accordingly. It is possible to serve small to large aircraft
ranges using the nose loader passenger boarding bridge, but the usual result is that the telescopic
tunnel gradient becomes excessively steep or multiple parallel stand center lines are required.
The nose loader passenger boarding bridge requires that the aircraft need to be stopped very
accurately since the cab cannot be moved down the length of the stand centre-line.
The cantilever airbridge is rarer than most passenger boarding bridges and used mainly to expedite
passengers more quickly from large aircraft such as the Boeing 747 series or the Airbus A380 using
the aircraft’s aft port door positions. The cantilever passenger boarding bridge is usually used alongside
a conventional apron drive unit serving the forward door positions. A nose loader combination is
possible, though this is a very rare as it is also very restrictive.
The cantilever passenger boarding bridge extends over the port wing and engine(s) to reach the aft
port door on the aircraft. The cantilever structure is used since the weight of the telescopic sections
cannot in this extension be supported by ground driven powered wheel assemblies. The load is
instead transferred across the upper bracing structure which is predominately in tension, where the
main weight and dynamic moments of the assembly are transferred to the upper sections of the
rotunda.
The use of the cantilever passenger boarding bridge is not a preferred or a recommended solution.
Where two passenger boarding bridges are required the alternative recommended solution is to
provide dual conventional apron drive passenger boarding bridges to expedite passengers serving
the forward lower first door, lower second door, or the upper deck doors.
J 1 1 .3 T H E R O T U N D A /L IN K B R ID G E /E M E R G E N C Y E S C A P E
The rotunda is the main support mechanism for all passenger boarding bridges and is a fixed entity
on the stand. The location of the rotunda is the single most critical unit on the stand as every other
component including the aircraft will be positioned around the location chosen for the rotunda. It is
important to select a position for the rotunda which will permit the Passenger boarding bridges to:
® Be parked such that they do not clash with building structures or other aircraft.
® Create a link bridge clearance which permits vehicles to pass beneath them.
When setting the rotunda height it is good practice and recommended to initially set the finished floor
level of the rotunda in accordance with the levels defined within the table seen in Fig J11-3. It will
be necessary to use a computer program to calculate the optimum rotunda height and plan position
taking into account the parked position of all aircraft, the permissible bridge slope, the number of
telescopic tunnel sections, and the apron slope characteristics.
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The link bridge connects the fixed rotunda to the terminal building. It is good practice and recommended
to be able to separate the flows of arriving passengers and departing passengers, by provision of
alternative passenger routes, starting at the point where the rotunda connects to the link bridge. It is
also good practice and recommended to provide means of escape for passengers and staff at the
point where the rotunda meets the link bridge.
As a result, if an individual were standing where the rotunda meets with the link bridge, that individual
should be able to follow any of the following potentially available routes:
1. Access to the aircraft.
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At any one time, only three of the four routes possible should be available to passengers at the
rotunda — link bridge merge position, depending on whether that passenger is departing or arriving
on the aircraft.
J 1 1.3.1 E m e rg e n c y a n d O th e r S a fe ty C o n s id e ra tio n s
In the common situation where passenger boarding bridge emergency escape stairs are fitted it is
recommended that they do not move with the rotation of the cab, and instead they remain parallel
at all times within the length of the telescopic sections.
Consideration must be given to the fire protection properties of the loading bridges. Where the relevant
authority agrees that such protection is necessary, the passenger boarding bridges must maintain
their integrity and provide a means of escape from the aircraft in the event of a fuel spillage fire
commensurate with the requirements of NFPA 415 Standard of Airport terminal Buildings, Fuelling
Ramp Drainage and Loading Walkways.
All floor finishes within the loading bridge must be non-slip, with means provided to minimise any
tripping or slipping hazards.
A means of communicating with passengers queuing between the gate and aircraft must be provided
to direct passengers back to the gate in the event of an emergency at the aircraft or an incident within
the occupied access link.
J 1 1 .4 T H E T E L E S C O P IC T U N N E L S L O P E
It is recommended that a slope of 1:10 (1 unit up or down for every 10 units parallel to the apron) is
used for all types of passenger boarding bridge. The slope should be measured from the rotunda
pivot point in all instances to:
(i) The cab to aircraft interface for non-leveling apron drive cabs.
(ii) The end of the telescopic sections of the self-leveling apron drive variant.
(iii) The cab to aircraft interface for nose loader and cantilever variants.
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• Preference should be given to the use of two section apron drives over three section variants in
the first instance.
• The distance from the furthest most feature of the aircraft tail assembly, when viewed in plan,
should not be less than 4.5 m from the back of stand perimeter marking.
• Bridge parking locations should be designed to aid the movement of aircraft support vehicles.
• The positioning of fixed or mobile auxiliary aircraft ground power provision should be assessed
and accounted for.
• Terminal gate room evacuation routes via the rotunda and link bridge emergency stairs should
be accounted for, as should the space needed to accommodate passengers.
• The potential provision for automated arrival baggage system conveyors should be considered
for selected operations.
• Equipment area zones should be identified and likely space requirements accounted for.
The correct recommended balance is to set the apron slope such that it should decline away from
the head of stand line at a gradient of 1:100 (1 unit down for every 100 units running parallel to the
stand center-line). Where possible, it is recommended to try to set the position of the rear main
undercarriage assemblies of the aircraft such that they will naturally roll away from the terminal
structure and toward the taxiway. This will ensure that push back loads are minimized.
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J 1 1 .7 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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J12.1 G E N E R A L S IG N A G E P H IL O S O P H Y : O V E R V IE W
A well-conceived signage system can contribute considerably to the efficient flow of passengers and
traffic at the airport. It is therefore essential to consider the signage system in the early planning and
concept evaluation stages, and to endeavour to design a system which is easy to understand, concise,
and logically placed in the various facilities within the passenger terminal buildings and surrounding
areas.
The primary purpose of an airport signage system is to move the travelling public through a myriad
of roadways and corridors using a concise and comprehensible system of directional, informational,
regulatory, and identification messages. Ideally, the passenger terminal building will incorporate
wayfinding elements into its basic design, including self-evident passenger-flow routes, memorable
landmarks at key junctions and information points, floor and wall finishes that are consistent in different
waiting area or corridor types, etc. It should be recognized that a given terminal concept can have a
significant impact upon the eventual signage system, particularly at large airports where several
terminal units are provided, or where decentralized terminal concepts are involved.
It is important for signage systems to adhere to a basic guideline of copy styles and sizes, consistent
terminology, recognizable and universally acceptable symbols, and uniform colours for standard
functions. Message content must be in layman’s language, understandable by the unsophisticated
as well as the sophisticated traveller, and should be designed to accommodate the needs of disabled
passengers. Use of standard terminology can help to simplify the process of making the transition
from the ground mode to the air mode ( and vice versa) for the travelling public.
Even though no signage system can satisfy everyone’s needs and questions, signs must be designed
with the objective of developing a concise and informative series of non-verbal messages which will
aid the majority of passengers. The basic criteria for an effective communications system includes
the thorough programming of all aspects of vehicular and pedestrian traffic flow, and the appropriate
delivery of all pertinent information to the traveller, visitor, or employee. It is important for the following
three categories of messages to be communicated through signing and graphics.
Directional signage is of greatest importance in an airport terminal complex. All other designs are
subordinate. Proper directional signs are necessary because the rapid movement of vehicles, people
and particularly passengers is essential for maximum utilization for the airport. At any transition point
between air and ground transportation, success or failure of the terminal operations and its signage
is largely measured by the ease, speed, and comfort of access to and from the various destinations
within the terminal.
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In addition to traditional signage considerations for the conventional passenger, directional signage
is paramount to those persons arriving late for a flight, persons with disabilities, foreign visitors, non-
English speaking passengers, and those passengers experiencing the disorientation which can be
common after entering larger passenger terminals or transportation centres.
J12.1.3 T e rtia r y S ig n a g e
Regulatory, advertising and identification signage fall into a tertiary level of message priority.
Regulatory signs relate to government requirements and recommendations for providing passengers
with travel advice. Designated advertising display areas help to communicate promotional information
for tenants and various off-airport businesses, as well as establish a source of revenue for the airport.
Identification signs provide the tenants with appropriate public exposure in leased space and other
areas established by the airport authority.
J 1 2 .2 P R IN C IP L E S
There is a need to establish a uniform hierarchy of messages and information throughout the airport
terminal complex. Clear and concise information, presented by either ‘primary’ or ‘secondary’ sign
systems greatly improves the efficient passenger flow, both on the roadway and within the terminal.
Care in developing a system for organizing information is critical to the success of any sign programme.
Two successful methods for determining a hierarchy of information are:
• A total separation of the type or classification of information from one sign panel to the next.
Both techniques are successful in airports that consistently implement and maintain either one of
these methods.
• The emphasis should be placed on the reduction of signs and sign content where possible.
• Signs should progress from general (ground transportation) to more specific terminology (rail,
taxi, bus, immigration, baggage claim etc) as a passenger moves through the terminal.
J 12.2.2 G ro u p in g o f In fo rm a tio n
A uniform standard of terminal message and information hierarchy should be established to assist
the travelling public. The need for visual continuity among messages and information is critical to the
smooth flow of passengers, helping to eliminate any elements which may interrupt the scheme or
cause possible confusion.
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J12.2.3 V is ib ility
The importance of an effective typography style for airport signage cannot be overemphasized. The
ultimate presentation of all other aspects of signing is embodied in the message itself and the letter
style (typeface) which is used. The use of a well chosen airport typeface can communicate ‘the image
of the airport’ to the passenger and promote efficient traffic flow.
A conservative ratio to use as a minimum would be 3m of viewing distance for each 1cm of capital
or upper case letter height. Thus a 15cm upper case letter and its associated lower case would be
recognized easily by most passengers at a distance of 45m. Experience indicates that other
requirements, such as message dominance, often dictate that the actual size be larger than minimum
viewing standards.
It is also recommended that 1.6cm be considered the minimum size for letter-types, regardless of
the viewing distance. Tests of the various type sizes being considered by an airport, under actual or
simulated field conditions, are recommended. The interior design, vertical clearances, clear horizontal
viewing distances and basic message requirements have a significant impact on the copy height.
The airport planner is still left with the task of deciding what might be considered an appropriate
viewing distance based on circulation and passenger flow. In certain instances this will be determined
by the architectural space in which the sign is located. In other situations, such as an airport concourse
or a long corridor, viewing distance can be difficult to determine because of other tenant obstructions.
In such a situation, where space is otherwise unrestricted, the design community would recommend
23m (7.6cm cap height) as a minimum.
Choice of a type style should take into account legibility and compatibility with the symbols and the
environment. Lettering and word spacing affect the legibility and appearance of different lettering
styles in varying ways at different distance. Colour and lighting also affect spacing needs. Generally
the following rules of thumb are useful:
® White lettering on a dark background requires more letter spacing than does black on white.
® Internally lighted letters may require greater letter spacing depending upon the intensity of light.
® Many type styles suffer aesthetically when open letter spacing is used.
« Well executed optical letter spacing is better than mechanical letter spacing.
J12.2.4 C o lo u r
The three specific colour groups that are highly recommended are:
Many problems occur with multicoloured signage systems, particularly in complex facilities. It is best
to be extremely cautious when designing a colour scheme for an airport. The colours should be logical
and integrate all elements of the complex.
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J 12.2.5 A v ia tio n S y m b o l S ig n s
Symbol signs are most effective when incorporated as an integral part of the total signage system.
The use of short verbal messages along with symbols is more effective than the use of symbols
alone.
Symbol signs are most effective when they represent a service or concession that can be represented
by an object, such as a bus or coffee cup. They are much less effective when used to represent a
process or activity, such as ticket purchase, because these are complex interactions that can vary
from airline to airline. It is more confusing to over-sign than to under-sign.
It is important to note that the use of too many symbols or arrows at any one particular location can
be counter-productive. However, when properly used and blended into the overall signage system,
symbols can play an important role in facilitating communication and orientation in airport facilities.
J12.2.6 S itin g
One of the most important aspects of good signage is siting. The closer to one’s natural line of sight,
the better. A useful rule of thumb is to avoid exceeding a 10° angle from the natural line of vision. If
conditions require that the viewing angle exceeds 10°, the size and distance relationship may have
to be adjusted. Legibility varies greatly from one symbol to another, or from one type style to another.
Colour relationships, lighting, spacing and viewing angle may also affect legibility. Pragmatic testing
of symbols and lettering on-site, or in simulated on-site conditions, is required.
J 12.2.7 L o c a l C o n s id e ra tio n s
• Local terminology will govern the text of certain signs e.g. petrol/gasoline, left-luggage/baggage
lockers, etc.
® Airport road signs should be the same as those used on roads outside the airport in the country
concerned.
J12.2.8 L a n g u a g e
Signs at international airports should be displayed in:
• The language of the country concerned.
• English (the international aviation language).
• Additional languages (only where justified by the volume of such passengers).
J 1 2 .3 W A Y F IN D IN G
The ability to orient yourself and navigate through places is fundamental to a sense of security and
confidence. An effective information system for wayfinding provides for:
• The ability to effectively locate and orient oneself in the airport or terminal.
• The ability to determine possible destinations and opportunities around you.
• The ability toconfidently determine the route to a desired destination.
An airport needs to provide sufficient information for passengers in order to give them a quick working
knowledge of the facility. Signage is used to provide information about the facility when it is too
complex to be conveyed by the architecture, or when other sources of information in the space are
insufficient or unreliable. Sources of wayfinding information include:
• Site and terminal layout.
• Visual landmarks.
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The primary objective of directories in airports is to provide the passenger with an overall orientation
with respect to the terminal and its facilities. Another objective of a directory is to help the movement
of passengers to and from their destination with ease and efficiency (thus reducing dependence on
airline and airport staff as information sources). In most cases the directory is a supplement to the
existing sign system. It is important that the individual needs of each specific airport be considered
in the planning of directory information units.
A major problem with some directory map layout designs is the improper orientation of the maps for
the person needing the information. When an individual is standing in front of a directory, the map
should be oriented according to the actual building layout and the traffic flow as experienced in that
location.
It should also be noted that passengers are becoming increasingly reliant on electronic visual media
for information, direction and communication in airport and other facilities. Efficiently moving, informing
and managing the travelling public, as well as preventing unnecessary delays or misdirection of
passengers through the airport terminal can generally be assisted by effective Electronic Visual
Information Systems (EVIDS) utilizing dynamic displays.
J 1 2 .4 E L E C T R O N IC V IS U A L IN F O R M A T IO N S Y S T E M S (E V ID S )
Implementation of EVIDS is easier now than ever before. Their manufacturing cost has decreased
for both the cost of one pixel (point) of display and the cost of supporting computer systems. This
increased cost effectiveness will contribute to the continuing growth of EVIDS in airport and airline
operation. One of the contributing factors is that the new display technologies are designed and
manufactured with their own memory and self-controlling capability, thus standardizing the open
architecture system design.
In addition, the development of wireless controllers allows an easy add-on system design for small
locally-controlled systems, such as airline counter, gate podium or back screen displays. Utilization
of the communication backbone concept for overall systems integration (called the Universal Cable
System (UCS)) provides an excellent opportunity to integrate EVIDS with other information technology
systems. Increased acceptance of a CUTE solution also provides a technological opportunity to
integrate airport operated systems with airline operated systems using flight record information data
from EVIDS.
Design specifications and criteria for the application of EVIDS are mainly determined by consultants
and designers specializing in that particular segment. There is a movement among the governing
aviation organizations to standardize EVIDS in the area of message size, character size, display
format and colour of displayed messages. A joint policy document by ACI and IATA — Airport
Automation — the Way Ahead, provides an excellent reference for such standardization. These
guidelines and standards for electronic displays incorporate the input of not only the end users, but
also designers and manufacturers. As the importance of EVIDS continues to grow, more guidelines
will be developed and greater standardization across national boundaries is expected.
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J12.4.1 E V ID S a n d R o a d w a y s
Dynamic signage can be used to inform travelling passengers and meeter/greeters of the location of
a particular airline at certain terminals or entrances, the availability of car parks, and even provide
public service messages for the community where the airport is located.
J12.4.3 E V ID S a n d T h e D e p a rtu re /G a te L o u n g e A re a
Dynamic displays can be used to indicate the most current departures at the gate, to inform passengers
about scheduled changes, and to reassure passengers that they are entering the proper loading
bridge by displaying the flight above the entrance. Dynamic signage can also direct arriving passengers
from the loading bridge exit area to an assigned baggage claim location.
J 12.4.4 E V ID S a n d T h e B a g g a g e C la im H all
Baggage claim belt directory location, individual baggage claim flight information, and special service
announcements such as silent paging are the most important arrival area applications for dynamic
signage. This creates an opportunity to use EVIDS as a welcoming tool, and to provide information
regarding public transportation, lodging, events and other services in multi-language presentations.
For specific services an interactive dynamic display media such as a touch screen can be used. Such
systems may also include a printing device for maps and directions as well as direct reservation
telephone lines.
J12.4.5 E V ID S a n d T r a n s fe r P a s s e n g e rs
Dynamic displays can enhance services provided to passengers regarding transfer flights, emergency
announcements and public or private messages.
J 12.4.6 E V ID S a n d T h e A irs id e /A p ro n
Use of dynamic signage provides a means of communicating important information regarding parked
aircraft to ground services groups; i.e. the most current flight number in the event of a change, new
departures times, type of cargo, the catering service, and other functions.
J 12.4.7 E V ID S a n d E m e rg e n c y A re a s
The placement of suitably located emergency and fire exit signage will be critical to passengers
needing to evacuate a terminal building particularly in a crowded situation. The precise location of
such emergency/fire exit signage should align with national legislation.
Signage should not be obstructed by obstacles such as building infrastructure or equipment. Line of
sight considerations for all modes of operation of the building should be considered. Situations where
the line of sight is impaired and visibility possibly reduced due to smoke propagation should also be
assessed and suitable signage schemes developed. The use of in floor lighting systems should be
considered for situations where evacuation may be required and smoke propagation could cause
impaired vision of static displays — see Fig J12-1.
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J 1 2 .5 T Y P E S O F E V ID S
J 1 2.5.1 A N D S — A irlin e N a m e D is p la y S y s te m s
ANDS provide the identity of the occupant airline and its particular flight information at any one of
the assigned ticket or check-in counter positions. The minimum includes one airline total flight
information per counter position, one airline logo per counter position and optional flight information
for the airline daily schedule. Information displayed is activated by airline personnel tending the
counter positions using either CUTE 2 or the ANDS input device.
J12.5.2 B C D — B a g g a g e C la im D ire c to ry
The BCD provides the arriving passenger with the airline flight number under the corresponding
header to the assigned baggage claim device. Minimum capacity should include up to two flights per
baggage claim device. Information displayed should be inputted by airport/airline personnel
responsible for baggage claim assignment; this can be a real-time system with advanced scheduling.
J12.5.3 B ID S —- B a g g a g e In fo rm a tio n D is p la y S y s te m
BIDS provides specific baggage related information to arriving passengers and airline personnel
within the assigned baggage claim facility. Information displayed is based on scheduled baggage
information with an override operation by airport and airline personnel.
J12.5.4 B L D — B a g g a g e L o a d in g D ire c to ry
The BLD provides specific baggage belt assignments for each corresponding flight to the baggage
tractor driver. Minimum capacity should include one flight per loading belt. System input is by the
airport/airline personnel responsible for the baggage belt assignment.
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J12.5.9 R ID S — R a m p In fo rm a tio n D is p la y S y s te m
The RIDS provides information pertaining to the most recent flight assigned to a particular gate
(including the previously assigned flight) to airline personnel and, airport/apron service personnel.
Each display is controlled from a local flight input device and then connected to the central airline
and/or airport operation processor. In addition to flight identification, this system can also provide a
countdown time useful for baggage loading crews. It can also provide special information such as
weather-related messages. System operation is based on a real-time system.
Departures Departure
Flight No. Destination Time Status
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J125.10 V P D S — V is u a l P a g in g D is p la y S y s te m
The VPDS provides a method of displaying visual paging messages and other emergency information
to people with hearing impairments via electronic display media. Operation of VPDS is an automated
event-based and menu-driven system, operated by the airport paging communication centre. All
messages are pre-formatted with the international symbol for hearing loss.
J 1 2 .6 T Y P E S O F D IS P L A Y T E C H N O L O G IE S
J12.6.1 C a th o d e R a y T u b e (C R T )
CRTs are applicable to all systems for close viewing and indoor environments. Although historically
commonplace they are being phased out and replaced with Plasma or LCD technology. The
disadvantages with CRT displays are:
® The phosphor on the inside of the tube display can become burnt over longer periods and stained
by the repetition of the same or similar images.
® CRT monitors are traditionally quite bulky units, though this has improved.
Display refresh horizontal and vertical frequency should be in the region of 50Hz = > 120Hz.
J 12.6.2 E le c tro L u m in e s c e n t (E L )
EL is a less popular display technology, available from only a few manufacturers. Applicable for all
systems requiring large character messages in an indoor environment.
J 12.6.3 F ib re O p tic s (F O )
Fibre Optics provides an application for the old principle of the transmission of light via fibre cable.
Applicable for airfield-type displays and roadway information systems in an outdoor environment.
J 12.6.4 T h in F ilm T ra n s is to r L iq u id C ry s ta l D is p la y (T F T -L C D )
TFT-LCD are an attractive display technology, due to excellent contrast, character configuration and
full colour range. Applicable for large character information systems and line-oriented displays in an
indoor environment, a TFT-LCD display refresh horizontal and vertical frequency should be in the
region of 50Hz = > 120Hz. Graphics are driven by computer software so they present a very flexible
communication technology. The readable display viewing range is more limited, and screen resolutions
not as high as the newer plasma screen technologies. TFT-LCD technology is currently cheaper than
IATA recommended plasma-based counterparts.
J12.6.5 L ig h t E m ittin g D io d e (L E D )
LED is a very popular display technology, offering excellent graphics presentation with high density.
Applicable to all types of information systems utilizing small and large characters, they are used
mostly in an indoor environment with limited application for outdoor use.
J12.6.6 In c a n d e s c e n t L a m p s . (IL )
A traditional display technology, incandescent lamps are popular for their brightness and the simplicity
of their driving circuitry. Applications include large character information systems mainly in an outdoor
environment.
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J12.6.8 S p lit F la p (S F )
Split Flap is one of the first electromechanical display technologies. It is being phased out and
surpassed by other newer more graphical technologies. Applicable to large character information
systems, it was suitable for both indoor and outdoor environments. Display graphics are limited and
are difficult to update once the graphic set is chosen (the display needs to be mechanically dismantled).
J12.6.9 P la s m a S c re e n s
Plasma screen technology offers very high resolution graphics and a full colour sprectrum plus total
flexibility in signage application through software-based interfaces. This technology is now being used
extensively inside terminals to communicate flight information and passenger messaging information
(such as emergency evacuation instructions), and it is commonplace to use the same screen for
various messaging tasks depending on priorities within the terminal building at particular times. For
example a plasma screen used 98% of the time to display flight information can be used to display
emergency messaging in emergency situations.
Plasma screens have become much more reliable and cheaper than early variants of the technology.
The technology benefits from thin screen assemblies which can be placed within the terminal readily
and which are not bulky. Multiple screens can be connected via software enabling total wall size
messaging for both flight announcements and limited advertising.
Plasma screens typically allow a 160 degree viewing angle (80 degrees each way about the center
of the screen). Their placement and line of sight alignment is important but not as critical when
compared to LCD screens. High ambient lighting can particularly effect this type of unit, though
contrasting flexibility is available and units can be fitted with ambient light intensity sensors which
then adjust display contacts automatically.
Plasma screens are the current IATA recommended technology to display flight information messaging.
Display refresh horizontal and vertical frequency should be in the region of 50Hz => 120Hz.
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J12.6.10 In -F lo o r E m e rg e n c y R o u te L ig h tin g
Although not commonplace, the safety advantages of this simple technology are very apparent.
Basically the floor of departures and arrivals areas including the pier and satellite buildings are fitted
with flush, durable lighting along clear paths which lead to emergency exits. The lighting system is
activated only when the building needs to be evacuated and directional lighting is required. This
technology can be used where ceilings are low and where signage could become obstructed in the
event of a fire by smoke. In-floor emergency lighting, where used, should be fitted with a 2 hour local
battery standby.
J1Z6.11 F ire a n d E m e rg e n c y E x it D is p la y s
Unless specified in local national mandatory legislation, emergency and fire exit signage should be
permanently illuminated and fitted with a 2 hour local battery standby.
J 1 2 .8 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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C h a p te r K — P a s s e n g e r F a c ilita tio n
Section K1: P rinciples
K1.1 General Security Considerations ...................................... ........... .......... . 385
K1.2 General Facilitation Considerations ............................................................. 385
K1.3 IATA Recom m endations..... ........................................................... ................. 385
Section K2: Roles and R esponsibilities of G overnm ents/A irlines
K2.1 IATA/Airline Participation .................. .................... .......... .......... . 386
K2.2 ICAO .......... ................................ ........ .................................................... ........ 386
K2.3 Governments ........................ .................... ......... ........... ........... ......... . 386
K2.4 IATA Recommendations ................................................................................. 386
Section K3: Im m igration Processes
K3.1 The Role of Immigration .......................... ......... ............ ......................... . 388
K3.2 Passenger Type Separation .... ...... ....................... ................... ..................... 388
K3.3 Departures Immigration Control Requirements ................. .......... ...... ......... 389
K3.4 Passenger Arrival Immigration Requirements ............... .............................. 390
K3.5 Diplomatic Immigration Channels .......... ............ ................................ . 390
K3.6 Future Immigration Channels .......................................................................... 390
K3.7 IATA Recommendations ........................................................... . 391
S ection K4: C ustom s Processes
K4.1 General C onsiderations.... ................................ ............................ . 392
K4.2 Legislation and Recommended Practice Requirements ....... ..................... 392
K4.3 Government Controls ....................... ....... ...................................................... 393
K4.4 IATA Recommendations .................................... ........... ........... .................... . 395
S ection K5: S im p lifyin g Passenger Travel
K5.1 Introduction: A Vision for the Future .... .................................... . 396
K5.2 Industry Standards as Components toReach the SPT Vision ................. 396
K5.3 IATA Recom m endations.... ....... ...................................................................... 398
Section K6: Disabled Passengers and Staff
K6.1 Designing for the Needs of Disabled Passengers and Staff ... . 400
K6.2 IATA Recommendations ....... . 402
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IA T A
K1A G E N E R A L S E C U R IT Y C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
In order to ensure a safe environment in which to operate, security requirements and appropriate
design must be taken into account in all new development, re-development and refurbishment of
airport facilities as clearly described in ICAO Annex 17.
To provide the necessary framework, governments must develop and consistently implement precise
airport security standards. Such standards should ensure that the integrity of the local security
programme is maintained, while at the same time offering sufficient flexibility to meet the specific
operational circumstances of each airport.
Security requirements must be realistic, economically viable and allow for a balance between aviation
security and safety on the one hand, and the need to ensure that the benefits associated with
movements of persons and goods by air are protected to the fullest extent possible on the other.
They should also, to the greatest practicable extent, be harmonised with internationally-agreed
standards and norms to enhance operational efficiencies of government agencies, airlines and airport
operators.
K 1 .2 G E N E R A L F A C IL IT A T IO N C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
The rapid, orderly and predictable movement of persons and goods through airport facilities is as
important to airline operations as effective security measures. Appropriate facility designs incorporated
into arrival, departure, baggage reclaim and cargo handling areas are essential for efficient operation.
The needs of various governmental control agencies, such as Customs, Immigration, Agriculture
and Quarantine must also be addressed, as should the needs for enhanced telecommunications
capabilities. ICAO Annex 9 and the World Customs Organisation’s Kyoto Convention, amongst a
range of official publications, provide significant guidance as to international standards and best
practices developed to reduce unnecessary barriers and facilitate movement.
K 1 .3 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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K2.1 IA T A /A IR L IN E P A R T IC IP A T IO N
When a major airport development project is proposed by an airport authority, experience has shown
that the most effective and mutually beneficial course of action is to establish communications with
the airport authorities and their consultants as early as possible to explore alternative airport plans
and terminal concepts to benefit all concerned. The IATA forum for this consultation is the Airport
Consultative Committee (ACC).
K 2 .2 IC A O
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a division of the United Nations, and was
formed in 1944 pursuant to the signing of the Convention on International Civil Aviation. ICAO creates
high-level legislative principles for international civil airtransport in order to ensure the highest possible
degree of uniformity in regulations and standards, procedures and organisation regarding civil aviation
matters. Standards and Recommended Practices on Facilitation are provided for in Annex 9 to the
Convention. This document contains Standards and Recommended Practices or SARPs, which
Contracting States are urged to adopt, and as far as practicable, include in their own national legislation.
The airport development designer and airport operator should obtain ICAO published documents to
confirm the legislative standards by which airlines and airports must function.
K 2 .3 GOVERNM ENTS
National standards vary from country to country, with the main exception being those pertaining to
European Union (EU) Member States, whereby each Member State enacts national legislation in
order to implement EU Directives and Regulations. The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) founded by
the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) represents the civil aviation regulatory authorities of
a number of European States who have agreed to co-operate in developing and implementing common
regulatory standards and procedures. These are known as Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR). The
JARs should be consulted for common EU safety and regulatory procedures.
Non-EU governments set policy for security and general passenger facilitation issues on a national
basis while attempting to harmonize standards for international travel.
In the context of passenger facilitation, governments employ trained staff at border control points
within the airport terminal building — Immigration (Arrivals and/or Departures) and Customs (Arrivals).
These staff process passengers and crew alike for the two functions noted.
Governments also provide access (for authorised agents) to passport and security databases, enabling
border control agents to operate effectively within the terminal building by assessing passenger data
either at the primary inspection line or prior to arrival if an Advance Passenger Information (API)
system is in place.
K 2 .4 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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Other useful documents which should be obtained by authorized organizations include but are
not limited to:
• ECAC Document 30 (Restricted Access), which was ratified in July 03, should be similarly
obtained to verify the requirements of EU states.
• IATA Security Manual,
» ICAO Security Manual.
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K3.1 T H E R O L E O F IM M IG R A T IO N
Immigration services are provided by governments in order to examine aliens on arrival/departure
at/from ports of entry in order to establish whether on arrival (i) aliens are properly documented and
(ii) they have a right of entry to that territory. On departure, the authorities track when the alien departs
the territory, and verify that the alien should not be prevented from departing for reasons of law
enforcement. Passengers and crew should present the required travel documents (passports/visas/
identity papers as applicable) on arrival at the primary inspection line. Some countries may also
inspect documentation on exit from the territory.
Immigration agents use dedicated national and, where possible, international databases to validate
bona fide travelers. Some Immigration authorities emphasise pre-entry and on-entry control, while
others concentrate on after-entry activities.
However there has been a shift toward international co-operation on immigration issues and many
states are moving towards a multilateral approach to passenger processing. This approach has been
facilitated by the increase in the use of machine-readable passports and the capture and verification
of biometric data. For further information in this regard please refer to Section K5: Simplifying
Passenger Travel, Clause K5.2.2, which provides more information on the latest International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards pertaining to Machine Readable Travel Documents (MRTD)
and to the use of Biometrics to facilitate border clearance.
The airport planner should refer to Chapter F, and in particular to Section F9.3 for further details on
the sizing requirements for immigration/passport control facilities.
K 3 .2 P A S S E N G E R T Y P E S E P A R A T IO N
In accordance with ICAO Annex 17 clause 4.3.3, the separation of departing and arriving passengers
is essential where departing passengers have entered the airside environment after undergoing
security and immigration inspections. It is subsequently recommended by IATA that all departing
international airside passengers must NOT be permitted to mingle with arriving passengers in common
areas.
Option 1 (Preferred Option) Passengers must be segregated by means of a physical barrier, which
must NOT be capable of being breached by passengers. The structure must be considered to be
permanently fixed and of sufficient height and fixture to prevent cross filtration of flows of passengers
and/or goods between departing and arriving passengers.
Option 2 (Temporary Solution) Where the option 1 solution cannot be met in the short term, all
departing and arriving international passengers must be separated. This should be facilitated by
means of airport security staff. Security staff should be assigned stations proportionate to traffic flow
and should be appropriately spaced. FIG. K3.1 defines the passenger separation issue in further
detail. Carefully managed operational security protocols need to be developed in this regard.
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Option 1 - Preferred
Permanent Barrier
Interlocked Doors
As Appropriate
Where necessary
Departing
Originating Departing Passengers
Passengers & -----
Arriving
Arriving & Transfer Passengers
Passengers
K 3 .3 D E P A R T U R E S IM M IG R A T IO N C O N T R O L R E Q U IR E M E N T S
Immigration staff located within the departure point need to have access to dedicated databases to
validate the bona fides of, in this case, the outbound traveler. Passengers who are improperly
documented will be stopped by immigration staff and may be taken off line for further scrutiny.
Where required, terminal developers should provide suitably sized departure immigration control
desks/kiosks as advised within Section F9 of this manual. In addition to the main outbound immigration
processing channels, common immigration administration offices should be provided.
Departing passenger interview rooms should also be provided in a landside location and should be
considered as secure rooms. The fit out (with customary heating and ventilation systems, lighting
and water provision) of the departing passenger immigration interview rooms and the administration
offices should be determined following consultation with local government immigration departments.
Standard Processes: Each government has its own domestic legislative provisions regarding outbound
controls of passengers and their baggage. Many governments, in light of perceived threats to border
integrity, require routine inspection of some or all baggage of departing passengers. Screening
baggage for explosive material is also commonplace, and permanent but flexible infrastructure should
allow airlines to carry out such inspection where required. Please refer to Sections U11 (Hold Baggage
Screening and U12 (Hand Baggage Screening) for further details in this regard.
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K 3 .4 P A S S E N G E R A R R IV A L IM M IG R A T IO N R E Q U IR E M E N T S
Standard Processes: Passport/document controls for arriving passengers are required, except in the
case of pre-inspection at the airport of departure. Consideration should be given to the availability of
multiple channels based on nationality, traveler status (i.e. passenger/airline crew/diplomat), and the
availability of API and Advance Passenger Processing. Health controls for arriving passengers are
a permanent feature in only a few countries, however flexibility is required in this area in case of a
public health emergency of international concern. Terminal designers should account for the provision
of medical examination rooms for this purpose and these should be sized according to the perceived
flow rate of passengers that will be required to use the facilities.
Immigration staff located within the arrival point need the same information technology as provided
at the departures point, namely the use of dedicated databases to validate the bona fides of, in this
case, the inbound arriving traveler.
Terminal developers should provide suitably sized arrivals immigration control desks/kiosks as detailed
within Section F9. In addition to the main inbound arriving passenger immigration processing channels,
arriving passenger interview rooms should be provided. Arriving passenger immigration interview
rooms should be located airside and should be considered as secure rooms. The fit out (with customary
heating and ventilation systems, lighting and water provision) of the arrival immigration interview
rooms should be determined following consultation with local government immigration departments.
K 3 .5 D IP L O M A T IC IM M IG R A T IO N C H A N N E L S
Airports which experience higher than average volumes of diplomatic or semi diplomatic passengers
should develop dedicated passenger routes, more applicable equipment infrastructure, as well as
operational protocols to permit the efficient processing of this category of traveler. The airport developer
should seek clarification from local immigration departments in this regard.
K 3 .6 F U T U R E IM M IG R A T IO N C H A N N E L S
Airports and immigration departments should strive to improve the efficiency of immigration channels
where possible by providing faster and more effective processing of travelers. In an attempt to achieve
this goal, new technologies are being implemented. This includes the use of machine-readable
passports, biometric data capture and processing, and the resultant database links and encryption
requirements. These newer technologies are now being implemented in a time where more stringent
immigration checks are required; a situation that will no doubt prevail in the longer term.
With the ever-increasing improvement of IT infrastructure, airport developers designing immigration
facilities should review Section Y1. This section defines the expansion and connectivity expectations
of systems which designers should observe and adhere to.
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K 3 .7 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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K4.1 G E N E R A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
At most international airports, government clearance requirements are in force for international
passengers. In co-ordination with the government inspection agencies (e.g. HM Customs & Excise
in the UK and the US Bureau of Customs & Border Protection (BCP), etc.), these requirements must
be taken into account in the early stages of planning the airport terminal facilities.
In facility planning, government controls should not be regarded as unchangeable: a certain degree
of flexibility is required, dependent upon the border agency’s perception of the level of threat to border
integrity. Even if a control requirement remains unchanged, the technique used to enforce it may
change, with corresponding changes in related space and facility requirements.
During early discussions it may be found that government authorities are not aware of new concepts
in clearance procedures. Where this is the case, the airline representatives should ensure that the
appropriate agencies and/or authorities are made aware of these developments. The IATA Facilitation
Representative for the country concerned is responsible for keeping the government inspection
agencies informed on such matters.
The object of the IATA Facilitation Programme is to eliminate or simplify government clearance
requirements. While this is not always possible, facilitating the rapid flow of passengers and goods
through the airport is a necessity for border agencies, airlines and airport operators. Success in this
field can alter the nature of the space and facilities which may be required by the governmental
control agencies as well as by airlines for traffic handling purposes. It is important that those planning
new or re-designed airport terminal facilities should be made aware of actual and anticipated
improvements in facilitation before alterations or new constructions are commenced. Contacts with
the National Facilitation Representative, the IATA Facilitation Representative, the IATA Regional
Facilitation Co-ordinator or the IATA Facilitation Secretariat should be made at this stage.
It should be recognized that government border control agencies may maintain some requirements
(e.g. for the airlines to present passenger manifests) because they feel that the airport design does
not provide adequate assurance that all passengers will present themselves for inspection.
Alternatively, the provision of Advance Passenger Information (API) or other automated border
procedures may enable border control agencies to segregate arriving passengers into those with and
those without such data. Careful attention to design aspects, particularly within the airport terminal
building, can ensure that passengers will proceed through the government control areas where
necessary, and thus minimize requirements for government authorities to maintain certain control
documents and procedures.
K 4 .2 L E G IS L A T IO N A N D R E C O M M E N D E D P R A C T IC E
R E Q U IR E M E N T S
Airport designers should observe the following legislative requirements when planning the functional
areas associated with the layout of Customs facilities for the processing of passengers, cargo and
mail and express parcels where appropriate:
® National GovernmentLegislation — e.g. DfT (UK) /CATSA (Canada) /DHS (USA), etc.
® ICAO Annex 9.
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Aside note: The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) founded by the European Civil Aviation Conference
(ECAC) represents the civil aviation regulatory authorities of a number of European States who have
agreed to co-operate in developing and implementing common safety regulatory standards and
procedures. These are known as Joint Aviation Requirements (JARs). The JARs should be consulted
for common EU safety and regulatory procedures.
K 4 .3 G O VER NM EN T CO NTROLS
The airline/operator/known shipper must provide: (i) customs checking facilities (ii) check goods and
(iii) provide appropriate Customs documents at the checkpoints. Customs facilities maybe located at
the following airport passenger and cargo processing checkpoint areas:
• Customs control kiosks/checkpoints in airside passenger arrival facilities (See Section F9 for
sizing requirements).
• Cargo processing buildings, operated by the customs administration, by individual airlines and,
in certain instances, customs brokers or freight forwarder operators.
All cargo handling and/or clearance procedures occurring within the cargo facility or elsewhere in
controlled areas of the airport facility must comply with specific national customs regulations. These
include, but are not limited to requirements for the safeguarding of goods in operator’s custody, the
keeping of transport records, transfer of goods to other airlines, and delivery to consignees.
The airport developer should work with the local government customs representative to establish an
inventory of necessary infrastructure to be provided by the airport developer, operator or freight
handling entities (airlines, brokers, forwarders, etc.) that are resident at the airport. The following should
be used as checklist for designers to verify the requirements with the local customs representative:
• Customs & excise duty payment facilities and IT LAN/WAN interface specifications.
• Kennels for K9‘s used for detecting drugs and general contraband in passenger luggage and
cargo consignments.
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K 4 .3 .2 C u s to m s B o n d e d W a re h o u s e s
Bonded warehouse facilities are used to hold goods which must be accessed by authorised airside
personnel on a regular basis, and for which national customs duties are not normally applicable or
collected. Examples of goods which fall into this category are cigarettes, alcohol, etc., which are for
sale on aircraft and within duty free airside shops. Additionally, bonded warehouse facilities are
frequently used for the temporary controlled storage of goods in transit to another country or another
airport within the same country where formal customs formalities will occur.
Designers should liaise with airlines and cargo freight processors to establish the extent of such storage
facilities that maybe required. Designers should also liaise with government customs representatives to
establish any special customs clearance infrastructure considerations and/or requirements.
Bonded warehouse facilities must be secure and provide environments that are appropriate for the
goods they are intended to hold. Bonded warehouse facilities intended to hold goods to be sold within
the terminal should ideally be located as close as practicable to that terminal; bearing in mind any
future potential terminal expansion areas.
K 4 .3 .3 T r a n s fe r P a s s e n g e r B a g g a g e C u s to m s C le a ra n c e
Regulations in some countries require that the customs authority inspect and clear transfer passengers
and their accompanied goods (hand carried and hold checked baggage) in the same manner as
controls applied to persons entering the country. Where such inspection of transfer passengers and
their possessions is required, the airport must make provision for the passenger to be reunited with
their hold baggage prior to physical presentation before a customs official.
Where transit baggage must be cleared by customs, provision must be made for the airline to return
that baggage to the aircraft, taking into consideration any screening requirements as defined within
Sections U11 and U12.
Multi-Channel Customs: The random sampling concept is usually applied within multi-channel
customs facility layouts. The typical passenger customs clearance area is normally situated adjacent
to and immediately after terminating passengers (and transferring passengers where required under
national customs regulation) have reclaimed their checked or hold baggage.
The dual-channel (red/green) system is, in some regions of the world, expanded to provide a third
channel which maybe used for special regulations.
RED CHANNEL: Passengers with articles to declare proceed through a channel indicated by a red
sign in the form of a square, where their baggage is inspected and appropriate duties assessed.
GREEN CHANNEL: Passengers with nothing to declare proceed through a channel indicated by a
green sign in the form of an octagon where they are generally not inspected, although customs
authorities normally reserve the right to make a spot check of passengers proceeding though this
channel.
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BLUE CHANNEL: A separate customs channel is used in certain circumstances, and where national
regulations allow, to further segregate arriving passenger clearance processes. As an example, the
blue lane process has been used to facilitate the clearance of persons travelling between two airports
located within the European Union, and for which customs inspections are not required. In other
situations, special customs regulations are applicable for this channel, when used. The provision of
this channel is optional and dependent on the local national government legislation requirements
and/or international agreements in place. Airport designers should liaise with their local customs
representative for clarification.
The number of processing lanes in each of the coloured categories shall vary in accordance with the
type and volume of passenger traffic being handled, and local governmental regulatory requirements.
Aside Operational Consideration Note: Government agencies (Health, Immigration, Customs,
Agriculture) should be urged to consider the possibility of using one official to carry out inspections
on behalf of several agencies. This not only results in cost savings, but can also expedite the
passenger’s journey through the inspection facility. Such combined inspection processes are already
in effect in Canada and Australia, and since the inception of the Department of Homeland Security,
this will eventually be the case in the United States as well.
K 4 .4 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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Various trials have and are taking place world-wide in these areas, and related-standards are emerging.
Certainly some attention in airport planning needs to be given to current and up-coming developments
in implementing new technologies, for example: common-use self-service (CUSS) check-in; real-time
communications of passenger information between the service partners; biometrics for automated
identification of passengers; and radio frequency identification (RFID) of check-in baggage.
What is important for airport developers is to be aware of new developments and how they’ll impact
airport space requirements. This chapter outlines the key SPT concept and components important
to airport planners.
K 5.1.1 T h e K e y C o n c e p t
The aim of the SPT Program is to improve the passenger travel experience by replacing repetitive
checks of passengers and their documents with a newer, more streamlined system. The new system
will collect the information once, and then share it electronically with subsequent service providers.
A one-stop check prior to departure will clear the passenger through their entire journey.
When founded in 1998, the SPT Program’s prime driver was capacity limitations, and this continues
to be an important incentive to work towards the SPT vision. SPT represents the industry’s best
attempt to cope with the increased projected number of passengers by utlising airport space more
efficiently. It is felt that this goal should be achieved without the need to resort to large capital
expenditures.
With recent increases in security concerns, the SPT Interest Group (a self-funded membership)
recognised that the concept of collecting all passenger information prior to departure and enabling
its live exchange between service providers would also facilitate security enhancements in airtransport.
For further details please refer to:
www.simplifying-travel.org
K 5 .2 IN D U S T R Y S T A N D A R D S A S C O M P O N E N T S T O R E A C H T H E S P T
V IS IO N
There are several standard-setting groups working in unison with the SPT interest Group to develop
an international structure enabling interoperability of Simplified Passenger Travel. These are areas
to explore when investigating the future uses of airport terminals.
K 5.2.1 C o m m o n -U s e S e lf S e rv ic e (C U S S ) C h e c k -in K io s k s
The IATA CUSS Manual contains the standard specification for the CUSS kiosk. The business model
for implementation will likely be that airports will own the kiosks and lease them by time or usage to
airlines.
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This sharing of infrastructure by airlines is essential to ensuring that departure halls do not become
congested with airline-owned kiosks. In addition, this business model will enable airlines that operate
limited flights into an airport to also benefit from using self-service check-in. The brand-ability of the
kiosks will be imperative in attracting airlines to their use. For further details please refer to:
www.iata.org/CUSS
K 5 .2 .2 P re -c le a ra n c e o f G o v e r n m e n t A u th o rity R e q u ire m e n ts U s in g
B io m e tric s
In parallel, the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) has developed standards for the
machine-readable zone (MRZ) in travel documents (passports, visas and identity cards). ICAO has
also endorsed a global, harmonized ‘blueprint’ for the integration of biometric identification information
into passports and other machine readable travel documents (MRTDs). Facial recognition has been
selected as the biometric to be used world wide for machine-assisted identity confirmation and States
have the option of using one or two secondardy biometrics if they so wish. Four technical papers
have also been published which guide States on how to implement biometrics in MRTDs. Specifically
the papers include:
• Biometrics Deployment,
http://www.icao.int/cgi/goto_atb.pl7icao/en/atb/fal/mrtd/overview.htm
The result will improve the risk in conducting preliminary immigration checks remotely and front line
checks on arrival automatically. For further details please refer to:
www.icao.int/cgi/goto_atb.pl?icao/en/atb/fal/mrtd/overview.htm
Many projects are being conducted by government authorities which are building support for the
employment of pre-clearance procedures combined with automated passenger identification using
biometric technology. As this work develops, revolving around the passenger identity and entitlement
to enter a country, customs and biosecurity/quarantine elements are also being considered so that
the passenger can clear through their entire journey in the one-stop check at departure.
K 5 .2 .3 O p p o r tu n ity fo r S e c u rity C h e c k
Security professionals are provided on a local basis to screen passengers prior to boarding. It would
therefore be possible with the information collected prior to boarding pass issuance for pertinent data
to be transmitted to the security check for pre-assessment of the degree of screening necessary.
This would assist with the resourcing of both equipment and staff at security checkpoints.
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Remote tools can also be developed to take the one-stop check off the airport site through remote
communications such as the Internet, WAP and 3rd Generation Internet Enabled phones, PDAs, etc.
| ® CUSS check-in,
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The main categories of disabled persons for airports designers to account for can include but may
not be limited to:
During the design period, the airport planners and designers should evaluate the capability of their
designs to permit the travel of these passengers, with the provision of suitable specialist equipment
and a total appreciation of the difficulties faced by the disabled travelling public and the disabled staff
working at the operational airport.
As well as Braille indicators, signs may also include a secondary typeface that repeats the text
message carried by the standard sign, but in letters that are ‘raised out’ of the surface of the panel.
This lettering should appear on the same panel as the adjoining Braille impregnations, be of the same
colour as the background (so as not to clutter the information seen by sighted passengers), and
should generally consist of lettering that is somewhat spaced apart and light, as opposed to bold, in
appearance.
Arrival and Departing flight information normally displayed on FIDS should be repeated in certain
locations by digital voice messaging or provision should be made at the information desks to cater
for disabled passengers needing up to the minute arrival and departure information.
At least one flight information display within each respective zone of the airport should have doubled
font sized text compared to normal FID’s, in order to permit visually impaired (not blind) passengers
to read the messages more easily.
Lifts, should be fitted with digital speech messaging systems to advise passengers of lift level and
door opening and door closing status. They should also be fitted with buttons that have Braille either
on the buttons themselves or alongside the floor level and emergency buttons.
Travelators (moving walkways) and escalators should be fitted with audible warning or digital speech
messaging to warn of entry and exit points for these units.
Transit systems should be fitted with digital speech messaging systems to advise passengers of
transit location within the building and door opening or door closing status.
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Each set of public telephones should have at least one clearly marked telephone that is equipped
with a volume control or sound booster device for persons with a hearing impairment.
Specific arrangements should be made in toilet facilities for the disabled, and these should be properly
identified and of a suitable internal design that provides easy access and aid bars. Passenger in
distress alarms should also be fitted.
Telephones need to be accessible to a person using a wheelchair, and pertinent counter heights
should also be designed with practical wheelchair user specifications in mind.
Car parking spaces for the disabled should be designed and placed closer to the entrance of the
terminal. Several spaces adjacent to the terminal building entrance, separated from the main flow of
traffic and clearly marked, should be made available for the loading and unloading of passengers
with disabilities from automobiles. These spaces should allow individuals with wheelchairs, braces
or crutches to get in and out of automobiles easily and onto a level surface suitable for wheeling and
walking. The international accessibility symbol should be displayed at accessible entrances to the
terminal.
Where possible, stretcher cases should be able to by-pass the normal passenger flow routes (e.g.
by permitting ambulances to proceed directly to the aircraft through appropriate security equipment
and protocols).
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K 6 .2 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
® Security — The processing o f disabled passengers through security check points will normally
require access doors to allow wheelchairs to by-pass the metal detectors. Hand-check facilities
will be required in these cases or provision of particle analysers, as deemed necessary by
the national security authority. (Refer to Section U12).
• Baggage Reclaims (Arriving Passengers) — The baggage reclaim areas must be accessible
to persons with disabilities and the facility designed to allow for efficient handling and retrieval
of baggage by all persons.
© From Check-in to Gate Room — Where appropriate, electric carts can be provided on airside j
concourses to transport mobility impaired passengers. From a terminal design point of view,
planning for these vehicles will require consideration of power supply for battery recharge,
safety when parked, parking zones out o f main passenger flows, floor stresses to cope with
vehicle weight and maintenance zones separate from passenger areas.
® A t the Gate —* Boarding through the passenger loading bridge is the preferred method for
passengers with disabilities. Disabled passengers travelling with their own wheelchairs prefer
to stay in their chairs until they must transfer to their seat on board the aircraft. On arrival
they again prefer to transfer from the aircraft seat into their own wheelchair. The wheelchair
may be a light-weight push type or it may be a heavy electric wheelchair. In either case, the
chair (and the batteries) must be transported from the gate lounge down to the aircraft apron
so it can be loaded on the aircraft. A simple lifting device in the gate area is needed to
transport wheelchairs between levels. This lifting device can also be used for handling excess
cabin baggage as gate-checked baggage. This lifting device may be located in the passenger
loading bridge or it may be a shared lift located between several gates.
@ Changes in Level: The design of passengers access ramps, excluding passenger boarding
bridges, should ensure that a gradient is not any steeper than 1:12. Ramps with gradients
greater than this will cause difficulty for staff assisting wheelchair passengers when using the
ramps.
i ® Passengers Requiring Physical Assistance — When aircraft do not interface directly with
terminals, disabled passengers will require transport. They should be moved from the aircraft
to the terminal by a lifting vehicle and should be introduced into the main terminal passenger
streams whenever possible. This may require doors into the terminal at the arrivals level or
lifts from apron level to arrivals level. Departing passengers will require similar facilities from
the departure areas. If doors are required into the arrivals or departure levels, space must
be allowed for the lifting vehicles to manoeuvre between the aircraft to mate with the terminal
building.
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IA T A
C h a p te r L — A ir c r a f t P a rk in g A p r o n s
Section L1: C urrent and Future A ircra ft Types
L1.1 Current and Future Aircraft Types Overview ... .................................. . 407
L1.2 Boeing 25 Year Vision Statement ......... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ......
L1.3 Airbus 25 Year Vision Statement ... .................................. . 408
Section L2: P hysical and Functional R equirem ents
L2.1 Introduction and General Considerations ......... ................... ................... . 409
L2.2 Basic Apron L a y o u ts .......................... ....... ....... ........................................ . 409
L2.3 Blast Fences and Barriers .......... ... ........ ................................ .......... . 412
L2.4 Apron Perimeter .... .............. ...... ..................................... .......... . 416
L2.5 The Cargo Apron ........................................................ ....... ...................... . 417
L2.6 IATA Recommendations ............................... .............................. 418
Section L3: Gate Stands and Remote Stands
L3.1 Gate and Remote Stands: Introduction ........................................... . 419
L3.2 Gate Stands ...................................................................... ............................ 419
L3.3 Remote Stands ........................................................................................... . 420
L3.4 Equipment Parking and Maintenance ......................... .......... ...................... . 422
L3.5 Expansion C apabilities.......... ...................... ........................................ 422
L3.6 Parking Clearances ........................................................................... ............... 423
L3.7 IATA Recommendations ............................................................... ......... . 425
Section L4: G round Handling E quipm ent
L4.1 Ground Handling Vehicles ................................................. ................... .......... 426
L4.2 Passenger Loading Step V e h ic le s............... ..................... ................ 428
L4.3 Potable Water Supply Vehicles ............................................................ 429
L4.4 Catering Vehicles ............ ......... ....................... .............................. 429
L4.5 Aircraft Push Back Tugs ............................. ....... ...................... ................... . 430
L4.6 IATA Recommendations ..................... ..................................................... . 432
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CHAPTER L — AIRCRAFT PARKING APRONS
L1.1 C U R R E N T A N D F U T U R E A IR C R A F T T Y P E S O V E R V IE W
This section has been compiled with the kind assistance of Airbus and Boeing. Its objective is to help
airport operators and designers appreciate the business drivers associated with the development of
newer commercial aircraft, reflecting current trends and operational requirements and how these
might impact on long term airport master plans.
A series of questions were posed to both Airbus and Boeing and a 25 year vision statement of the
aviation industry was requested. The text provided in clauses L1.2 and L1.3 has been reproduced
verbatim from Boeing and Airbus respectfully in answer to the IATA request.
L 1 .2 B O E IN G 2 5 Y E A R V IS IO N S T A T E M E N T
The driving forces in the aircraft industry will be operating cost, environmental impact, and capacity.
Lower operating cost could provide consolidation pressure to increase aircraft size, especially in some
hub-to-hub markets. Longer, direct flights, to avoid the cost of the passenger transfer and increase
airplane utilization, could increase the fragmentation of the airlines’ route structure and required
increased operating weights. Increased usage of the lower holds for revenue cargo may also increase
the operating weights of aircraft. Lower costs could also provide pressure for unique features that
decreases fuel burn (canards, more aft loading via tail fuel tanks, increase wing span/winglets, etc.)
that would require more flexibility in gate layout. Greater utilization, to reduce the impact of ownership
cost, will require reduced turn times and could extend the normal operating window to earlier/later
times of the day/night.
Aircraft changes, to address environmental issues, will primarily be internal to the engines and the
APU. Engines will increase in by-pass ratio, which will increase the nacelle diameter, reducing ground
clearance and increasing the potential for damage. Reducing community noise may require increased
wingspan and thrust to improve climb performance as well as detail refinements to reduce airframe
noise. Future airplanes will be ‘more electric’, and with pressure to reduce APU operation will increase
the demand for electrical power from the terminal grid while parked.
Demand for capacity will increase. Some of the increase will come from larger sized aircraft, but most
will result from increased frequencies and additional destinations. Both the increased frequencies
and destinations will require additional gates as well as better utilization of gates.
• Be larger, more span for a given passenger load; and more weight for greater range and cargo
capacity.
© Have greater demand for ramp services, particularly electrical power and conditioned air.
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L I .3 A IR B U S 2 5 Y E A R V IS IO N S T A T E M E N T
Air transport driving forces remain world economic liberalization and growth, international trade
development, population growth and migration, and fares relative decrease allowed by continuous
productivity gain from all actors of the industry. Air transport is becoming a commodity product, where
efficient and value for money services are key for survival.
Growth factors as well as historical ability of this industry to adapt should allow air traffic to more
than triple in the next 25 years. As developing countries, especially in Asia, are poised to be world
economy and population locomotives for the next decades, air transport leadership should have
switched from North America to Asia by 2020.
Economics, population concentration and air transport congestion will drive the need for larger,
cheaper and more efficient aircraft. While the need for point to point connections will develop.
The need to connect non-stop all economic and population areas will lead to increasing aircraft range
requirements; for domestic or regional routes where US transcontinental has become the reference
for smaller and smaller jet aircraft; as well as for long international routes, where transpacific today’s
standard may grow up to Europe-Australasia capability. However, ultra long range flight development
could be hampered by economic viability and health issues.
Such aircraft evolution will require specialised and optimised propulsion systems able to meet
increasing economic challenges on short and medium range operations and take-off and speed issues
on longer routes. Ever more demanding environmental constraints (noise and emissions) will add
another complexity to engine development challenges.
2025 aircraft fleet requirements to transport billions of passengers, on longer but also more dense
routes will certainly necessitate larger aircraft than today: A380 will be a dominant player on major
intercontinental trunk routes and even saturated regional ones. As well, larger medium size aircraft
will be needed to replace today’s single aisle aircraft in short and medium range markets, down to
regional markets where larger small jets will take over current 30/50 seaters.
The real technical challenges for the aircraft industry are directly linked to this traffic increase, which
should be coped with by absolute improvements in the key technical parameters:
Tomorrow’s air transport infrastructure, including airports, will have to accommodate the predicted
level of traffic with increased flexibility, from very large aircraft to small jets. Most importantly,
interconnectivity within the airport and with other transport types must be drastically improved, so
that air transport remains a key driver of trade, tourism and cultural expansion.
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L2.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N A N D G E N E R A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
The aircraft apron is considered part of the terminal complex and will therefore be greatly influenced
by the choice of terminal concept. However it must also be considered in relation to the taxiway and
runway system. The Apron can be defined as the area on the airside of the terminal buildings
where aircraft manoeuvre and park, and where loading, unloading and aircraft servicing activities are
performed.
• Aircraft Stands (term inal gate o r remote p ositions) — The area on the apron designated for
parking of aircraft.
• Apron Taxi ways — A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to provide
a through taxi route across the apron.
• Apron Service Roads — Routes designated for the movement of service vehicles within the
apron area.
The apron must be planned in relation to the taxiway and runway system as well as the terminal
buildings to ensure maximum efficiency, operational safety and allow operational users’ to provide
cost effective standards of service.
In addition to the physical constraints summarized in Section G1 of this manual, the apron design
must also make due allowance for:
® Applicable International and State Safety Regulations governing airline and airport operations;
particular reference should be made to ICAO Annex 14, Aerodromes, which stipulates clearance
distances associated with all categories of airport operations.
• Expansion capability.
L 2 .2 B A S IC A P R O N L A Y O U T S
L2.2.1 G e n e ra l
Figure L2-1 illustrates two basic aircraft parking layout principles, namely taxi-in/push-out and taxi-
in/taxi-out. Figure L2-2 shows typical apron elevations for a selected aircraft range. The variations
observed will be part of the analysis, leading to the decision as to the preferred method of operations.
L 2 .2 .2 E le m e n ts O f C o m p a ris o n B e tw e e n T a x i-O u t A n d P u s h -O u t
While no fixed commercial rule has emerged regarding the choice between taxi-in/taxi-out parking
configurations, it can clearly be seen from a comparison of diagrams within Fig. L2-1 that there are
considerable disadvantages to the use of taxi-in and taxi out apron configurations, namely:
• Blast affects from turning aircraft can be a limiting factor when planning aprons.
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The trend is clearly in favour of push-out configurations at high volume airports utilising larger aircraft,
and taxi-out configurations at lower volume airports using the smaller regional type of aircraft (where
manoeuvring space is less restricted). In all cases a study must be conducted considering present
and foreseeable conditions which may influence aircraft parking configurations.
The main advantages of the taxi-in/push-out configuration are:
® Reduction in apron congestion due to the ability to position ground equipment immediately adjacent
to the aircraft parking position prior to aircraft arrival. Additionally, at aircraft departure there is a
reduced requirement to remove equipment from the apron area.
• Clearances between adjacent aircraft, ground equipment and fixed obstacles are less critical.
• The effects of jet blast on equipment, personnel and terminal facilities is substantially lessened
and the requirement for blast fences are reduced or eliminated.
® Simple and correspondingly less costly passenger loading bridges can be employed.
0 The total area of the apron pavement area and related costs is kept to the minimum.
A disadvantage with the taxi-in/push-out configuration is that it requires additional aircraft tow tractors
and associated personnel to effect the push-out. Aircraft tow tractors are costly, especially those
designed to handle wide-body aircraft. Provision and operating costs plus frequency of usage must
therefore be balanced against the factors outlined above.
L 2 .2 .3 P o w e r-b a c k
At certain locations, some airlines have elected to power-back their aircraft using reverse thrust. This
operation has been authorized for certain aircraft operated by a very limited number of airlines, under
strict operating conditions and at selected airports. This practice should not be considered as part of
normal operations; if adopted it could have an adverse noise impact on the communities close to the
airport as well as ground handling staff.
L 2 .2 .4 F le x ib ility
To achieve the optimum utilization of facilities it is desirable to match, as closely as possible, the
capacity of the apron with the forecast aircraft mix. The use of MARS stands provides this flexibility
when stands are required to accommodate both wide-bodied and narrow-bodied aircraft in varying
mixes.
Where feasible, the apron should be designed to accommodate the appropriate number of large
aircraft expected during the peak period. At other times, smaller aircraft can use the same stand
centrelines. This solution makes possible the implementation of simple aircraft guidance systems,
loading bridges, hydrant fuelling systems, etc.
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When the aircraft mix varies throughout the day (i.e. when a majority of small aircraft alternate with
a majority of large aircraft and space is limited), consideration should be given to a more flexible
utilization of the apron. Examples of flexible parking layouts are illustrated in Section L3 — Figure
L3.1 and Figure L3.2; however it should be noted that other combinations are possible.
It is imperative that the degree of flexibility remains compatible with efficient and safe stand utilization.
Identification of each aircraft stand by the pilot should present no ambiguity, while access should be
facilitated by the provision of appropriate apron markings and guidance systems. Loading bridges
and hydrant systems are likely to be more complicated and the extra costs involved should be
compared with the savings realized by providing a smaller number of stands overall.
L 2 .3 B L A S T F E N C E S A N D B A R R IE R S
L 2.3.1 G e n e ra l — B la s t E ffe c ts
As jet blast can have a significant impact upon the procedures adopted for the handling of aircraft in
terminal apron areas, it is essential that this factor be one of the fundamental considerations in the
planning of new apron layouts.
The acceptability of varying apron layouts should be considered in terms of blast effect in relation to:
• Health and safety of passengers and operational personnel.
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IATA Aircraft Parking Aprons
Engine exhaust velocity and temperature characteristics are generally published by manufacturers
in the form of constant value contours plotted in the horizontal and vertical planes (see Fig. L2-3).
The engine thrust required for taxiing is proportional to the aircraft weight; aircraft design, airline
operating practices and apron slope conditions. Airlines should be consulted when the jet blast
implications of specific apron layouts are being evaluated.
Jet blast levels are likely to be greater than normal minimum values due to:
• Aircraft making turns (particularly where asymmetric power is used or one or more engines shut
down).
L 2 .3 .2 B la s t F e n c e s
When assessing jet blast effects related to a proposed apron layout, the use of blast fences may be
considered as a means for dissipating or deflecting jet blast away from vulnerable areas.
Blast fences can be used to protect ground equipment, personnel and buildings from the blast of
manoeuvring aircraft. Their function is to deflect the exhaust wake of aircraft jet engines upwards.
Blast fences are constructed of modules which can be combined to produce the most suitable layouts.
These structures may be attached to the ground or alternatively weighted to resist the overturning
stresses from jet blast. In the latter case, they can be relocated relatively easily.
The height of the fences varies with the type of aircraft. In the case of large aircraft with tail mounted
engines, construction of a blast fence may not be cost-effective and therefore start-up procedures
for that engine may have to be restricted.
Blast fences are regularly used in terminal apron areas where aircraft are operated on a taxi-in/taxi-
out procedure. Occasionally they are also required where aircraft move away under power on an
aircraft stand taxilane, having been pushed back from a nose-in stand. (See Fig. L2-4)
The location of blast fences must be related to the aircraft manoeuvring pattern and the areas or
facilities requiring protection. The dimensions of the blast fence and the design of the surfaces exposed
to the blast effects can be determined from the operating characteristics of the aircraft types to be
employed.
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L 2 .4 A P R O N P E R IM E T E R
The airport perimeter will often encompass both natural and human-engineered features. The
perimeter may weave in and out of fixed features, cross rivers, and provide vehicle and staff access
points. It is essential that the perimeter is engineered to provide security and ease of access for
emergency and permitted vehicles and staff only.
Where airport perimeters run parallel to public roads, the actual perimeters should be fitted on the
inner face of the fencing system with vision obstruction barriers. Vision obstruction barriers have two
major benefits: they will deter both legitimate plane spotters and would-be terrorists using plane
spotting groups as a cover; they will reduce vehicle accidents on the adjacent public roads due to
casual plane spotting by vehicle drivers. For more comprehensive information on security and fencing
systems please refer to Section H Clause H2.12 Perimeter Security.
When developing the apron perimeter it is useful to consider using the natural features of the landscape
to benefit the sound insulation properties of the environment. Where the environment has no natural
sound insulating properties it is of benefit to consider creating man made contours and developing
a terrain to aid sound insulation and reduce local visual impact of the apron. Figure L2-6 defines the
ICAO Document 9184 AN/902 Airport Planning Manual recommendation for the use of such man
made terrain.
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IATÂ Aircraft Parking Aprons
• They must be considered as a continuation of the cargo facility. An apron immediately adjacent
to the cargo facility fulfils this requirement and should be used by all-cargo/freighter aircraft, thus
providing for short distance transportation and access between aircraft and facility.
• Expansion of the cargo apron must be feasible, in order to accommodate increases in peak hour
demand for aircraft stands or increased aircraft sizes. Parking configuration depends on local
requirements and constraints, and must also allow for the necessary ground handling equipment.
• A cargo apron design should also provide, at each aircraft stand, adjacent staging areas for the
equipment needed for loading and transportation of arriving and departing ULDs.
• Parking of handling equipment should be possible between the airside cargo road and apron,
and/or along the outer edges of the apron, without impeding aircraft manoeuvring on or off
the apron. Power-in/power-out aircraft parking requires more space for each stand, and extra
precautions against blast.
• Several factors must be considered when fixed loading bridges are planned to connect all-cargo/
freighter aircraft to ETV storage systems within the cargo facility. Justification for loading bridges
will depend on utilization potential, impact on staffing requirements, processing/turnaround time,
and frequency of extreme weather conditions. As with passenger loading bridges, cross-utilization
between wide-body and narrow-body aircraft, as well as within certain types of narrow-body
aircraft, may be limited. In addition, aircraft cargo door configurations (nose, side forward, side
aft) will impact utilization potential.
• The cargo carrier’s fleet mix, type of cargo and operational factors will weigh heavily in the decision
as to whether specialised loading bridges or flexible mobile loading systems are preferred. Based
on airline experience fewer carriers are using fixed passenger boarding bridges.
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• Fixed aircraft servicing equipment, such as hydrant refuelling and power, are only appropriate to
aircraft stands with high utilization.
• Lighting on the apron should provide sufficient illumination to permit the reading of cargo
documents and labels at the aircraft parking stand. However, such lighting should not be allowed
to adversely affect crew visibility when taxiing aircraft.
® On the apron, cargo service roads should be separate from the apron taxiway.
® An analysis of the peak hour stand requirements and the related volume of air cargo to be
transported and processed is necessary in order to determine the size of the apron and adjacent
areas.
L 2 .6 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
f _ __ ____________ ... _____ _________________
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L3.1 G A T E A N D R E M O T E S T A N D S : IN T R O D U C T IO N
In recent years increasing importance has been placed by airlines upon terminal gate stands, primarily
because they provide for more rapid and comfortable handling of passengers, avoid the need for
buses, and enable better turnaround times. In general, airports should seek to handle as much
capacity as possible with terminal gate stands incorporating passenger boarding bridges, as this
represents by far the most comfortable, effective and cost-efficient means of enplaning and deplaning
passengers.
Where necessary, however, remote stands can offer facilities an effective and economical alternative
to terminal expansion when capacity demand begins to exceed expectations on an occasional or
permanent basis. It should be noted that any remote stand expansion or construction needs to
incorporate contingencies for general apron operations (including but not limited to taxilanes and
runway clearance requirements), remote transportation vehicles, the expansion of related passenger
terminal infrstructure, etc.
L 3 .2 G ATE STANDS
The gate stand can be used in conjunction with passenger boarding bridges, with aircraft loading
vehicles, or even with apron stairs. However the objective and recommendation with gate stands
should be for them to be used with passenger boarding bridges wherever possible to improve customer
service standards. For further details on passenger boarding bridges please refer to Section J11.
The gate stand is usually an integral part of the pier, satellite or main terminal departure lounge. The
gate stand is comprised of the following interconnected components:
1. Link bridge from terminal or pier structure to rotunda (Departures + Arrivals Dedicated Routes).
Or
1a. Link bridge from terminal or pier structure to rotunda (Departures + Arrivals SINGLE MIXED
Route).
The gate apron stand is the preferred solution for airlines, passengers and staff. It is more economical
to operate than a comparably sized and served remote stand due the reduction in connection vehicle
equipment, fuel, staff and time. The gate stand can also be configured to be used in conjunction with
all three types of passenger boarding bridges (see Section J11).
Having established the mix of aircraft required to meet the flight schedule criteria, it will then be
necessary to accommodate those aircraft types physically on the available apron area. It is essential
that correct volume and type of aircraft are understood with contingency consideration for late aircraft
turnaround. The gate stands should be considered prime real estate on the apron and gate served
apron stands should be allocated accordingly.
Gate stands should be used to serve the major volume of aircraft traffic which should be determined
from the flight schedule. This is not necessarily the larger aircraft, as a domestic traffic biased airport
could require the serving of small to medium sized jets predominantly with only the occasional large
jets such as the Boeing 747-series and A380 aircraft being served.
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Gate stands should be as flexible as possible and should serve a wide a range of aircraft ranging
typically from, in order of preference (i) large to small aircraft; (ii) large to medium aircraft; (iii) medium
to small aircraft; (iv) large aircraft; (v) medium aircraft only or (vi) small aircraft only, though much
depends on the operational requirements of the terminal and the flight schedule.
The use of a single passenger boarding bridge per gate stand should be used wherever possible for
all aircraft of size smaller than the full double deck A380 series, except when especially rapid aircraft
turnarounds may be required.
Where the A380 series aircraft are to be served it is recommended that the gate should be provided
with the dual passenger boarding bridges to facilitate the more rapid disembarkation of passengers
serving the forward first lower port door and the forward second upper port door. Occasionally a third
bridge may also be used for this aircraft only (see Figure L3-1 below).
It should be noted that many medium sized aircraft have dual forward door positions which can be
served. Wherever possible the forward door should be served by the passenger boarding bridge.
The capital costs associated within the use of passenger boarding bridges means that wherever
possible 2 section passenger boarding bridges (nose loader or apron drive) should be used as the
first choice over the use of 3 section passenger boarding bridges.
The total airport terminal building capacity must however remain in balance. Expansion of aircraft
stands, whether in number or size, must be matched by an expansion of certain elements of the
terminal building. When considering the introduction of remote stands the following factors should be
considered:
• The layout of remote parking stands must not interfere with apron taxilanes or runway clearance
requirements.
• Aircraft manoeuvring considerations for terminal gate stands also apply to remote stands.
• Since remote stands are often located in close proximity to active taxi ways, careful consideration
must be given to entrance and exiting procedures and the effects of jet blast.
• Apron drainage must be in conformity with the local building codes as well as environmental
regulations. For example, special treatment may be required for spills of aircraft fuel or de-icing
fluid See ICAO Annex 14 Clauses 3.14.10 and 3.14.11.
® The economic viability of providing remote stands as opposed to gate stands must be established.
The cost of operating and maintaining passenger transporters must be included in the equation.
The economic evaluation should also consider how many hours a day, on a yearly average, a
stand will be occupied.
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• Remote stands give more flexibility in assigning an aircraft stand, especially for flights with long
turnaround times, over night stays, technical delays, or flights having special security requirements.
• At the outset it must be clearly established what aircraft types will operate on the remote stands
so they may be appropriately sized.
• Since, by definition, these stands are remote from the main terminal area, consideration must be
given to the most effective utilization of ground equipment. Consideration should be given to
staging ground servicing equipment nearby. Consideration should also be given to requirements
for aircraft hydrant fuelling, ground power, air conditioning and de-icing.
• For a safe operation it is important to have good apron lighting and lampposts should be
appropriately placed.
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L 3 .4 E Q U IP M E N T P A R K IN G A N D M A IN T E N A N C E
Ground servicing equipment must be parked in areas adjacent to the aircraft stands to be readily
available when required. If required turnaround times are to be achieved, it is essential that such
equipment is conveniently located in reasonably close proximity to its regular place of use and is
readily accessible to ground handling staff. Such areas should be sized to accommodate all equipment
used on a regular basis to support aircraft servicing for all types of aircraft usually served in a particular
apron sector. Such areas should be clearly defined by appropriate apron markings.
Long-term parking facilities must be provided for ramp equipment with convenient access to the apron
area. At airports with harsh winter weather conditions, a heated ground equipment shelter will be
required for parking certain types of ground servicing equipment over night.
L 3 .5 E X P A N S IO N C A P A B IL IT IE S
Expansion of the apron will become necessary in two instances:
• When the size of the stands must be increased to accommodate a larger size of aircraft.
Expansion of aircraft stands, whether in number or in size, may be matched by an expansion of the
terminal, and this will be different for each of the possible terminal concepts. This expansion must
be planned from the outset to avoid unnecessary waste in capital investment.
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L 3 .6 P A R K IN G C L E A R A N C E S
L3.6.1 G e n e ra l
The application of adequate clearance margins in the development of apron layouts is essential to
ensure acceptability by airport authorities.
The apron with associated fixed equipment, as well as aircraft which are parked on the apron, is part
of the total airport system which in operational terms is subject to the requirements for the safe conduct
of flight operations. These requirements (in the form of Standards and Recommended Practices) are
contained in ICAO Annex 14 — Aerodromes, and associated publications, particular attention should
be made to Chapter 3 of ICAO Annex 14, clauses, 3.8.3, 3.8.4 and 3.8.5 (Table 3.1).
Clearances recommended by the airlines for planning use have achieved universal acceptance as
good aircraft operating practice. They recognize the need to conduct operations in a broad field of
circumstances while achieving an acceptable level of performance and safety.
Clearances in the following categories must be taken into account in the planning and design of apron
layouts:
• Flight Operations.
L 3 .6 .2 F lig h t O p e ra tio n s
The practical effect of these requirements on apron planning is to provide adequate separation
between apron areas, active taxiways and active runways, and thereafter to restrict the height of
fixed apron equipment and parked aircraft according to their distance from the runway and their
position relative to it. These limitations are stated in Table 4-1, ICAO Annex 14. If apron development
is being considered at existing airports which could result in the infringement of these clearance
requirements by existing buildings or fixed facilities, the situation should be brought to the attention
of the ACC and the Airport Licensing Authority.
L 3 .6 .3 A ir c r a ft G ro u n d M o v e m e n t
The layout of apron areas must provide for the clearance requirements of aircraft moving over the
taxiway system between the runway system and the aircraft parking stands.
Clearances should be provided for aircraft on the basis that they are capable of following the taxiway
centreline, due regard being given to the ability of the aircraft type having the longest wheel base to
follow curved guidelines and the tendency of the wing tip on the outside of the turn to cover a greater
area than when proceeding in a straight line (the wing tip of a 747-400 extends an additional 3.5m).
An aircraft manoeuvring onto a stand under its own power should normally be allowed a minimum
clearance of 7.5m between it and other parked aircraft, buildings or fixed obstructions (see Figure
L5-1 for further clarification).
Where an aircraft taxies into a nose-in position in front of a building structure, a minimum clearance
of 4.5m between the structure and the nose of the aircraft will be sufficient, provided an effective
stopping guidance system is available. In such cases it will be necessary to increase this clearance
at apron level to facilitate the manoeuvring of an aircraft tow tractor into position for the push-back
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For a B747 (with tow tractor and tow bar), a distance of 20m (15m plus 5m for tractor manoeuvring)
is required between the aircraft nose gear and the building structure. If a service road is located in
front of the aircraft and can be used for tow tractor manoeuvring, a distance of 15m is required
between the aircraft nose gear and the service road. On apron taxiways and aircraft stand taxilanes
the minimum clearance between taxiing aircraft and parked aircraft, buildings or fixed obstructions
should be as given in ICAO Annex 14 Table 3.1 (e.g. for a B747-400 on aircraft stand taxilanes, a
wing tip clearance of 10m is required; on apron taxiways a wing tip clearance of 16.5m is required).
The design of apron taxiways should include a minimum number of changes in direction. Where a
change of direction is unavoidable, this should be accomplished by means of a transitional curve
having a large radius. Aircraft stands and apron taxiway layouts should not be developed on the
basis of the aircraft making minimum radius turns. Where aircraft are required to turn from the apron
taxiway onto a stand centreline, a distance of at least half the length of the aircraft should be provided
in order to achieve alignment following completion of the planned turn.
L 3 .6 .4 G ro u n d S e rv ic e E q u ip m e n t O p e ra tio n
As the type, quantity and method of operation of ground service equipment will vary widely from
airport to airport, it is essential that local requirements for space and clearances are established by
consultation with the airlines.
In favourable situations, the clearances required for the operation of ground service equipment on
the aircraft stand around the aircraft can be contained within the overall dimensions of the aircraft
and the surrounding aircraft ground movement clearances (See Section L4).
In less favourable situations, the above will not apply. Additional space or clearances may be required
when:
• Transporters (e.g. buses, mobile lounges or other specialized vehicles) are used to convey
passengers between the passenger terminal and aircraft on remote stands.
® Other items of equipment, either individually or collectively, are exceptionally large or unwieldy.
® Large exchanges of baggage, cargo or mail are required during short turnaround or transit
operations (this is particularly relevant with the operation of combi-aircraft).
® The cargo terminal is located a long distance from the passenger terminal apron.
The table below defines the recommended clearances as defined within ICAO Annex 14 Chapter 3
for taxiway verge to aircraft aft wheel assemblies. These distances should be carefully considered
when planning out the clearance criteria for remote and gate stands.
lATA Aircraft Parking Aprons
“X ” X/2
“Y ” Minimum Wheel_
Clearance
Width of Taxiway
Code Letter Dimension X Dim Y
A 7.5m 1.5m
B 10.5m 2.25m
C 15m-18m *1 3m-4.5m *2
D 18m-23m *1 4.5m
E 23m 4.5m
F 25m 4.5m
L3.7 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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L4.1 G R O U N D H A N D L IN G V E H IC L E S
Ground handling vehicles are used to service aircraft while they are parked on the apron. They service
all aspects of the aircraft and numerous vehicles will approach and be parked next to the aircraft any
one time. It is therefore essential that these vehicles are compliant with recommendations contained
within this chapter and those stipulated within the IATA Airport Handling Manual Chapter 9 — Airport
Handling Ground Support Specifications. The placement of vehicles will vary according to the aircraft
make and model variant, therefore reference to the aircraft manufacturer’s airport interface manuals
is essential.
The ground handling vehicles will in some instances be required to drive on public roads, as well as
on the apron within the service roads and the stand areas. Where vehicles are required to be driven
on the national highway they shall need to be compliant with local national legislation as well as the
international recommendations stipulated within this manual and the IATA Airport Handling Manual.
Please refer to Figure L4-9 for a sample list of the current Ground Handling Equipment specifications
defined within the IATA Airport Handling Manual.
L 4 .1 .1 B a g g a g e H a n d lin g V e h ic le s
Baggage handling vehicles will be located airside and will travel frequently to most aircraft stands,
to the airport baggage departures halls, and to baggage arrival halls. It is important that the vehicles
are efficient, reliable and safe to operate, both for staff and for the environment.
Battery, petrol and diesel powered tugs can be used, though wherever possible the use of battery
powered baggage tugs should be the preferred choice. The use of battery powered tugs will improve
the working environment of the departures and arrivals baggage halls. If petrol or diesel baggage
tugs are used then the ventilation systems within the baggage hall environment should be designed
to adequately and safely disperse the vehicle fumes, particularly in areas of where baggage handling
operators reside.
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Baggage handling dollies are towed by baggage tugs and used to transport departing and arriving
baggage within the airport complex. Baggage handling dollies are often linked together in trains of
dollies which are driven directly to and away from aircraft.
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At large busy International airports, dolly trains should be restricted in length, with no more than 5
dollies being connected at any one time, subject to the recommendations of the both the dolly and
tug manufacturers. Vehicle turning circles on some dolly units can be restrictive and can clash with
building columns when connected in long multiple dolly trains. The braking distances for dolly trains
with more than 3 dolly trains which are fully laden can be dangerously too long and difficult to control,
particularly in wet conditions. Recommendations from the manufacturer of the baggage tug with
respect to load carrying practices should be sought.
Figure L4-2 details a typical open sided dolly unit which is used to transport loose baggage. These
are often fitted with side nets (not shown). Figure L4-3 details a typical LD container dolly unit fitted
with free running rollers. The use of ball table mounted to these types of dollies is also commonplace.
L 4 .1 .2 L D C o n ta in e r S iz e s
The use of LD sized containers is commonplace and practiced by many airlines to protect the aircraft
and improve the loading and unloading of baggage and cargo on the apron. Baggage is better retained
when using LD containers, and subsequently can be driven to and from the aircraft while being less
likely to fall out and become damaged on the road way. The following LD specifications are commonly
used:
LD2 LD3
L 4 .2 P A S S E N G E R L O A D IN G S T E P V E H IC L E S
There is a wide range of passenger stair vehicles commercially available. Aircraft docking stairs can
be towed or can be self-propelled, covered and uncovered. They are suitable for boarding passengers
and crew personnel as well as for maintenance and aircraft servicing purposes, particularly where
stands are remotely positioned away from terminal building infrastructure. Mobile passenger stairs
should be fitted with canopies to improve customer service standards.
Self propelled and towed mobile stair variants can be used on small to large aircraft types, though
for large aircraft it is best practice to use passenger boarding bridges. Passenger stairs should be
used where terminal building infrastructure does not exist or where a passenger boarding bridge
malfunction has occurred. The precise functional and design requirements of passenger loading step
vehicles can be found within the IATA Airport Handling Manual — Clause 920 — Functional
Specification for Self-Propelled Passenger Loading Steps, and Clause 920A — Functional
Specification for Towed Passenger Steps.
IATA Aircraft Parking Aprons
L 4 .3 P O T A B L E W A T E R S U P P L Y V E H IC L E S
Potable water is delivered to aircraft via dedicated potable water vehicles or via hydrants with outlets
placed above ground level and on the stand perimeter. It is more usual for potable water to be supplied
via vehicles. Please refer to Section G1, Fig. G1-5: Example of Aircraft Servicing Arrangement —
Typical Turnaround for B777 200LR. The typical location on the apron for a potable water vehicle is
shown. The precise functional and design requirements of potable water vehicles can be found within
the IATA Airport Handling Manual — Clause AHM 970 Functional Specification for a Self-Propelled
Potable Water Vehicle.
Care should be taken to ensure that potable water supplies delivered to the apron do not become
contaminated by fuel hydrants or fuel dispensers, for this purpose potable water stand hydrants must
not be located in a pit below apron surface level.
L 4 .4 C A T E R IN G V E H IC L E S
Catering vehicles service aircraft’s on-board catering requirements. When they approach the serviced
aircraft the storage area is raised to service the aircraft in accordance with the aircraft manufactures
recommendations. The precise functional and design requirements of catering vehicles can be found
within the IATA Airport Handling Manual — Clause AHM 927 Functional Specification for a Catering
Vehicle.
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L 4 .5 A IR C R A F T P U S H B A C K T U G S
There are 2 types of push back tugs:
• Type 1 (see Figure L4.7) those which require the use of tow bars.
• Type 2 (see Figure L4.8) those which latch to the aircraft nose wheel assembly directly and
encase the wheel whilst coupled.
Type 2 push back tugs are cheaper to operate as they do not generally need two operators to use
them, whereas Type 1 push back tugs generally do require 2 operators.
Type 1 Push back tugs are generally used for smaller aircraft since the clearances beneath the aircraft
are more restricted. Medium and Large aircraft also commonly use tow bars and Type 1 push back
tugs to maneuver. Both Type 1 and Type 2 tugs are generally able, subject to tug manufacturers
specifications, to maneuver all types of aircraft over long distances at reasonable speeds. Type 2
tugs are generally able to taxi aircraft at higher speeds. No technical preference exists between Type
1 and Type 2 push back tugs.
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Figure L4-9s IATA Airport Ground Handling Manual — Sam ple Listing
(Full List Extends from AHM 900-996)
AHW8 900
Original Latest
AHM issue Revision
Number Title Date Date
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L 4 .6 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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L5.1 S E R V IC E R O A D S : IN T R O D U C T IO N
• Access to the non-public road network must be effectively restricted to service vehicles directly
linked with aircraft handling activities.
• The service roads must be capable of accepting ULD transporter equipment between the cargo
terminal and the aircraft.
9 Adequate bearing strength, height clearances and turning radii must be provided to accommodate
existing and projected service and ground support equipment, including tow tractors, when
applicable.
• To comply with the requirements stated within the joint IATA/ACI publication entitled: Apron
Markings and Signs Handbook.
• Airport service roads should have a minimum width of 10m, preferably 12m, and a clearance
height of 4.2m, but preferably 4.6m. The latter is of particular concern with regard to service
roads directly located in front of parking positions which pass under sections of the terminal
building and/or passenger loading bridges. It should be noted that the figures provided are design
guidelines and should be adjusted to the local situation prevailing at the specific airport concerned.
Service roads should be designed to accommodate self-propelled equipment with a swept turn
radius of at least 8m.
• Adequate separation in accordance with ICAO Annex 14, Chapter 3, and in particular clauses
3.8 (Table 3-1) and Fig 3-2, must be provided from runways, taxiways or other areas where
aircraft manoeuvre.
• Where necessary, adequate roadway width to permit overtaking of slow-moving ground support
equipment must be provided.
In planning for airside road systems it must be recognized that many restrictions exist, especially in
those areas where aircraft ground handling activities are in progress. Safety and security aspects,
together with the special needs of slow traffic (e.g. tug and dollies), as well as wide and very high
vehicles, all need to be taken into account. Exclusive use of part of the system by some categories
may be necessary. Special attention should be given to:
• Ground handling equipment should be moved via service roads and not across aprons. Designated
handling and parking areas should be properly marked. The size of aircraft loaders, passenger
buses, mobile lounges, fire fighting equipment and fuel tankers may require special arrangements
for manoeuvring and storage.
• Aircraft tow tractors may have to operate at right angles to service roads. Special provisions may
be necessary.
• Between the front of the aircraft stand and the terminal building (preferred solution).
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Each location has its advantages and disadvantages. Since a lot of operational activity tends to occur
around the forward portion of the aircraft, a frontal service road is sometimes preferred. However the
disadvantage with this type of service road is that the clearance height necessary to allow certain
types of service vehicles (i.e. aircraft catering vehicles) to pass underneath may create a major
problem with the height or slope of the passenger loading bridge or the elevation of the departure
gate lounge.
When the service road is located in front of the terminal building, adequate room must be provided
for the aircraft push-back tractor to manoeuvre; i.e. the tractor which is at 90° must not encroach into
the service road. This often occurs however, and traffic congestion on the service road follows.
In situations where a service road can only be located behind the aircraft and outside of the stand
perimeter, the service road should then be very clearly marked and must not be allowed to infringe
on apron taxiway operations. Proper clearance must be defined and maintained, from the rear of the
aircraft to the service road and to the apron taxiway. Rear service roads will involve traffic coming
off the service road and past the aircraft wings and engines when approaching the front of the aircraft.
Movement around aircraft wings, etc., must be done with extreme caution.
L 5 .1 .1 M a rk in g C h a ra c te ris tic s
The marking characteristics are:
• Colour: the colour shades must be of high visibility (e.g. reflective material and consistent with
every-day off-airport use), but must not conflict with the yellow colour already established for
aircraft movement on the apron (ICAO Annex 14, Para 5.2.1.5). Recommended colours are RED
for safety and WHITE for traffic markings.
L 5 .1 .2 S e rv ic e R o a d M a rk in g S ta n d a rd
Service Roadway markings should be painted white and should consist of double solid outer lines
which indicate that crossing is not permitted. A single solid outer line should mark the areas where
crossing is permitted. In the case of two opposing directions of travel, there should be a centre
(broken) line to divide traffic. The width of each lane of a road shall be of a minimum width to
accommodate the widest vehicle in use at that location. It is recommended that the following minimum
specifications be adopted:
9 Directional signs should be in the form of a white arrow painted on the roadway surface. An arrow
could be uni- or multi-directional. Arrows should be positioned at points where traffic enters or
exits from a roadway with the objective to clarify the direction of travel.
® Speed-limit signs painted on the road surface should be in the form of a white circle, with the
maximum speed displayed inside the circle.
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L 5 .2 P E D E S T R IA N P A T H W A Y S
Pedestrian pathways should be provided across service roads and be painted with white stripes
across the roadway surface to the following specifications:
Pedestrian walkways should be clearly indicated and designed so as to keep the pedestrians clear
of hazards.
L 5 .3 E Q U IP M E N T R E S T R A IN T L IN E S
These are lines behind which ground support equipment is kept during the movement of an aircraft
onto or off the aircraft parking position; also as a safety stop for all ground support equipment prior
to final approach to the aircraft and as a safety zone to allow for jet engine intake and/or propeller
clearance.
This restraint marking should be defined by an unbroken red line with a white line inside the aircraft
parking area indicating the boundary of the aircraft parking area. The line must be painted so as to
allow for the safe movement of the largest aircraft onto or off the parking position. The minimum
width of line is 10cm.
L 5 .4 N O P A R K IN G A R E A S
Prohibited parking areas on the apron include such zones as the apron drive loading bridge movement
area, fuelling pits, etc. These areas should be marked by red hatch lines and bordered by a solid
line of the same colour and width as per the following specifications:
The lines must be painted at 45° in reference to the aircraft parking position centre line.
L5.4.1 E q u ip m e n t P a rk in g A re a s
These are specific areas set aside for the parking of ground handling equipment, and include:.
• Long term parking.
• Staging areas.
The lines delineating these areas should be painted white, with a minimum line width of 10cm.
When designing equipment parking areas consideration should be given to co-ordinating the long
term, short term and staging area requirements, including the size and type of equipment. Particular
attention should be paid to the staging areas close to the aircraft.
L 5 .5 T Y P IC A L G R O U N D E Q U IP M E N T L A Y O U T S
Figure L5-1 illustrates the ground equipment movement and parking areas around a typical aircraft
parking position. It should be noted that the parked position of all aircraft served should be taken into
account when determining the position and plan profile of the apron safety line, which should be
indicated on the apron using a solid red line.
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Terminal
Building
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L 5 .6 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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L6.1 4 0 0 H z E L E C T R IC P O W E R S Y S T E M S
Power required on aircraft can be supplied by either a fixed installation directly, providing 400 Hz
power to each stand, or by providing 50/60 Hz industrial type power which can be converted into 400
Hz for the aircraft by means of mobile converters (the latter solution has broader applications; e.g.
heating or air conditioning).
L 6 .1 .1 A v a ila b le T e c h n o lo g ie s
Fixed installations for supplying 200 V/400 Hz AC electric power to aircraft include a variety of available
techniques, such as:
® Centralized systems distributing 400 Hz power to a number of stands, based on either a pair of
high capacity rotary converters or static converters located in an electrical room in the terminal.
® Decentralized or point-of-use solid-state units mounted on the passenger loading bridge near the
aircraft closure or at remote stands.
Also, the supply of 200 V/400 Hz AC electric power to aircraft can be accomplished by means of
mobile, plug-in, electric converters connected to a 50/60 Hz power outlet of sufficient capacity, when
provided at each stand.
L 6 .1 .2 D e s ig n G u id a n c e
Detailed technical information concerning the design and evaluation of the various types of 400 Hz
systems is contained in the Air Transport Association of America “ATA 400 Hz Fixed Power Systems
Design Guidebook”.
The engineering advice provided in this design guidebook has been established jointly by the airline
and equipment manufacturing industry’s best specialists, and should be followed in order to evaluate
or to design any proposed system.
L 6 .1 .3 E c o n o m ic J u s tific a tio n
The economic justification for a fixed 400 Hz installation must be established versus the use of either
aircraft APUs or mobile ground power units (GPUs) with a diesel engine, or mobile electric converters
connected to 50/60 Hz power outlets at each stand. Such justification usually depends on how many
hours a day, in yearly average, a typical stand will be occupied by an active (being serviced) aircraft.
It should be noted that wherever the local climate requires aircraft air conditioning for a significant
part of the year, there may be little or no economic justification for a fixed 400 Hz installation alone,
since for such period it would also be necessary to run the APUs for air conditioning purposes. In
this case, installation of a fixed 400 Hz system should be considered only together with a fixed aircraft
air conditioning (pre-cooled air) system, and the economic justification should be assessed for both
systems simultaneously.
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• Nose-in stands without a passenger bridge: a general feeder cable should run in a trench along
the front line of the stands and should include a series of connection points where service posts
can be installed according to any changes in aircraft layout. This is in order to provide flexibility
in future airport developments.
L 6 .2 5 0 /6 0 H Z E L E C T R IC P O W E R S Y S T E M S
L6.2.1 G e n e ra l
An alternate solution to providing 200 V/400 Hz AC electric power outlets, which frequently offers
more flexibility and a lower mean operating cost, is to provide multi-purpose 50/60 Hz industrial power
outlets on each stand. The same outlets, or a set of outlets on the same distribution system, may be
used for a variety of requirements, such as:
• Supplying 200 V/400 Hz AC electric power to aircraft by means of mobile plug-in electric converters.
Such units are usually significantly smaller, cheaper and require less maintenance than
conventional GPUs with a diesel engine.
• Heating the aircraft in cold weather by means of mobile, plug-in electric heaters. Such units,
again, are usually significantly smaller, cheaper and more free from maintenance problems than
diesel powered heating units. They present the additional advantage that they can be safely left
operating (e.g. during night stops to avoid the risk of water circuits freezing) without staff
supervision, which is necessary for diesel units. Note: this also depends upon the local cost of
diesel fuel versus electrical power.
• Cooling the aircraft in hot weather by means of mobile, plug-in, electrical air conditioning units
(ACUs). Similarly, electric ACUs are usually significantly smaller, cheaper and more maintenance-
free than diesel operating units.
• For possible future applications, supplying power to plug-in type electric loading equipment such
as container/pallet loaders, ULD transport vehicles, roller beds, etc. (Refer to paragraph (d) below
regarding standard connectors).
L 6 .2 .2 D e s ig n G u id a n c e
No specific technical design information is currently available for industrial power supply at an airport’s
stands, as such guidance is basically contained within the rules of the art for general purpose electrical
engineering. However, the following may be used as general guidelines for first step evaluations:
• The power to be used should be the local standard for industrial applications; e.g. 380 V/3 phase/
50 Hz AC in Europe, or 230 V/3 phase/60 Hz AC in North America.
• Power requirements in kVA per stand for aircraft power supply should be estimated according
to the “ATA 400 Hz Fixed Power Systems Design Guidebook”.
• Power requirements for either a heater or an electric ACU, capable of maintaining cabin
temperature in a wide body aircraft in transit without APU operation, should be estimated between
72 and 96 kVA per stand depending upon local extreme weather conditions.
• Power requirements for eventual operation of plug-in type loading equipment should be based
on the equipment manufacturer’s data.
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L 6 .2 .3 E c o n o m ic J u s tific a tio n
The economic justification of a fixed 50/60 Hz installation must be established versus the use of either
aircraft APUs or a conjunction of the diesel powered units (GPUs, ACUs, heaters, etc.) required
according to local conditions. An estimate of purchasing and operating costs for electric plug-in units
as compared to diesel powered ones must also be included in any evaluation.
• Care should be taken to reduce the distance power cables run on the ground between the fixed
outlets and mobile plug-in units, and to minimize potential interference with aircraft servicing and
loading vehicles.
• When a 50/60 Hz industrial power plug-in facility is used for aircraft air conditioning or heating,
preference should be given to mobile units in order to minimize the length of hose, with the
advantages of increased system efficiency, reduced ramp congestion and less hose wear.
® In addition, in order to benefit fully from the system’s flexibility, care should be taken to standardize
the connectors used in order to allow any mobile unit to plug in.
® Standard connectors, such as described in the IATA Airport Handling Manual AHM 960
Appendices C (for use on the North American continent, 230 V/3 phase/60 Hz AC) or D (for use
on the European continent, 380 V/3 phase/50 Hz AC. Also refer to The Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) Aerospace Recommended Practice ARP 1372A, and International Standard
ISO 7715 which are equivalent), should be used whenever compatible with the maximum kVA
requirements, and particularly whenever ULD Transport Vehicles (UTVs) are considered.
• A local connector standard should be established at the airport whenever the maximum kVA
requirements exceed those compatible with the applicable international standard.
L 6 .3 P R E -C O N D IT IO N E D A IR S Y S T E M S
L 6.3.1 A v a ila b le T e c h n o lo g ie s
Fixed installations for supplying low pressure pre-conditioned (i.e. heated or cooled) air to aircraft
include a variety of available techniques, such as:
• Centralized systems distributing low pressure pre-conditioned air to a number of stands from a
heating or cooling plant located in a central technical room. The heating plant may be independent
(e.g. electrical, ice storage, peak shaving, etc., technologies) or based on heat exchangers fed
by the terminal building’s own hot or chilled water distribution system.
• Decentralized systems including a fixed air conditioning/heating unit at each stand, with a heat
exchanger fed by the hot or chilled water distribution system of the terminal building or an
independent system (e.g. electrical, ice storage, peak shaving, etc. technologies).
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• Decentralized systems including an independent fixed air conditioning/heating unit at each stand,
operating from electric power distribution.
Also, pre-conditioned air supply to aircraft can be accomplished by means of mobile, plug-in, electric
ACUs or heaters connected to a 50/60 Hz power outlet of sufficient capacity, when provided at each
stand.
L 6 .3 .2 D e s ig n G u id a n c e
General technical information concerning design and evaluation of the various types of pre-conditioned
air systems is contained in the Air Transport Association of America “ATA Spec 101: Ground Equipment
Technical Data publication and Facility Planning Guidelines publication”. The engineering and
economic evaluation advice provided in the ATA publications has been established jointly by the most
qualified specialists of the airline and equipment manufacturing industries, and should be followed in
order to evaluate or to study any proposed system.
L 6 .3 .3 E c o n o m ic J u s tific a tio n
The economic justification of a fixed, pre-conditioned air supply installation must be established versus
the use of either aircraft APUs or mobile ACUs with a diesel engine, or mobile electric ACUs connected
to 50/60 Hz power outlets at each stand. It usually depends on the combined result of how many
hours per day, in yearly average, a typical stand will be occupied by an active (being serviced) aircraft,
and how many days per year heating or cooling the aircraft cabin will be considered necessary
according to local weather averages.
Usually, the economic justification needs to be assessed together with a fixed 400 Hz power system,
since obviously the main purpose of a pre-conditioned air installation is to eliminate or reduce the
use of aircraft APUs.
• The hose should run perpendicular to the aircraft fuselage rather than parallel to it, and should
not be located in the way of, or constitute an obstacle to, aircraft servicing or loading vehicles.
If this arrangement is made impossible by the stand layout for a given type of aircraft, the hose
should run on the ground as close as possible to the aircraft centreline, and side transfer loading
equipment and methods should be eliminated for this type of aircraft.
• The hose length should be minimized in all circumstances in order to reduce the loss of pressure
and improve air conditioning efficiency. When a stand serves aircraft types with either a forward
or aft located air conditioning inlet, the hose length should be determined for those aircraft types
with a forward inlet location, and an extension hose should be used for the types with an aft inlet
location. It should be noted that many systems are experiencing significant wear and tear on the
hose resulting in frequent replacement, which adds to operating and maintenance costs.
• For stands equipped with passenger loading bridges, two of the locations for mounting the pre
conditioned air units are: at the rotunda end, or; at the bridge head.
• If the rotunda location is selected, the pre-conditioned air should be supplied through an overbridge
distribution system (telescopic ducts are required on the telescopic part of the bridge). A hose
retrieval and/or storage system in the vicinity of the bridge head is preferred. The location of the
telescopic duct should be such as to preserve the clear passage of ground support equipment
under the bridge.
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For stands without a passenger bridge, however, fixed preconditioned air installations are generally
not recommended. In these cases consideration should be given to the use of mobile electric ACUs
or heaters connected to a 50/60 Hz power outlet, since the connecting power cable creates much
less interference with servicing vehicles than an air conditioning hose of comparable length.
L 6 .4 P N E U M A T IC A IR S Y S T E M S
L6.4.1 G e n e ra l
Pneumatic generation and distribution systems for high pressure air supply to aircraft are primarily
intended to provide the compressed air necessary to start jet engines on the stands. This is a short
duration requirement at each stand, since all the engines of an aircraft can be started within a period
of between 1 and 5 minutes depending on the aircraft type.
In addition, such systems are sometimes used or considered as a means of continuously running a
flow of high pressure air into the aircraft in order to operate the aircraft on-board air conditioning
packs to either heat or cool the cabin. In this case, the system would be used in place of low pressure
pre-conditioned air systems.
However, doubts have been expressed by a number of engineering specialists regarding the effect
of this type of operation on the technical condition of on-board air conditioning packs, and experience
has not yet allowed determination with certainty as to whether it may result in a significant reduction
of mean time between failure (MTBF) of the packs, which would adversely affect both aircraft in-flight
reliability and maintenance costs.
Therefore it is necessary, before considering the use of a high pressure pneumatic system for aircraft
air conditioning, to make sure that the principle and characteristics (flow, pressure, temperature,
moisture amount, etc.) of the system have been fully approved by all airframe manufacturers as well
as the aircraft engineering departments of the airlines involved.
Technically, pneumatic generation systems are always based on a number of high performance
compressor units (several types of compressor design are available) located in a central technical
plant. The size, length and layout of the distribution ducts are critical for system performance and
potential loss of pressure, and must therefore be carefully engineered.
Due to the high peak of power consumption (flow + pressure) required, no decentralized alternative
(except conventional mobile ASUs of either the diesel or the turbine powered type) has up to now
been made available.
L 6 .4 .2 D e s ig n G u id a n c e
General technical information concerning design and evaluation of pneumatic compressed air systems
is contained in the Air Transport Association of America “ATA Spec 101: Ground Equipment Technical
Data publication and Facility Planning Guidelines publication”.
L 6 .4 .3 E c o n o m ic J u s tific a tio n
In general, installation of a pneumatic system is considered when it is a requirement to start the
aircraft on the stand. In this case it will usually prove to be economical to use the system for cabin
conditioning as well (depending on local weather conditions). The economic justification of a fixed
compressed air supply installation must be established versus the use of either aircraft APUs running
for a few minutes in order to start the engines, or mobile ASUs with either a diesel or a turbine engine.
If the system is also to be used for cabin conditioning, then the system justification must also take
into consideration the elements stated in clause L6.2.3. Furthermore, if an airline or a group of airlines
are considering power back operations with their aircraft, this would have an important effect on the
results of this study.
IATA Aircraft Parking Aprons
• The decision to use a pneumatic system for engine start should not be based upon environmental
considerations, since the starting of aircraft engines creates much more noise and air pollution
than the APU or ASU.
• On the contrary, economic evaluation should take into account the fact that a fixed compressed
air supply results in starting the engines on the stand before push back, where as most airlines
today in fact start the aircraft engines from the APU during (or even partially after) push back.
Using a fixed installation, therefore, may result in increased fuel consumption and noise due to
jet engines running before and during push back, as well as additional aircraft and engine running
time — which may also affect crew salaries. Such factors of increased expense for the airline
should be taken into account in the economic evaluation.
• When the use of a compressed air supply installation is contemplated for both air start and cabin
conditioning purposes, assessment by airline engineering departments as to the use of this system
for cabin conditioning is necessary in order to evaluate the economic viability of the system.
• If compressed air is also used in a continuous manner for air conditioning purposes (Reference
clause L6.3.1) the recommendations in Clause L6.2.4 above concerning distribution modes for
pre-conditioned air also apply.
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L 6 .5 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
The economic justification for a fixed 400 Hz installation must be established versus the use of
either aircraft APUs or mobile ground power units (GPUs) with a diesel engine, or mobile electric
converters connected to 50/60 Hz power outlets at each stand. A full justification is required to
access the benefits of providing 400Hz equipment at the head of stand.
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L7.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N
Safe and efficient aircraft operations are of primary importance in the development of any aircraft de-
icing facility, and the requirements for a de-icing operation will differ greatly for each airport. While
remote primary de-icing may be desirable at one airport, gate de-icing with or without remote secondary
facilities is appropriate at others. Operational and Air Traffic Control (ATC) matters may be paramount
at one airport, while environmental concerns may predominate at another. These are just some of
the many options to be chosen between where de-icing operations are concerned, but in an overall
sense it is important to keep in mind that each airport will have varying priorities, and that many
factors will need to be weighed before responsible, safe and efficient decisions can be arrived at.
The manner in which the ATC system operates during icing conditions is critical. If the ATC system
imposes significant delays before take-off, the de-icing problem is increased, not only because of the
need to de-ice again, but also because of the extra taxiing required. In addition to the concerns for
safety, the airlines and the airport authorities must work with ATC to minimize delays.
The first and most important task for designers contemplating the development of de-icing facilities
is to evaluate the type of facility best suited to the airport needs. This evaluation will entail an
assessment of the actual physical layout, the operational requirements and the environmental
sensitivity of the airport. This means aircraft movement flows, frequency and severity of icing events,
realistic capacity need in snow/ice conditions, the physical space available, the length of routes to
the departure points, the available and potential drainage, the kinds of fluid (Type 1, 2, 3 or 4, see
definition below within clause L7.1.1) in use, and fluid collection/retention/recycling possibilities, etc.,
must be considered.
It is important to recognize that the requirements for and economics of recycling and reuse vary
widely. The environmental circumstances, ranging from the proximity of the airport to rivers and water
sources, the runoff patterns to be expected, the types of receiving water and the movement rates of
water bodies all impact the problem. Another variable is the type of soil and the potential for soil
contamination.
L 7 .1 .1 T h e T y p e s o f D e -ic in g O p e ra tio n s
(1) At passenger terminal gates, where aircraft are de-iced just before departure after passengers
and baggage/cargo are loaded.
Facilities for these operations progress in level of sophistication from (1) to (4), although they all must
satisfy the airport considerations noted above. Because option (1) does not usually entail additional
facility development, but principally relies on mobile equipment, only options (2) to (4) are further
discussed.
Historically, the principal method of de-icing has involved the application of heated freeze depressant
fluids. In recent years, new thickened fluids have been implemented which offer extended protection
times (fluid holdover times). Other new developments need to be considered, including the application
of infra-red heat.
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L 7 .1 .2 D e s ig n a te d D e -Ic in g A re a a t o r N e a r th e T e rm in a l
For some airports, decentralized de-icing facilities at or adjacent to terminals can adequately meet
the demands of the airlines, while still allowing acceptable taxiing time to the departure runways
under varying weather conditions. Improvements to or expansion of the facilities at terminal stands
should include apron drainage areas that collect glycol runoff for proper disposal or recycling.
Alternatively, de-icing run-off should be collected on the spot by sweeper/vacuum cleaning vehicles.
The collected slush is either stored or directly transported to disposal/recycling contractors.
L 7 .1 .3 R e m o te D e -ic in g F a c ilitie s
Remote de-icing facilities located near departure runway ends or along taxiways are recommended
when taxiing times from terminals frequently exceed holdover times. Under changing weather
conditions they can compensate for icing conditions or blowing snow expected to occur along the
taxi route taken by the aircraft to the departure runway. These facilities can improve flow control by
permitting retreatment of aircraft without having the aircraft return to a more distant de-icing pad.
Remote de-icing facilities have the following components:
• Aircraft de-icing pad(s) for the manoeuvring of aircraft andde-icing gantry or mobile de-icing
vehicles.
9 Aircraft de-icing pad(s) for the manoeuvring of aircraft and mobile de-icing vehicles.
Considerable reference on the various considerations that must be examined regardless of the level
of sophistication of the proposed de-icing facility can be found in Reference 1, SAE ARP4902. An
overview of those considerations follows.
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L 7 .2 S IT IN G C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
Thoughtful siting of de-icing facilities is critical in order to maximize the benefits of the de/anti-icing
process while minimizing the potential adverse impacts on airfield efficiency, safety and operations.
Certain considerations in siting de-icing facilities facilitate compliance with the ‘clean aircraft’ concept.
Foremost among such considerations is the need to site de-icing facilities so that the maximum time
interval between the start of the last step of the de/anti-icing process, subsequent taxiing, and the
start of takeoff does not exceed the estimated holdover times of the applied fluids. Other major
considerations include the need to site de-icing facilities so that aircraft, de-icing facility structures,
and mobile de-icing vehicles or fixed de-icing equipment does not penetrate the object clearing criteria
or airway facility critical areas.
L 7 .3 D E -IC IN G F A C IL IT Y D E S IG N A N D C O N S T R U C T IO N
A de-icing facility has to be properly planned, designed and constructed to perform as intended.
Elements of these preparations include such items as facility siting, number and size of de-icing pads,
pad configuration and layout, visual guidance considerations, construction phased implementation,
construction materials, drainage facilities, and other related components.
Most of the design criteria for these components are addressed in FAA advisory circulars and other
accepted industry design guidelines and standards. A de-icing facility is intended to provide an area
for parking of aircraft to receive de/anti-icing treatment. To perform this function, the de-icing pad
requires a pavement system that supports the anticipated loads and a positive drainage system to
collect runoff containing spent de-icing fluids.
L7„4 E N V IR O N M E N T A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
Since de/anti-icing fluids are chemical products with environmental consequences, de-icing facilities
shall have runoff mitigating structures. The recommended structures are those that comprise a
mitigating alternative that collects and retains runoff for proper disposal or recycling. In terms of
structural best management practices (BMPs), this approach to ‘control the source’ offers airport
managers an effective and economical means to comply with storm water permitting requirements.
L 7 .5 O P E R A T IO N A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
There are a number of operational issues associated with off-gate de-icing facilities. These issues
should be addressed prior to the design of the facility to insure that the intended benefits will be
achieved in an operationally efficient and cost-effective manner.
Typically, de-icing facilities are common use facilities available to any user of the airport, and thus
must be designed and operated to ensure equal access to the facility by all airport users. A coordinated
approach to facility operation and use is necessary to ensure that the de-icing facility accommodates
expected airfield capacity during a de/anti-icing event, as well as mitigating ground congestion that
may impact on aircraft operations.
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L 7 .6 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
For proper standards, specifications, and guidance for designing aircraft de-icing facilities,
reference should also be made to:
® SAE International, Aerospace Recommended Practice, ARP4902, “Design and Operation of :
Aircraft De-icing Facilities", November 13, 2000.
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C h a p te r M — A v ia tio n F u e l S y s te m s
S ection M1: Safety Issues
M1.1 Fuel System Safety: Introduction ................................... .......... ..................... 453
M1.2 Fire Extinguishers ......................... ....................................................... 453
M1.3 Grounding .................................................... ................... ...................... . 453
M1.4 Stand Design to Aid Fueling ..................................... .................... ................. 453
M1.5 Hydrant System Low Point D ra in s ................................................................ 454
M1.6 IATA Recommendations ............................. ................................. ........ . 455
S ection M2: D elivery to A pron
M2.1 Fuel Operations: Driving and Positioning of Vehicles ............. ....... . 456
M2.2 IATA Recommendations ..................... .......... ........... .................. 457
Section M3: Storage D istrib u tio n Facilities & Processes
M3.1 Fuel Depot Facilities: Introduction and Design Requirements ................... 458
M3.2 Tankage .... ............................................................... ...................................... . 458
M3.3 Pipework ........................................................................................................ 458
M3.4 Cathodic P rotection........................................................... ............................ . 459
M3.5 Hydrant Dispenser ........... ........................................ ..................................... . 459
M3.6 Tank Safety Distance Summary ..... ................... ............ ....................... . 459
M3.7 IATA Recommendations ............ ...................................... ........ .................... . 460
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M 1.1 F U E L S Y S T E M S A F E T Y : IN T R O D U C T IO N
Whether an airport fuel depot is processing thousands or millions of gallons of fuel per day, it is
imperative that participants in the facility establish clear, effective safety guidelines to ensure the well
being of staff and the operational viability of the depot and the aircraft/airport it serves. Both design
and operational directives must be established and carefully adhered to in the course of the
development and functioning of the facility, covering everything from fuel hydrant design and location
to emergency shut down systems and even fire extinguisher placement.
The following design parameters and operational procedures are presented as a starting point for
the development of an effective fuel system safety programme. As always, designers and participants
need to review these guidelines based on the specific requirements and challenges of their particular
location, and to adapt them accordingly.
M 1 .2 F IR E E X T IN G U IS H E R S
At least two fire extinguishers, of a type suitable to extinguish aviation fuel fires, should be present
on every stand. One extinguisher should be mounted at the head of stand as close as practically
possible to the main stand center line. The second extinguisher should be located within a 20m radius
of the fuel ground hydrant (if present), or as practically close to the nominal center of the wing fuel
locations of the various aircraft accommodated.
Alternatively the second fire extinguisher may remain on the fuelling vehicle, provided it is carried in
open housing or in racks with quick-opening fasteners. Fire extinguishers should be located in
accessible places and clear signage provided at suitable locations which should not interfere with
the safe operational and normal use of the stand.
M 1 .3 G R O U N D IN G
Grounding of aircraft is not recommended. However, where authorities require grounding the fuelling
equipment and aircraft should be grounded by means of a ‘Y’ grounding cable and NOT through the
fuelling vehicle. Hydrant pits or hydrant pit internals shall NOT be used as grounding connections.
Where used, the grounding provision should be designed specifically for the task of earth connection
and should not be used for any other duty. The center of the ‘Y’ earth connection should be such
that it is located on the stand, forward of the engines, and away from the engine intake danger zones.
M 1 .4 S T A N D D E S IG N T O A ID F U E L IN G
Generally:
(a) Reflective NO SMOKING signs should be displayed in prominent positions at the head of stand
near the aircraft and fuelling vehicles, or at least throughout the fuelling operation. Alternatively,
reflective no smoking signs/symbols may be affixed onto the sides of the fuelling vehicles.
(b) Hoses should be run out on selected and dedicated stand routes, which should prevent them
from being run over by aircraft-servicing vehicles. Kinks and twists of hose routes should be
physically prevented. Pressure fuelling couplings and over-wing nozzles shall not be permitted
to be dragged over the ground. Dust caps shall be provided for situations when couplings are
not in use.
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(c) Operational problems can be caused by unsuitable positioning of the aircraft, caused primarily
by misalignment of the aircraft in the parking bay, or by inappropriately located hydrant pits.
Where possible, the location of hydrant pits should account for potentially misaligned aircraft.
Hydrants should not be located beneath any of the served aircraft, and preferably aft of all engine
positions by a minimum clearance 1.5m.
M 1 .5 H Y D R A N T S Y S T E M L O W P O IN T D R A IN S
All low points of the hydrant need to be flushed at a high velocity thoroughly and regularly, with the
line under pressure to ensure removal of any water or sediment, until a clear fuel sample is obtained.
Hydrant low point drain positioning and design should therefore facilitate this functional requirement.
M 1 .5.1 H y d ra n t P its
Hydrant pits should be designed to facilitate ease of cleaning and drainage. Pits should safely disperse
all fluids and vapor in a controlled manner taking into account environmental considerations.
M 1 .5 .2 E m e rg e n c y S h u t D o w n S y s te m
The Fuel Hydrant Emergency Stop Buttons (ESBs) must be clearly identified. Clear access to these
buttons should be maintained at all times. Identification signs should be reflective and located such
that they remain visible at all times.
Two ESBs should be fitted to each stand perimeter. One ESB should be located close to the head
of stand and as practically close as permitted to the main stand center line. The second ESB should
be located within a radius of 20m of a fuel hydrant if fitted. If ground fuel hydrants are not fitted then
the second ESB should be located on the inside edge of the port perimeter stand line, though
maintaining a 2m true clearance from all aircraft at all times (including situations of misaligned aircraft).
M 1 .5 .3 S a fe ty P re -E n try in to D e e p P its
Mechanical guarding should be provided to ensure safety of personnel working close to deep hydrant
pits. Operational protocols should be in place working in parallel to mechanical guarding to aid
personnel safety. Mechanical guarding should not induce the risk of fire in any way.
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M 2.1 F U E L O P E R A T IO N S : D R IV IN G A N D P O S IT IO N IN G O F V E H IC L E S
M 2 .1 .2 P o s itio n in g P a rk e d F u el V e h ic le s
Vehicles should be positioned safely, taking account of the following:
(a) The position of the parked aircraft and the clearances which must be maintained as defined within
ICAO Annex 14. The fuel vehicle stop position(s) should be clearly marked on the apron. The
position of fuel vehicle stop box should be denoted by a yellow painted border with yellow internal
hatching and should be large enough to encompass the total area used by either the hydrant
dispenser unit or the combined fuel tanker/dispenser unit (see Fig M2-1).
(b) The exit route must be in a forward direction from the fuel vehicle stop box, away from the aircraft,
and should be free of any obstructions upon exit.
(c) Aircraft vent pipe safety zones (minimum 3 meter radius), APU exhaust efflux or other danger
areas should be avoided.
(d) When positioning the fuel vehicle stop box, full account should be taken of the potential aircraft
settlement so as to avoid the possibility of the aircraft wing, flaps or other surfaces bearing down
onto the vehicle as the aircraft settles under increased fuel load.
(e) When positioning the fuel vehicle stop box, at least one of the fuel hydrant emergency shut off
buttons must be visible to the operator of the dispenser, whether it be a self propelled vehicle or
trailer based unit.
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Black
Numbers
Denote
Kilometers
Background
Yellow
Box
Yellow
Hatch
Denotes Vehicle
Front Position______
M2.2 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
M2.IR1
Speed limits and signage pertaining to the control and management of fuel vehicles on the
apron should be in accordance with clause M2.1.1.
M 2AR2
The position of fuel vehicle stop boxes should be clearly marked and should be in accordance
with clause M2.1.1.
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M 3.1 F U E L D E P O T F A C IL IT IE S : IN T R O D U C T IO N A N D D E S IG N
R E Q U IR E M E N T S
Observance of certain fundamental practices in the design of fuel facilities is considered essential to
ensure that fuel product quality and depot safety standards are maintained. In general, any new
installation or alteration to an existing fuel facility must be previously approved by its customers as
well as its management, and all facilities utilised for the handling or delivering of aviation fuels need
to be fully grade-segregated.
With respect to the materials restricted from use in depot infrastructure construction, no zinc-rich
internal coatings may be used for any piping or tankage, and the following are not to be used in main
piping:
® Cadmium plating.
« Galvanised steel.
® Plastic.
M 3 .2 TANKAGE
The number and size of tanks should be sufficient to provide adequate working capacity, taking into
account peak period airport requirements, supply replenishment arrangements and emergency stock
coverage. Allowance must also be made for settling, testing and tank cleaning requirements.
Aviation fuels should be stored in horizontal or fixed-roof vertical tanks. New tanks shall be constructed
and installed to avoid ingress of water and dirt, and to provide a positive low point to collect water
and sediment for ease of removal. To achieve this, horizontal tanks should be installed with a minimum
slope of 1:50, and vertical tanks should have a cone-down bottom with a minimum slope of 1:30 to
a centre sump.
New tanks should be located away from main public roads by a distance of at least 100m. Roads
within this 100m radius should be secure and classified as airside.
Where new or existing above ground tanks are closer than 100m to public roads, solid physical
barriers made from brick or steel should surround tank facilities on the side of the public road. Tanks
will also be required to provide for the following functional characteristics:
(a) Provision for a running sample to be taken from the drain line that runs between the tank and
the sample’s receiving vessel. The running sample may be collected into an open container or
a closed system, made of a suitable glass, as agreed by the participants.
(e) A physical design such that their profile will not impair or effect ground radar operations.
M 3 .3 P IP E W O R K
Each grade of aviation fuel must be handled in a completely segregated system. There shall be no
inter-connection lines between pipelines which handle different products. All pipework and ground
works from the tank to the apron/stand should be developed with and approved by the Senior Engineer
or their designated engineering representative from the fuel company managing the facility.
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M 3 .4 C A T H O D IC P R O T E C T IO N
Hydrant pipelinesstorage tanks, and distributor systems should be protected from corrosion by a
cathodic system. Cathodic protection essentially reduces or eliminates corrosion on a metal surface
by forcing the metal to become a cathode. The two general types of cathodic protection systems that
can be considered are:
1. Impressed current.
2. Sacrificial cathodic.
Both types of systems can effectively transfer the corrosion reaction (oxidation) from the metal surface
to an external anode. If all exposed parts of a structure become cathodic with respect to the electrolyte,
corrosion of the structure is eliminated.
Special care is required with the design of impressed current cathodic fuel corrosion protection
systems, but it should be noted that they are only required under specific circumstances. The following
requirements represent a starting point in the installation of a proper impressed current cathodic
system:
• Sacrificial metal should be affixed to the fuel system pipe work and pumping equipment securely
at suitable intervals.
• The pipe-cathode should be insulated from all other steel structures or pipelines in the vicinity
which are not protected by the same system. There should be no possibility of sparking between
dissimilar metals at any time whatsoever.
• The size, material selection for sacrificial metals and the frequency of their placement should be
designed by the fuel system supply designer.
• When planning the apron and stand areas, due care should given to the maintenance and
replacement of the sacrificial metals.
Where cathodic protection is employed, the cathode should be insulated from all other steel structures
or pipelines in the vicinity which are not protected by the same system.
M 3 .5 H Y D R A N T D IS P E N S E R
The following dispenser systems should be considered by airport apron designers:
Hydrant dispenser: these are powered vehicles fitted with fuel dispensing equipment and bonding
equipment.
Hydrant dispenser dolley: these vehicles are towed to the stand area on demand and include
pump dispersing and bonding equipment.
M 3 .6 T A N K S A F E T Y D IS T A N C E S U M M A R Y
It is difficult to stipulate tank safety distances in international publications, as many countries have
differing fire safety regulations. In general, distances can be reduced or increased by utilising the
results of specific risk assessments of local facilities. If some guidance is sought by designers
beforehand, the following publications could likely prove helpful:
1. NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code — USA and many other countries in the
Americas.
2. IP Model Code of Safe Practice Part 2 (Design Construction & Operation of Distribution
Installations) — International.
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4. Other design standards are in issue all over the world (France, Germany etc.) and some national
standard requirements are often increased by local bye-laws.
Tank safety distances are determined through the evaluation of the following key factors:
® Type of tank (horizontal or vertical).
9 Arbitrary distances for all tanks irrespective of volume (e.g. 75m for all third party buildings from
above ground tanks irrespective of volume).
M 3 .7 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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Chapter N — Contingency Management
Section N1: Aviation Crisis Management
N1.1 Crisis Management Strategy: Introduction
N1.2 Emergency Response Planning
N1.3 Crisis Com m unications.............
N1.4 IATA Recommendations ..........
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• Risk analysis.
• Contingency Planning.
• Consequence Management
Failure to address either one of these three elements may result in an incomplete crisis management
strategy, one without depth or logical flow. You cannot plan unless you know what you are planning
to avoid or mitigate, and you cannot manage the consequences effectively unless you have planned
(and trained and exercised) for such eventualities.
The complex challenges of aviation crises demand a robust and sophisticated resilience strategy to
ensure that a rapid return to business as usual can be accomplished. Accordingly, the FUNCTIONS
that are common to each of the three elements above are:
=> Personnel
=> Intelligence
=> Operations
=> Logistics
=> Communications
These functions are the cornerstone of any crisis management strategy and the principal on which
to build effective contingency plans.
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N 1 .3 C R IS IS C O M M U N IC A T IO N S
In times of crisis, an airport’s reputation can be damaged or destroyed in a matter of days by negative
or hostile media coverage. In the aftermath of a major accident, every word and action will be closely
scrutinised by reporters looking for evidence of negligence or incompetence, and anxious to apportion
blame.
In the event of a major accident or incident, senior executives at head office, or front-line managers
nearest to the scene, may be required to act as spokespeople in briefing the news media. These
individuals may have no previous experience of dealing with the media, but will be expected to project
an image of competence and credibility and to reassure key external and internal audiences that the
airport is responding in an appropriate manner. Some of the important and often forgotten factors to
consider in respect of crisis communications are as follows:
• What are your airline customers saying? Have you established communication protocols?
• How resilient are your communication facilities and do you have backup systems?
• What message is your website displaying to outside world — can it be changed and how quickly?
N 1 .4 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
© Build the contingency plans to be consistent and easy to follow — check lists and prompts
rather than huge volumes are easier to assimilate for staff in the chaos o f a crisis.
• Select your crisis teams carefully — the best managers do not always make the best leaders
i in a crisis. Ensure such teams are fully a ware of their responsibilities and capable of exercising
them under the most extreme conditions possible.
® Determine robust joint-operating protocols with airline and other business partners.
® Plan and exercise airport risk mitigation strategies — the best possible preparation is to
| practice averting a crisis.
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® Look carefully at the emergency response capabilities o f your airline, retail and support system
(ground handling, catering, etc.) partners. What are your expectations of their ability and are
they aware, trained or even contracted to meet these expectations?
® Provide a cascading system of media training for staff from head office, corporate
communications, front-line and route station staff.
® Ensure that the crisis communications plan is consistent and communicated internally to all
departments.
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C h a p te r O — C a rg o & S e p a ra te E x p re s s F a c ilitie s T e rm in a l
Section 0 1 : Planning P rinciples
01.1 Planning: Introduction ..... .............................. .... ........ .......... .......... ............... 469
01.2 Cargo Apron Planning ................ ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ......
.
01.3 IATA Recommendations ................ ............................................................... 470
S ection 0 2 : Forecasting and Sizing
02.1 Cargo Traffic ............. .............................................................................. . 471
02.2 Necessity for Cargo Traffic Studies ...................... ............................... . 471
02.3 Transfer Cargo/Passenger Terminal Cargo Transfer Areas ...................... 471
02.4 Planeside Cargo Traffic Forecast ......... ...... ............................ ........ ....... 471
02.5 Operational Cargo Forecasts ............ ............................................. .......... . 474
02.6 Sizing Parameters ..... ................................. ....................... ............................. 474
02.7 Cargo Design Considerations: Scope of Evaluation .......... ........ ................ 478
02.8 IATA Recommendations ......................................................... .......... ............ 486
Section 0 3 : Flows and C ontrols
03.1 Typical Cargo Flows ....... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ......
.
03.2 Cargo Communication Controls ........ .................................... ................. 487
03.3 Cargo Control Regulations ........................... ............ ....... ......................... . 489
03 .4 Cargo Security Controls .................... .................... ...................... .................. 489
03.5 Cargo Safety Controls ..... ............ ............... ...................... ...................... . 489
03.6 Cargo Government Controls ...... ........... ................................... ........ . 490
03.7 Cargo Facilitation ............... ........ ....................... ........... ........... ............... 490
03.8 Cargo Customs .... ................. .................................... ....... ...................... . 490
03.9 IATA Recommendations ......... ............. ........ ................ ........... ........... ........... ........... ........... ......
Section 0 4 : Expedited & Express Cargo P rocessing
04.1 General Express Cargo Processing Considerations .......... ......................... 492
04 .2 Pre-Design Considerations ..................................... ............................. 492
04.3 The Express Cargo Process ...... ... ............................... ................... ........... . 493
04.4 Typical Express Cargo Product Flow at ExpressCargo Facilities ............. 493
04.5 Express Facility Design P aram eters........................... ....................... .......... . 494
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0 1 .1 P L A N N IN G : IN T R O D U C T IO N
The organisation that initiates the preliminary investigation leading to the construction of new, modified
or enlarged air cargo facilities should also generate the policy objective establishing the need for the
project, the source of funding, the planned life of the facility and the time period during which the
project can be completed. It should also ensure that all possible alternatives are investigated prior
to determining the ultimate course of action.
The following is a cargo development document check-list (listed in the order they should be produced).
Please also refer to Section V1 — IATA Airport Project Process, for further details on recommended
airport project management and process definitions:
Development must be the subject of extensive consultation, and requires proper co-ordination of
responsibilities, plans, timetables, construction and procurement.
• Airport authorities.
• Airlines.
® Manufacturers.
0 1 .2 C A R G O A P R O N P L A N N IN G
The following requirements must be considered when planning cargo aprons:
• To ensure efficient cargo handling, the apron must be considered as a continuation of the cargo
facility. An apron immediately adjacent to the cargo facility fulfils this requirement and should be
used by all-cargo/freighter aircraft, thus providing for short distance transportation and access
between aircraft and facility.
• Expansion of the cargo apron must be feasible, in order to accommodate increases in peak hour
demand for aircraft stands or increased aircraft sizes. Parking configuration depends on local
requirements and constraints, and must also allow for the necessary ground handling equipment.
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• A cargo apron design should also provide, at each aircraft stand, adjacent staging areas for
equipment needed for loading and transportation of arriving and departing ULDs.
• Parking of handling equipment should be possible between the airside cargo road and apron
and/or along the outer edges of the apron, without impeding aircraft manoeuvring on or off
the apron. Power-in/power-out aircraft parking requires more space for each stand, and extra
precautions against blast.
• Several factors must be considered when fixed loading bridges are planned to connect all-cargo/
freighter aircraft to ETV storage systems within the cargo facility. Justification for loading bridges
will depend on utilization potential, impact on staffing requirements, processing/turnaround time,
and frequency of extreme weather conditions. As with passenger loading bridges, cross-utilization
between wide-body and narrow-body aircraft as well as within certain types of narrow-body aircraft
may be limited. In addition, aircraft cargo door configurations (nose, side forward, side aft) will
impact utilization potential.
• The cargo carrier’s fleet mix, type of cargo and operational factors will weigh heavily in the decision
as to whether specialised loading bridges or flexible mobile loading systems are preferred. Based
on airline experience, fewer carriers are using fixed loading bridges.
• Fixed aircraft servicing equipment, such as hydrant refuelling and power, are only appropriate to
aircraft stands with high utilization.
® Lighting on the apron should be sufficient to permit the reading of cargo documents and labels
at the aircraft parking stand. However, such lighting should not be allowed to adversely affect
crew visibility when taxiing and parking the aircraft.
® On the apron, cargo service roads should be separate from the apron taxiway.
® An analysis of the peak hour stand requirements and the related volume of air cargo to be
transported and processed is necessary in order to determine the size of the apron and adjacent
areas.
0 1 - 3 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
0 2 .1 C A R G O T R A F F IC
Cargo traffic may be carried either on pure freighter aircraft, on combi aircraft (where the main deck
is shared between passengers and cargo), or in the belly holds of passenger aircraft. Since this
affects the requirements for apron facilities, IATA forecasts differentiate between these transport
methods.
In the forecast, the combined number of tonnes of freight and mail handled at the airport are taken
into consideration. Usually scheduled and non-scheduled cargo traffic are considered together as
both are handled in the same cargo terminal area. The forecast differentiates between passenger
and all-cargo operations, as each will have a specific influence in respect of apron use.
0 2 .2 N E C E S S IT Y F O R C A R G O T R A F F IC S T U D IE S
The handling of increased amounts of cargo in larger terminal facilities entailscomplex physical and
document handling systems (for both airlines and handling operators). Comprehensive studies are
an essential basis for such systems which will maximise handling efficiency at the lowest cost.
Based on forecasts, the project can then be developed by planners representing bothauthorities and
operators and, if required, with the assistance of external experts.
0 2 .3 T R A N S F E R C A R G O /P A S S E N G E R T E R M IN A L C A R G O T R A N S F E R
AREAS
Not all import cargo will terminate at the station. The methodology for handling on-line transfer cargo
must be determined, and space must be provided for that portion which returns to the warehouse for
re-processing. This may require additional bulk cargo breakdown space, export bulk cargo staging
area and build-up work area. For ULDs transferring intact (no breakdown or build-up required),
additional staging and storage space may be required, and cargo transferring to and from other
airlines must also be evaluated.
When transfer cargo is not governed by customs requirements and same day transfer routing is
possible, it may be possible to establish a transfer function at the passenger terminal. This function
is responsible for capturing transfer cargo at the arrival of an inbound flight and delivering the shipments
directly to the outbound departing flight. The degree of transfer will depend on staffing as well as
facilities available and required at the passenger terminal. The impact on cargo facility sizing can be
significant if transfer accounts for a sizeable amount of total cargo boarded.
Proposals should take into account the need for a rapid turnaround and the transporter’s need to
minimize the connecting time without compromising security measures.
0 2 .4 P L A N E S ID E C A R G O T R A F F IC F O R E C A S T
• Planeside volumes are normally the most common available — they represent enplaned and
deplaned cargo for all aircraft and over-the-road movements.
• The planeside forecast generally represents the big picture of cargo types that are processed
through the warehouse (e.g. general freight, priority freight, small packages, company material,
mail, etc.).
® The forecasts must correspond with or be converted to the prescribed peak facility design volume
(e.g. cargo processed on the peak day of the average week of the peak month, or the maximum
volume occurring on 95% of the days in the peak months, etc.).
« Where there is a distinct difference between processing requirements for domestic and
international shipments, planeside volumes should be computed separately.
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© Planeside volumes should be further categorized to reflect how much is carried in containers
versus how much is carried as bulk (narrow-body and wide-body bulk holds).
® It is necessary to ensure volumes for all third party handling arrangements are quantified.
® The planeside cargo forecasting methodology technique relies on determining the average
historical cargo carried by an aircraft equipment type (e.g. A300, B747, B767, DC-10, A320,
B757, etc.) and by market (Atlantic, Pacific, Latin America, North America, etc.). These averages
are then applied to future aircraft schedules. When new aircraft types are included in future
schedules, estimates based on available cargo capacity and range will need to be determined.
Figures 02-1 and 02-2 provide survey format forms to quantify planeside volumes and describe a
growth rate approach to forecasting.
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Volume (Tonnes)
No. of ULDs
for breakdown
Fit. No. ETA (a) Direct Delivery (b) Cargo Requiring Storage (c) Transhipm ent (d) Total LD MD
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0 2 .5 O P E R A T IO N A L C A R G O F O R E C A S T S
Operational cargo forecasts are intended to translate the previously developed planeside forecast
into volumes that correspond with each function or operation in the material handling process.
The level of statistical detail for each airline cargo operation may vary significantly. As a result, the
source and availability of data to define each cargo operation may differ. However, the need to quantify
each function remains the same.
0 2 .6 S IZ IN G P A R A M E T E R S
Besides cargo volumes, there are several other cargo handling characteristics that impact the size
of a cargo facility. This section will address many of the factors that will be required by a cargo
facilities planner to determine the sizing requirements. Since there are several methodologies to cargo
facility sizing, the task of quantifying the space requirements will be left up to qualified airline cargo
facility planners, their designers and consultants.
Before actual facility sizing can begin, the planner must first evaluate several factors:
® Understand the current operation(s) and then define the operational objectives for the future.
• Decide on common objectives and policies to be realized in the new or extended area (e.g.faster
handling, function as transfer centre for international cargo, efficient transfer air/road).
• Establish processing requirements and applicable standards of handling with the airlines and
operators concerned.
9 Determine the extent to which each operating function will be performed outside on a routine
basis. This will have a direct affect on the size of the facility required. It is common for most
material handling functions to be performed inside, while some staging and storage functions
can be managed outside depending on the availability of space, security and weather issues.
Once the above factors have been evaluated, the planner will have an idea of the functions that will
need to be sized. The ultimate objective of the facility planner will be to convert each operational
cargo volume defined earlier into space requirements through the development of various conversion
factors and processing rates. Some of these are discussed below.
0 2 .6 .1 C a rg o T e rm in a l B u ild in g
The size of the cargo terminal building facility is derived from the total annual cargo movement
estimates. The space required is a function of the facility’s proposed processing capability. The
planning ratios shown in the following table can be used if no site specific information is available.
A critical element of the cargo terminal is the location and width of the airside access doors. The
basic module elevation has a span of 18 metres, is commonly used and provides 3 airside doors
(without column interference). Each door should typically have a width of 5m and can accommodate
side-loaded pallets and dollies (4.05m), as well as the wider self powered transport dollies. Modules
built with 15-16 metre spans can accommodate 3 airside doors that provide clearance for 2.45m wide
dollies.
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0 2 .6 .2 C a rg o R a m p A re a
As a general rule, the apron size for all cargo facilities lies in the range of 4 to 5 times that of the
cargo terminal building area. This includes aircraft stands, internal taxilanes, airside roads, ground
service equipment parking as well as processing zones on the apron.
If more defined data is not available, the following procedure can be used to size the ramp area. The
tonnage per annum is used to derive the number of aircraft per day and thus enabling the planner
to size the ramp accordingly. The annual tonnage 250 (days) provides the daily tonnage. The
average load per aircraft (all cargo) is 50-55 tonnes. The typical fleet mix for an all cargo operation
is as follows:
Two other important factors in facility sizing are the hours of operation, as well as the average
turnaround time per aircraft. All cargo facilities typically operate no less than 20 hours a day, with a
typical turnaround time of 4 to 7 hours per aircraft. Facility planners should seek operational
confirmation of the turnaround time expectation and plan accordingly.
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0 2 .6 .3 D w e ll T im e
Dwell time is a term used to reflect how much time import and export shipments reside in the
warehouse. Dwell time will need to be quantified for each of the operational staging and storage
functions. Remember, the volumes developed earlier generally represent those processed during the
peak design day. If international import shipments reside for three days, the facility will need to be
sized to manage three days of storage.
0 2 .6 .4 A v e ra g e W e ig h ts
Average weights are required generally whenever a processing rate or sizing conversion factor is
defined in terms other than weight. For instance, the processing rate to determine the number of
ULD receiving and pick-up docks may be ULDs per hour. As a result, the volumes representing the
amount of cargo received or picked-up will need to be converted to ULDs received or picked-up. This
would be accomplished by determining the average weight per originating and terminating shipper
loaded ULD.
Typical average weights that may be required include:
• Weight per terminating domestic bulk shipment.
0 2 .6 .3 P ro c e s s in g /C o n v e rs io n R a te s
Cargo facility planners will often utilize historical processing rates that correspond with the airline’s
degree of mechanisation to accomplish much of the sizing. In addition, on-site sampling may be
required to quantify some conversion rates. Some common processing and conversion rates that
may be required include the:
® Import dock ULD shipment processing rate.
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0 2 .6 .4 C irc u la tio n P a r a m e te rs /E q u ip m e n t S iz e s
Besides volume related factors, the size of a cargo facility will depend significantly on circulation and
equipment size requirements. Examples of some factors include:
• Forklift manoeuvrability between bulk cargo storage racks.
• Aisle size requirements for performing build-up and breakdown in a cart/dolly environment.
0 2 .7 C A R G O D E S IG N C O N S ID E R A T IO N S : S C O P E O F E V A L U A T IO N
The guidelines contained within this section should be considered in the planning of multi-tenant
cargo terminal complexes under any of the following three development scenarios:
® Entirely or substantially new cargo terminals to be built at an airport where it is expected that all
cargo/freighter aircraft will be operated in addition to cargo-carrying passenger aircraft. The chosen
cargo complex site should include provision for later expansion of all facilities.
• Extensions or modifications of existing cargo facilities which cannot entirely meet the guideline
recommendations. In this case, the layout and design guidelines should be considered insofar
as is practicable given the existing constraints. The recommendations stated within Chapter O
should be systematically considered in relation to the choice of the extension or modification
layout, even if the existing constraints do not permit full compliance with the details of the guideline
recommendations.
In neither of the above situations do these guidelines recommend constructing the cargo facility
to the foreseen ultimate requirements. They essentially recommend that these ultimate
requirements be defined in the long term, and that the space provisions and reservations be
made to accommodate them if and when the need arises, thus avoiding the risk of the facility
becoming obsolete at some point in time.
In this section cargo terminals within the typical size range (from 1,000 to 10,000m2 and from
10,000 to 50,000m2 covered space) are primarily considered (this refers to the total covered
space involved in a project or a set of buildings jointly planned and developed). It is felt that this
size range covers most of the foreseeable requirements for international multi-user cargo
terminals. Smaller or larger buildings (e.g. 500 or 100,000m2) may require different design or
layout solutions to be applied, but the basic objectives should remain the same.
It should be kept in mind that, even where a significant portion of the total cargo volume is carried
by all-cargo/freighter aircraft, the majority is usually carried on passenger aircraft. Hence, although
it is recommended to retain space provision for the nearby handling of all-cargo/freighter aircraft
(even if there are none at the time of planning), all aspects of moving cargo to and from the
passenger terminals should be fully integrated in the building design at all times. This will usually
require a preliminary assessment of the variety of means of transportation to be used (refer to
IAT A Airport Handling Manual AHM 960/966 and 967 for details of the various types of dollies
and cargo transport vehicle available).
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0 2 .7 .1 D e s ig n C o n s id e ra tio n O b je c tiv e s
In compliance with ICAO Annex 9 — Facilitation, Recommended Practice 6.4, and the IATA Cargo
Facilitation policy, the design, layout or access of buildings should in no way be detrimental to the
possibility of any aircraft operating on the airport to have choice of self-handling. Alternatively, it may
be handled by another airline, or by a handling agent, or eventually by a common-user/co-operative
type of handling agency, as felt appropriate, for the handling and storage of its cargo.
The direct commercial impact of cargo warehouse handling makes it an essential factor of cost/
quality-of-service competition. Therefore, in addition to world-wide agreed facilitation objectives, any
restriction on the choice of handling organization, dictated by the cargo building layout or otherwise,
would have an adverse effect on airline competitiveness and, ultimately, the shipping public’s interest.
The general building layout should consequently leave all possibilities open for the choice of handling
arrangements:
• The space and installation requirements in a cargo facility may, and usually do, vary considerably
between the different airlines operating at a given airport, and for airlines individually over a period
of time (e.g. evolving development, change of schedules, aircraft types, traffic patterns, etc.). For
instance, some may operate all-cargo/freighter aircraft whereas others may not. Some may be
totally ULD oriented whereas others may operate only with bulk cargo. Some may wish to improve
productivity with a high degree of mechanisation, whereas others may be satisfied with the most
simple terminal-and-dollies arrangement, etc.
Keeping this in mind, it is essential that any common-user cargo terminal layout offers maximum
flexibility in its layout, including space provision for development of infrastructure, facilities and
offices. These may be utilized in different applications depending on the extent to which any
individual airline’s cargo activities have developed at a particular point in time.
• Experience demonstrates that the physical division of customs areas (import/export/transit) inside
warehouses is significantly detrimental to space utilization (i.e. building cost) and flexible cargo-
handling methods (i.e. efficiency of cargo handling), and results in prolonged dwell time in the
warehouse, thereby adversely affecting building costs and the shipping public’s interests.
• Design of the cargo facility should therefore be based on prior agreement with local customs
authorities that, preferably, will permit a free flow within each warehouse (import and export cargo
being controlled by Customs staff at the boundary of the bonded area and the landside acceptance
and delivery area). If absolutely unachievable, at the most two separate storage areas (import
and export) should be considered.
0 2 .7 .2 S itin g
In choosing a site for the cargo facilities/terminal and support facilities, the following should be taken
into account:
• The site should be in accordance with the long range masterplan for the entire airport, which
should be reviewed and updated at periodic intervals keeping in mind both passenger and cargo
facilities expansion.
• Sufficient land area should be provided for the planned initial facilities, and for future expansion
for the specified planning period.
• A high quality airside road is required for transportation of cargo directly between aircraft on the
passenger terminal apron and the cargo facility.
• The site should include adequate space for a cargo apron adjacent to the main cargo facility for
direct cargo access. This cargo apron should be adequate for existing and projected aircraft
types, and for the related loading or transport equipment, and it should have possibilities for future
expansion.
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• The area adjacent to the cargo apron should be designated only for cargo processing facilities,
with each facility having its own expansion capability.
• Other cargo related facilities, such as agents/forwarders facilities, bonded stores, customs offices
and other office blocks, as well as free-trade zone facilities, should be accommodated on the
landside areas of the terminal complex, without impeding cargo flow, traffic and parking.
• When insufficient area is available in the cargo terminal complex for these functions, space should
be reserved on a conveniently located site, with direct access to the cargo terminal, thus facilitating
transfer operations.
® If a railway or underground link to the airport is foreseen or already exists, an intermediate station
or an extension to the cargo terminal area should be considered for staff transportation.
® When a cargo terminal area is separated from the passenger area by a taxiway or runway, or
otherwise located at such a distance that the average duration of airside transportation for a
typical train of ULD dollies would exceed 15 minutes, or a maximum 20 minutes, consideration
should be given to:
• Using palletized roller bed trucks (refer to the IATA Airport Handling Manual AHM 960) to
expedite airside transportation.
® Providing an adequate tunnel in order to shorten the airside distance. Should this solution
be adopted, the ramps in the tunnel should at no point exceed a 4% slope, and the clear
height at any point in the tunnel should be in excess of 4.6m in order to allow the use of
trucks to carry ULDs up to 3m in height. If a tunnel is considered, restrictions for use must
be reviewed by all cargo airlines that will use the tunnel, as several operating restrictions
may apply (such as for the transportation of dangerous goods through the tunnel).
® The cargo buildings and apron must be sited so as to avoid infringement of flight operations
clearance standards, and they must not cause interference with navigational aids. Taxi distances
to and from the cargo apron should be as short as possible.
• Adequate services, involving power and other utilities, as well as telecommunications and data
connections will be required for the cargo terminal complex and related facilities, and should be
capable of future expansion.
® Where possible, the prevailing wind and rain or snow directions in inclement weather should be
considered in relation to the general orientation of the cargo facilities in the master plan. This is
to avoid potential hindrance and damage to cargo and equipment, particularly on the airside.
® Site restrictions may force planners to reduce their requirements, but this should never compromise
flow or the primary cargo facility, as well as provision for their subsequent expansion along the
airside and cargo aircraft apron. Off-airport space should be developed for secondary functions
and facilities when site restrictions dictate.
® It should be recognised that off-airport space may be viewed as a more economical alternative
as long as customer service objectives can be maintained from the off-site location.
0 2 .7 .3 In fra s tr u c tu r e /R o a d s
The infrastructure (roads, loading area, parking) should be designed for the planned capacity and
allow for future expansion. The airside and landside road systems should accommodate vehicle sizes
both for individual facilities and the total cargo area, with particular consideration for large vehicle
access.
The roads in the cargo terminal complex must be integrated with public road systems and other
airport road systems and include adequate (possibly separate) access to the existing and future road
network.
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Although moving cargo to and from the passenger terminal(s) should in all circumstances remain a
basic consideration, it should be only a secondary objective when selecting the cargo terminal location.
Experience indicates that ground transportation of cargo is much more sensitive to the quality of the
roadway used (in terms of duration, potential damage to pallet contours and economics) than to its
length.
Airside Roads
At least one airside, (fully customs-bonded), two-lane roadway must be provided between the cargo
terminal(s) area and any of the passenger terminals. This road should meet the following criteria:
• Minimum usable width is 10 m, preferably 12 m, to allow crossing of wide-type pallet dolly trains
and/or overwidth ULD transfer vehicles.
• Strong vehicle-grade pavement, designed to stand up to 1,500 kPa (15 bar) local footprint pressure
with a typical load up to 10,000 kg per axle, to withstand the worst cases encountered with
transportation of air cargo pallets on dollies.
• Up and down gradients should be avoided if possible, and should never exceed 4% at any
location, including any necessary tunnels or underpasses.
• The number of turns should be minimized, and ample turn radii, in excess of 20m at any location,
should be provided where a turn is necessary.
• Insofar as is practicable, crossings which include a STOP signal, and particularly any crossings
of an aircraft taxiway, should be avoided.
• A paved shoulder, 3m wide and of sufficient bearing strength, should be provided on each side
to allow for an emergency stop by unserviceable transportation vehicles without impeding other
traffic.
Landside Roads
• At least one landside, two-lane public roadway of 10 m minimum width must be provided to give
access to each part of the cargo terminal complex landside (truck docking area).
• It is also recommended that, in order to accommodate the frequent occurrence of standby trucks
having to wait for clearance, or drivers’ rest, additional parking spaces at least 18m deep be
provided across the public road, along the cargo terminal facade.
• A customs and security guarded gateway should be provided in the immediate vicinity of the
cargo facility to permit direct access to the apron of customs-bonded or oversize shipment trucks
whenever necessary. Appropriate loading or unloading equipment may then be required on the
apron.
0 2 .7 .4 C a rg o T e rm in a l C o n c e p t
A cargo terminal designed in a linear (modular) plan layout, with the possibility of allocating parts
(modules) to as many airlines/handling agents as necessary, and the potential for expansion at
preferably both, but at least one end(s) of the building, will have many advantages, particularly in
view of the following objectives:
• The fact that a cargo terminal is essentially a physical transitory sorting facility, between airside
and landside, where a large number of vehicles need to have free access as close as possible
to the essential warehouse portion.
• The requirement for any cargo terminal to be capable of later (phased) development/extension
which should not necessitate destruction or significant change of the parts already built.
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It should also be noted that offices, technical service areas, and special storage facilities should be
positioned without detriment to normal cargo flow and future expansion.
In order to provide each user airline with the required possibility of conducting its own commercial
cargo activity (i.e. customer contact, document handling and processing, etc.), it is essential that the
cargo terminal complex design provides proportional office space in each individual section (module)
allocated, including, in the event of later expansion or reassignment of the modules to other operators,
a re-arrangement capability.
The easiest way to provide this flexibility, without detriment to normal cargo flow and future expansion,
is to design continuous office space at a mezzanine level above the landside dock area (import
delivery and export acceptance) over the whole terminal transverse width.
Transverse Layout
A cargo terminal complex building should be designed so the module proportions, width and depth,
provide sufficient linear facades and doorways for trucks and vehicles to dock, and sufficient area to
perform all other cargo processing and storage functions.
The space allotment to the various operators and handling agents should be via modules which are
as flexible in dimensions as possible; defined, for example, by the pitch of columns in the construction.
Each allotted module should have access to both airside and landside. Permanent dividing walls
should be avoided in favour of a system of demountable partitions which can be relocated, when the
need arises, thus facilitating changes in space allotments within the terminal complex. The partitions
should provide adequate security between airlines.
Where customs regulations make it mandatory for each warehouse to have separate import and
export storage, this requirement should be taken into account to define modules, space allotment
and partition systems for each operator’s warehouse.
Depth Layout
The building depth should be established only once the operational requirements of all tenants are
defined. In general, the building depth should be as short as practicable, but the dimensions should
be large enough to accommodate all areas and processing functions in a natural and direct flow
between the landside and airside faces. Points to be noted include:
• The requirement to allow phased development through various stages, allowing space utilization
and capital spending to increase in step with the operator’s expanded activity.
® Provision for the space and functional requirements of the Boeing 747F all cargo/freighter aircraft,
as well as the latest high productivity mechanized cargo handling systems, should be made in
any new cargo terminal development. In order to avoid potential obsolescence, adequate space
should be protected in the overall plan for future wide-body operations.
0 2 .7 .5 F a c ilitie s
® Access from landside and airside should be direct through large doors of a size compatible with
the equipment used. Airside doors must allow passage of forklifts, dollies and vehicle traffic;
doors 5m high and 5m wide are typical. Landside truck dock doors are typically 4m high and 3m
wide.
® Doors are the most vulnerable item in a cargo facility. Doors and frames should be well protected
against damage by vehicles and cargo. Ease of replacement should be a design consideration.
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• Proper locking mechanisms on all doors are required for security purposes.
• Canopies are typical for weather protection, but special curtains or high speed folding doors in
open doorways may also be required under severe inclement weather conditions. The design
should include such provisions without imposing undue constraints on cargo flow.
• In the case of two-way traffic through one door, a one-way flow route or traffic light may be
required.
• Appropriate door signs or numbers, clearly visible and similar both inside and out, will facilitate
efficient customer and cargo handling.
• Manual operation of large doors is both slow and cumbersome. Mechanical or electrical drives
improve the operation, but should always incorporate required manual override and safety
provisions.
• Normal and emergency exists for personnel by man doors should meet local requirements.
• A direct interface between airside transport equipment or landside shipper vehicles and a container
handling system may be included in the design.
• Airside doors should not be located so that traffic entering/exiting the building would impede or
interfere with aircraft parking or aircraft interface.
Fixed obstructions such as utilities, special facilities and offices should not impede cargo flow and
processing. For the same reason the building column grid should be as large as possible without
exceeding economical levels.
A freespan for cargo handling would be ideal. However, this is only possible occasionally and in
special cases. Construction costs and beam considerations generally make columns necessary. In
such cases the widest column spacing achievable is most desirable; generally the spacing can be
in excess of 15m. The planned operational and storage systems, and the main aisles and entrance
doors should be considered when designing the column grid. Another basic consideration is future
flexibility.
When a 6m ULD depth is used, with related storage and transfer vehicles in a ULD storage system
on airside, the freespan should be a minimum of 22m from the outside wall containinq the storaqe
system.
To protect columns from damage by vehicles and cargo, strong surrounding protection is required in
the operational manoeuvring areas.
Depending upon the layout, and future storage area size, provision for the various heights must be
incorporated in the terminal design. Utilities, lighting, beams, fire protection, etc., must be installed
and constructed so as to clear calculated free heights.
In order to arrive at the most acceptable design decisions, it is essential that ‘trade-off’ studies, which
evaluate various storage systems versus required facility size and efficiency, are carried out, in
conjunction with the airlines and handling operators.
In the basic cargo operation, bulk shipments are normally moved from place to place with forklifts.
The minimum clear height where forklifts operate should be 5m to allow for normal lift capacities. As
forklift extension depends on the model and manufacturer, the cargo facility planner should verify
equipment utilization with the airline or cargo operator.
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As most cargo is delivered or received to/from clients in bulk, to be consolidated into, or broken down
from aircraft load units at another time, interim storage by shipment or destination is required in the
cargo facility along the planned lines of flow.
Floor storage will require more space than vertical storage systems if comparable circulation is
provided. Whereas storage systems provide an adequate constant space between racks for lift vehicle
manoeuvrability, the tendency with floor storage is for aisles to decrease in size and number as cargo
volumes increase. As a consequence, multiple handling of shipments increase and inventory control
becomes more difficult. At this point, vertical storage may not significantly enhance space utilization
but it will improve productivity and customer service.
When storage systems are utilised, the clear height will be defined by the number of storage levels,
the distance between each level, and the clearance requirement above cargo stored on the top rack.
Use of high storage systems can reduce the required storage floor space, but investment in equipment
and systems is necessary in both the primary and subsequent development phases. When designing
the cargo terminal facility, either floor space should be planned to permit later expansion, or the
facility must be constructed with the correct height, floor strength, etc., in the appropriate areas in
which these installations will be located.
Bulk freight is often placed on industrial wooden skids or equivalent. The skids provide an effective
way to transport and store bulk shipments within the warehouse. Typical stacking height on a skid
is approximately 1.5m, allowing a shipment on a skid to be placed directly into lower deck containers.
Stacking height may exceed this for shipments placed in main deck and high stack ULDs. If the
preponderance of cargo is received in lower deck containers, then a reasonable distance between
bulk freight storage racks would be 1.5m.
Typical storage racking for a forklift operation is three levels. Mechanized lift equipment may permit
additional levels. The actual mix of freight stored should be evaluated and racking systems should
be developed to accommodate the specific height requirements. If the racking system can only provide
for storage of the smallest shipment received, it will be necessary for cargo personnel to reduce the
shipments heights or use floor space.
ULO Storage
When an ETV and pallet/container storage system is planned, the distance between stacking levels
will depend on ULD height. ULDs generally fall into three categories; lower deck 1.7m, main deck
2.4m and full-contour 3m. Overall clear height will depend on the mix of 1.7, 2.4 and 3m storage
requirements. Three tiers of 3m storage will require a clear height of 12m.
Building height should be considered as an economical method of achieving future expansion. Initial
construction of a tall warehouse may allow a tenant to expand vertically to meet storage expansion
requirements before it is necessary to expand transversely.
Long-Term Storage
On occasion, lengthy storage times for cargo may occur as a result of slow clearance or handling
and/or lack of aircraft capacity. Such storage is detrimental to fast and efficient space utilization. To
combat this problem, higher storage charges for longer periods can be implemented, together with
mandatory transfer of the cargo to secondary storage spaces. Reserve capacity in the terminal facility,
or in an agent’s building, should be used for this purpose whenever possible.
02.7.5.4 Illumination
The following factors should be taken into consideration:
• Outside area lighting should be sufficient for safe vehicle movement and operations at night-time.
At the apron-side, lights should not blind crews in aircraft cockpits.
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• Lighting at dock areas and entrances should allow normal reading of marks or labels on cargo
and units handled. It should also be adequate for security surveillance requirements.
• Inside the terminal, general lighting should be adequate for normal handling operations and traffic
flow.
• Extra lighting is required at work stations and storage areas to facilitate document and label
reading.
• 200-300 lux at floor level should be available.
• Offices and control areas require the applicable standard light intensity.
• The layout of the lighting system should allow for the special requirements of PC/CRT operation.
• Offices should have windows which admit daylight. Where possible, work areas in the terminal
should also have access to daylight through windows, along the tops of walls or in the roof. This
will reduce energy costs and improve working conditions.
0 2 .7 .5 .5 Staff Facilities
Staff facilities such as washrooms, toilets, and canteens should be available for all staff working in
terminals and offices and should be easily accessible to disabled persons. Special toilets should be
available. Public conveniences, light refreshment concessions, etc., can be provided centrally or per
terminal facility, on the landside.
0 2 .7 .5 .6 Technical Facilities
Technical areas for repair or overhaul of equipment and systems, including battery charge or change
facilities, should be located in or near the cargo terminals.
0 2 .7 .5 .7 Special Facilities
Special facilities in the cargo terminals to handle particular commodities require specific positioning
and construction according to their particular standards. The most important facilities are:
0 2 .7 .5 .8 Bypass
Large and special shipments of valuables, perishables and livestock should bypass the cargo facility,
and be transferred directly between aircraft and road vehicle on the apron or between the ground
handling equipment and road vehicle. Access to the bypass must be restricted and meet all airport
security requirements.
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0 2 .8 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
0 3 .1 T Y P IC A L C A R G O F L O W S
A typical flow of documents and communications and goods, both arriving and departing, in a cargo
terminal facility, is shown in Fig. 03-1.
0 3 .1 .1 D y n a m ic C o m m u n ic a tio n s
The rapid developments in communications, data processing and automation have made it possible
to establish direct connections locally and world-wide via Local Area Networks and Wide Area Networks
for all parties concerned with cargo processing. Co-ordination and transmission of information using
these connections results in faster handling and clearance of cargo, and tracking of items dynamically
has become a reality with users accessing cargo inventories via the web and monitoring real time
progress of goods through the cargo process.
0 3 .2 C A R G O C O M M U N IC A T IO N C O N T R O L S
Provision for good communications, between and within cargo complexes and terminals is essential
for efficient operations. The scope and types of communication facilities must therefore be included
in the planning. These will include cables, ducts, conduits etc., as well as facilities for the transportation
of documents. At one time or another, in addition to telephone and telex, any of the following systems
may be required:
• All offices and terminal areas should have access to the communications required for process
control.
To ensure that the cargo processing time matches the speed of air transport, an efficient, integrated
system of communications is required. This involves the interrelation of customs, including customs
brokers, airlines or handling operators, freight forwarders functions in all communications, and
documentation systems related to the dispatch of air cargo with covering documents.
In the planning of communications systems which may be required in relation to local situations,
company procedures, or larger cargo volumes, it is recommended that only those systems required
for immediate use in the early years of growth be installed at the outset. However, in this relation it
is also essential to ensure that due provision (with consideration given to the quantity and quality of
such provisions to ensure future use as technology changes) for the subsequent installation of more
advanced systems as outlined above, including their related connection requirements, is considered
in all construction planning.
BATA Airport Development Reference Manual
Airside
PASSENGER PASSENGER
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EXPORT OUTPUT
o
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1
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CARGO SORTATION □
AND CHECKIN
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— 4 —
------
Landside IMPORT OUTPUT
Note: With respect to the figure above it should be remembered that there are other airside direct
cargo transfer combinations also possible (i.e. passenger aircraft to passenger aircraft, passenger
aircraft to cargo aircraft and cargo aircraft to passenger aircraft).
KEY TO SYMBOLS
TRANSPORTATION K A Transportation occurs when a unit of cargo is moved from one place
C / to another beyond the limited movements which occur during some
operations and inspections.
DELAY I > A Delay occurs to a unit of cargo when it is prevented form progressing
^ to its next planned activity.
STORAGE ^—j Storage occurs when a unit of cargo is staged, prior to assembly,
V assembled, pending dispatch to aircraft, or held pending breakdown
and/or Customs examination and/or delivery.
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0 3 .3 C A R G O C O N T R O L R E G U L A T IO N S
Compliance with all government (particularly customs), safety and security regulations must be
included in the terminal design, layout and cargo terminal operations to ensure an approved basis
of cargo handling in all facilities. This compliance should be without detriment to the facilitation of
cargo handling procedures.
In the planning phase, approvals must be obtained from all authorities concerned, particularly from
customs officials with respect to cargo processing and combined control and checkpoints on the
established customs boundary.
0 3 .4 C A R G O S E C U R IT Y C O N T R O L S
Security responsibility lies with the airport authority, airlines and terminal operators to safeguard the
airside, the aircraft, and the cargo stored and processed in the area. The necessary controls and
provisions must be incorporated in the plans. Air cargo contains a large percentage of high-value
goods and valuables that require special attention during transport, storage and ground handling by
airlines/operators. Besides special storage in vaults in the terminal facility,additional escort and guard
services to protect against theft and fraud should be considered.
Access to the operational section of the terminal facility (which is under the control of the terminal
operator), and to the adjacent airside area, should be controlled by the security services of the operator
or the airport authority. Entry to this area should be restricted to personnel belonging to the airlines,
terminal operator and customs. In certain cases, due to the risk from theft, continual surveillance of
the total cargo terminal area may be necessary.
Security related to cargo acceptance requirements must also be considered. Under certain
circumstances security regulations may have a direct impact on facility size, layout and equipment
(e.g. X-ray).
More details of precautions and security procedures can be obtained from the IATA Security Manual.
High rise cargo-storage systems generally require additional, integrated, fire protection (sprinkler
system).
Working conditions and safety provisions for the facilities, systems and equipment used must comply
with national standards and industrial practices. All mechanical systems must incorporate built-in
safeguards. Vehicle exhaust should have minimum toxic contents, or otherwise special ventilation
must be provided where exhaust problems can arise. Battery powered vehicles should preferably be
used in all working areas within the terminal.
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All cargo handling in the cargo facility, and on the airside of the airport, must comply with specific
customs regulations, like those relating to the safeguarding of goods in an operator’s custody and
records of the air transportation, transfer to other airlines, or delivery to consignees.
0 3 .7 C A R G O F A C IL IT A T IO N
Efficient handling, with minimum obstruction by government control checks, and short storage time
in the airport terminal facilities can only be achieved through facilitation agreements and with the
approval of the facility design by customs and other authorities.
0 3 .8 CARGO CUSTOMS
Often the modification of long-standing customs regulations will need to be obtained to facilitate
operations in the new situation. These may include:
• Delegation to the airline terminal operator of control over the process area behind a customs
boundary, inside the cargo facility, and the adjacent apron area, based on good in-house inventory
control and security. Spot checks can be made by customs in this area at any time.
« An agreed customs boundary between the landside area, open to forwarders and shippers for
acceptance and delivery of cargo, and the airside processing and operating area which is only
open to operational staff. Appraisal space for customs checks in the boundary area provides
required control of cargo flows. Operational customs offices should be located in this area.
o Temporary enclosed storage of import cargo, if required. This should be arranged in an area
adjacent to the import flow in the cargo facility.
0 A separate bonded warehouse, on the landside of the cargo handling facilities, if complex clearance
procedures result in import cargo being stored longer than 1 to 2 weeks at the airport. All goods
to be held longer than operationally acceptable can be transferred to this warehouse, and thus
free the cargo facilities for their main function of fast cargo processing.
0 3 .8 .1 A u to m a te d C u s to m s C le a ra n c e /C o m m u n ic a tio n
In the wake of advances in technology and integrated databases, customs clearance is becoming
more automated. A few governmental agencies have developed automated customs clearance
programmes. Connection or integration with systems for airlines/handling operators and agents will
significantly improve processing and clearance of cargo.
0 3 .8 .2 O th e r C u s to m s A re a s
Where the airport masterplan foresees freezones for the handling of international transfer cargo, or
handling or production of export goods without duty, these area should be developed adjacent to
cargo facilities and the related expansion area. In conjunction with customs, a common bonded area
can then be designated to facilitate cargo movements between areas.
0 3 .8 .3 A d d itio n a l C o n tro ls
Other government controls to be expected, with their separate requirements, are animal quarantine
for all live animals, as well as food and plant control for produce shipments. Additional controls may
be instituted to meet other requirements which may arise.
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0 3 . 9 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
The processes developed and adopted by the cargo systems designer should permit international
and domestic cargo to be processed efficiently and in accordance with this above legal
instructions and recommendations.
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04.1.1 Introduction
Express processing facilities are in many ways closer to a passenger terminal in function than they
are to a cargo building. The concept presented within this section should provide guidance for the
planning and design of future express cargo processing facilities.
It is important to keep in mind that the express company is directly responsible to the customer and
is held responsible for any failures. It’s therefore important that the express company be able to
exercise ‘custodial control’.
@ Will the facility be a hub, a gateway, or an O&D point, and what relationship does it have to
surface transportation?
• What functions will be performed on-airport and what will be performed off-airport?
04.2 PRE-DESIGN C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
Airports should understand the needs of the express industry and must not treat such facilities as
just another cargo warehouse. Because the express industry is relatively new, quite often express
must be made to fit within the parameters of the traditional air cargo system.
It is not only critical to have specific express facilities, it is also important that specific clearance and
handling procedures are instituted. It is pointless for an express company to invest in an express
handling facility if the custom authorities will treat the express product as regular cargo.
Determining who will build the facility and how it is financed is often subject to more debate than the
facility itself. Parties that need to be involved with facility development are:
• The airport.
® Customs.
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• Security agencies.
® Slot Co-ordinators.
• Data Collection.
One aspect of data collection that differentiates express from other operations is that volume figures
for express operations are not considered as single source per airport. Critical in the consideration
of the scope and impact of an express operation on an airport is the regulatory flexibility by both the
airport and relevant government agencies.
There are many kinds of specific operations within the express industry, and in some cases within
the same company. It is generally divided into four types of operations:
1. R am ps or O rigination & D estination (O & D ) points: serves a metropolitan area and its immediate
surrounding.
2. G atew ays: a service point serving a larger area. Arriving express is transloaded into other feeder
aircraft or commercial line haul, or into trucks for shipment to other cities.
3. Hubs: Major facilities where the bulk of the express is not destined for the local area. These are
major sort facilities with heavy aircraft activity. Tracking and sorting are major activities. Custom
clearance cannot be an issue.
4. C o-locations: It is common to find a ramp located adjacent to a gateway or hub. These would
be separate operations located under the same roof but independent from each other.
0 4 .4 T Y P IC A L E X P R E S S C A R G O P R O D U C T F L O W A T E X P R E S S
C A R G O F A C IL IT IE S
Each express company will take the minimal requirements described below and add onto them more
scans involving greater detail, additional channels, special clearance and handling enhancements,
etc. The processing facility has to be able to accommodate redesigns and changes as they will
happen over time.
0 4 .4 .1 E x p re s s Stem A rriv a l
The arrival process needs to begin before the shipment arrives. Arrangements should be made with
Customs to pre-clear any arriving shipments. Arrangements should be made in advance to guarantee
that Customs can advise which shipments they want to examine before the plane lands.
When the aircraft arrives the shipments are separated into their respective channels for processing.
Those that need to be cleared are identified, scanned and sent to the inspection area. Customs will
insist on having the right to inspect any shipment, even those that were previously pre-cleared.
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Some ULDs will come off an airplane and be loaded immediately onto another. This transfer needs
to be done quickly, therefore there is no need to brings these ULDs inside the facility. A canopy would
be desirable in rainy and snowy climates.
Other ULDs will be off-loaded from the aircraft and loaded onto large trucks. This practice is especially
popular in the Americas. The trucks are allowed on the ramp and receive the ULD directly off the
aircraft. In other airports ULDs have to travel through the facility to be loaded on a truck waiting at
the dock.
For a hub, most ULDs must be brought into the facility, broken down, sorted and rebuilt before being
sent to their next destination. The time this takes is known as the sort window. It is vital to the express
companies’ operation to have Customs procedures in place that allow through shipments destined
for another country to proceed without impediment. In airports that restrict the express companies’
rights to self-handle or require common clearance, it can be very difficult to do adequate tracking.
0 4 .4 .2 E x p re s s Ite m D e p a rtu re
In a sort transfer operation, the arrival and departure is the same process. The airport processing
facility is not the point of origination of the shipment, it is merely a way point on its journey.
Departure customs requirements are usually much simpler than on arrival. The important
documentation is the manifest for the next arrival destination. There may be many different final
destinations on a single aircraft and thus different manifests are required. This can be a complicated
task simplified if a standardised pre-selection manifest is not used.
0 4 .5 E X P R E S S F A C IL IT Y D E S IG N P A R A M E T E R S
0 4 .5 .1 T h e E x p re s s R a m p
Usually the express operator will share a ramp unless the operation is large enough for a single
operator. All express operations operate at close to the same time, therefore the ramp needs to be
built for peak operations. Express operators look at the airport as a way-point and not a destination,
therefore they will be interested in having the shipments moving quickly. Accommodating trucks on
the ramp as well as the use of racks and dollies will all contribute to faster shipment movements.
Three further items need to be considered when designing a ramp: tether pits, drainage and lighting:
1. Tether pits are now being used in most cargo terminals to avoid having aircraft sitting on their
tail. Most modern cargo planes have their main loading door in front of the wing, which means
that the rear of the plane is loaded first. Tail stands used to be the norm for this situation, however
they’ve been known to cause structural damage to aircraft, and require inspections to be performed
which can delay aircraft departure. Airports are encouraged to install a tether pit at each cargo
aircraft parking position. Specs have to be followed exactly, otherwise the pit will be rendered
useless.
If tether pits are refused an alternative is a weight cart. Usually a reinforced dolly stacked with
steel, it can be a good substitute provided it does not have to be moved. If an aircraft needs a
pushback, the weight cart will have to be moved. Its very small wheel and large weight will
damage the ramp in no time.
2. When considering drainage two factors have to be kept in mind. The slope for drainage cannot
exceed one degree, otherwise it might impede on the loading and unloading of the containers
on the aircraft’s roller deck floor. Secondly, provisions need to be made for the containment and
routing of runoff and spills.
3. Lighting designs need to be very sensitive to adjacent properties, taxiways and ATC. On the
other hand, since a majority of ramp operation will occur at night, lighting should be strong enough
to allow efficient work.
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0 4 .5 .2 E x p re s s P ro c e s s in g F a c ility C o n s id e ra tio n s
The following need to be considered:
• The site needs to be in accordance with the airport masterplan The plan needs to allow for the
unique requirements of an express facility.
@ Sufficient land for future expansion, in line with forecasts considering the strong historical growth
rate.
• Airside access road to passenger and cargo complexes for commercial line haul transfer.
• Ramp should be dedicated only to express aircraft with exclusive or preferential rights.
® The ramp needs to be conveniently located close to the runways and taxiways in accordance
with ICAO Annex 14.
@ The area adjacent to the ramp should be reserved for express operations only.
• Sufficient land for employee parking and dedicated bus or train stops if applicable.
• Easy access to electricity and telecommunication. Heavy usage is the norm in express operations.
® The operation needs to be kept as much as possible on a single level, though mezzanine levels
are commonly used for locating sortation equipment.
@ It must be located at ramp level on the airside so tugs and dollies have easy access.
• It needs to be adjacent to the ramp adhering to the apron planning requirements of ICAO Annex 14.
• On the ground side of the facility there will be a requirement for truck docks and ramps.
® The ventilation system needs to be designed for the building type, size and usage, all of which
differs from conventional cargo facilities which often have much higher ceilings and a very different
usage.
• Lighting LUX levels must be designed to provide staff with suitable levels of light. Working areas
and rest will require different LUX levels. A specialist should propose the correct LUX levels for
the various building functional areas.
• Due to the high volume of staff used within the express processing facility, the provision for rest
rooms, toilets and showers needs to be adequately provided.
@ The telecommunication requirement is much greater, and attention has to be paid to the number
of lines coming into and out of the building.
• The proportion of office space should be 20-25m2 per 100m2 of processing floor.
• It is better to have the office space on the same level as the operations instead of using the
traditional cargo approach of putting office space on a mezzanine level.
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• Pilot accommodation.
Finally, it is good to provide for the processing of a traditional freight operation if there is sufficient
room.
Clarification: Shippers/Integrators tend to use multiples of 3000 parcels per day particularly when
designing a sortation systems. However, forecasts and aircraft load information are based and
expressed in tonnage. As a result, the sizing information has been derived from and expressed in
terms of tonnage.
In order to size the express terminal facility tonnes per annum figures are used. The amount of space
required is associated with the facilities’ processing capability. The planning ratios in the following
table can be used if no site specific information is available:
0 4 .5 .5 E x p re s s A p ro n A re a
As a general rule of thumb, the apron size for express facilities lies within the range of 8 to 10 times
the size of the express building. This includes aircraft stands, internal taxilanes, airside roads, ground
service equipment parking as well as processing zones on apron.
If more defined data is not available the following procedure can be used to size the ramp area.
Again, as with all cargo facilities, integrator facilities can use the tonnage per annum to calculate the
number of aircraft per day. This enables the planner to size the ramp accordingly.
The annual tonnage + 250 (days) provides the daily tonnage. The average load factor per aircraft
(integrator) varies according to the classification of the facility. A regional hub/gateway has average
loads of 20-25 tonnes per aircraft, with 2/3 of all aircraft being Code D. A reliever hub has average
loads of 15-20 tonnes per aircraft, with 2/3 of all aircraft being Code C.
Important issues when planning integrator facilities are: understanding the type of operation; the hours
of operation; as well as the turnaround times. An integrator typically operates between 2 and 12 hours
per day, with 2 hours being the low end for a reliever hub, and 12 hours being the high end for a
regional hub. Aircraft servicing the facility arrive and depart in a wave with the majority of all aircraft
being on the ground within a short time period. The typical turnaround times for these aircraft are
between 1 and 2 hours.
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Staging Area
0 4 .6 .1 D e s ig n A p p ro v a l
The express company needs to approve the final designs of both the building structure and the interior
system and fit-up. Design details cannot be finalised until customs clearance procedures are known.
0 4 .6 .2 E x p re s s C a rg o P ro je c t M a n a g e m e n t S tru c tu re
A simple structure that is flexible and leaves room for expansion is best. It is important to note that
the developer should allow four to six months for the installation of the sort system and three months
for offices, the bulk going to the implementation of telecommunication tools. The structure must have
the sort area enclosed and useable power provided to allow for the sort system installation.
0 4 .6 .3 E x p re s s C a rg o P ro je c t M a n a g e m e n t — A p ro n
It is preferable that the apron be built by the airport, since they will normally insist on controlling the
apron. If the apron is exclusive and part of the leased area, the developer may have to be the project
manager. It is important that the connectors between taxi ways/run ways not be overlooked.
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0 4 .6 .4 P ro je c t M a n a g e m e n t — S o rt S y s te m
The sort system will typically belong to the express company and should usually be managed solely
by the express company. The airport needs to allow the express company the freedom of choice of
supplier when it comes to building the sort system.
0 4 .7 T E S T IN G A N D T R IA L S
Once the facility and the systems are installed, they need be subjected to testing and trial runs before
being considered fully operational. The elements to be included in trial runs are:
® The apron, including tether pits, lighting fuelling and handling. A real aircraft containing real cargo
should be brought in.
• Telecommunications.
• All the personnel, including the CIS personnel involved with the clearance operation.
A trial run must be a live run, not a dummy run involvinga few staff member and afew packages.
The facility needs to be able to function as if it was apeakperiod. A minimum of three trial runs
should be performed.
0 4 .8 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
© Security agencies.
© Government agencies concerned with commercial trucking and delivery.
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04JR11 Aircraft and GSE Maintenance Parts
A protected perimeter area close to the Express processing building should be provided for the
storage o f Express freight aircraft and GSE parts. Certain parts should be stored within heated
and ventilated structures. The Express facility designer should seek clarification on the specific
requirements of the parts to be stored and the appropriate environment and space to be provided.
The maintenance area is likely to require a fully fitted workshop though clarification from the
Express facility operator should be sought in this regard.
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0 5 .1 T Y P E S O F P E R IS H A B L E S H A N D L IN G F A C IL IT IE S
There are two main types of handling facilities for transit or total distribution of perishable cargo.
These facilities are usually designed and constructed to perform certain specific functions to meet
the needs of the airport users. The most recent information about perishables and perishable facilities
is contained in the IATA Perishable Cargo Manual and is updated by the IATA Live Animals and
Perishables Board.
Definition
A transit facility can be defined as a processing centre with established infrastructure and operational
units that: facilitate the loading and unloading of perishable shipments to and from the aircraft; enable
swift connections within the airport handling facilities; and interface with surface transport. The process
may also include import formalities such as health inspection and customs control. The primary
function of a transit facility is to move perishable goods quickly and efficiently with the coordination
of all parties involved and supported by modern technologies and tracking systems.
A total distribution facility provides the same services as a transit centre and in addition it offers other
value-added services, such as: repackaging; pre-cooling; cold storage; quarantine; quality control;
customer and information services; as well as the logistics and movements of goods from origin to
the final destination.
0 5 .2 T H E E S S E N T IA L C O M P O N E N T S O F A P E R IS H A B L E C E N T R E
There are two essential components which can be found in most perishable handling facilities as
defined in the following clauses.
05 .2.1 P ro c e s s in g A re a
Different kinds of products are categorized and processed separately. Fruits and vegetables are
processed separately from other products such as seafood, fish and meat. Although flowers may be
processed within the same area with fruits and vegetables, they should be separated wherever
possible.
0 5 .2 .2 W o rk in g A re a
Working areas are specifically assigned locations within a perishable centre with controlled
environments for specific loads. Each working area has its own temperature control and is large
enough for ULD build-up, goods sorting, repackaging and quality control. The area protects the goods
from exposure to harmful conditions.
The ideal working temperature for these products is from 4 to 6°C with a humidity of about 85%.
Considering that the products may stay inside in a working area for a couple of hours, special attention
should be made to minimize condensation on the products. It is a known factor that any load that is
exposed to near zero temperatures is susceptible to condensation on its surface. Condensation
causes irreversible damage to products such as berries. A well contained working area can prevent
the condensation problem. Short exposure to low temperatures does not affect products such as
tropical fruits.
There is increasing concern about ethylene contamination on products. New technologies, such as
the use of potassium permanganate or ozone in the ventilation system to help prevent ethylene are
being evaluated for commercial application.
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A suitable working area for seafood and fish should have high humidity (near 100%) but a very low
temperature (near 0°C). This type of controlled environment ensures no dehydration of the product
and keeps pathogen growth as low as possible. Repackaging and re-icing should be handled in
separate working areas to ensure sanitary control. In some cases, using ozone in the ventilation
system may be considered to remove bad odors.
Meat must be handled in accordance with the health regulations of the country of origin and destination.
There are also other requirements that are more stringent than those for general perishable products.
It is strongly recommended that the national health authority and the local government be consulted
prior to the planning of a perishable centre, and especially the meat working areas therein.
0 5 .2 .3 L o a d in g A re a s (T ru c k )
Prior to the loading and unloading of products at the perishable centre, certain conditions that affect
the quality of the products may take place.
Most perishable products are transported from the shipper’s premises to the perishable centre at the
airport (or from the airport to the consignee’s premises) in refrigerated trucks. These trucks are
equipped with refrigeration systems that are designed to maintain certain temperatures within the
cargo compartment, but in most cases these mobile systems are not capable of cooling the product
inside. If the temperature of the perishable loading and unloading area, as well as the working area,
is set to align with the product, condensation on the product will not occur and the quality of the
product is thereby maintained.
Curtains should be used between the loading area and the working area in order to prevent draft.
Excessive air movement can be caused by imperfect interface between the truck and the loading
dock.
0 5 .2 .4 T r a n s it A re a s fo r U L D
Prolonged exposure to sun, wind, rain, snow or extreme temperatures are known factors that cause
damages and loss to perishable shipments. The key to a successful perishable centre depends on
its temperature controlled storage/ holding capacity for palletised and containerised perishable loads.
When the transit area for ULDs is not fully temperature controlled, it should provide the load with
adequate protection from extreme weather conditions. Well packed loads are unlikely to deteriorate
rapidly when they are kept in a temperature controlled environment. The critical path is between the
transit area and the aircraft, where exposure to all kinds of weather conditions can expedite the
deterioration of the product.
0 5 .2 .5 In s p e c tio n a n d C u s to m s A re a s
Inspection by local authorities is a routine formality for all perishable shipments. Ideally, specific
inspection teams and facilities should be assigned to inspect specific commodities. The inspection
of fruits, vegetables and flowers should take place in a dedicated area isolated from seafood, fish
and meat. An inspector working in one specific area should not be allowed to enter another specific
area without going through a thorough sanitary treatment.
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0 5 .3 O T H E R F E A T U R E S O F P E R IS H A B L E C A R G O F A C IL IT IE S
0 5 .3 .1 C o ld R o o m s
Fruit and Vegetable Cold Rooms
Two different kinds of cold rooms for fruits and vegetables should be used in a perishable centre:
one at 0-2°C and the other at 12-15°C, with humidity in both near saturation. These temperatures
will meet the requirements of all kinds of fruits and vegetables. The control of ethylene levels using
prescribed technologies will further reduce the rate of deterioration of the products.
Flowers should be stored in low temperature (near 0°C), and high humidity as well as control of
ethylene levels are essential. However in the case of tropical flowers the room temperature should
be maintained at around 15°C.
0 5 .3 .2 P re -c o o le rs
Maintaining the appropriate temperature for fresh fruits, vegetables and flowers can be difficult during
transportation, primarily because they produce their own heat. In many cases, even with appropriate
packaging and handling, these products raise their own temperatures significantly. Since higher
temperatures can shorten the shelf life of these products, it is imperative to cool down the products
immediately upon their arrival at the perishable centre.
Many facilities use vacuum pre-coolers to cool products. The technique is to drop the pressure until
the water inside the product starts to boil at a near zero temperature. This technique is only suitable
for products with large surface and in small volume such as lettuce. The disadvantage of this technique
is too much water being evaporated from the product while it is cooled. For a long journey and
exposure to various weather conditions, further loss of water from the product can significantly reduce
its marketability. A method which is broadly used by the growers is to shower the product prior to
vacuum cooling. But this technique can hardly be applied within a perishable centre.
Another technique which has been commonly used is forced air cooling. This technique employs a
forced air system to send cool air through to penetrate the boxes. This technique is affordable and
works for any kind of fruit or vegetable.
Flower Pre-coolers
The technique used to cool flowers is similar to the forced air cooling method. Vacuum cooling should
never be used for flowers since it decreases their shelf life significantly.
0 5 .3 .3 T r e a tm e n t R o o m s
Different kinds of treatments should be available at the perishable centre as a service to the customers.
Quarantine Treatment Rooms:
Some countries require that quarantine treatment of imported products be done prior to the distribution
of the products. Two common quarantine treatments are fumigation and the use of high temperatures.
Quarantine should be performed in a closed, ventilated room to avoid possible contamination of the
rest of the building.
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Many products such as tomatoes, bananas and tropical fruits are shipped green and need to be
exposed to ethylene in order to start the ripening process. This ripening treatment can be performed
in a forced air pre-cooling room with injection of ethylene and an increase of temperature. Any leak
of ethylene must be controlled in order to avoid contaminating the facilities.
0 5 .3 .4 R e p a c k a g in g R o o m
When perishable loads are delivered to the airport, some customers may need a service to remove
or repackage the damaged packages prior to departure. Modern perishable facilities should be capable
to provide such services.
Poor packaging often results in the loss of a certain percentage of the entire shipment. Repackaging
the damaged packages will unavoidably reduce the content or weight of the shipment, but will certainly
help reduce further loss and contamination of the remaining stock. This service should be performed
in a special sanitary room.
Flowers can benefit from repackaging, however in most cases, flowers must be packed in a specific
way by trained and highly qualified personnel only.
Seafood and fish Repackaging Rooms
Repackaging marine products usually requires re-icing and the application of strict processing
standards. Re-icing a fish that has undergone extreme temperatures may be in breach of the food
safety law in some countries. Therefore only highly trained personnel should be allowed to perform
this service, in a special sanitary room.
0 5 .3 .5 Q u a lity C o n tro l
Quality control helps to determine what kind of treatment, such as re-icing, pre-cooling or fumigation, is
necessary for the load. It provides advisory service to customers for maintaining consistent standards.
Quality control sometimes includes temperature monitoring of loads and of the environments of the
various locations inside the perishable centre.
0 5 .3 .6 T ra c k in g S y s te m s
A reliable tracking system is an essential service to the customers. It enables the customers to obtain
real time information of their shipments. Customs can also access the data to perform advance
clearance of shipments. Typical tracking systems use barcode technology and many are now
accessible through the internet.
0 5 .3 .7 D is trib u tio n S e rv ic e s
Many customers demand this type of service. It allows the customer to assign the entire transaction
to the perishable centre, which includes collecting shipment, transporting, and delivery at its final
destination. In essence, the perishable centre provides total logistics that includes both ground handling
and storage.
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The illustrations above shows the typical flow of a product in a perishable handling centre. Variations
in the process may occur and are subject to local legislation.
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0 5 . 4 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
The chemicals used within the perishable cargo facility should not inflict any adverse negative
impact on the immediate or surrounding environment resulting from the storage, use or disposal
o f the said chemicals. The selection, the storage, the use and the disposal of the chemicals
should be in line within local legislation.
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0 6 .1 A IR M A IL F A C IL IT IE S : IN T R O D U C T IO N
Airmail is a valuable commodity, requiring fast airport processing and air transportation with last
minute close-out time for acceptance. It has the highest priority of all goods to be transported. Routings
are decided by postal authorities based on the first scheduled airline to destination, and payments
to the airlines are based on the documents proving carriage over particular route segments. Such
documents are essential for billing the mail departments concerned.
Airports processing mail shall require the secure means to accept mail onto the airport, allocate the
mail to the correct aircraft (flight/country sortation), and in some instances screen the mail and then
dispatch the mail to the aircraft. Where screening of selected mail for explosives or toxic substances
is required by the country or province in question, this should beconductedin facilitiesdesigned,
fitted-out and operated by the national mail processing organization (e.g.Royal Mail (UK); United
States Postal Service; etc., or licensed and authorised agents).
0 6 .2 P R E -D E S IG N C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
The following criteria will decide the need for an airport air mail facility:
• Efficiency requirements.
• Fast airside connection for mail with scheduled (mostly passenger) flights on the apron.
• Positioning on customs boundary between airside and landside with minimum customs control.
0 6 .3 M A IL P R O C E S S IN G F A C IL IT Y O B J E C T IV E S
The main objectives of an airmail facility are:
• Fast and accurate processing at airport of mail and documents (First Class mail within 2 to 3
hours after delivery; Second Class mail within 24 hours after delivery).
• Minimum duplication of sorting/manifesting at the airport by using segregated mail delivery and
documentation between postal centres where possible.
• Efficient sorting by destination, flight and category, with bypasses for special and pre-sorted mail.
• Checking and recording weight for aircraft safety and charging for outgoing mail.
® Optimal use of pre-information regarding shipments between airports, and also with related
community mail centres.
• Maximum security in view of the valuable nature of most airmail. Vaults should be provided for
high risk mail, such as gold bullion, precious stones, etc.
High risk locations will provide facilities for the screening of explosives and toxic materials to aid
security. All facilities will take into consideration the protection of the mail from prevailing weather
conditions.
© Checking, sorting, weighing and distribution per flight or truck of the various categories of mail.
• Temporary storage of mail prior to dispatch, preferably in airline or postal transport units.
Where unitised delivery from mail centres exists, special unloading provisions are required on the
landside.
Mechanized equipment to unload transport units onto a sorting system will speed up sorting.
Adequate space around the sortation devices is required for ramp carts and dollies to fill the units
for departing flights.
Adjacent space is required to store lower priority mail leaving later. Incoming mail is normally received
after the outgoing mail has been processed, and can therefore be sorted on the same sorter. Large
volumes require more complex sorting systems.
Outgoing mail on carts should be weighed to verify the total weight, by mail category, leaving per
flight.
Where it is necessary to automate the processing of mail handling within the confines of the airport
perimeter, the designer should work closely with the mail processing companies. This includes the
airlines, customs authorities, as well as traditional mail processing organisations, in order to ensure
that system demand profiles are fully understood and that adequate flight carrier sortation facilities
are provided.
® Next to the baggage handling area, with mail truck access to the airside for delivery and
acceptance. Since most first class mail is transported on passenger aircraft, integration with fast,
and last-minute baggage transport will contribute to efficient mail transportation on the apron.
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• In the cargo complex, adjacent to a cargo terminal which normally provides adequate space for
processing inside and around the facility. In this solution, special airside transportation of mail to
the passenger apron is then required in view of the last-minute delivery requirement. If a large
volume of transfer mail is to be handled in a short period, a secondary mail section in the passenger
area may be required.
• A separate mail facility with its own infrastructure situated between the passenger and cargo
areas, with optimum distances to both. This will mainly apply to the handling of large volumes of
airmail. However, integration with other surface mail handling should be discouraged in view of
extra landside traffic not related to the airport. With a separate location, special airside
transportation is required between the aircraft and the mail terminal.
0 6 . 7 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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P1.1 A IR C R A F T IN -F L IG H T C A T E R IN G : IN T R O D U C T IO N
Catering units provide pre-prepared in-flight food and drink provisions for many originating departures
and some transfer flights from airports. Consequently, in-flight flight catering facilities are required.
The size and capability of these catering facilities will need to be sized to align with the requirements
of the airlines and their flight schedules.
Aircraft catering units should be separate from but located as close as possible to the terminal building.
The aircraft in-flight catering units should preferably be airside at apron level, with ready access to
both airside and landside zones. It is important that the location of the catering facilities do not infringe
on the areas dedicated to possible expansion of the terminal building and apron areas at some future
date.
P 1 .2 D E S IG N R E Q U IR E M E N T S
It is commonplace for airline companies to have competing catering companies located close to the
airport perimeter providing the capability to supply food to their aircraft. The design of the in-flight
aircraft catering facility should be balanced to align with current and foreseen airline catering contracts,
and subsequently will need to be sized to deal with the peak demand from those contracts. It is also
common for in-flight catering facilities to be sized with a small amount of spare capacity, but with the
planned space to increase the footprint size at the appropriate time due to airline traffic growth
requirements. To this end the size of the catering facility should be determined with a 5 year business
growth duration in mind on opening, and the potential to be expanded to align with the master plan
expectations of the airport terminal and runway infrastructure (without the need to encroach on any
existing non associated airport development).
Utensil
N' Ovens/ Stoves Cleaning
Unit
Admm/
Offices
Bonded
Food Preparation Areas i
i \ 1 Stores
! \r .......... .
Truck Loading / Unloading
Raised Platform
r - f ----------------------
i | Bay Bay
! i 10 9
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NOTES
------------- D EN0TE S GRO w t h EXPANSION CAPABILITY
CATERING PLANT SHOULD NOT BE LOCATED IN TERMINAL OR
APRON MASTER PLAN FUTURE DEVELOPMENT ZONES
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The typical in-flight aircraft catering facility will, as a minimum, contain thefollowing functional facilities:
® Vehicle maneuvering space for catering trucks and supply trucks.
® Multiple catering vehicle loading and un-loading bays.
® Fully fitted industrial quality food and drink kitchens with stoves and ovens.
• Food preparation areas.
0 Utensil cleaning units.
9 Certified bonded store areas.
® Drainage.
• Heating, ventilation/cooling systems (particular care is needed with respect to the type of ventilation
system used — ensuring proper ventilation and/or air conditioning of catering units to avoid food
contamination by fumes from the apron).
• Garbage disposal (including foreign garbage, according to local health requirements).
• Storage and disposal of empty bottles, containers and waste material.
® Washing facilities for catering personnel.
« Refrigeration units.
® Fire protection and alarm system.
• Adequate parking facilities for catering and clerical staff.
• Any other requirements subject to local circumstances.
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P 1 .3 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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P2.1 A IR C R A F T MAINTENANCE: IN T R O D U C T IO N
Aircraft maintenance is required at most airports, in various degrees of sophistication, to enable
aircraft to fly safely and within the appropriate levels of maintenance service standards. Maintenance
is comprised of general routine servicing and major overhaul servicing activities.
Virtually all airports will be required to permit routine maintenance activities. Major servicing of aircraft
is usually completed at major airports where airlines are based, and it is common for multiple alliance
partner airlines to share the servicing facilities. Routine servicing can in some instances be completed
on apron areas or within dedicated aircraft hangars. Hangars are commonly used to accommodate
major servicing activities of aircraft which can include but are not limited to activities such as:
• Interior refit.
© Lubricant replacement.
Routine servicing activities can include but again may not be limited to:
Hangars provide protection from the elements in carefully controlled environments and house specialist
equipment and tooling. Dust filtration ventilation systems are commonly provided and are particularly
useful when environments present servicing problems.
P 2 .2 F U N C T IO N A L REQUIREMENTS O F M A IN T E N A N C E H A N G A R S
The space contained within maintenance hangars is used to accommodate certain functional
requirements needed to maintain often large fleets of aircraft. Major servicing hangars usually
accommodate the following functional areas:
© Administration offices.
• Hangar doors.
Fig P2-1 shows a typical major aircraft servicing hangar, with elevated service platforms to allow
maintenance staff to reach all areas of the various aircraft, whilst within safe working conditions.
P 2 .3 L O C A T IO N O F M A IN T E N A N C E H A N G A R S
The location of maintenance hangars is often governed by the availability of apron space. Due to the
fact that aircraft need to be serviced and maintained as quickly as possible it is common that aircraft
hangars are used 24 hours a day, and as such can present noise problems to local residents. Due
care and attention should be taken to ensure that the location of the hangar is correctly designed
and placed to avoid or minimize such problems.
Maintenance hangars should be located with due consideration for the following operational points:
• Located outside of the space safeguarded for future expansion in line with the terminal’s
masterplan expectations.
• Adequate space should be provided for the maneuvreing of aircraft into and out of the hangar(s).
• They should be sized to accommodate the scheduled aircraft servicing requirement.
• They should be located with consideration of the noise effects on local residential inhabitants.
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P 2 .4 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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P3.1 H O T E L S O V E R V IE W
Airports are being used more and more to process passengers by providing pre-check-in facilities
within the hotel complex, whether it be close or even within the airport complex, or downtown some
miles away from the airport itself. The use of hotel check-in is discussed within Section U2, Clause
U2.11.4. This section deals in part with the functions and practicalities of placing airport hotels within
the airport complex and the considerations which should be observed.
Although hotels can be located close to airports, rarely do airports operate hotels with airport operator
staff. Instead, the land is leased or sold to specialist airport hotel chains. It is therefore essential that
the functional objectives of providing hotel space and facilities close to the airport is both understood
and planned appropriately.
Hotels residing on the airport complex should normally only be provided where the client base and
demand has been clearly defined through extensive market research carried out at the airport. Well
designed, appropriately sized and strategically placed airport hotels actually can provide advantages
to airport operators by providing convenient facilities and attracting increased business passengers
to the airport.
P 3 .2 F U N C T IO N A L R E Q U IR E M E N T S O F A IR P O R T B A S E D HOTELS
Most airport hotel facilities will include the following functional provisions:
• Sleeping accommodations.
® Staff and client car parking (though maybe shared short-term airport parking).
• Pre-check-in facilities.
The client base for airport hotels differs slightly from typical downtown hotels, where the clients are
more likely to reside in the airport hotel for shorter periods. This is due to the fact that a high proportion
of hotel residents will be business passengers or passengers who have connections (often the
following day and usually within 36 hours or arrival). The airport hotel client base is typically confined
to the following groups, though will obviously include other minority groups of passengers at any time:
• Passengers in transit.
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P 3 .4 B U S IN E S S C E N T E R S
The need for business centers within airports is becoming more and more apparent as demand for
computer access grows. Greater sectors of the population are using computer technology in their
everyday lives and hence business centers with internet access are recommended to be provided.
Airlines commonly provide business centers within their executive lounges but these are more selective
to Business and First class passengers.
Airport and hotel business centers usually provide the following services:
• Printing Services.
• Faxing Services.
• Document Binding.
P 3 .5 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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C h a p te r Q — L a n d s id e F a c ilitie s
S ection Q1: Road System and Curb A rrangem ents
Q1.1 Road Systems and Curb Arrangements O ve rvie w ...................................... 525
Q1.2 Roads ....................................... ........... ........ .......... ......... ......... ....... ............... 526
Q1.3 Curb ........................................................ ............................................................ 527
Q1.4 IATA Recommendations ..................................................... ....................... . 529
Section Q2: T raffic S tudies & Parking
Q2.1 Traffic and Parking Studies Overview ............... .......................... .............. 530
Q2.2 Mod E Choice ............... ................................. ....... ........................................ 530
Q2.3 Traffic Volume ................... ......... .............................................................. . 531
Q2.4 Curb Length Requirements ........ ............................................................... 531
Q2.5 Parking ............................... .................................... ................... ................... . 531
Q2.6 Taxi and Bus Reservoir ................ ................... ....... ...................... ............... 532
Q2.7 IATA Recommendations ......................... .......... ........ ...................... .............. 532
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CHAPTER Q — LANDSIDE FACILITIES
Q1.1 R O A D S Y S T E M S A N D C U R B A R R A N G E M E N T S O V E R V IE W
Airport activity generates vehicular traffic on airport roads coming to and from the regional road
system. Most passengers, visitors, cargo operators and employees use road vehicles to gain access
to airports and they will always be a predominant modal choice, although alternatives will become
more attractive to some users as road congestion and environmental awareness increase. For this
reason, land should always be reserved for a right-of-way for rail.
The planning of airport landside facilities, particularly for high volume airports, is a specialized subject
and expert advice should be sought. Airport planning should include specific consideration of
transportation on and off-airport boundaries. Consistency between airport-based planning and regional
planning is critical to achieve efficient door-to-door trips.
Motorists have a variety of destinations within the airport boundaries and a variety of vehicle types.
The individual elements of the landside system do not serve travel independently. Each element is
part of a functional hierarchy serving a specific purpose from primary movement, transition, collection/
distribution and termination. Figure Q1.1 shows the functional classification of airport landside
circulation and access facilities.
Q1 .2 ROADS
The landside road system serves different categories of traffic. These categories include:
— Taxis.
— Shuttle/courtesy bus services for hotel, car rentals and long-term car parks.
— Public transport buses, including mini-buses carrying passengers to and from individual home
addresses.
— Charter/tour buses.
— Limousine services.
— Delivery trucks.
— Light vans.
— Pick-up trucks.
— Trailer trucks.
— Staff vehicles.
At large airports it is preferable to separate service-related traffic from passenger-related traffic long
before arriving at the passenger terminal curb area. This results in a double network of public roads
using five types of roads as described within clauses Q1.2.1 to Q1.2.5 inclusively.
Q 1.2.1 M a in A c c e s s R o a d
The main access road provides a connection between the external road network system and the
terminal complex area. It serves a ‘line-haul’ function and should be designed for uninterrupted flow
conditions with intersecting roads and access control to adjacent land use developments.
Q 1 .2 .2 T e rm in a l A p p ro a c h R o a d
The terminal approach road provides a transition function between high-speed operations on the
Main Access Road and low-speed operations in the terminal area. The road has normally a one-way
operation and is characterized by frequent but well placed decision points which should account for
traffic speed. It provides the combined functions of moving traffic and serving adjacent land, community,
or commercial facilities.
Q 1 .2 .3 T e rm in a l F ro n ta g e R o a d
The terminal frontage road provides direct access to the passenger terminal. It includes the passenger
loading/unloading curb. The terminal frontage road is characterized by frequent interruptions of flow,
with vehicles stopping and maneuvering. It’s designed for one-way flow operation.
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Q 1 .2 .4 R e -c irc u la tio n R o a d
The re-circulation road links the inbound and outbound terminal frontage roads. A direct access to
the curb is preferable.
Q 1 .2 .5 S e rv ic e R o a d
The service road network serves for the on-site circulation of persons and goods and for providing
connection to/from areas adjoining the road, such as cargo areas, rental car kiosks, employee parking,
etc.
Q 1 .3 CURB
The curb is an interface where vehicular flows become pedestrian flows and vice-versa. The curb
area consists of a sidewalk, covered or partially enclosed, bordering the terminal road system with
an adjacent paved area to permit vehicles to off-load or load passengers. The road in from of the
terminal includes load/unload lanes, manoeuvring lanes to access and leave the load/unload lanes,
and through traffic lanes (see figure Q1.2). The load/unload lane must be designed so that through-
vehicular traffic can pass by uninterrupted.
■W 'ir
\ »v -i ¿V
;.j min. 4 to 6 m
1
A
Load/unload + taxis, buses and shuttles 4.2 m |
Manoeuvering lane min. 1 8 - 20 m
7/ A
. m
ill
Through traffic lane
1
-'J min. 2 m f
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The terminal curb can serve both departing and arriving passengers, and these two simultaneous
activities may produce vehicular and pedestrian conflicts. Safe crosswalks, with appropriate traffic
protection and traffic management equipment and systems should be provided.
In some respects, the arrival curb area is similar to the departure curb. However, because larger
volumes of passengers will peak over shorter periods of time and will arrive at the curb in greater
numbers, a wider sidewalk may be required. Additional area is needed for baggage service, (personnel
and hand trucks) and for concessions handling ground-transportation services.
The effective curb capacity is related to the number of vehicles which can be processed in the load/
unload lane, rather than the number of vehicles going through. Congestion therefore often results
from an inadequate number of load/unload positions, or curb length, rather than an inadequate number
of traffic lanes. Parallel public and professional vehicle curbs are an effective way to provide additional
capacity (see figure Q1.3).
Figure Q1.3: Example of Curbside Layout for a Single Level Term inal or
for A rrivals/Departures at a Multi-Level Term inal
Building facade
min. 4 to 6 m
4.2 m
Manoeuvering lane
7.4 m
Through traffic lane
E min. 2 m
Another important item to consider in planning the curb is the signage, both for public information
and airline identification. This is particularly important for the decentralized linear passenger terminal
concept, as the vehicle stop at the curb should correspond approximately to the respective passenger
departure/arrival areas.
Planning of a taxi loading facility requires careful consideration, especially if the facility is designed
to be operated on a self-help basis. Fall-back arrangements (e.g. for a taxi-loading co-ordinator to
assist passenger allocation to taxis) may be needed for peak periods.
The design and location of the curb relative to the terminal building must take into account security
concerns. Please refer to Section H2, clause H2.6 in this regard.
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Q 1 .4 SATA R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
â
Q1.IR 4 Provision of Crosswalks at Terminal Curb Areas
The terminal curb serves both departing and arriving passengers and these two simultaneous
activities may produce vehicular and pedestrian conflicts. Safe crosswalks with appropriate
traffic protection and traffic management equipment and systems should be provided.
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Q 2.1 T R A F F IC A N D P A R K IN G S T U D IE S O V E R V IE W
Traffic and parking studies are required to determine user characteristics and to estimate existing
and future demand for landside vehicular facilities. The studies should provide dynamic planning
information on the vehicle mode choice selected in each case, circulation patterns, parking needs
and traffic volumes associated with the following four basic categories of landside users at airports:
® Origin/destination passengers.
® Visitors.
• Employees.
Q 2 .2 M o d E C H O IC E
Origin/destination passenger and visitor mode choices vary depending on a number of traveler and
trip characteristics. These can include:
• Availability of a competitive mass transit alternative (cost, door-to-door travel time and
accessibility).
As an example, a business passenger pressed for time has a greater tendency to use the taxi instead
of a local bus service to go downtown than a family traveling for pleasure. High-income passengers
generally value the time savings and convenience of the private car. Landside facilities should therefore
be planned to reflect the specific requirements of the passenger segments; i.e. resident business,
resident non-business, non-resident non-business and non-resident business. Transport user
variations will be evident across different countries and continents. Airport road and parking
infrastructure planners should design facilities following market research to determine the likely home-
to-airport travel tendencies of the airport user community.
The following modes of access for passengers should be included in the landside planning at most
airports worldwide:
@ Rental car.
® Taxi/limousine.
• Courtesy van.
As airports operate close to 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, many airport employees do not work
the typical 9 to 5, Monday to Friday schedule. Therefore they value private cars (self-driven or shared-
ride), especially if the mass transit service is not suited to their specific needs. Parking supply, parking
cost and roadway congestion are also significant variables influencing mode choice. Employees
working in the main terminal area and at large maintenance facilities represent most of the employee
total road traffic.
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Air cargo generates employee trips but also very significant delivery trips by trucks and vans for the
originating and terminating air-cargo. Experience shows there is no correlation between tonnage and
air-cargo trips generated when comparing statistics from airport to airport. Site-specific research/
forecast information should be used by the airport planner.
Q 2 .3 T R A F F IC V O L U M E
Traffic counts and trip generation studies should be conducted to determine the peak vehicle flows
and the circulation pattern on the airport road network. The study should include the traffic generated
outside the airport but also the road traffic generated on the airport, such as the re-circulation between
the terminal curb and parking lots.
Volume road traffic and parking accumulation studies are used to determine the hourly distribution
of vehicles and the peak demand (hour or peak 15-minute) at roads and parking lots. The use of
traffic simulation studies is recommended to evaluate the effectiveness of airport road networks.
Q 2 .4 C U R B L E N G T H R E Q U IR E M E N T S
Planning the curb area will require the collection and examination of data, particularly on the processing
time to load/unload vehicles, vehicle-mode preference, vehicle occupancy counts, ratio of passenger
set-down on the curb to those arriving via the car parks, and vice versa. The data concerning the
flow rate of originating passengers required for check-in purposes can also be employed in estimating
the peak 15-minute number of originating vehicles. Originating passenger/well wisher vehicles may
arrive at the curb during a time period of up to 3 hours prior to each flight, where as the effect of
terminating passengers/greeters on the arrivals curb may be experienced as early as 15 minutes
before and after flight arrival.
Q 2 .5 P A R K IN G
Public, employee and rental-car parking lots are used by originating and terminating users of the
road network. Airport car parks will usually occupy important and valuable airport real estate areas.
They can be single-level parking or parking garage with several levels facilities.
The proximity of parking facilities should align with the security recommendations defined within
Section H2 in general, and in particular clause H2.6.
Q 2.5.1 P u b lic P a rk in g
Designing public parking facilities should reflect user characteristics. Short-term parking users are
usually meeters/greeters picking up or dropping off passengers. The parking duration is typically 3-
5 hours or less. The inbound and outbound traffic volume at short-term lots is usually high but the
number of parking spaces is relatively small because of the short parking duration. Short-term parking
lots typically have a turnover of 4 to 6 cars per space per day. Short tem parking requirements can
be based on a typical busy day. The layout and dimensions of the short-term lot stalls should be
generous to account for the high turnover. Short-term lots should be located near the terminal.
Long-term parking lots are intended for a different clientele than for the short-term lots. Long-term
lots are intended for passengers leaving their car at the airport to take a flight. The parking duration
can vary from 24 hours to up to two weeks at some airports. The inbound and outbound road volume
is low but the peak accumulation is high. Long-term lot requirements can represent up to 85% of the
total public parking accumulation. Peak long-term accumulation requirements should be based on a
7 to 14 days survey depending on the airport. A shuttle service should be considered for long walking
distances and at airports with bad weather conditions.
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Q 2 .5 .2 E m p lo y e e P a rk in g
Employee lots can be located further from the main terminal than public lots. A shuttle service should
be considered for long walking distances and at airports with bad weather conditions.
Q 2 .5 .3 R e n ta l C a rs
Smaller airports can usually accommodate the peak parking demand at or near the main terminal.
The space requirements may become excessive at medium and large airports and can conflict with
the supply of public parking. Larger remote and off-airport lots should then be considered. Consolidated
rental car areas and united shuttle services should be provided, relieving congestion on airport roads.
A limited number of parking spaces at walking distance from the terminal can be provided, especially
for rental car pick-up.
Q 2 .6 T A X I A N D B U S R E S E R V O IR
A reservoir accommodating buses and taxis waiting for arrivals passengers should be provided near
the curb. Direct and short accesses to the curb from the reservoir are recommended.
Q 2 .7 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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R1.1 C H E C K L IS T P U R P O S E : IN T R O D U C T IO N
The airport checklist was designed so that the airlines can work with an airport authority to ensure
that the new airport will operate smoothly and with minimal operating problems right from the opening
day. The checklist can also be used for a major terminal expansion.
The checklist was designed after several new airports experienced major operational problems during
the first several days of operation when they opened. It is meant to ensure that all the major elements
of the new airport will be considered, that any elements that will not be ready are highlighted, and
that a contingency plan is developed to offset any deficiencies. The checklist provides a tool to
encourage constructive consultation between the airlines and the airport authority during the final
stages of a major airport project. Based on experience at many airports, it is surprising how poor the
communications between the airport authority and the airlines is on key planning information required
to successfully complete the move to the new airport or into a new passenger terminal.
Each airport will have its own set of potential construction problems. These could involve problems
outside the jurisdiction of the airport authority, such as road access to the airport, or even incomplete
support facilities such as cargo terminals or catering buildings. Based on recent experience, most
problems with new airport projects involve software glitches associated with the baggage handling
system and other complex IT systems.
Another problem associated with new passenger terminals is that airline offices and CIP lounges are
often not ready when the new passenger terminal opens. This is usually a result of the airlines not
having signed leases for terminal space in sufficient time for airline fit-out, because the airport authority
and the airlines have not been able to agree on new aeronautical user charges and/or passenger
terminal rental rates. The new rental rates should be agreed to at least nine months before the airport
passenger terminal is to open. This will involve a series of meetings with the IATA User Charges
group. After the new aeronautical charges and rental rates are agreed to, most airlines must get head
office approval for funds to complete the fit-out of offices and lounges in the new passenger terminal
and then the time for the construction of these facilities must be taken into consideration.
The checklist has been successfully used with several airport authorities and also on new passenger
terminal projects. Checklist information must be kept confidential, as the sharing with third parties of
information gathered using the checklist would likely create bad feelings between the airport authority
and the airlines.
R -L2 T IM IN G
The checklist should be used on a regular basis during the final 18 months of the airport project. The
timing should be agreed to by the Checklist Working Group (W/G) and the airport authority, and will
vary with each airport project. The W/G meetings may beheld monthly,every two months or quarterly.
The date for the next meeting will depend on the number ofoutstanding issues to be reviewed at the
next meeting. The date for the next meeting should be agreed to at the end of a meeting.
The ACC should advise the airport authority several years in advance about the benefits of establishing
a Checklist W/G during the final phase of the airport project.
R 1 .3 A C C C H E C K L IS T W /G C O M P O S IT IO N
The ACC Checklist W/G should include the following members:
• ACC Chair.
• AOC Chair.
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The airport authority should have an equal number of persons to work with the Checklist W/G.
R1A A C C C H E C K L IS T W /G M E T H O D O F O P E R A T IO N
The Checklist W/G meetings will review the checklist which has been completed by the airport
authority. In many cases, the checklist is completed by their OR AT (Operations Readiness and Airport
Transition) consultants. An example of the checklist is shown on the following pages; it can be obtained
from IATA Airport Development (airportdev@iata.org) as an Excel spreadsheet and it should be
modified to suit each airport project.
The status of each element will be determined noting how much has been completed and when the
element will be completed. Certain elements are further divided into sub elements to provide more
detail. The sub elements are shown on a separate page. There are three status levels:
• On track (amber).
• Problem with completing on-time (red).
Key or critical elements for each airport project can be highlighted (shown in bold). The key elements
will vary for each airport project.
Where it is anticipated that there will be problems completing an element of the project, then a
recovery or contingency plan should be developed. Comments should be made for those elements
that will not be completed on-time. Additional comments can be made on a separate sheet.
At the regular ACC meeting the Checklist W/G will present its findings to the airport authority and
ACC members. The ACC report, including the completed checklist, will be sent to ACC members,
AOC Chair and the airport authority. The airport authority will be asked to reply to the report and
comment on any deficiencies mentioned in the ACC report.
R 1 .5 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
A Checklist W/G should be established for each major airport project. The W/G should use the
checklist, modified to suit the needs of the airport project The W/G should meet on a regular
monthly basis during the last 18 months of the airport project.
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IATA
Status Legend OK. Completed IATA ACC W/G
□ On Track Airport Opening Date
|y\[ Problem with Completing On-Time Date
Recovery ! or
ID#
Facility Element Recommended
Status
% Completion
Contingency Comments
see Checklist Sub Elements Completion Date Completed Date
Plans
Airport Access
001 Road Access □
002 * Departure Curbside □
003 * Arrivals Curbside □
004 * Taxi Availability □
005 * Bus Service □
006 * Rail Service □
007 * Parking Facilities □
Passenger Terminal
008 Sales/Ticketing Desks □
009 Check-In Desks □
Airport Commissioning
010 DCS/CUTE Connections □
011 BHS (Baggage Handling System) □
012 Baggage Reconciliation □
013 BHS Contingency Plan □
014 Oversized Baggage Handling □
015 Airline Office Facilities □
016 Airline CIP Lounges □
017 Signage
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iX W i C hecklist fo r the S u ccessful O pening o f a N ew A irp o rt 2 f
lA TA
Status Legend ■ OK, Completed IATA ACC W/G
TÖ
□ On Track Airport Opening Date o
Problem with Completing On-Time Date a
Recovery / or
o
ID#
Facility Element Recommended
Status
% Completion Contingency Comments <
4- see Checklist Sub Elements Completion Date Completed
Date Plans <D
IATA
Status Legend M i O K, Completed IATA ACC W/G
□ On Track Airport Opening Date ________________ _________________
[XI Problem with Completing O n -Tim e Date __________________________________
Recovery / or
Facility Element Recom mended % Completion
ID # Status Contingency Comments
4 - see Checklist Sub Elements Completion Date Completed
Date Plans
Airport Commissioning
0 45 Fire A la rm S ys te m □
046 G a te Allocation S yste m □
047 G a te D u m b -W a ite rs/C h u te s □
048 HBS (H old Baggage Screening) System □
049 H V A C (H e a tin g , V e n tila tio n , A ir C o n ) □
050 P u b lic A d d re s s S yste m □
051 T e le p h o n e S yste m □
052 R adio S yste m s □
541
Checklist for the Successful Opening of a New Airport
Recovery / or
Facility Element Recommended %
ID # Status Completion Contingency Comments
see Checklist Sub Elements Completion Date Completed Date Plans
IATA
S tatus Legend ■ O K , Com pleted IATA ACC W /G
□ O n Track Airport Opening Date
1^1 Problem with Com pleting O n -T im e Date
R ecovery / or
Facility Element Recom m ended %
ID # Status Com pletion C ontingency Com ments
* see C hecklist S ub Elem ents C om pletion Date Com pleted
Date Plans
Airfield
Airport Commissioning
0 78 * C a rg o / E x p re s s A p ro n s
Support Facilities
079 Flig h t Kitch e n □
080 A ircra ft M a in te n a n c e Facility □
081 D e -Ic in g Facilities □
0 82 F u e l F a rm □
083 C e n tra l Utility Plant □
0 84 * Petrol Facilities □
543
Checklist for the Successful Opening of a New Airport
IATA
Status Legend ■ ■ O K, Completed IATA ACC W/G
□ O n Track Airport Opening Date
DX3 Problem with Completing O n-Tim e Date
Recovery / or
Facility Element Recommended %
ID # Status Completion Contingency Comment
>)- see Checklist Sub Elements Completion Date Completed
Date Plans
002 Departure Curbside 065 Apron Staging Areas 077 Express Terminals(s)
Curbside Layout Ground Equipment Staging Areas Access Roads
Signage Ground Equipment Storage Areas Truck Queuing Area
Baggage Container Staging Areas Building Structure
003 Arrival Curbside Cargo Staging Areas Airline Offices
Curbside Layout Empty Container Storage Areas C IQ Offices
Signage Sort System Tenant Access
070 Runways Sort System Completion
004 Taxi Availability Pavement Security
Taxi Holding Area Striping Telecom (Operator)
Departure Curbside Layout Signage Telecom (F IS )
Lighting Aircraft/GSE Mx
006 Bus Bonded Storage
Local 071 Taxiways
National R E T s (Rapid Exit Taxiways) 078 Cargo/Express Aprons
C ar Rental Holding Bays Pavement
Hotel Pavement Striping
Employee Striping Lighting
Signage Signage
007 Rail Lighting Tether Pits
Express to City Center Fueling Pits (if applicable)
Local 072 Instrumentation Ground Equipment Storage
National Precision Approach Certified U L D Storage
Backup Approach Certified
008 Parking Facilities Approach Plates Pub/Dist 084 Petrol Facilities
Private C a r Ground Radar Ram p Vehicle Fueling
Taxi Public G a s Station
Bus 073 Control Tower
Rental C ar Equipment Installed 085 Fire/Police Facilities
Employees H V A C (Heating, Ventilation, A ir Con) Fire Training Pit
Break Rooms/Cafeteria Fire Station(s)
026 Gate Lounge Parking Security Checkpoints/Gates
Seating Layout
Baggage Acceptance at the Gate 076 Cargo Terminals 089 Rental Leases Signed
Remote Aircraft Lounges A ccess Roads Landing and Parking Fees
Airport Commissioning
Airline Offices Rentals
033 CIQ (Customs, Immigration, Quarantine) Building Structures
Customs C IQ Offices 091 Other Agreements Executed
Immigration Cold Storage/Hazmat Area Land Leases
Agriculture/Quarantine E T V (Elevating Transfer Vehicle) Franchise Agreements
Security Forwarders Use Agreements
Others H V A C (Heating, Ventilation, A ir Con)
Mail 092 Permits and Licenses
039 Staff Amenities Security Building Occupancy Permits
Canteen Staff Canteen Vehicle Licenses
Toilets Storage Racks Security Badging
Telecommunications Business Licenses
040 VIP Facilities/Terminal Toilets Rules and Regulations
Vehicle Parking/Staging Truck Queuing Areas Parking Permits
C IQ Facilities
Food/Beverage Arrangements 100 Employee Transportation Plan
Furnishings Fees and Charges Determined
Toilets Billing Systems Established
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SATA
These systems all contribute to the effective and efficient operation of an airport. It is essential that
airports look toward the use of newer technologies in their continual effort to achieve move efficient and
safer airports. Threats posed by global terrorism present airports with the challenge and opportunity to
exploit newer frontiers in technology to help them mitigate these security risks and thus provide
suitable confidence to passengers and aviation staff.
The subjects listed below represent a small selection of the newer technologies which are currently
within the public domain at the time of going to print, but perhaps have not yet been fully exploited
in the airport operations arena. These system technologies include but are not limited to the following
subjects:
• Baggage handling systems (passenger biometric intelligence).
• Hold and hand baggage screening technology (pulsed neutron & magnetic resonance systems).
• Intelligent networks.
• Bird strike mitigation technologies (acoustic systems).
The major benefit to an airline customer is that when they are trying to call the passenger they will
be able to view the facial picture of the passenger using airport CCTV systems to broadcast the
image to the relevant groups of staff and passengers as required. In situations where a bag has failed
a detailed baggage screening process and has been confirmed to have contained a threat article
such as a bomb, then security and police services will be provided with a facial image of the suspect
which would be undisputed proof that the person loaded the baggage and should be appropriately
apprehended.
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Magnetic resonance systems are being developed and the technology is being explored to ascertain
the effectiveness, overall benefits and safety implications posed by its incorporation into airport
passenger screening systems. It is believed that if this technology is commercially developed for
airports it could aid passenger security processes and may present a less intrusive experience for
the majority of passengers who do not have dangerous items on their person when going airside.
Audible systems have been developed and used with acknowledged and published success rates
following operational trials at airports. These systems have to a marked degree alleviated the presence
of wildlife such as birds. Audible system technologies include the use of high resolution recordings
of wildlife or sounds known to scare off unwanted wildlife. Additionally the use of high frequency
resonating sound waves has been investigated. The benefits of this technology should be explored
by airports and the use of this technology will continue to gain interest.
• Respected universities.
Airports and airlines need to have regular dialogue with these types of organisations, explain the
challenges and help lead new technological advances for the industry through technology development
sponsorship programmes.
® Be effective.
• Be reliable.
• Be safe and secure for its use and fit for purpose.
• Commercially viable.
Airports and airlines should look to gain this confidence through prudent implementation of newer
technology. A philosophy of proving the value of newer technology viaoperational trials conducted
in test conditions, within the appropriate environments should be adopted. The use of the laboratory
and eventually operational airport locations should be used (refer to clause S2.3).
Step 3 — Test the technology through a limited exposure live airport operational trial.
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Step 3a — Repeat Step 3 test but at a separate airport operation, again with limited exposure/risk.
Step 4 — Obtain independent verification of the test results collated from the tests in steps 3 and 3a
from IATA, verifying that the technology meets the operational objectives and the criteria defined
within clause S2.2.
Step 5 — If applicable. IATA could produce a directive publication, which could effectively define the
proposed standard to be adopted. This would be reviewed/refined and potentially endorsed by its
members as agreed best practice if the results and application are deemed to be favourable to the
industry.
Once step 5 has been achieved, the industry should accept that this technology is current best practice
and can where appropriate be incorporated into airports and airline operations.
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• Provides confidence to the people consulted that the technology is to support them.
• Local community groups can help shape the implementation of newer technology to best fit their
needs.
• Staff groups are consulted to understand the need for potential staff retraining requirements well
in advance.
When change is involved, if an airport developer asks a local consultant group’s opinion about the
proposed change, the group and the individuals involved will generally feel a sense of being part of
the solution. They may not agree with the final decision, but they believe they were heard in the
discussion phase. Implementing future technology is no different. Making certain groups of people
part of the decision-making process almost always ensures a smoother transition of the technology
and generally leads to an improved technology solution.
There are a set of “best practices” to follow when looking at future technology and how to make
consultation groups function effectively, these can include:
• Form a group of those affected by the proposed technology. Not everyone affected by the
technology needs to be a member, but they must have some form of representation.
• Ensure the group is fully informed. Give them access to all and any appropriate information about
the technology.
• Have the group enumerate the impact on their lives of the proposed technology.
• Require that the group arrive at a decision within a reasonable timeframe.
• Require that any decision must be measurable.
• Require that the group create a technology implementation timetable (project delivery programme;
and
• Ask the group to answer questions such as: How does this technology fit with the existing
processes? How will it be used? What metrics determine if it is used effectively?What training
is required?
Once the airport developer has consulted certain interested groups, the implementation of the
technology becomes then a more straightforward matter of following the project delivery programme.
As the technology then gets implemented the airport developer has the confidence that the new
technology project can be evaluated on its true technical merits.
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S 3 .2 C U L T U R A L IS S U E S
In a business where specialist Airport developers, Architects and Engineers work in many different
regions of the world to design and construct airports, it will be important for these groups of
professionals to appreciate that certain cultures have often subtle cultural do’s and don’ts. From an
airport design and construction point of view the list below should be used as a starting point for
airport developers so that they fully appreciate the sensitivities that can exist.
In all instances it will be essential for Architects in particular to consult the various user groups,
following the principles defined within clause S3.1. This will ensure that cultural sensitivities are
understood and accounted for appropriately using informed guidance from the relevant groups.
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IATA
C h a p te r T — A irp o rt P ro c e s s e s
Section T1: Terminal Processes
T1.1 Terminal Processes Overview ..................................................... ............ . 557
T1.2 Sample Terminal Processes....................... ..................... .................. 558
T1.3 IATA Recommendations .................................. .................... ........................ . 559
Section T2: Apron Processes
T2.1 Apron Processes Overview ....................... .......... ................................. 560
T2.2 Sample Apron Processes .................... ......... ..................... . 561
T2.3 IATA Recommendations ...................... .................. 561
Section T3: Support Processes
T3.1 Support Processes Overview ......................... ..................... . 562
T3.2 Sample Support Processes .......... ......... ........ ......... ...................... . 563
T3.3 IATA Recommendations .................................. ............... 564
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I ATA
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Pax. Completes
Central
Check-in Pax. Airside
Pax.
Staffed/Self Service Immigration Retail
Security
Process
Disabled Pax. Disabled Pax.
Wheeled Wheeled
Driven T o Driven T o
Security & Immigration Gate/Aircraft
R E L E V E N T A D R M S U P P O R T S E C T IO N S
Refer To Section: Refer T o Sections: Refer T o Section: Refer T o Sections: Refer T o Sections:
J9/J12/U2 J12/K6 J12/K1/K2/K3/K4/K5 J7/J12 J10/J11/J12/K6
11 M2 Redundancy Processes
Airport designers, planners and operational staff should develop contingency plans such that if
or when a function block within an airport process map becomes inoperable, then the airport
retains the ability to function within the tolerances defined within this manual.
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Architects and engineers should assess the process activity groups listed below and map out precisely
the desired apron functionality required. The list given is not exhaustive and further activities could
exist which may need to be identified and captured. All process maps associated with airline/ground
handling functions should be agreed with the user groups in question.
560
¡ATA Airport Processes
Passenger
Loading
Bridge
Aircraft Driven to
Ground Parking Parked
Aircraft
Controllers Ground Rada Aids Aircraft
Proceed
Advise Pilot Reviewed Switched
From
Of Taxiway on in
Runway
Route to Taxiway correct
To
Stand Lighting Aircraft
Taxiway
Allocation Systems Mode
Illuminated
To Identify
Correct
Aircraft Route
Refer To Section: Refer To Sections: Refer To Sections: Refer To Sections: Refer To Section:
F5/F6/F7 J3/F6/F7 F8/L3/L4 J11/L6/M1/M2/M3 J3/F6
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Architects and Engineers should assess the process activity groups listed below and map out precisely
the desired support processes required. The list given is not exhaustive and further activities could
exist which may need to be identified and captured. Architects and Engineers should assess the
merits of providing off-airport accommodation and infrastructure for support processes which may
not necessarily need to be within the confines of the airport perimeter.
BMS Controller
Sets Environment
Para mete r(s) /
Communication
BMS Controller
Reviews / Assesses ^j—
«â I
Environment
Parameter(s)
Reactive
Maintenance
/
Preventative
Maintenance
Asset
Maintenance
Management
System
Refer To Sections:
J8 / Y1 / Y2
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T3.3 IA T A RECOMMENDATIONS
564
SATA
C h a p te r U — A irp o rt B a g g a g e H a n d lin g
Section U1: Baggage System User Requirements
U1.1 Objective of a Baggage System User Requirement Specification ........... 567
U1.2 User Requirements Specification Contents .... ........... ............................... 567
U1.3 IATA Recommendations .................. ....... .............. ................... ................. 572
Section U2: Departures Systems
U2.1 Baggage Systems Design Approach ... .............. .......... ............................ 573
U2.2 Acceleration and Bag Separation Conveyors .................................. . 575
U2.3 De-Accelleration Conveyors ........... ......... .................... .............................. 577
U2.4 Incline and Decline Conveyors ................................................................... 578
U2.5 Queuing Conveyors ............................................... ....................................... 581
U2.6 Verti-Sortation Conveyors ...... ................................................... .................. 583
U2.7 High Speed Pusher ......... ........... ........... ........... ........... ............................... 585
U2.8 Slow Speed Plough ................................................................................... . 587
U2.9 45 and 90 Degree Powered Belt Bends ...... .................. ............................ 588
U2.10 Accumulation Roller Conveyors (Powered and Free Units) .......... ........... ........... ........... .......
U2.11 Check-In Systems ......... ........... ............ ........ .............................................. 591
U2.12 Sortation Systems ........................ ........ .......... .......................................... 600
U2.13 IATA Recommendations .......... ........... ........... ......... ......... ............ ............ 611
Section U3: Transfer Systems
U3.1 Transfer Baggage Systems Overview ............ .................................... . 613
U3.2 Transfer Baggage Reconciliation ......................... ................................... . 614
U3.3 Transfer Processing Facilities Within the Baggage Hall ....... ................... 616
U3.4 IATA Recommendations .............. ........................................................ 616
Section U4: Early Baggage Processes
U4.1 Early Baggage Processing — Overview .................................... ........ . 618
U4.2 Manual Early Baggage Storage ...................................................... . 618
U4.3 Automated Early Baggage Storage .............................................. .............. 619
U4.4 Typical Automatic Early Baggage Store Layout ........ ....................... . 620
U4.5 IATA Recommendations ................................. ........................................... 621
Section U5: Arrivals Baggage Systems
U5.1 Arriving Baggage Overview .................................. ...................... ................. 622
U5.2 Arriving Baggage DCV or Tilt Tray Sorter Injection............................... . 626
U5.3 Arriving Baggage — Passenger Reconciliation Devices ...... ................... 626
U5.4 Arrival Systems Control Desk ... ................. ......................................... 629
U5.5 IATA Recommendations .................................... .......................................... 630
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IATA
U1.1 O B J E C T IV E O F A B A G G A G E S Y S T E M U S E R R E Q U IR E M E N T
S P E C IF IC A T IO N
The baggage system User Requirement Specification (URS) is required to explain the user
functionality, performance expectations and the specific user interface requirements of the Baggage
Handling System. It is absolutely vital that this document is produced before any baggage design
work has been started. The baggage handling designer should use the URS as the main tool when
trying to define how the baggage handling system shall function.
The URS can vary in size and complexity according to the scope of the baggage project, from a
small arrivals system to a large international departures, transfers and arrivals system, or component
parts thereof. It essential that all of the airlines and handling agents fully endorse the URS during a
formal sign-off process as the URS will be a major benchmark performance document from which
client satisfaction will be measured from.
Each of the headings above is explained in more detail within subsequent clauses U1.2.1 to U1.2.14.
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The baggage handling system (BHS) should have a capability to process baggage from day one of
opening through to the final design year without the need to operationally expand the BHS at some
interim point. The BHS design should anticipate the future growth, year on year, which the new BHS
should be able to process without system reconfiguration or expansion.
The bag size and weight of standard gauge baggage isgenerically defined to be:
® Length of 450 mm — 900 mm.
® Width of 150 mm — 300 mm.
• Mass is 10 kg — 60 kg.
• Mass is 10 kg — 70 kg.
The bag size and weight of non conveyable OB is generically defined to be:
® Length of 2501 mm — 3500 mm.
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The functionality statement should include statements on the type of technology to be used (e.g.
biometrics, etc.), but should not detail what models or versions should be used unless it is a legislative
requirement. The baggage handler should define and design this as part of their contract for the
airport operator and the users.
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Definition of availability.
IMPORTANT NOTE: Down time is measured from the instant that the system capacity falls below
an agreed processing X%. For example, the baggage handling systems may have two or more
independent faults but still be capable of processing X% of all baggage successfully. The instant the
baggage system falls below this agreed target threshold then the down time begins. It is usual to set
the X% the same as the redundancy capability % (see clause U2.1).
The maximum time required to bring a baggage handling system to full operational use should not
exceed:
(a) 15 minutes from a non-operational, serviceable state.
(b) 5 minutes from a stand-by state.
(c) 60 minutes from a preventive/scheduled maintenance state.
The probability that the system will be available to handle 100 per cent design capacity at any instant
during the operating duty cycle should be typically greater than 99%.
The probability that the system will be available to handle >75% design capacity at any instant during
the operating duty cycle shall be typically greater than 99.9%.
The probability that the system will survive an operational year, at the stated usage, without inducing
a critical failure, shall be greater than 99.99 per cent.
A critical failure is defined to be any fault(s) which render the baggage handling unable to process
the agreed service level standard X%.
The Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) target for on-line equipment using specified procedures and
resources shall not be greater than 30 minutes.
Preventive maintenance activities shall not allow the system to fall below 75% design capacity.
The total time due to all preventive maintenance activities per month for new equipment should not
exceed 40 hours.
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
® Racetrack operations.
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
The departures baggage system can be a simple manual sortation system, or can be a fully automatic
sortation system with integral intelligent hold baggage screening systems, transfer inputs and early
baggage stores. Departures baggage handling systems are categorized as detailed below, and should
be subsequently provided with the following normal operational and redundancy capabilities:
• Manual — Racetrack(s).
Where peak baggage flow is envisaged to be > 1000bags/hour < 4999 bags/hour Peak.
• Automatic — Provision of an automatic sortation system capable of processing 75% of peak flow
rate at all times.
Where peak baggage flow rate is envisaged to be > 5000 bags/hour Peak
Type of sortation device possible/recommended:
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• Automatic — Provision of an automatic sortation system capable of processing 75% of peak flow
rate at all times.
The clauses within U2.2 to U2.10 inclusive define the component parts that normally make up a
departures baggage handling system. Hold Baggage Screening is discussed within Section U11.
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
U2.2.1 Functionality
Acceleration conveyors have 2 main uses.
Used to gradually or relatively rapidly increase the pace of baggage flow through a baggage system.
Acceleration conveyors, when used to increase the pace of baggage flow, should have a minimum
length of 3 times the typical baggage length from tail roller to head roller. This permits a bag to be
accelerated then stabilized on the belt before proceeding to the next conveyor. Bags with wheels or
bags which are cylindrical in profile tend to roll if the acceleration rate is too high, so it is essential
to have adequate conveyor belt length to limit the effects of bag inertia resulting in rolling baggage.
The belt speed is constant and only accelerates to normal running speed during routine startup
sequences. It is classified as an acceleration conveyor because it runs at a preferred speed increase
of 0.25m /s m axim um differential. H igher grip belt surfaces are norm ally selected and conveyors are
preferred to be with no incline or decline.
Technical Summary
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back.
• Tracking: not desirable — optional — dependent on location and conveyor system function.
Used to increase the trailing and leading edge gap between consecutive bags.
Acceleration conveyors used to space baggageshould be shorter inlength, no less than a minimum
of 1.5 times the typical baggage length from tail roller to head roller.The belt is oftenused with a
strong braking system which limits belt inertia problems. The conveyor is frequently started and
stopped every minute to induce the desired baggage spacing from the proceeding conveyor. The
acceleration conveyor obviously accelerates from stop to normal running speed, but the motorand
gearbox is not usually a variable speed drive in that it accelerates to a fixed speed when inducing a
baggage gap. It runs at a preferred speed increase of 0.25m/s maximum differential from the
proceeding conveyor. Large baggage gaps are produced by delaying the proceeding conveyors bag.
It is not recommended to have multiple short baggage acceleration conveyors adjacent to one another
as baggage stability must not be compromised. Higher grip belt surfaces are normally selected and
conveyors are essentially with no incline or decline.
Technical Sum m ary
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 3 x maximum bag length.
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Notes
Conveyor A Could be any length of conveyor
Conveyor B and C are Acceleration Conveyors and must be 3 x Typical Baggage Length
Vel C =
i"
Vel B + 0.25M/S
Vel 8 =
Ve! A +0.25M/S
Vel A = XM/S
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
Notes
Conveyor A Could be any length of conveyor
Conveyor B and C are Acceleration Conveyors and must be 1.5 x Typical Baggage Length
Conveyor B can be stopped to induce larger bag gaps.
Conveyor C is the puli away conveyor.
- * -I" J"> * -
....... ’V
♦ M V*
L
i
Conveyor A ! Conveyor Conveyor !
Conveyor B C j
Velocity
M/S
Vel C =
Vel B + 0.25M/S
[
Vel A = Vel B
= X M/S
\ ■
I I
I
| j
U2.3.1 Functionality
The de-acceleration conveyor is used to slow the pace of baggage flow. As a bag is transferred from
a higher speed conveyor onto a de-acceleration conveyor the speed is reduced ideally by a maximum
of 0.25m/s per transfer. The speed of the de-acceleration conveyor is kept constant outside of
normal routine shutdown and power save modes. Higher grip belt surfaces are normally selected
and conveyors are essentially free from declines. In some instances inclines of no more than 8
degrees to the horizontal maybe permitted as this more rapidly reduces the inertia of baggage and
baggage momentum/kinetic energy is better absorbed.
Technical Summary:
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, ordie-back.
• Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Tail end floor to top of belt: 0.45 m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Belt velocity: 0.1 to 1.5m/s.
• Belt width 1.0m to 1.5m.
• Belt type: higher grip than normal.
• Tracking: not desirable — or optional — dependent on location and conveyor system function.
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Notes
Conveyor A Could be any length of conveyor
Conveyor B and C are De-acceleration Conveyors and must be 3 x Typical Baggage Length
>
Conveyor Length M
U2.4.1 Functionality
The main purpose of incline and decline conveyors is to permit baggage to flow from one level to
another in a controlled and safe manner within a baggage system complex. Incline and decline
conveyors must have appropriate slopes of no more than 18 degrees to the horizontal, though this
is an absolute maximum. It is preferred and recommended that incline and decline conveyors should
have a slope of no more than 16 degrees. Baggage is retained statically on the belt purely due to
the down force exerted by the mass of the bag and its contents, coupled with its often unique frictional
characteristics.
Baggage types must not be permitted to roll down declines or fall back on incline conveyors. Incline
and decline conveyors should be fitted with high grip belts. Raised profile grooves designed not to
damage baggage labels or bags should be considered. Incline conveyors can be fitted with a mid
position apex roller. These conveyors are kept at a constant running speed unless in shut down,
power save or in a worst case die-back mode of operation.
Technical Summary:
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller incline (no apex): > 1.5 x maximum bag length.
9 Minimum length tail roller to head roller incline (with apex): > 3 x maximum bag length.
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• Minimum length tail roller to head roller decline (no apex): > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Minimum length tail roller to head roller decline (with apex): > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back.
• Head end floor to top of belt: 0.45m +/-0.075m for cascade.
• Belt type: higher grip than normal. Raised profile grip faces optional and subject to location
requirements.
• Tracking: not desirable — or optional — dependent on location and conveyor system function.
Head End
B —
0.45m
Drive Locations
+/-0.075
should be Varied
To Assist
Maintenance
v Head End Biased
Length >3 x Maximum Bag Dim
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Head End
Drive Locations
should be Varied
To Assist
Maintenance
Head End Biased
Tail End
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
Tail End
U2.5.1 Functionality
Queuing conveyors should be used to smooth flows and act as controlling buffer. The precise number
to select in a system is often a task for simulation as their use is heavily reliant on the baggage
delivery profile. Typical uses include:
Clearly this type of conveyor can be used in many locations, and thus the number of queuing conveyors
in a system can easily become a major contributor to the total cost of the system. It is therefore
essential to balance the advantages and disadvantages of using queuing conveyors.
The typical advantages include:
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® HBS inspection times can be dramatically improved giving rise to manpower savings.
Technical Summary:
9 Minimum length tail roller to head roller: > 1.5 x maximum bag length.
9 Maximum length tail roller to head roller: < 2.5 x maximum bag length.
• Tracking: must be present. Though usually only through photocell bag detection.
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--------» ----------
Logic
Event I
Step 11st Bag Breaks PEC A beam & Holds 1st BAG !
Step la CS confirms if Conveyor B Clear then releases
Step lb 1st Bag proceeds onto B and C similarly
Event I I
Step 2 2nd Bag Breaks PEC A beam & Holds 1st BAG
2nd BAG
Step 2a CS confirms if Conveyor B Clear then releases
Step 2b 2nd Bag proceeds onto 8 conveyor
Event I I I
Step 3 3rd Bag wants to load onto Conveyor A
3rd BAG 2nd BAG 1st BAG
Step 3a CS confirms if Conveyor A Clear
Step 3b 3rd Bag proceeds onto Conveyor A
U2.6.1 Functionality
Verti-sortation devices are used to separate or combine baggage flows, though the latter function is
a less commonplace usage. Baggage can be dynamically separated such that 2 bags travelling in
succession can have 2 separate output destinations following routing through a verti-sorter used in
separation mode. Similarly a verti-sorter used in merge mode can take 2 separate inputs and merge
to a single output route following routing through a verti-sorter conveyor.
Verti-sorter conveyors are particularly useful where vertical space is more available than lateral space.
The verti-sorter is also very useful in HBS installations because it imparts smaller forces on the bags
than other comparable diversion equipment, particularly useful if you are using the device within an
HBS zone where bags are being subjected to screening for potential explosives. The cycle time for
verti-sorters is comparable to a high speed pusher. Equipment typically uses 3 conveyors within an
assembly.
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Technical Summary:
® Minimum length tail roller to head roller single unit within device: > 1.5 x maximum bag length
through A-A
Lower Route Selected
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U2.7 H IG H S P E E D P U S H E R
U2.7.1 Functionality
The high speed pusher is designed to permit baggage to be diverted horizontally to one of two
directions. The forces upon baggage can be considerable and this is where damage on baggage or
labels, if any, usually occurs. It is good practice to limit the number of these units to a minimum and
to have them located downstream from bar code reader devices and Hold Baggage Screening (HBS)
cleared baggage output flows. The reasons for this are: (i) label damage can be inflicted by high
speed pushers and resultant read rates can become compromised; and (ii) Baggage which has not
been cleared by HBS processes potentially could contain explosives with sensitive electronics that
could be activated.
High speed pushers should be used to divert baggage which has cleared HBS and which has had
(if used) automatic flight information from the bar code labels read already. Pushers are fitted across
baggage conveyors with varying degrees of baggage tracking sophistication. Bag tracking is essential
to activate the pusher at a time which ensures that the centroid point of the bag is established with
varying bag lengths and weights. High speed pushers are useful in applications where alternate bags
in a stream on a single conveyor need to be separated without stopping the flow of baggage in any
way. Bag pushers should be the second technical choice to the designer (the first choice should be
the verti-sorter device, as they generally inflict less damage to baggage). Verti-sorter devices are
more flexible in that it is possible to site a verti-sorter anywhere within a baggage system.
Both units perform with similar speed and efficiency, though the spiral cam tends to inflict less damage
on baggage and be more reliable due to its mechanical configuration. Both units are sources of
baggage snagging. It is important to have realistic expectations of these units in terms of their sorting
capacity.
Technical summary — high speed pusher:
• Function: can sort alternative bags or can batch process by constant cycle repetition.
• Tracking: must be present.
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U2.8.1 Functionality
The slow speed plough has 2 main operational functions:
• Activation rate: single vertical mounted plough conveyor, typically 5 alternate route selections/
minute.
• Activation rate: dual split vertical mounted plough conveyors, typically 30 alternate route selections/
minute.
• Function: can sort alternative bags with low flow rates or usually batch process by single cycle
operation.
• Tracking: not necessary in all applications.
• Guarding: must be present and interlocked to conveyor operation.
Note: High speed ploughs can typically produce a rate of 25 alternate route selections per minute.
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Plate
Technical summary:
• Belt motion: constant speed unless in shutdown, power save modes, or die-back.
• Tracking: optional — dependent on location and conveyor system function. Tracking on bends
can be made very accurate.
U2.10.1 Functionality
Accumulation roller conveyors can be a very effective way of managing baggage flow, most commonly
at the output of a baggage system alongside baggage handling staff. It is possible to use accumulation
roller conveyors at a mid-point location in a baggage system, typically within an early baggage store.
Accumulation conveyors are used mainly within manned locations. It is possible to have accumulation
roller conveyors with powered sections throughout which are engaged by the control system to ensure
that baggage does not stagnate on sections of rollers for too long. Accumulation roller conveyors are
not particularly good at processing soft baggage.
Most commonly accumulation roller conveyors have sections with the ability to induce power to
selective rollers when a weight is placed onto the rollers.
It should be noted that powered and free conveyors are more hazardous than totally free rolling roller
conveyors because entrapment risk is more likely. Powered and free accumulation roller conveyors
consequently are not preferred, because to safeguard against entrapment is both difficult and costly
due to multiple entrapment points. In all cases, particularly with powered and free conveyors, adequate
hand-safe guarding should be provided as an integral part of the design.
The major advantage with powered accumulation conveyors is that, over long accumulation lengths,
baggage handling staff do not need to walk up and down the length of the roller conveyor to enable
them to reach the bag and then deposit it within the correct parked container. Accumulation conveyors
with total power availability are also often fitted with control lines. These enable baggage handling
staff to index forward a bag further down stream to a waiting operative with the correct flight makeup
allocation.
ia ta Airport Development Reference Manual
Technical summary:
® Minimum length of roller length > 3 x maximum bag length.
• Minimum pitch between powered and free section rollers 1.5x maximum bag length.
® Powered roller motion: power engaged when bag present on poweredroller section.
• Tracking: optional.
7 I 1 — n — m ~
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lATA Airport Baggage Handling
0 2 .1 1 C H E C K -IN S Y S T E M S
The following types of domestic and International check-in desks are commonly found for the
processing of hold baggage only.
To determine the number of check-in desk conveyors that are required to process busy hour demand,
the following calculation should be undertaken:
To calculate: Units:
60
Bags/Min
© = © x © Bags/Min
Then © = (© - ® ) +4
(2) Bags/Min Design
The value © Bags/Min Designshould then be compared against what is possible to be processed
by the proposed number of check-in desks © Bags/MinCheck-mconveyors.
To calculate © = The check-in conveyor capability
In principle ® > © . If it is not then you must change one or more of the variables ® , ®
or ® such that this condition is met
Red
Search
VIP Position Area
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BATA Airport Baggage Handling
Step 3 VIP’s baggage placed on weigh scales and weighed (not a conveyor).
Process Duration 10-20secs.
Step 4 VIP’s baggage license plate label printed and affixed to baggage.
Process Duration 10-20secs.
Step 5 (Optional) Baggage security screened through EDS (either locally or sent to central main
baggage hall) — Process Duration 30-60secs (locally fitted EDS process time given
includes load and unload time).
Step 6 Process End for Baggage.
VIP Check-in Control System Common Logic:
Links are only made between label issuing equipment and DCS.
Possible further links include (i) biometric databases, and (ii) EDS equipment image data.
The facility below uses easy-to-use technology to permit the passenger to check-in one of more
pieces of their baggage into a minor or major BHS operation without a check-in operator. The overall
minimum to maximum process time difference for a self service check-in desk is larger than for
manned check-in desks. This is due to the large variance in the ability of passengers to respond
appropriately to commands, and the level of familiarity with the systems being used by the passenger.
As this technology becomes more and more common this variance will decrease, bringing a reduction
in the number of facilities needed to process the same volume of passengers.
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Operational process:
Step 1 Passenger approaches self service check-in kiosk with physical ticket or e-ticket details.
Step 5 Baggage license plate label printed and affixed to baggage by passenger.
Process duration 10 secs.
Step 6 Optional passenger asked to place baggage item(s) onto conveyor system.
Process duration 10 secs.
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
Step 6a Confirmation of number of pieces of luggage. If 0-1 items of luggage per passenger step
7 else step 5.
Links are made to the DCS system and the bar code label printer. Links are optionally made to
immigration and security databases in the event that biometric and passport data is to be verified.
A passenger’s profile data should be presented to airport security, airport police and airport immigration
services as soon as technically possible. The objective should be to share security data such that
higher risk passengers are screened more rigorously while low risk passengers are permitted the
normal rapid access, but still within the legislative requirements.
Operational Process
The operational process as described within clause 2.10.6 of this document should be referred to
with the inclusion of the following additional process times:
Step X1 Passenger asked a series of security questions designed to ascertain level of terrorism
threat potential.
Step X2 Passenger responds to questions.
Step X3 Hold baggage is bar coded as higher security baggage and referred to appropriate baggage
screening area within baggage hall.
Step X4 Passenger passport is verified either manually or automatically against immigration and
national and international security databases.
Step X5 Passenger is issued with coded boarding pass and identified as higher or normal risk
passenger.
The control system on high security check-in facilities would typically include the usual links to DCS
and baggage MIS systems. The control systems would also include on-line secure links to national
and international immigration and police enforcement databases. Desirable links include biometric
data, baggage bar code and EDS machine data.
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Operational Process
The operational processes are consistent with standard conventional, self service and high security
check-in facilities. The major additional process is that of the following:
Step X1 Collection from remote check-in area.
The remote check-in facilities can accommodate both DCS logic connection and bar code label
printing facilities. Remote facilities rarely include EDS data links, because the connection time between
remote and terminal complex locations are such that baggage screened at remote locations can be
interfered with during steps X1 to X3.
IMPORTANT: The DCS should be configured such that it can detect and identify baggage processed
from check-in or from a transferring flight (where the transfer bag has been checked in locally and a
new tag assigned) and the corresponding passenger boarding pass has to be correctly received at
the gate with a complete alignment of data from the baggage label and the boarding pass. It is
essential for the DCS to make this link. If a passenger has loaded a bag into a baggage system and
has not boarded the aircraft by the flight closure time, the DCS must clearly make those passengers
known to the airline baggage handlers, airline security and airport security. The airline and airport
must remove any bag from the flight if the corresponding passenger cannot be located.
Operational Process
The processes are consistent with standard conventional, self service and high security check-in
facilities.
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
The control system logic is consistent with standard, conventional, self service and high security
check-in facilities. The transfer check-in desk commonly has links to the main terminal baggage hall
DCS, and has the capability to print bar code labels. It is possible to map passenger biometric data
to EDS bag content image data, though it is not commonplace at time of this printing. Transfer
baggage system control logic should, in accordance with IATA resolution 709 and 1745, Baggage
Transfer Messages (BTM’s), be sent between airport/terminal DCS systems to permit the reconciliation
of transfer passenger baggage inventories between connecting airports.
The desk is typically brought on-line when the key switch and password are entered by the check
in staff. Once energized, the desk is then able to accept baggage into the system via the collector
belt. The baggage control system should identify those desks which have not been operating for
more than 10 minutes. Any desk which has not been in operation for more than 10 minutes should
be disabled from the main baggage system until such time as the password from an authorised check
in operator has been entered. It should not be possible to dispatch a bag into the main baggage
system by an unauthorised person, either manually or automatically.
Step 2 Passenger asked to provide flight ticket and passports — Passenger provides documents.
Staff update DCS system.
Process duration 5-10 secs.
Step 3 Passenger asked security baggage questions — Passenger asked how many pieces of
luggage to check-in. Label(s) are printed and DCS updated. Jump to step 8 if passenger
has no baggage to check-in.
Process duration 30 secs.
Step 4 Passenger asked to load one bag onto weigh conveyor or scale — check-in staff weigh
bag.
Process duration 10-15 secs.
Step 5 Check-in staff press the weigh conveyor MOVE LOAD button on the control console. Bag
on weigh conveyor gets conveyed to label conveyor assuming label conveyor is empty.
Process duration 5-10 secs.
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Step 6 Passenger asked to load next bag of their belongings then repeat step 4 as necessary —
Jump to next step if only one bag per passenger evident.
Process duration 5-10 secs.
Step 7 Check-in staff label the bag and press the label conveyor MOVE LOAD button on the
control console. Bag on label conveyor gets conveyed to dispatch conveyor.
Process duration 10-15 secs.
X X 11
X X [] X X 11
AX I
XX x y
R sl Dl Control System
Takes Over
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lATA Airport Baggage Handling
In this mode the collector belt is split into lengths known as windows. These are not real belt splits
but are merely lengths of space on the conveying belt media which the control system recognizes
are present in real time. The check-in desks inject baggage from the dispatch conveyors into the
collector belt windows when they are available. As you progress down the length of the collector belt
the probability of obtaining a free window progressively and linearly decreases — see Fig U2-18
below. This is not the optimum configuration in terms of window allocation.
Probability
of Obtaining
Dispatch
Window
Desk Positiort
Relative to CED!
Window Allocation
This operates with the same principle as Option 1, except in that as the windows are generated from
the tail end of the collector conveyor in the control system, every other window is left clear. These
clear, free windows or slots are then allocated to the second half of the collector belt. The advantage
of this mode of operation is that the check-in desk wait times as you progress down the length of the
collector belt from tail to head end are reduced considerably — See Figure U2-19.
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14 1 -| 13 12 11 10 r 9 8 i
n XX
XX 1 XX
1
L
XX II
II
XX XX
a ¿a
3 3 uP j.
n 3
1/7
Probability
of Obtaining
Dispatch
Window
i
"~!
.
...
..
..
..
..
..
..
..
..; 1
— 1
— ft———*-*■—~ n —■
—if ——
Desk Position
Relative to CED !
Window Allocation
Option 3
This is where there is no controlled event discharge, and baggage injection from the dispatch conveyors
to col lector conveyors is controlled on a random basis rather than by calculating free space. Commonly,
the collector belt is fitted with photocells before each check-in desk injection point so as to avoid
baggage jams. When this cheaper solution of dispatch-to-collection-belt-injection is adopted, the
check desks closest to the head end of the collector belt have unreasonable processing times when
operating in busy periods. This is not a recommended solution.
(i) Baggage is moved to the correct zone in the building as quickly as possible.
(ii) Baggage is sent to HBS equipment in the most effective manner (load sharing).
(iii) Baggage which will dwell within the system for longer than 2 hours can be routed to an Early
Baggage Store (EBS).
(iv) Baggage is sent to a fast track router with HBS to enable rapid flight connections.
The equipment used to achieve this functionality maybe a tilt tray sorter or a conventional conveyor
fitted with either pushers or verti-sorters, or less commonly DCV equipment.
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lATA Airport Baggage Handling
Primary sortation is optional, though recommended to provide greater flexibility of both equipment
and operational resources — particularly in larger airport operations. The primary sorter in smaller
airports may be a conventional conveyor fitted with high speed pushers or high speed verti-sorters.
It is possible to use certain DCV equipment even in small airports as part of a larger, longer term
development strategy to use DCVs as airport traffic grows.
The primary sorter in larger airports (See Fig U2-20) maybe a linear drive sorter or DCV. DCV
equipment should be used in larger airports to take full advantage of the high speed connection times
they provide. Fig U2-20 below incorporates a DCV terminal-wide system to both deliver departing
baggage to aircraft and retrieve arriving and transferring baggage.
The advantages of conveying baggage to and from the apron area using DCV technology directly
are:
• Airline costs for moving baggage to and from the aircraft would be considerably reduced.
Final Transfer
Destination Check-in Concourse
Connection
Reclaim Reclaim
JEJL
Primary Sortation
u j r r nm
~r
n
Zone 2
HBS
DCV
Zone 7 Zone 4
South West South East
Apron Make Up Apron Make Up
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This unit can be used for primary HBS of secondary flight sortation purposes. The linear drive sorter
should be the preferred option over chain driven variants. Due to their increased reliability and quieter
operation. The availability of a single linear drive sorter should at least be 99.98% available with a
MTBF of 2000 hours and a corresponding MTTR of no greater than 30 Minutes. These figures can
be achieved by using modular components on a linear sorter which can be rapidly removed and
replaced. The linear drive power inducement provides energy efficient movement of trays with low
noise and reduced mechanical moving parts.
O perational Process
Linear drives and even chain driven variants should be provided with load detection monitoring
software. This will ensure that operating current is provided at the correct level to ensure that the
speed of the sorter is maintained at the same speed irrespective of how many actual bags (varying
loads) are residing on the sorter. The benefit of this system is that when baggage flows are low the
energy consumption of the sorter is reduced (as the load is reduced). The control logic should
continually learn to improve its performance automatically by detecting load variations and
recommending maintenance intervals to counter monitored negative variance in performance of the
DCV equipment.
The induction process should be designed to permit maximum throughput onto the sorter. It is important
to place the induction units at the correct pitch as recommended by the manufacturer. This distance
between consecutive induction units can vary from 3m to 7m according to manufacturer and type of
placement. It is important to understand the perceived flow through each induction so as to ensure
that all induction units have a realistic chance of injecting baggage onto the sorter.
Do not expect too much from a sorter in terms of its ability to process multiple types of baggage.
While it is possible to use a single sorter to process departures baggage and transfers baggage and
even arrival baggage, this will push the sorter to the operational limits of its capabilities. Small variations
in flow with a sorter with multiple induction units may restrict induction input considerably. It is better
to have smaller separate sorters rather than one very larger sorter.
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
There are three types of title tray sorter induction: (I) Side 30 degree; (ii) Side 45 Degree; and (iii)
Overhead. The most common is the 30 degree side induction and this is preferred technically since
the dynamic forces of the bag on the induction conveyors more closely matches that of the sorter it
is trying to merge with.
• Use the minimum possible number of induction assemblies whilst still achieving the desired level
of system redundancy.
• Be realistic in terms of mixing flows of baggage and allocate a separate departures and transfer
sorter rather than a single very large sorter for all flows.
• Where an Early Baggage Store is required try to provide a separate sorter for managing this
flow.
• Keep inclines and declines as shallow as possible as this can induce premature mechanical wear.
D yn am ic Induction - C o n v e y o r A rra n g e m e n t
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Functionality: The flight sortation process should enable originating or transfer baggage which has
been cleared through HBS to be routed automatically to the correct make-up, whether it be a flight
chute, lateral or racetrack. The principle steps to flight sortation are straightforward:
=$ Step 1 Identify the bag and its position within the baggage system via bar code or via radio
frequency (RFID) tag.
=> Step 2 Monitor or track the bag through the system using a robust tracking philosophy.
=> Step 3 Dispatch or sort the tracked baggage to the correct flight make-up.
Sorter media maybe either a linear drive tilt tray linked sorter or DCV, or even conventional conveyor
with high speed pushers or verti-sorters. Selection of sorting device is dependent upon:
® Baggage flow.
• System reliability requirements.
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Both DCV types use linear motors to propel the DCV along the DCV track. DCVs are not connected
to one another other than being confined to run on the same track. DCVs can be propelled at different
rates and to different destinations to meet with operational requirements as programmed by the
departures control system and sort allocation computer requirements.
The track components of a typical DCV circuit might include:
• Induction straight.
• High/Low speed straight (level/incline/decline).
• Higher/Low speed curves (level/incline/decline).
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• Higher cart speeds than tilt tray sorter units Type 1 DCV’s ~5m/s Type 2 DCV’s ~10m/s (Fast
Straight locations)
® Greater system availability since individual DCV carts can be maintained independently without
stopping the whole system.
• The control system places DCV carts into the track on a ‘Need Cart’ and ‘Just In Time’ basis.
• The control system can increase or decrease DCV speeds to meet different flight connecting
times.
• Certain DCV cart maintenance can be completed in dedicated off-line tracks specifically designed
for maintenance, while the rest of the system continues in operation.
Note: DCV cart control management is a complicated issue at large airports. Designers are advised
to simulate DCV cart movements to understand the true characteristics of the DCV in system usage,
storage and management.
Selecting a DCV System over a Tilt T ray Sorter
Any one of the following attributes may warrant the decision to select a DCV system over a tilt tray
sorter system. In reality most if not all of the following factors need to be considered and evaluated:
• If the terminal complex is fragmented and the fastest possible connection between facilities is
required.
• If the distance between check-in desk and final destination make-up exceeds 0.75Km.
® If the baggage is to be delivered to and retrieved from the apron stand make-up position directly.
® If the total operating and maintenance forecast costs for the DCV are favourable.
® If the capital cost of the DCV cart, track and controls are favourable.
The Type 1 DCV has a conveyor motor mounted on it which is activated when the DCV wants to
receive a bag or when the DCV wants to eject a bag. The dispensing conveyor is retained in the
horizontal position at all times. The conveyor mounted on the DCV cart is mounted perpendicular to
the main direction of the DCV in transit. The conveyor is usually only powered when the DCV is
stopped.
The Type 1 DCV lends itself to the whole system configuration, where baggage is transferred from
check-in onto the DCV and processed entirely throughout the baggage handling system (on DCV
carts with the exception of the time spent within hold baggage screening, or within nearly static early
baggage stores).
The DCV system Type 1 (FIG. U2-23) has the capability to collect bags directly from a check-in desk,
deliver them to security screening X-rays, collect the bags and then sort them to make up positions.
With a capability of smooth acceleration, smooth de-acceleration and constant velocities of up to 5
m/s, the type 1 DCV systems are well suited for medium to long distance applications.
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The type 2 DCV system typically consists of one mainline loop which covers the complete piers and
the baggage hall, and which serves loading stations, unloader areas, bypass lines, empty cart queues,
a security area and a maintenance area.
The type 1 and 2 DCV carts are driven by linear motors mounted at fixed locations between the track.
The type 2 DCV system also has smooth high speed operation which is controlled by the baggage
handling PCL system. This PLC system also manages handling functions such as loading and
unloading, diverting and merging of tracks, curves, inclines and declines, sorting, as well as scan
and check stations.
The type 2 DCV cart is able to discharge baggage by tipping the tray while the cart is in forward
motion, but only at lower discharge velocities.
Important Note: The performance of flight make up and the resultant length should be finalised using
simulation of the flight schedule and associated inputs.
Single Scheduled
Wide Body Outbound No of Make-up Length of Make-up
1st Class 1 Make-up 7 Meters
Business Class 2 Make-ups 14 Meters
Economy Class 3 Make-ups 21 Meters
Single Charter
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The BHS should be able to process the allocation of narrow body aircraft proposed to be resident
within the weekly flight schedules. Baggage from narrow body aircraft shall be accommodated on no
less than three discrete make-up positions potentially configured thus (IMPORTANT NOTE User
variations will occur):
Single Scheduled
Narrow Body Outbound No of Make-up Length of Make-up
Single Charter
Narrow Body Outbound No of Make-up Length of Make-up
Ergonomics:
Where it is envisaged that excessively heavy baggage will be transferred from the BHS to awaiting
containers, there should be the provision of heavy baggage lifting equipment at the correct locations.
Baggage system interfaces with staff in the baggage hall should be ergonomically designed. Baggage
off-load levels within thebaggage halls should bedesigned to be ergonomically suited to the local
workforce and should adopt best international workingpractices, such that the risk of off loading
injuries should be minimised.
Baggage which has been sorted by the baggage handling system may be sent to a variety of make
up devices. The following devices and their locations are viable:
Powered & Free Roller Baggage Hall Not preferred due to entrapment possibility.
I ATA Airport Baggage Handling
, f-U
LOAD IN g d o g i
MAKE-UP LENGTH
72
o >
r
MAKE-UP LENGTH = K1 +X2
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MAKE-UP LENGTH = X1 + X2 + X3 + X4
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612
IATA Airport Baggage Handling
Airlines often load transfer baggage into aircraft in specifically dedicated containers, or within certain
sections of the aircraft. This aids the identification of transfer baggage significantly by ground staff.
A number of processes are required to be performed on transfer baggage before it can be connected
with its outbound aircraft. These process requirements are defined within FIG. U3-1 below.
In practice, transfer baggage is off loaded from the aircraft as soon as possible and then processed
in accordance with FIG. U3-1 below. Baggage which is sorted via an automatic sortation system will
require bar-code/RFID labels to permit the automatic identification and sortation process. In addition
to the labels it will also be necessary for the relevant information to be provided via DCS, Flight
Scheduling Systems (operator input and international/domestic communication), etc.
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sata Airport Development Reference Manual
FIG. U3-2 defines the high level data links and operational checks used in the processing of transfer
passenger hold baggage.
PAX. NAMES
DESTINATION ID DESTINATION ID
OR CONNECTING OR CONNECTING
PAX. FUGHT NO.S PAX. FLIGHT NO.S
In o . OF BAGS/PAxi
*
PAX. PICKS UP
TRANSFER
BAGS FROM
RECLAIM TAKES
TO CHECK-IN
BAGS INJECTED INTO
BAGGAGE SYSTEM
IMPORTANT NOTE:
BAGGAGE HALL TRANSFER CHECK-IN
BAG/PAX RECONCILIATION
SITUATION Check-in Staff:Enter Gate Staff Check:
•Pax Name * ACTUAL BAGS/PAX
Baggage Handler Manually: •Boarding Pass Validity. COUNT IN SYSTEM MUST
■Reads Pax Name •Destination Flight No. •Pax. Name
• *" Pax. Declares No. Of Bags in TALLY WITH DCS BAG COUNT
■Reads Destination Flight No. •Destination Flight No. & BOARDING PASS IDENTITY
■Counts No. Of Bags Transit OR •Total No. Of Bags in
•Recod© Baggage - NEW • ** Pax, Enters transfer bags Transii
Tag Issued from reclaim
•Boarding Pass Issued. IF NO PAX THEN NO BAG ON
FLIGHT POLICY
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lATA Airport Baggage Handling
In accordance with the Passenger Services Conference Resolution Manual, Resolution 739 —
Baggage Security Control (Expiry Indefinite) states that:
Where permitted, transfer passenger hold baggage may be processed entirely in the baggage hall
or may be deposited onto a transfer baggage reclaim unit (where in some geographical locations it
should then be reunited with the passenger). In this latter variant the passenger is then required to
check-in their hold baggage again. All transfer baggage (international and domestic) should be
processed through hold baggage screening equipment. Baggage is then sorted either manually or
automatically to an early baggage store or to the flight chutes, laterals, or departures racetracks.
Baggage is often loaded into the aircraft while passengers are being checked at the gate. It is therefore
only at the point at which the flight is closed to passengers and baggage that full reconciliation of
bag to passenger lists can occur within the DCS and baggage control systems. In practice the DCS
is checking off passengers all of the time while the flight is open. The table in FIG. U3-3 is a simple
example of a DCS data table which will be dynamically updated until the flight is formerly closed.
With reference to FIG. U3-3, and in the situation where the flight is still open, then only Mrs. Z will
create a problem in that 3 bags have been allocated to her name in the DCS and could have been
loaded while only 2 bags were checked-in. Too many bags are potentially within the aircraft hold and
all of Mrs. Z’s bags must be removed from the aircraft and validated to get the correct bag count and
bags-per-passenger ratio. Mr. X may be somewhere within the terminal but has not boarded the
aircraft, this is not a problem at this instance. The table is constantly checked by a computer program
until the flight is technically closed and where a final full analysis is done.
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® Manual coding.
It is recommended that, where injection into an automatic sortation system is required, conveyor
speeds are not greater than 0.3m/s. This recommended injection rate will avoid aggressive bag
snatching as bags are loaded onto the conveyor. The conveyor itself should have markings to denote
the injection window size so that operators load within the correct injection window. This takes pressure
of the baggage system downstream so that system dieback is limited.
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
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Obviously, the airport and the airline would rather the passenger check their baggage within the usual
2 or 3 hour window prior to departure time to enable them to process baggage in a ‘just in time’
fashion. When bags are checked in early they occupy space and also engender an added security
risk to the airport and to the airline in question. The instant the bag gets into the baggage system it
is the responsibility of the airline, in partnership with the airport operator (owner of the baggage
system), to ensure that the contents of the bag are kept secure and ultimately delivered appropriately.
Obviously the longer the bag is in storage the more opportunity there is for a problem to arise with
the bag. Also, the space occupied by the bag equates to a direct cost to provide that sortation/storage
space.
On the assumption that baggage must be stored in significant volumes for significant periods of time,
the airport operator and the airlines are then confronted with the question of how best to store and
process (sort) this ‘early’ baggage. The bulk of this early baggage will be transfer baggage which
should be processed using the principles defined within Section U3. There are essentially two options
available for processing early baggage and these are defined within subsequent clauses U4.2 and
U4.3.
Alternatively, and depending on the volume of early bags, it is also possible to manually sort baggage
on an appropriately designed open platform. This is also often done as a temporary measure and is
not recommended, as it can lead to the violation of screening protocols. Additionally, manual handling
regulations can be violated as the operation is manually intensive with larger distances being covered
by baggage staff to move baggage around the platform area. A solution to this dilemma has been
to move baggage using electro-mechanical lifting equipment approved for use within the airport
environment. However the cost of this type of equipment usually equates closely to the cost to provide
a solution as recommended in Fig U4-1 for lower throughput early baggage storage solutions.
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A À
I ^ On-load
><* I
Flight \
_HBS \ Bags to
Early Transfer In-bound Bags Tag
■Process'’ Open Flights
Reader/
^Nc
No Reads Coded
Early Bags from Check-in Early
Bags
j Manual
; Coding
Notes:-
Denotes a Pusher Unit
manually operated via Push Button Sort (Manual)
push button
PLC
System
TIME OR
-(Flight 7
Flight Make-up ,C^
FLIGHT f
Secure
Storage /
!^
I Flight Make-up Holding
Area
Out-bound Bag Tugs and Dollies Capacity ! 4
< 1000Bags
{F light 'c } i. _ _ ,
Flight Make-up
The effective automatic early baggage store will be able to dynamically operate and switch between
modes of sortation (by time and by flight) to maximize the effectiveness of the early baggage sortation
equipment.
IMPORTANT NOTE: It is important to ensure that if an early baggage system uses a tilt tray sorter
to manage baggage flow, the sorter must be separate to any sorter used for true flight sortation. See
Fig U4-2 for best practice principle.
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
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At the stand, the hold of the aircraft is opened as appropriate and the arriving bags are removed.
The in-bound aircraft itinerary will usually identify sections within the hold which are attributed to mail,
light cargo, final destination baggage and transfer baggage. This identification considerably improves
(shortens) the connection time for transfer baggage without the need for manual sortation of baggage
on or close to the stand.
It is important that airline and handling agent resources are optimized fully and for this reason alone,
decentralized arrivals baggage (final/transfer) sortation on stands is NOT a recommended practice.
Arrivals baggage should be removed from the aircraft and stand area as quickly and as safely as
possible. Arrival baggage should be then be taken to one of the following locations depending on the
technology being proposed:
The vehicular movement of arriving final destination and transfer baggage produces a high percentage
of the total of airside traffic. Since this arriving and transfer baggage traffic is often completely funded
and managed by the airlines, it is in their interests to seek either efficient vehicle routes and/or be
provided with effective baggage handling equipment (which as an alternative can remove the need
for the majority of these baggage movement vehicles). With reference to Fig U5-1 and Fig U5-2, Mid
Field Pier baggage injection points can, where economically justified, present a useful mechanism
which ultimately can reduce the flow of baggage movement vehicles on the apron. The most common
and simplistic approach is for arriving baggage to be transferred from Point A to Point C entirely by
baggage tugs and dollies, though this not necessarily the best solution.
lATA Airport Baggage Handling
TERMINAL
Processing Point ‘C’
BUILDING Location Option:
ARRIVALS Main Arrivals Terminal
HALL Roller Conveyor <c
A
Aircraft to Processing Point
Movement Technologies
(i) Baggage Tugs and Dollies
OR Aircraft Point A to Processing Point B
(ii) DCV Type 1 or Type 2; Movement Technologies:
OR (i) Baggage Tug and Dollies
(iii) Tilt Tray Sorters/Conveyors
Processing Point ‘B’
B Location Option:
Mid Field Pier
C ODED Baggage Injection
PIER Conveyors TO
(ii) D CV Type 1 or Type 2
II (iii) Tilt Tray Sorters/Conveyors
PIER
MULTIPLE
A/C STANDS
It is recommended that where a DCV system has been selected for the departures baggage handling
systems, in accordance with Section U2, that the baggage handling designer should also consider
the merits of the use of the same DCV hardware for the processing of arriving final destination or
arriving transfer baggage between Points B to C.
Alternatively tilt tray sorters leading to conveyors can be used between Points B and C where the
case can be financially justified.
The diagram in Fig. U5-2 defines the routes and processing options available for arriving transfer
baggage. Refer to Section U3 for further details on the processing of transfer baggage within
international airports.
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<S
PIER
MULTIPLE
A/C STANDS
624
KATA Airport Baggage Handling
The costs associated with providing baggage handling staff, often on shift 20 hours a day, 365 days
a year (airport specific observation), for 15 years can be substantial, as can the cost to provide and
maintain DCV or Tilt Tray Sorter equipment for the same period. It will be essential to assess the
true full costs taking into account not only the capital expenditure and running cost but also the
operational costs of both manual and automatic solutions.
The two main operational advantages with the automatic solution are that the baggage connection
times are usually improved and the airside traffic volume is significantly reduced.
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The most effective way to do this is to code baggage as it is loaded into the system at Point B, either
in flight batches (preferred solution) or one by one as they are removed from the aircraft. The bags
are not allocated a new tag but are merely injected onto sorters with corresponding inbound flight
codes and tracked on the discrete DCV carts or sorter trays. The coded carts/trays then dump off
the bags at the correct output, whether it be a passenger reclaim reconciliation device or a transfer
processing point.
The reclaim unit (See Fig. U5-3) is a closed loop conveyor running at a constant speed, which should
be designed to function safely in the passenger environment with all the necessary mechanical and
electrical protection, start up and shut down warnings and emergency stops. The conveying surface
can be either semi-inclined or horizontal and should have a velocity of >0.15m/s <0.3m/s. It is the
recommended technical solution for most inbound passenger baggage reconciliation. Please refer to
section F9 for details pertaining to the spacing of these units within the arrival terminal complex.
lATA Airport Baggage Handling
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The required presentation length of the reclaim will be dependent on the following variables:
• Passenger arrival profile from piers (function of stand distance andpassenger travel speeds).
• Baggage delivery profile from aircraft (function of stand distance and baggage movement
technology and speed employed).
Passenger
Reclaim Loader Staff
Aircraft Type Presentation Reclaim Bag
and Flight(s) Length Loading
Serviced (X4,X5,X6) Length (X2) Comments/Recommendations
(1 Off) Wide > 70m < 90m > 20m < 40m Upper limits should be used where
Body Aircraft the bag to passenger ratio are often
> 1.5 Bags / Passenger
(1-2 Off) > 40m < 70m > 20m < 30m Upper limits should be used where
Narrow Body the bag to passenger ratios are often
Aircraft > 1.5 Bags / Passenger
Upper limits should be used where
two business type flights are
allocated to a single reclaim.
In situations where more than two reclaim units are proposed, it is recommended that the arrivals
reclaim area be simulated using passenger movement simulation software (See Section F9.10.6.
Number of Baggage Claim Units). This will allow the presentation length to be fine tuned to the precise
characteristics of the arriving passengers profile and the arriving baggage profile, which all have a
part to play in the effective dynamics of the arrivals area. The number of reclaim units required at
any one time will be a function of the arriving flight schedule and will likely vary according to the time
of day and season.
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
FREE ROLLERS
f
; U5.1R1 Use of DCVs for Arriving Baggage
It is recommended that where a DCV system has been selected for the departures baggage
handling system, in accordance with Section U2, that the baggage handling designer should
also consider the merits of the use of the same DCV hardware for the processing of arriving
final destination or arriving transfer baggage between Points B to C, as defined within Fig. ’s
\ U5-1 and U5-2.
At the onset, a decision needs to be made concerning the PLC system selection. A number of factors
should influence this, such as:
• Spares holding.
• Familiarity maintenance and supplier.
• Standardised software.
• Inter networking.
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In this approach a PLC is selected to control a part of the system consistent with the control
requirements, the PLC’s capabilities, and the system availability. Local control panels containing
motor controls, local operator controls and an I/O module are located adjacent to each piece of
equipment. Vendor independent networking standards such as the Profibus Field Bus support this
approach, with high speed robust communication supported by many vendors of PLC and I/O alike.
This modular approach can be adapted to fit most standard control requirements, with a selection of
as few as five different standard designs for a local control panel (all based on the same concept).
One variant is illustrated in Fig. U6-2, below.
PLC
System
Area Control
Panel
Field
Devi''“ c
Motor Profibus Field
Control I/O ? Devices •jcannefjl Scanner
C on^ iio r i
Profibus Scan Scannerfca Scanner
To RS232 Controller
Scanner ba Scanner
Scanner M Scanner
---1
--- ----1
---
This approach delivers advantages in terms of reduced installation time, since pre-assembly and
wiring can be carried out before arriving at site (with site based activity only requiring network, power
and a limited number of interlock connections). This approach also delivers a superior maintenance
regime in that all required controls for maintenance purposes are located adjacent to the item of
equipment. Finally, the approach is very modular in that the addition of new equipment requires only
a new local control panel and limited interconnections. It also simplifies the addition of further control
devices such as photo electric cells that may be required after the initial installation is completed.
Due to vendor independence this emerging standard is also likely to facilitate vendor independence
at the baggage equipment supplier level, providing a few standards are set such as the selected field
bus.
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/ATA Airport Baggage Handling
116.3 COMMUNICATIONS
Although the primary purpose of a control system is obviously to control the equipment, in doing so
significant amounts of data regarding the operation of the equipment or system is also generated.
Such data may be instantaneous status or fault information, but may also be longer term data such
as throughputs.
These types of data needs to be communicated to systems other than the PLC systems, where it
can be used effectively for operational support and decision making purposes. This requires support
of communications standards to allow the data to be used elsewhere. The de facto standard across
most industries is the TCP/IP protocol, which forms the backbone of the internet. Because of its very
large vendor independent uptake it has come to form a standard supported by the vast majority of
manufacturers. This is also true of PLC systems.
Current best practice is clearly that the PLC systems which form a control system are networked
together using TCP/IP over an ethernet network. Although it is still necessary to have implementations
of vendor specific protocols to allow full communication, TCP/IP on ethernet commonly forms the
interconnection basis for control systems and their supervisory IT systems.
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U7.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N
Management Information Systems or MIS for short is used to describe many widely and varied
functions pertaining to baggage handling systems. This article aims to cover the specific functions
which reside under the umbrella term MIS, together with some recommendations.
The generic software package used to build an application specific MDS has generally been known
as a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system. For these reasons MDS systems are
often known as SCADA systems. Apart from collection of real time information, these systems will
often collect historic and trend information that is useful for the management of the baggage system.
Such data can vary widely depending on the make up of the baggage system, any service level
agreements (SLAs), management methods, etc. For this reason there has generally not been a
specific software package designed to meet these requirements; the most common solution is a
database system of a level appropriate to the volumes of data and the required analysis methods.
IA T A Airport Baggage Handling
An application may require some specific features of a SCADA package in addition to the basic
features that all such packages provide. Such additional requirements should be defined and should
be one of the key considerations in selection of the package.
It is often a requirement at larger airports, where there may be more than one distinct baggage facility,
that the MDS systems can be linked together to provide the advantages of an overall supervision
opportunity. This type of integration is generally far more easily achieved when the software package
used for each area is the same, and should therefore be a significant factor in software selection.
A strategy for enhanced system availability should also be considered. This would typically consist
of a hot standby system which remains in operation, and which is capable of taking over automatically
from a failed master system. There are however a number of means to achieve enhanced availability
— a number of which are package specific. All of this suggests that the requirement for back up in
the event of failure needs to be considered and measured against the provisions of any selected
software package.
Many SCADA packages provide the means of adding additional user workstations to allow multiple
personnel to access the MDS functions. These might range from additional full network workstations
to some additional software to allow any computer to be used over a dial up or internet connection.
Again, the requirements in this respect will give additional guidance in the selection of an optimum
approach.
s a ta Airport Development Reference Manual
U 7 .3 .2 in fo rm a tio n S y s te m
The selection of the approach chosen for the information system will depend on many factors, such
as:
® Anticipated volume of data.
• Data integrity.
Solutions at this level vary from a simple spreadsheet through to a full relational database management
system (RDBMS). Both are valid approaches depending on the requirements of the application.
Generally the data that is sourced for an information system will come from the MDS system if it is
baggage system operational data. Often data is also required to be sourced from the sort allocation
computer (SAC) in order that baggage data can be added to system data. Other forms of input such
as a manual interface with other systems may be required to complete the data set required for
management information. The first step is obviously to define the data required in this respect and
where it will come from. The selected approach for the information system must then account for its
ability to interface with the defined data sources.
The requirement to define standard reports which can be easily produced should be considered
together with any need to have them automatically produced. This will be a factor in selection of the
approach.
It is often beneficial to have a tool which allows new ad hoc reports to be easily configured. This type
of mechanism allows the larger volumes of data acquired to be processed to provide meaningful
information — without having to manually analyze large volumes of data. Data manipulation also
impacts this selection criteria. Each potential approach is likely to offer tools for data manipulation;
these need to be considered for their flexibility against the intended use.
The availability of skilled resources also needs to be considered as some approaches do not require
high degrees of computer literacy, whereas others, although probably more flexible, require significant
computer knowledge.
In view of the cost reduction over recent years, and the availability of such software for PC platforms,
the relational database management system has become the most popular approach. This approach
generally provides very good flexibility in terms of data handling using the industry standard SQL
language, and also is generally capable of handling very large volumes of data. Support for many
such products is also available which makes using the database simpler and therefore requires less
computer literacy to use effectively.
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
— Required features.
— Software standardization.
— Integration with other facilities.
— Required availability.
— Number and format of displays.
© In selecting the information system approach consider;
— Anticipated volume of data.
— Report generation capabilities required.
— Data manipulation requirements.
— Data integrity.
— Interfaces with other systems for data collection.
— Available resource skills.
© Consider RDBMS systems for information management and reporting.
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U8.1 OVERVIEW
The quantity of oversized baggage at airports can be substantial, and therefore the systems that
process them needs to be proportionally sized and correctly positioned. It is important to note that
all baggage, including oversized baggage, should be screened in accordance with the requirements
of Section 1)11. Oversized baggage comes in two distinct categories: (i) conveyable and (ii) Non
conveyable. Refer to section 1)1 for terminal-specific baggage size clarification in this regard.
The proportions of conveyable and non conveyable baggage will vary, and each airport operation
will have its own profile which should be established before proceeding to design the oversized
baggage facility. It is important to design flexibility and operational convenience into the oversized
baggage system for the airlines and their passengers.
A passenger will, in most cases, present themselves at the standard gauge check-in facility, even if
there is clear signage close to the passenger queue to direct them to the oversized baggage check
in facility. The reality is that passengers with oversized baggage will likely queue in standard gauge
passenger lines until directed to oversized baggage processing areas.
Oversized baggage needs to be weighed and baggage tags (Bar-code/RFID) need to be affixed to
oversized bag. It will be important for the oversized check-in desks to be fitted with computer peripherals
which will allow each participating airline user to access their respective Departures Control System
(DCS) software.
• General Maximum Conveyor Characteristics (unless specified within U8.3) should align with
Clauses U2.2, U2.3 and U2.5.
• Where powered belt bends must be used they should have a bend radius of > 1.775m as defined
within Clause U2.9.2.
® Inclines and declines should be < 16 Degrees for Oversized Baggage Routes.
Hardware requirements: Check-in Desks with DCS Access / Bag Weigh Scales/ Delivery Conveyors
Between Check-in and Baggage Hall / Oversized Hold Baggage Screening Area/Flight make-up Area.
It is usually more common for arriving oversized baggage to be taken directly from the aircraft —
Point A to the arrivals free roller conveyors — Point C (Refer to FIG.s U5-1 and U5-2) using tugs
and dollies only.
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U8»5 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
U9.1 INTRODUCTION
Sort allocation (SAC) system is a generic term describing the various baggage IT systems associated
with bag routing and tracking. It is based on the IATA baggage license plate and baggage messages.
IATA recommended practices (RPs) 740 and 1745 respectively apply. This article provides some
general operational description of such systems together with general good practice
recommendations.
The SAC system process starts when a passenger checks in. Through this process the check-in
operator makes entries to the airline’s departure control system (DCS). The DCS deals with many
aspects of the check-in process, one of which is to produce a license plate code. The license plate
code is a 10 digit number which is printed onto the baggage tag in the form of a human readable
number and a bar code. This code is detailed in IATA recommended practice number 740. The DCS
also generates a message known as the baggage source message (BSM), in accordance with IATA
RP1745.
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The BSM is passed onto the SAC system (among other systems). The BSM contains a selection of
information, part of which is the flight number and the license plate code, which enable the SAC
system to match a bag to a flight. The SAC system also requires some means of acquiring the flight
schedule, such that it has details of all departing flights. In addition it needs a means to acquire or
define an allocation of make up chutes or laterals within the baggage system to the departing flights.
This mechanism allows the SAC system to translate the flight number which is gains from the BSM
into a make up destination for the bag.
BSM Table
V 7
Flight Table
m License i i nr>/-sD 1nt/A Flight No ^
Flight No
Chute --------^ PLC
PLO
Plate M ig h t n o Chute
.
License
Plate
BCR
L1
The sorting process is therefore as shown above. A bag’s license plate is read from the bag within
the baggage system via a bar code reader (BCR). Generally the bar code reader would be connected
to a PLC control system, which is responsible for conveyor control and bag tracking on the conveyors.
The bag’s license plate is therefore passed to the PLC. The PLC is in turn connected to the SAC
system (the PLC therefore provides a license plate code to the SAC system). The SAC system, using
the mechanisms described above, can then determine which make up the bag should go to and
replies to the PLC with this destination. The PLC system can then route the bag accordingly.
SAC systems are also often called upon to manage early bag stores with management methods
determined to suit the form of store. As a minimum the SAC system is usually required to track bags
within the early bag store (EBS) and determine when they should be retrieved from the store to go
to their designated make up position.
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SATA Airport Baggage Handling
The diagram above illustrates how the message distribution system can significantly simplify the
required connectivity between SAC DCS and other systems. This situation gets more complicated
when other baggage systems, at the same airport and with their own SAC, are considered.
Message distribution systems simplify the interconnectivity between these systems. They also provide
algorithms for filtering messages based on their contents to ensure that only the right messages get
to the right place. When transfer systems are considered, the issue of filtering becomes even more
important. If message filtering and routing is not implemented then each system is likely to need to
handle significantly more messages than it actually needs. This is due to it receiving messages for
bags that will never pass through the given facility.
Message distribution is generally a function provided by another computer system outside the scope
of the SAC system.
Handling of early and late bags should be considered to determine whether different handling is
required or appropriate.
The speed of the sorting function within the SAC is often very important since bag bar codes are
read while the bag is moving. There is generally a time between the bar code reading point and the
first route decision within the sort process. The time the SAC system takes to process the license
plate code is important. A general guide for this time would be a worst case of 1 to 2 seconds.
b a ta Airport Development Reference Manual
U9.3.4 M I S In te rfa c e
SAC systems are generally not permanently manned as an MIS system usually is. If the SAC system
therefore develops an operational fault, it may be some time before this is realized and perhaps too
late to prevent significant service disruption. For this reason the SAC system is usually interfaced
with the MIS system in order to provide (as a minimum) details of its status and that of its critical
interfaces with other systems.
Consider for example a failure of the interface with the BSM provider (DCS or MDS). No immediate
effect is likely to be witnessed within the system, however since no new BSMs would be received at
some point no further bags can be sorted. This time delay varies with the application, for departure
applications this time might be measured in minutes but for transfer baggage applications the time
would normally be measured in hours.
Interface with the MIS system can also allow additional baggage data to be passed to the MIS for
inclusion in its management information reporting. Such a requirements should also be considered
at the planning stage.
U9.3.5 Reports
SAC systems will tend to contain data pertaining to individual bags that have passed through the
system. This data is often beneficial when made available in the form of reports. This might be to
determine the last known location of a specific bag or a report of the bags for an entire flight. There
are many report possibilities based around the basic data that a SAC system will tend to hold, and
consideration should be given to the type of reporting that will be required to support the operation.
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Within a complex flight schedule determining multiple allocations and other forms of overlap can be
difficult, and the tool which provides chute allocation should provide some means to determine this.
A number of graphical tools which show the allocations as a form of Gantt chart are finding favour
due to the ease with which the schedule can be visualized. Storage of schedules with allocations
pertaining to each day of the week is also useful and takes advantage of the repeatable nature of
flight schedules and therefore the allocations.
Generally both cases will be experienced within any system and as such provision is required to
handle such bags. The usual solution is to provide a means to manually code the bag. This would
typically be part of the SAC system and consist of a hand held scanner to allow an operator to hand
scan the bag tag. If the reason for not being able to sort a bag is because the BSM has not been
received, then scanning the bag tag will not resolve the bag’s destination. In such cases the manual
coding station must allow the bag to be routed based on other criteria, this will generally be the flight
number or a direct assignment to a make up position.
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U9.IR1 The following defines the SATA recommendations for the instances !
that a SAC is required.
Consider the implementation of the following pointswhen planning andimplementing a SAC ;
system: |
© Bag sorting function requirements. j
• Bag tracking requirements. j
! © System availability.
I © MIS system interface.
\ © Reports required.
i © Chute allocation.
| © Chute monitors.
I & Manual bag coding.
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The following functions should be accommodated by most baggage halls, though variations will occur
depending on the size and complexity of the airport:
Lighting Levels: All baggage hall areas should be illuminated to achieve 500 LUX (loading dock as
reference plane) with the exception of the bar-code reading stations, which should illuminated to
achieve < 300 LUX (conveyor belt /sorter as the reference plane).
Noise Levels: Baggage handling equipment and operations are inherently noisy. It is however possible
to select baggage handling equipment which will run more quietly than other variants. Baggage
handling designers should aim to select baggage handling equipment which runs as quietly as possible
when balanced against operational objectives. The final installed facility should, when operational,
have an ambient noise level of < 68 dB(A) over frequency range of 60-8000 Hz when measured at
a point 1m from any operational baggage handling conveyor/sorter/DCV device. The sound profiles
from loading baggage from conveyors to dollies and the movement of tugs and dollies generally
should not be considered in the measurement of the ambient noise level.
Baggage handling equipment should be fitted with anti-vibration mountings to absorb and dissipate
vibration and thus remove any resultant sound signatures.
Architects should specify sound absorbing vertical building surfaces wherever practically possible,
which should also be robust for the arduous environment. This should absorb sound rather than
reflect it around the features of the baggage hall.
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Ventilation: Baggage handling equipment (conveyors, sorters, DCVs, vehicles, computing equipment,
power distribution cabinets, X-ray machines, etc.) all dissipate heat, and so do all the workers that
operate within the environment. This heat energy level needs to be controlled and comfortable with
effective temperatures and ventilation rates achieved. The following recommended parameters should
be used for the baggage hall in general:
Maintenance Vertical
Personnel Clearance Plan Width (M) Clearance
Description (X1) (Y1 ) Comments
A) Conveyors Units > 1m < 1.5m > 1.8m < 2.1m 1m (X1) Clearance Is
General Requirement Either
Side Of Conveyors. 1.5m
Recommended At Drive
Locations On One Side
Only
B) Sorters/DCV > 1m < 2m > 1.8m < 2.1m Variations Will Occur See
Manufacturer Specifications
C) All Other Support > 1m < 2m > 1.8m < 2.1m Variations Will Occur See
Conveying Equipment (Refer to Manufacturer Specifications
Hardware. Equipment
Specifications)
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lATA Airport Baggage Handling
X1 (Drives)
Y1
X1
CONTAINER LOADING:
Y3 = Y4 + (0.1m =>0.2m)
Y5
Y4= MOST COMMON
CONTAINER UNLOADING:
DOLLEY HEIGHT
NOTE: Y3 = Y4 - (0.1m =>0.2m)
(R E F E R T O AIRLINES)
DATUM
may vary
locally
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It is essential that baggage is not lifted but is moved from an initial higher height to a lower final
height (refer to dimensions Y3 and Y4 within Fig. U10-1), and that the human body is not performing
a twist operation during the baggage moving process. The baggage Forces and Moments exerted
on the human body during the typical baggage movement process can be substantial, it is for this
reason that the distance between conveyors/laterals/chutes/racetracks and the containers needs to
be controlled using loading/unloading docks (refer to dimensions X4 and Y2 within Fig. U10-1).
Where Oversized Baggage is moved by baggage handlers, mechanized assisting baggage movement
aids should be provided to a design and operational protocol approved and agreed by both the local
health and safety advisor and airline(s) heath and safety representative.
Loading docks are also required as a protection device and should remove the possibility of baggage
tugs and dollies encroaching on the area designated for baggage loaders/un-loaders.
Slopes within the baggage hall should be controlled such that gradients should be < 5°.
U 1 0 .5 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
rh
I U10.IR4 Baggage Hall Health and Safety
The baggage handling designer and Architect should adhere to the baggage half heath and
' safety recommendations defined within Clause U10.4 plus any national legislation in this regard.
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IAT A Airport Baggage Handling
It is recommended that the process to screen all hold baggage should be made completely apparent
to all departing passengers using appropriately positioned signage. The precise machine types,
models and processes used in the HBS process should not be communicated to passengers or
persons within the terminal in any way.
IATA recommends that all HBS activities (excluding Level 5 status baggage disposal) are completed
within the confines of the baggage hall in centralised screening facilities.
sata Airport Development Reference Manual
Cleared Baggage
Definition of Screening Directed to: (Target % Reject Baggage Directed
HBS LEVEL # Within Level of Baggage) to:
1 Fully Automatic Explosive Automatic or Manual HBS Level 2
Detection System (EDS) — Baggage Sortation (30% of Total Flow)
inline X-ray Machine. System
(70% of Total Flow)
2 Staff Operated X-ray Automatic or Manual HBS Level 3
Screening image Processor Baggage Sortation (5% of Total Flow)
workstation using enhanced System
Image Processing software. (25% of Total Flow)
(Notes Level 2 images are
obtained at Level 1 EDS
machine then should be
reprocessed)
3 CT X-Ray Machine Automatic or Manual Reconciliation of Higher
Or Baggage Sortation Threat Status Baggage
Staff Operated Electronic System with Passenger
Trace Detection (ETD) (4.8% of Total Flow) (0.2% Of Total Flow)
System.
(NOTE Level 2 reject Image
replicated at Level 3 position
in parallel to ETD system)
4 Reconciliation of Threat Automatic or Manual Very High threat Baggage
Baggage with Passenger Baggage Sortation Sent to Baggage Bomb
(Pax and Bag Brought to System Disposal Unit.
Special Area) Passenger (0.19999998% of Total (0.00000002% of Total
asked to account for threat Flow) Flow)
image and ETD trace
presence concern.
Passenger asked to Open
Bag
5 (TERMINAL Bomb Disposal Unit Called to Bag Destroyed N/A
EVACUATION Dispose of Baggage which (0.00000002% of Tota!
LIKELY) cannot be reunited with Flow)
Passenger
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
Stage 1 — Confirm Peak Hour Rate for baggage to be screened in final design year for facility.
Stage 2 — Select correct number of EDS/CT/ETD equipment to cope with Peak Hour Rate.
Stage 3 — Add route and EDS machine capability (redundancy) to cope with planned or unplanned
EDS equipment maintenance and compliance of Service Level Agreements (SLAs) negotiated
between airlines and the airport operator.
Stage 4 — Ensure that input and output routes from the HBS facility meet with the User Requirements
Specification developed for the project.
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From
Check-in
X L1/L2
Cleared
Baggage
-•HXuf t
I L1 Cleared
L1
L1 Load Share L1 Rejected
Verti-Sorter X-Ray Baggage Mix
#N
L2
Rejected
Baggage
Denotes L2 L2
W/Stn .0 W/Stn
Verti-Sorter
#1 #2
Denotes
Decision L2 L2
Point
W/Stn W/Stn
#3 #N
Potentially Remote Networked
Level 2 Workstations
With this principle Level 1 cleared baggage is mixed with Level 1 rejected baggage after the Level
1 decision point. All baggage within this critical section should be accurately tracked to ensure validity
of bag position and security status. Level 2 bag images are analysed while in transit to the Level 2
decision point using a matrix arrangement of Level 2 workstations (see Fig U11-4). At the Level 2
decision point the bag is then cleared for sortation or is rejected at Level 2 and declared a Level 3
bag and sent to the Level 3 centralized area. It is important to note that the Level 1 process should
be fully automatic and reliant on internal Level 1 software to decide if baggage should be rejected
and sent to Level 2. Level 2 inspection should be done by an operator using enhanced reprocessed
and re-manipulated images obtained from Level 1 equipment. Each Level 2 image should be capable
of being manually inspected by an operator for at least 5 seconds before being timed out. If a Level
2 decision has not been made by a Level 2 operator then the default condition should be to automatically
default to Level 3 for that bag. Operators at Level 3 should be provided with the final image produced
at Level 2 to support the detection process at Level 3.
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SATA Airport Baggage Handling
« n i “1 J m ■HR
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
Is
i i
Photo courtesy o f Reveal — CT80 See Note (i) Photo courtesy o f L3 Communications- eXm nr 3D X 6000
Notes:
(i) Reveal CT80 model: TSA explosives detection certification process planned for March 2004
(correct at time of going to press).
(ii) TSA certified CT manufacturers models include: InVision CTX5000 and CTX9000 and L3
Communications eXmnr 3DX 6000 (correct at time of going to press).
U 1 1 .4 I AT A RECOMMENDATIONS
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IATA Airport Baggage Handling
• Departures Passengers.
• Transfer (in transit) Passengers.
IATA recommends the optional use of Passenger Risk Assessment (PRA) techniques at the locations
defined within figure U12-1 and figure U12-2. PRA allows the airport to assign the correct proportion
of security scrutiny to those passengers which have been identified to be of higher risk, while the
majority of passengers will experience normal levels of adequate pre-board security. Although the
overall passenger processing time marginally increases for all passengers using this method, the
increase in security performance is substantial and focused on where the risk is evaluated to potentially
reside.
The use of random 5% and 10% searches for passengers and their hand baggage is commonly used
in many areas of the world. IATA recommends that the random sample is determined by means of
a computer program. The random sample of searched passengers and their baggage should be
taken over a 24-hour repeating cycle and should not be unnaturally biased toward any one particular
part of the operational day. It should be noted that the % of random manual searches of passengers
and hand bags will normally increase with higher national threat levels.
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It can be seen in figure U12-1 and figure U12-2 that the grey diamond denotes the position of potential
passenger risk assessment points which are optional. At these junctions the airport security staff can
ask selected questions to all passengers which will be designed to ascertain the level of risk of the
passenger. The security staff can then direct the passenger and any hand baggage to appropriate
passenger and hand baggage screening.
Figure U12-2 shows a typical departures and transfer passenger screening process map at a low,
much more detailed level, where all of the inter-relationships between the process steps are clearly
shown. It can also be seen that once the passenger and their hand baggage has been screened,
the task of reunification becomes quite complex. It is very important that staff and passengers have
adequate space and passengers have clear instructions on where they should go. It is recommended
that the security operation is covered by high resolution, digital closed-circuit television (CCTV)
cameras. Security staff should be able to review the last 24 hours of media on demand in the security
screening control room. This ability to review historic passenger movements within the security area
¡ATA Airport Baggage Handling
is particularly useful when trying to resolve situations where a passenger has picked up a wrong bag
by genuine mistake or when a theft has occurred. One practical and simple solution to aid the correct
connection between passenger and their corresponding bag is to give the passenger a numbered
token which relates to a correspondingly numbered goods tray. It is also extremely useful for ongoing
security training purposes.
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662
lATA Airport Baggage Handling
Mechanized
Clear / Reject
Separation
Conveyor
“Knife Edge”
Design
Reject hand
baggage search Glazed screen to protect
table area. passenger from conveyors though
allow visibility of bag routes and
Optional to have permit correct level of passenger
reject image access to various baggage status.
replicated at
search point.
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U 1 2 .5 P A S S E N G E R SEARCHES
U125.1 A b le B o d ie d P a s s e n g e r Searches
When planning the detailed layout of the search area is it recommended that the following search
sequence for passengers is observed:
IMPORTANT NOTE: Where random searches of passengers are required then security staff should
be instructed by means of an illuminated ‘reject passenger’ light which should be driven by either the
detection equipment or by a device which will truly and randomly inform staff of which passengers
should be searched, measured over the 24-hour day.
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U12.5.2 D is a b le d P a s s e n g e r S e a rc h e s
Passengers who are blind or unable to walk should not be processed through archway metal detectors.
These disabled passengers should be scanned using hand held metal detectors and then processed
from stage 3a onward as defined in clause U12.5.1 above. All other categories of disabled passengers
should be searched using the total process steps 1 to 4 inclusive as defined in U12.4.1 above.
U12.5.3 In fa n ts a n d in fa n t B u g g ie s
Infants under the age of 2 should be held by their parent/guardian and then processed using the total
process steps 1 to 4 inclusive as defined in U12.4.1 above. Buggies should be screened using
Electronic Trace Detection Equipment. Able bodied infants that are over 2 years are assumed to be
able to walk and should be treated as adult passengers, though search of infants must always be
conducted with either their parents or guardian present. Infants should not be subjected to optional
AMD equipment which has particle analysis capability as this can be too stressful for young children.
Where particle analysis checks on children are recommended the use of hand held Electronic Trace
Detection Equipment should be used.
U 1 2 .6 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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IATA
667
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IATA
V 1.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N
Joint participation by the airport authority and the airlines in the initial stages of the planning process
is indispensable to the development of a successful design programme. Early evaluations of airport
projects will reduce the number of changes to the final programme and thereby minimize increased
design costs. Such action will also contribute to the probability of meeting scheduled completion
dates.
The ultimate cost of any new or expanded facility, both in terms of capital expenditure and resulting
annual user charges, will depend to a large extent on the size of the facility and the complexity of
the project to deliver it; it is important that an accurate assessment of the required dimensions is
made in the early planning stages, and suggested that planners should review the IATA APEM
document methodology which defines detailed recommended project management activities for airport
development projects.
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¥ 1.2 P R O B L E M IDENTIFICATION
An existing and diligent airport operation will continuously be looking closely at the capabilities of its
infrastructure and its ability to process passengers, freight and mail. Due to the nature of flight
schedules it is quite straightforward to foresee if a capacity problem is going to manifest itself at some
point in the future. Once identified, these problems could result in expansion projects, new terminal
builds, or as a first choice the improvement of an operational process which resolves the problem
without the need to build a new facility.
It will be essential for airport operators to examine the true origins of any identified operational or
capacity problem and then solve the underlying problem, assessing the perceived longevity of the
problem and ensuring that best practice is adhered to at all times.
¥ 1 .3 A S S E S S M E N T O F E X IS T IN G C O N D IT IO N S A N D IN ¥ E N T O R Y
The initial stage in correcting any issue is to reflect upon existing conditions and inventory. This stage
enables the planner to assess the starting point of the programme that will be initiated to correct the
stated issue or problem.
¥ 1 .3 .1 Physical Facilities
The most obvious step is an inventory of the physical facilities currently constructed. Depending on
the identified problem this inventory may include the number of gates, processing facilities (i.e. check
in facilities and security), the size of arrivals hall and their resultant processing capability, etc.
¥1.3.2 Operational S y s te m s
Equally as important as the physical characteristics of the building and its infrastructure, a good
understanding and appreciation of how the systems operate within the limits of these physical
structures is also required. Operational data and other elements such as passenger flows and
operational procedures should be fully understood. Airports should request information from airlines
and tenants who can provide good statistical data that will indicate levels of past performance.
¥1.3.3 C o n s tra in ts
A preliminary listing of the constraints on the system should be identified at this stage. Constraints
are to be investigated on two levels: the first being restrictions that may limit the extent of any
future development and the second being issues that are currently constraining the airport capacity.
Identifying these issues will allow a more focused concept development programme, as limits will
have already been set by this constraint investigation exercise.
¥ 1 .3 .4 S im u la tio n
When assessing operational ‘dynamic’ systems/airport processes, simulation tools such as lATA’s
Total AirportSim should be used to optimise existing facilities, evaluating saturation conditions when
interaction between subsystems and overflow conditions are likely. With simulation packages and
studies the ‘What if’ scenarios can be effectively simulated and subsequently assessed, the results
of which can be used as a basis for future planning activities.
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V 1 .4 F O R E C A S T IN G T R A F F IC D E M A N D
Successful airport planning investigations will use proven and effective forecasting methods to evaluate
and predict future events as realistically as possible. Airport traffic forecast studies use a combination
of trend analysis, data extrapolation, expectation surveys and professional statistical judgement.
Various forecasting methodologies exist (please refer to Section C2: Forecasting), all of which aim
to achieve the objectives of: (i) providing an accurate forecast to assist in capacity planning issues
and (ii) to provide an insight into the financial and cost benefits of the study if implemented.
There are essentially three parameters that are covered in a forecast: passenger and baggage
volumes, cargo volumes and aircraft movements.
V 1 .5 E X IS T IN G F A C IL IT IE S : M E E T IN G T H E F O R E C A S T E D T R A F F IC
DEMAND
A complete review of the existing operational processes should be undertaken. On numerous
occasions an updated or new operational process can alleviate the situation without the need to provide
addition or modified infrastructure. If a revised process meets the operational brief requirements, then
following successful simulations this should be the recommended course of action (it is often the most
cost effective solution). Facilities should be utilized to their maximum prior to any new development.
V 1 .6 ID E N T IF Y IS S U E R E Q U IR E M E N T S
This project process stage should be used to confirm whether a new facility should be built or an
existing facility redeveloped. Following discussion with the various stakeholders and assessment of
all of the facts presented by the various professional groups, the operational and functional issues
relating to the problem should be identified and used in the subsequent High Level development brief
defined within clause V1.7 that follows.
The key output from this stage will be the decision to follow only one of the following design routes
(please also refer to clause V1.9 for further guidance):
V 1 .7 C O M P IL E P R O J E C T B R IE F (H IG H L E V E L )
In situations where a new or expanded facility is necessary, it will be appropriate to compile a high
level project brief. This high level brief should explain the intent of the client and its ambition to resolve
a current or future operational problem by modifying or constructing new infrastructure.
The high level project brief should indicate the primary objectives of the project and will be the basis
of the far more detailed feasibility/concept study brief. Documented elements within the initial project
brief will include but are not limited to:
® A statement of needs.
• Project deliverables.
• Financial constraints.
® The project operational and financial business drivers.
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¥ 1 .8 C O N S U L T A T IO N S / R E V IE W
An essential element of any planning process is the inclusion of meaningful and adequate consultations
with all stakeholders. Consultation should be a continuous process that is initiated prior to any sizeable
planning initiative. lATA’s Airport Consultative Committee (ACC) is the primary forum to facilitate an
effective and mutually beneficial consultation between the airlines and the airport authority in question.
The objective of an ACC is to consolidate airline views and to provide a focal point for consultation
concerning the planning of major airport expansion or new airports in order to input airline functional
requirements.
V 1 .9 D E C IS IO N T O R E D E V E L O P O R B U IL D A N E W F A C IL IT Y
The decision to redevelop or build a new facility is often a difficult conclusion to make. Airport
operators will need to balance the operational objectives set in part by the airline and handling agents
requirements with the long term aspirations of the airport operator. It will be necessary to ascertain
what solution represents the best value for all the interested parties. The following questions should
be raised when deciding to either redevelop an existing facility or build new or replace infrastructure:
® Does the new build option fit the master plan objectives for the airport?
In addition to these, many other similar questions will need to be raised and answered before a
decision can be ultimately made.
V 1 .1 0 N E W F A C IL IT Y
V1.1Q.1 R o le in A irp o rt S y s te m
A new airport will most certainly have regional implications and large scale airports will extend beyond
the regional focus and have national implications. It is therefore necessary to ensure that the new
construction is in line with the national and regional strategies.
See Section B2.1, National Planning Considerations for details.
V1.10.2 S tra te g ic P la n
The strategic plan guides the direction of the master plan with respect to what the ultimate vision,
goals and objectives are for the airport. The master plan translates this strategic plan by allocation
of the components and processes that are required to achieve the strategic goals.
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V1.10.3 M a s te r P la n
The master plan ensures maximization of land use in order to optimize runway capacity and to allocate
the space to achieve overall process and systems balance.
A master plan is required so that all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities can develop,
expand and improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their businesses in a structured, orderly
fashion, without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbours that are on or adjacent to
the airport.
V1A 1 R E D E V E L O P M E N T / E X P A N S IO N
V 1.11.1 R e v ie w E x is tin g M a s te r P la n
Project goals and objectives: in this stage the planners set out the direction and scope of the project
and try to align the project expectations to the overall requirements set within the existing master
plan, if possible. The general criteria and policy objectives should be stated. It should be noted that
unforeseen changes in airport business and operational needs can arise which may legitimately
change the master plan requirements. Deviation from the master plan requirements should be carefully
assessed and communicated if deemed to be appropriate.
V 1 .1 2 R E V IE W /R E D E F IN E P R O J E C T B R IE F
Having decided to either retain the existing facility or build new infrastructure, a more focused project
brief should be compiled. This more detailed brief should concentrate on the selected design route;
e.g. modification of the airport process OR building of a new replacement facility/process only.
In situations where it has been decided to build new infrastructure, the project brief is likely to be a
very detailed and a precise document, which again should align with the master plan requirements
wherever possible.
The functional and business requirements should be detailed enough to help clearly steer the design
team to the most appropriate solutions for development in subsequent concept and feasibility design
investigation stages.
V 1 .1 3 C O N C E P T O P T IO N D E V E L O P M E N T
The concept design stage should produce solutions which fundamentally ensure that:
For all developments the financial analysis involves an evaluation of the associated operational cost
benefits to the various stakeholders, as well as an assessment of the cost of providing the development.
The benefits usually consist of those generated over many years (payback period or Internal Rate
of Return period) after the undertaking of the project, whereas the planning, design and construction
costs are supported at the onset of the project. Naturally, the functional and financial benefits to the
stakeholders must be balanced against the development costs. A cost benefit analysis should be
undertaken to support all capital expenditure projects.
See Section D3, Airport Investment Decisions and Financing and Section V2, Project Cost
Management for further details.
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V1.15 F E A S IB IL IT Y DESIGNS
At the feasibility design stage, initial space requirements are set out, general characteristics of the
complex are established and other essential planning decisions are taken as to the physical and
operational capability of the solution proposed. The components proposed are given general sizes,
as well as accurate location within the facility. The established processing capability of the solution
is also refined to provide a technically competent and totally deliverable or ‘feasible’ solution. The
functional relationships between the components and processes are also analysed.
Computer simulation tools such as, lATA’s Total AirportSim, amongst others, are extremely valuable
in allowing modifications and varying scenarios to be tested and evaluated.
It will be essential to value examine the feasibility options and conclude one feasibility option to be
taken forward for tendering purposes and subsequent detail design stages.
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V 1 .1 9 IN V IT E T E N D E R S : D E T A IL D E S IG N
The bidding process allows formal competitive bids to be submitted by interested parties. A tender
timetable should be outlined with procedures to follow. The tendering process may in most instances
need to be aligned to either national or European legislation mandates. The deadline for submission,
as well as the timeline for notification to the winner of the contract and all the tendering participants
should also be stated in the tender notice documentation.
The feasibility solution selected is then significantly refined into a detailed design proposal by the
selected contractors. The subsequent detail design should be completely owned by the contractor in
all regards. Any feasibility design principle concerns should be highlighted prior to contract placement.
Exact sizing of the components and their location are established during detail designs, therefore
establishing the size and cost of the whole facility very accurately. The tender documentation should
explain what the airport is technically and operationally looking for within the tender returns and
the subsequent points awarded for key attributes should be clearly communicated to the tendering
participants.
V 1 .2 0 E V A L U A T IO N O F T E N D E R R E T U R N S
All tenders should be evaluated using an appropriate technical skill baseand consistent evaluation
model. The evaluation process and model should at least assess thefollowing tender return attributes
at the highest level:
• Health and safety issues relating to the final product and the project delivery programme.
V 1 .21 C O N S T R U C T IO N
It will be necessary to have a quality monitoring system in place while the design and (very importantly)
the construction phases are in progress. Active and effective project design and construction control
methods are essential to completion within the designated time and within the set budget.
A reporting and documentation system should be in place to allow progress and any variations to be
monitored and assessed. Routine meetings with stakeholders should be held at milestones to review
and make any adjustments to the project brief, if deemed appropriate.
V 1 .22 C O M M IS S IO N IN G
Most airport projects involve numerous systems working simultaneously to be fully operational. As a
consequence, a review and operational readiness check of each system must be conducted prior to
opening the new facility through formal commissioning initiatives. The contractor and the design
consultants will be required to produce a commissioning proposal which will need to be submitted to
the client for approval.
See Section R1, Checklist for the Successful Opening of a New Airport.
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¥ 1 .2 3 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
: Simulations should be used to optimize existing facilities, when saturation, interaction between
! subsystems and overflow conditions are expected. The use of simulations is also recommended
to validate design concept for new or expanded facilities.
k VfJi4v^::Aij|^fl;|tifl§i^
Airport Commissioning clauses as stipulated in Chapter R, Airport Commissioning should be
observed.
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V 2.1 IN T R O D U C T IO N /G U ID E L IN E S
Joint participation by the airport authority and the airlines in the initial stages of the planning process
will greatly assist the development of a successful cost management programme. Early evaluations
reduce the number of changes to the final programme and minimise increased design costs. Such
actions also contribute to the meeting of scheduled completion dates.
The ultimate cost of any facility, both in terms of capital expenditure and annual user charges, will
depend to a large extent on its size; it is important that an accurate assessment of the required
dimensions is made in the early planning stages.
With respect to IATA and the airlines, any cost evaluation must be carried out in two separate and
distinct phases, related directly to the quality and quantity of the information and the data that has
to be obtained. The first phase should consist of a broad cost evaluation to be carried out almost
immediately after the ACC technical assessment on demand and facility requirements has been
carried out. The second phase should be completed immediately after plans and cost details become
available to the airlines for analysis and comment. It is hoped that early assessments will establish
the level of costs to the airlines.
Concept cost
estimate / astmats
Consultations/
Review
Detail design
cost estimale
Consultations/
Review
Construction
Cost Monitoiing
Diagnostic of
Process
Capital
Expenditure Plan
Note: Level A, B, C & D are cost estimates stages only and are not related to Level of Service
requirements.
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The aggregate cost of an airport development process is derived by totalling the project construction,
development and implementation budgets. Airlines and handling agents often inherit the project results
once they have been delivered and run the systems that get developed. It is important that the
processes and systems provided by the project are assessed by the facility users prior to delivery,
and at the relevant consultation stages described. This will help determine if the processes and
systems provide a solution which is commercially viable from an operational standpoint.
V 2 .2 B U S IN E S S P L A N
It will be important to correctly time the various phases of the airport development programme such
that they do not impair the operational integrity of the airlines, handling agents or airport operators.
Certain periods during the operational year will be sensitive to higher passenger throughput pressures
(e.g. national or religious holidays). The project delivery programme included in the business plan
should address these periods and suggest viable operational solutions. In many instances the project
programme may need to be phased to work around such sensitive periods altogether so as to ensure
undisrupted business continuity.
Often there are two main results following a major project being provided by an airport, these are:
• The terminal’s capacity and ability to process passengers, planes, baggage, etc., dramatically
increases. This improvement often will diminish though as the systems age following natural
passenger traffic growth.
® The user charges increase to pay for the projects (please refer to Chapter D for further clarification
in this regard).
It can be seen that large investments in airport infrastructure, by their very nature, deliver peaky
capacity results and have the tendency to produce a ‘step by step’ climb in capacity. Unit costs will
increase sharply and decrease again over time as traffic builds up and the facilities are better utilized.
To keep unit costs low, or at reasonable level, some airports may be inclined to hold off development
plans until such time that increased facility usage is guaranteed.
A detailed business plan should be created as part of the airport development programme, which
should contain financial projections and forecasts detailing future airline and handling agent usage
activity at the airport. The basic elements that should be included in such a business plan are:
« Forecast and composition of air traffic demand.
• Feasibility analysis; i.e. will the airport’s overall financial performance be acceptable; can the
airport manage the additional cash flow requirement; will the proposed program produce an
acceptable return on investment; etc.
• Financial analysis of costs and revenues, including: an operating budget; a financing plan; cash
flow forecasts; a debt servicing schedule; pro forma balance sheets and income statements;
financial ratio analysis; etc.
• Risk mitigation assessment, the primary areas of risk being: technical risk relating to construction
completion; commercial risk relating to changes in traffic demand; cost risk relating to changes
in construction, capital or operational costs; and financial risk relating to currency exchange,
inflation and interest rate changes, etc.
Aside from measuring airport quality of service standards, airport managers will also have to measure
an airport’s economic efficiency by assessing the relationship between inputs (labour, capital, etc.)
and outputs (passengers, aircraft movements, work-load units, etc.).
See Section D1.6, Airport Performance and Efficiency for details.
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V 2 .3 C O N C E P T C O S T E S T IM A T E S
This is a first stage, broad evaluation of the cost of the identified facility requirements, e.g.; new pier =
1500 USD/ sqm.; surface parking = 1800-2000 USD/space. The accuracy of the cost estimates at
this stage should be in the plus/minus (+/-) 30 % range (a ‘Level D’ cost estimate).
V 2 .4 F E A S IB IL IT Y C O S T E S T IM A T E S
This is based on similar work and a preliminary design. The accuracy of the feasibility cost estimates
should be narrowed to plus/minus (+/-) 20 % range (a ‘Level C’ cost estimate).
For each alternative the following capital costs and annual variable costs must be determined. Capital
costs include: site acquisition costs; building construction and site work costs order of magnitude
(e.g. cost per unit); and various equipment costs (e.g. passenger boarding bridges, baggage handling
equipment, etc.).
Variable costs include maintenance and operating costs for operational systems (e.g. loading bridge,
baggage system and other costs associated with each feasibility solution must be calculated including
allowance for inflation, etc.) In addition, costs to the airlines (e.g. extra staff/equipment, etc.) must
be determined for each terminal concept.
Site specific expertise and experience is required; i.e. quantity surveyors, planners, engineers and
architects, etc.
V 2 .5 F IN A N C IN G P L A N
For investment purposes, the next step is to develop a financing plan. Critical to this plan is an
analysis of the airport’s ability to generate sufficient revenues to make the required payments for
operating and maintenance expenses, debt service, and other funding requirements that may be
required by bond holders or other creditors. Input is required by experts including quantity surveyors,
financiers, economists, etc.
V 2 .6 C O N S U L T A T IO N S / R E V IE W
Consultations between the airport authority and the airlines is an essential part of effective project
cost management. From an airline perspective, once the ACC’s technical assessment on demand
and facility requirement is completed (see section V1 project process), a review of the initial cost
estimates, taking into account the inputs provided by the airlines, should be obtained.
The financial project data should be made available to the ACC during the planning process or at an
early stage discussed with the airlines through the User Charges Panel (UCP).
The UCP is responsible for representing IATA Member airlines in negotiations with airport authorities
regarding the charges for the use of the airport including, but not limited to, landing fees, terminal
building charges, passenger-related elements, lighting charges, air traffic control and monopoly-type
user charges. It is therefore very important that the activities of ACCs and the UCP are closely co
ordinated so that the UCP is fully aware of costs emerging from ACC discussions.
See Section B1.2, Airport Consultative Committee for details.
V 2 .7 D E T A IL D E S IG N C O S T E S T IM A T E S
After the selection of the feasibility design and the subsequent development of the detailed design,
a revised project detail design delivery cost should be evaluated. This new detail design cost should
include but not be limited to: capital expenditure for the project installation; annual fixed charges;
project maintenance; operation and administrative costs; projected non-airline revenues; annual cost
impact on airlines; and the annual cost expressed as units (e.g. cost per passenger, per aircraft
operation, etc.).
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The detail design cost should be a very accurate cost assessment that should be in the range
of (+/-) 5%, and is referred to as a ‘Level B’ cost estimate.
V 2 .8 C O N S U L T A T IO N S / R E V IE W
The updated Level B cost estimate should be made available to the airlines for analysis and comment.
The Level B cost estimate should be a natural progression from the Level C cost estimate and within
the financial limits of the previous Level C cost estimate. The ACC and the UCP should manage
negotiations with the airport authority regarding the potential resultant user charges.
« Operational issues.
• Construction issues.
® Quality of equipment or infrastructure supply.
V 2 .1 2 CAPITAL E X P E N D IT U R E PLAN
Existing airports should develop a 10-year Capital Expenditure Plan that should show the intended
programme of works over two consecutive 5-year periods. The programme should be re-assessed
annually after consultation with the airline/IATA airport development specialists and should dovetail
into the long term master plan aspirations for the airport. The resultant impact of the development
programme on user charges should be discussed and agreed with lATA’s UCP.
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W 1.1 T E R R O R IS T T H R E A T T O A IR P O R T T E R M IN A L B U IL D IN G S
The potential for terrorist activity at airports is very real and airport designers should consider the
implications of such attacks on terminal buildings and terminal support infrastructure.
It is important to understand what the risks are to an airport and how they may manifest themselves,
however rarely. Airports should provide both covert and high profile counter measures as appropriate,
which should align with national and international legislation such as ICAO Security Annex 17 —
Safeguading International Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Intervention. Terrorist acts have
been conducted against the civil aviation industry in various forms. During the design phase of terminal
buildings, designers should assess the potential risks that could occur and should design structures
and infrastructure which will limit the abilities of terrorist groups.
With respect to the structural integrity and materials utilized within airport buildings, designers should
refer to the general text and IATA Recommendations detailed within Section H and in particular
Clause H2 of this manual.
W 1 .2 R IS K E V A L U A T IO N A N D R IS K M IT IG A T IO N
Having agreed that most if not all airports have the potential to be used or targeted by terrorists in
one manner or another, it will be necessary to evaluate the risks that exist and try to practically
resolve them in a structured and a coordinated manner. It is extremely difficult and very costly, not
to mention almost impossible to counter every conceivable terrorist act that might occur at an airport.
There are however some very straightforward methods which if implemented can significantly improve
the outcome of a terrorist act upon an airport.
Stage 1 — Establish the potential threats — evaluate threat impact / prioritize threats.
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Inside the terminal building the threats might include the use of smaller Improvised Explosive Devices
(IEDs)/hand weapons (assault rifles/machine guns/hand guns/hand grenades) and biological warfare
agents. The delivery of such weapons could vary depending on the intent of the individual(s) and
their resultant ability to escape the scene once they have completed their attack.
Although very rare in most parts of the world, suicide attack activity does occur as well as guerillas
style attacks on airports.
It is important that airports and their users appreciate that threats can change over time and that
threat assessments need to be regularly reviewed. Changes in national or international political
policies can give rise to a need to review threats. It is recommended that airports and the airport
users review the risks posed by terrorism at least every 3 months and that special risk evaluations
are carried out more regularly during periods of local, national or international heightened threat.
W 1 .2.3 S ta g e 3 — D e v e lo p A n d Im p le m e n t A R is k S tra te g y
Where it has been identified that risks are evident, airports need to prioritize those risks and put in
place programmes to mitigate the risks over a reasonable and diligent time period. The greatest
threats identified in Stage 1 should be solved first.
W 1.2.4 S ta g e 4 — R e v ie w /U p d a te /C h a n g e /A lte r n a te R is k C o u n te r
M e a s u re s
Airports need to review risks and risk counter measures on a regular basis. It will be essential to
alternate proven protocols and even proven technology, so that terrorist groups are unable to establish
the current security provision.
W 1 .3 U N A T T E N D E D L U G G A G E & W A S T E B IN S
Unattended luggage represents a significant security risk. Airports should monitor terminal areas
using security walk through patrols and by security CCTV surveillance of the areas on a regular and
frequent basis. Public waste bins are normally required in large numbers throughout most terminal
buildings. The placement of waste bins within the terminal building passenger areas should be very
carefully controlled. Waste bins have been used in the past to hold lEDs which have successfully
detonated. It is prudent to place waste bins away from concentrated passenger areas and critical
structural members of the building.
W 1 .4 IN T E R N A L B A L C O N IE S
Within multi-story terminal buildings, landside balconies overlooking check-in areas must not provide
the terrorist a line of fire or the facility to throw grenades. There is a need to protect designated check
in operations and general expanses of terminal space frequented by passengers and staff against
terrorist attack at airports, especially those handling certain high risk flights. There should therefore
either be a permanent protected facility or the ability to create such a facility by moving temporary/
portable screening into place for high risk flight processing.
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W 1 .5 SPECTATOR AREAS
Public spectator areas should be monitored, or else the access should be controlled to ensure that
dangerous goods or fire arms, etc., are not used in these areas or directed against aircraft or
infrastructure on the apron.
W 1 .6 C L O S E D C IR C U IT T E L E V IS IO N (C C T V )
It is vital that airport operators use CCTV systems to identify and help prevent criminal acts of terrorism
on civil aviation within the confines of the airport perimeter. Airport CCTV system designers should
assess the risk areas as defined within clause W1.2.1: Stage 1 — Establish The Potential Threats.
The CCTV cameras should then be placed at critical areas according to the threat potential identified.
The on-line data collated from the CCTV cameras should be capable of being communicated to a
variety of airport operational functions namely:
• Airport police.
Airport CCTV system designers and integrators should work with immigration, customs and police
departments to confirm the level of CCTV intelligence that they require access to.
W 1 .7 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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W 2.1 T H E T E R R O R IS T T H R E A T W IT H IN A IR P O R T P IE R S
Airport piers consist of a building frame supplied with usual building services which will be occupied
by arriving, transfer and originating departing passengers and staff. Often beneath or adjacent to the
piers will be airside roads containing airside vehicles which contain sometimes fuel and/or passenger
baggage and or cargo.
Potentially there are two main high threats to piers: (1) This will be associated with the mixing of inbound
passengers and outbound passengers and (2) The end to end processing of transfer passengers will
present its own security concerns.
Example (1) A departing high risk flight passenger who is located within a pier would most likely have
cleared central security. An inbound (non terrorist targeted) flight might contain a transfer passenger
concealing a weapon and/or an Improvised Explosive Device (IED) within their personal belongings
which might have been carried onto the flight from an airport with perhaps less than adequate airport
security. It will be vital that these collaborating individuals do not mix for obvious reasons. Please
refer to Section K3 clause K3.2 for further clarification on passenger separation.
Example (2) An inbound (non terrorist targeted) flight might contain a transfer passenger concealing
a weapon and/or an IED within their personal belongings which might have been carried onto the
flight from an airport with perhaps less than adequate airport security and who is connecting with a
targeted outbound connecting flight.
In both examples the only way to totally mitigate this risk is to security screen the relevant departing
passengers at a centralized screen check point or if necessary at the gate lounge. This can be very
costly and creates delays. It will important for airport operators and designers to assess this risk very
carefully and adequately to ensure that where further security provision is required that it is provided
with appropriate technology (see Chapter U Section U12). It is important that connecting transfer hubs
have suitable confidence in the security processes, equipment provision and operational protocols
associated with the equipment and the security staff at the transfer origin airport. This can only be
achieved through continue inter-airport dialogue and investigations.
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W 2 .2 R IS K E V A L U A T IO N A N D R IS K M IT IG A T IO N
The four stage risk evaluation and mitigation process described within Section W1 Clause W1.2
should be similarly adopted for the evaluation of all potential risks residing within or around airport
pier areas.
The following tables lists some of the potential risks that may reside within or around pier areas
though others may exist:
Risk/Threat Description
(Assumes All Originating Departures
Risk Passengers Within the Piers Have
Ref: Cleared Central Security) Possible Risk Mitigation Strategy
1 Handover of dangerous items (e.g. Option 1: Separation of arriving and
weapons/IED’s etc) from an inbound departing passengers.
arriving passenger to an out-bound Option 2: Secondary screening of
departing passenger within pier. passengers at centralized checkpoints or if
necessary at the gates(s).
2 Transfer passenger arrives from poor Option 1: Secondary screening of
quality security airport (weapon or IED passengers at centralized checkpoints or if
on their person) and targets their necessary at the gates(s).
connecting flight for terrorist crime. Option 2: Confirm / monitor / manage
satisfactory security quality of transfer
passengers. Originating airport — plus
ensure separation of transfer passengers
from other flight arrival passengers.
3 Passengers with weapon or IED obtains Option 1: (Preferred option) ensure all pier
access to the apron via the pier. to apron exists/entrances have suitable
permitted access control systems guarding
as well.
Option 2: Provision of CCTV at exits/
entrances communicated to airport
security and airport police.
4 Arriving passengers uses weapon Option 1: Armed police presence resulting
within passenger or staff areas. in attack suppression.
Option 2: Piers are zoned carefully
evacuated and closed off in an emergency
situation, Thereby limiting collateral
damage/injuries. This needs to manually
managed very carefully to ensure that
zones are not closed off too prematurely
and that fire exit routes are not
compromised.
W 2 .3 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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W 3.1 T E R R O R IS T T H R E A T T O A IR P O R T A IR F IE L D A R E A S
The airfield area is complex, both in terms of its diversity of terrain and operational equipment
provisions. Often there will be numerous aircraft and vehicular movements and a large range of
support equipment hardware (radar/runway ground lighting systems, etc.) functioning simultaneously.
The combination of simultaneous processes in operation along with variations in weather conditions
and wildlife within the perimeter make the airfield a difficult zone to protect. Intruders would need to
gain access to the airfield via: (i) fencing systems; (ii) unauthorized access via terminal buildings or
similar structures/support facilities; (iii) unauthorized access via staff/commercial access gates; (iv)
aircraft or (v) below ground service tunnels, water ways, etc. For information on perimeter and airfield
security systems please refer to Section H2 Clause H2.12.
W 3 .2 R IS K E V A L U A T IO N A N D R IS K M IT IG A T IO N & R E S P O N S E
The four stage risk evaluation and mitigation process described within Section W1 Clause W1.2
should be similarly adopted for the evaluation of all potential risks/threats residing within or around
the airport airfield areas. The following table has been compiled to help identify the potential high
risk terrorist scenarios which could present themselves in this area of the airport.
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W 3 .3 H IJ A C K E D A IR C R A F T S T A N D S
Airports that have been designated capable of accepting delivery of hijacked aircraft should provide
aircraft stands which will require special features. Please refer to Security Section H2 Clause H2.3
which clarifies the general requirements of Isolated Aircraft Parking Positions. These special stands
should aid the anti-terrorist police force and reduce the risk of potential injury to passengers resulting
from deliberate unlawful action upon the aircraft and its passengers and crew.
W 3 .4 I A T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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Airport police facilities, when well designed, integrate themselves on a functional basis with the overall
security operations of the airport. They must first and foremost contribute to the specific operational
roles played by the airport police within the localised airport security environment. This may vary
substantially from facility to facility.
(i) Closed offices for management personnel: post commander, shift commander or duty officer.
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(vi) Physical fitness area in conjunction with lockers, showers, and restrooms.
W 4 .5 L A W E N F O R C E M E N T P A R K IN G
Providing quickly accessible parking for law enforcement is invaluable to improving response
capabilities. Parking must be secure to prevent police vehicles from themselves becoming targets of
criminal activities. Parking for all law enforcement vehicles should be provided with dedicated spaces
and have direct landside/airside access. When applicable, consideration could be given to identifying
helicopter pads to be located in secure roof or site areas.
W 4 .6 R E M O T E P O L IC E F A C IL IT Y S IT E S W IT H IN T E R M IN A L C O M P L E X
Where response time is a critical concern, consideration can be given to providing remote locations
that are secure and equipped with communications and emergency equipment. This may also be a
consideration in larger facilities to ensure optimal resource utilisation. If police personnel are deployed
to outdoor locations, adequate shelter should be provided against the elements. Shelters, however,
must provide maximum visibility over the immediate area as well as easy access. Where the terminal
building itself is larger (over 300,000 square feet of public area or with large open distances of 2,000
feet or more), storage areas for tactical supplies and equipment should be located in tactically identified
areas.
W 4 .7 S P E C IA L IT Y S Q U A D R E Q U IR E M E N T S
W4.7.1 E x p lo s iv e s D e te c tio n
The administrative area should also have secured storage for live or dummy explosives tests and
training items; these areas should be co-ordinated with any domestic regulatory requirements for the
storage of explosives, dangerous goods or hazardous materials.
W 4.7.2 C a n in e T e a m s a n d F a c ilitie s
When an airport has canine teams in residence, appropriate accommodations for the dogs and
handlers must be provided, dependent to a certain degree on local weather conditions, number of
dogs, and airport layout. This would require indoor pens with access to fenced outdoor runs, as well
as separate drainage and plumbing with fresh air circulation. As dogs spend substantial time waiting
to be introduced into detection activities, these design considerations are critical to the effective use
of this investment. Isolation from airport noise, odours and fumes is essential to keep the dog’s sense
of smell uncontaminated.
W 4 .8 C O M M U N IC A T IO N S D IS P A T C H
Centralized communications and dispatch facilities, along with supporting equipment repair areas,
should be considered core support functions and be isolated from primary high threat areas. Depending
on the overall security plan for the airport, provision of emergency backup communications services
should be considered for police facilities. This should include secure electronic, fibre optic, wireless
and physical communications channels designed for airside use.
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W 4 .9 P O L IC E F A C IL IT Y S IZ E C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
The size of an airport’s overall police facility or facilities is dependent on the completion of an Airport
Security Risk profile which may include the following factors:
(i) Airport service hours.
Many urban populations use a ratio of one officer for every 500-700 residents. This ratio is used
where services are to be provided over a 24 hour period, and with at least two officers on duty at
any given time. Airport police facility planning should consider using a similar ratio based upon the
factors identified above and then match peaks of airport activity against the requirement for on site
airport police personnel. The size of facilities should be based upon a realistic assessment of what
both the constant and peak demands for police services will be, however the items and associated
functions listed in section W4.4 (above) should be considered as the mandatory minimum requirements
of any properly designed police facility, independent of staffing levels.
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C H A P T E R X — A IR P O R T F IR E S E R V IC E S
X 1.1 F IR E S E R V IC E S O V E R V IE W
The main objective of rescue and fire fighting services is to extinguish fire and rescue people within
the confines of the airport boundary where the risk of an aircraft accident is the greatest. The rescue
and fire fighting service should be under administrative control of the airport management, which
should be responsible for ensuring that the service is organized, equipped, staffed, and trained
appropriately. The airport rescue services will be called upon to emergency situations involving aircraft
incidents and terminal building as well as support building incidents.
Particularly in the situation of aircraft incidents, the most important factors bearing on effective rescue
in a survivable aircraft accident are: the training received, the effectiveness of the equipment and the
speed with which the personnel and equipment can be put into use.
The rescue and fire fighting services will typically also perform other important tasks such as handling
of hazardous materials, vehicular incidents and respond to any other type of emergency that threatens
life, safety, property loss or environmental protection. The fire services can also be active in different
programs such as fire and safety prevention and education, life safety & building code enforcement.
X 1 .2 A IR P O R T C A T E G O R Y A N D L E V E L O F P R O T E C T IO N
In accordance with ICAO Annex 14, Chapter 9.2, airports should be categorised for rescue and fire
fighting purposes and the level of protection provided should be appropriate to the airport category.
The category level is based on the aircraft size and traffic operating at an airport.
For the purposes of clarifying the airport category for fire services the following table should be used.
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Having established fire requirement and corresponding category of airport it is then necessary to
establish the fundamental equipment requirements. This can be done in accordance with ICAO
Annex 14, Table 9-1, where the minimum number of rescue and fire fighting vehicles provided should
be in accordance with the following tabulation:
X 1 .3 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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X 2.1 R E S P O N S E T IM E A N D A IR P O R T F IR E S T A T IO N L O C A T IO N
ICAO Annex 14, Chapter 9.2.19, sets the operational objectives of the rescue and fire fighting services
resident on the airport, those being to achieve a response times of less than two minutes and not
exceeding three minutes to the end of each runway, as well as to any other part of the movement
area, in optimum conditions of visibility and surface condition.
The response time is considered to be the time between the initial call to the rescue and fire fighting
service and the time when the first responding vehicle is in position to apply the right extinguishing
agent.
The fire station should be located in a centralized area so that the access to the runway system is
direct and clear, requiring a minimum of turns. Satellite fire stations should (where required) be
provided whenever the response time cannot be achieved from a single fire station.
To achieve the recommended response time, the airport should have emergency access roads
capable of supporting the heaviest vehicles where terrain condition permits, and be equipped with
suitable rescue and service vehicles where areas to be covered includes water surface, swamps, or
other difficult environments that cannot be fully served by conventional wheeled vehicles.
A co-ordination program between the rescue and fire fighting services at an airport and the local
public emergency agencies, such as the local fire brigade, police force, coast guard and hospital is
also a key element in the success of a rescue mission. Every link of communication should be built
in place to provide quick and direct access into the airport grounds by the local and other external
emergency services. Airport planners should consider the implementation of permitted vehicle access
cards which can be fitted to selected local fire brigade vehicles, ambulances, etc. Access to these
types of vehicles should only be permitted in situations when the external emergency services have
been specially called to assist the resident fire services.
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X 2 .2 T R A IN IN G P E R S O N A L A N D E Q U IP M E N T P R O V IS IO N
All rescue and fire fighting personnel should be properly trained and equipped to respond quickly
and perform efficiently in an emergency. Suitable training facilities should be provided so the personnel
can perform live fire drills commensurate with the types of aircraft and the types of rescue and fire
fighting equipment in use at the airport.
Suitable rescue equipment and services should be available at an airport where the area to be covered
includes water, swamps, or other difficult environments that cannot be fully served by conventional
wheeled vehicles. The airport must select the right vehicles types to suit their need and airfield
topography. Rescue and fire fighting vehicle types may range from conventional wheeled trucks to
boats and helicopters.
The fire fighting vehicles should be equipped with and capable of delivering the principal or
complementary extinguishing agents, where the principal agent should be a mixture of foam and/or
water according to ICAO Annex 14, Chapter 9, Table 9.2, and the complementary agents should be
C02, dry chemical powders or halogenated hydrocarbons (halons). Dry chemical powders and halons
are normally considered more efficient than C02 for aircraft rescue and fire fighting operations.
Airport Planners should assess the airport specific fire and emergency specialist equipment
requirements. This should be done in consultation with local fire brigades using specialist advisors.
All equipment and infrastructure should be adequately positioned and protected within apron-based
fire stations. Fire stations should permit rapid vehicular access in situations of emergency.
The planning for the provision of the following fire and emergency services equipment should
considered by airport planners, architects and engineers:
® Apron fire tenders provision — suitable for the terrain(s).
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C h a p te r Y — N e tw o r k s
Section Y1 : Frontline O perational and S ecurity
Y1.1 General Use of Networks ................................................. . 705
Y1.2 Airport Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) S y s te m s....... 707
Y1.3 Security Networks ........................ .............................................. ....................... 708
Y1.4 IATA Recommendations ...................... ........ ................................... . 709
Section Y2: B u ilding Services
Y2.1 Heating and Cooling Systems: Introduction ...................... ................ 710
Y2.2 Building Fabrics and Design ........ ....... ............................................................ 711
Y2.3 Airconditioning and Ventilation ..................... ......................... ..................... . 711
Y2.4 Lighting Systems ...................... .................................. .................................. . 713
Y2.5 Fire Alarm and Fire Suppression Systems ........... .......... .................... . 713
Y2.6 IATA Recommendations .................................... .................................... 714
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CHAPTER Y — NETWORKS
Table Y1-1: Netw ork Types, Ranges and Com m unications M edia
Network Type Communication Medium Communication Distance/Provider
LAN-• Internal Office • Copper Core Cables <250m
* Fibre Optic Provider: Airport
LAN- •Airport Wide • Copper Core Cables >251 m < 5000m
• Fibre Optic Provider: Airport
• Microwave
WAN - National * Fibre Optic >3000m Provider: Some Airports:
* Microwave National Communication Provider e.g.
British Telecom / AT&T, etc.
* Satellite
WAN - Global * Above Mixture + Satellite National Communication Provider e.g.
British Telecom / AT&T, etc.
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Y 1 .1 .1 R e d u n d a n c y R e q u ire m e n ts o f N e tw o rk s
The use of Internet type WANS has the added benefit of providing a multiple redundancy capability
in the event of critical system component failure. The principle of the internet and its structural
philosophy provides limited functional damage in the event of physical damage to a single component
in the communications architecture.
Network planners should aim to build in redundancy of cabling and repeater systems that run through
the terminal infrastructure and on the apron and perimeter. The design should consider the operational
impacts as a minimum of the following potential incidents. Systems should not be rendered inoperable
in anyway in the result of these occurrences:
• Terrorist interference at no more than two locations within the airport perimeter.
Y 1 .1 .2 B u ild in g In N e tw o rk E x p a n s io n C a p a c ity
Planners should develop networks such that they can accommodate the anticipated growth rate in
traffic and interconnections with a factor of safety as a contingency for unexpected growth. The
following contingency factors should be accounted for when providing new network services. It should
be noted that the contingency factor will effect ultimate cable sizing and spare capacity as well as
trunking and network service route sizes.
The contingency factors stated account for the added complications associated with the provision of
the various LAN & WAN technologies. It is much easier to route a cable through a service tunnel
which has been provided with spare capacity than to retrofit or expand existing service tunnels while
trying to maintain an operational environment at all times.
Table Y1-2: Safety Contigency Factors for Netw ork Com munications
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Y 1 .2 A IR P O R T S U P E R V IS O R Y C O N T R O L A N D D A T A A C Q U IS IT IO N
(S C A D A ) S Y S T E M S
With SCADA systems it is possible to monitor and dynamically control previously independent and
stand alone systems. It is possible to supervise typically more than 30,000 real-world inputs-outputs
which can be typically distributed among more than 500 discrete control panel locations. These in
turn can be spread out over several kilometres of airport infrastructure.
SCADA systems are particularly useful because they are designed with the sole purpose of integrating
often traditionally stand alone systems. The airport user benefits because control can be centralised
and cost reductions made. It also allows the control rooms to have a global appreciation of what is
physically happening within the terminal complex, roads and airport apron areas.
The SCADA solution takes individual systems and then links them via a custom platform which can
deal with multiple input and output system software languages. Typically SCADA programmers will
analyse software interface protocols between discrete systems and then map them to the abilities of
the SCADA system software which provides common graphical controls.
Typical functions of a SCADA system would include but are not limited to:
• Valve control (water/steam/gases).
• CCTV monitor power movement zoom control.
• Perimeter intruder detection systems.
The true usefulness of a SCADA system is its ability, through custom programming, to link the
numerous system software languages and protocols through a common backbone network
architecture, coupled to easy-to-use graphics tailored for the airport user environment.
SCADA systems are a well-proven technology and application which lend themselves to medium and
large airport operations. New smaller airports should consider the use of SCADA systems only if the
passenger traffic exceeds 1MPPA during the first 5 years of operation.
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Y 1 .3 S E C U R IT Y N E T W O R K S
The use of security networks has become more commonplace. Centralized security networks can be
used by numerous users within the airport in an effort to provide up-to the minute knowledge on
passenger status and movement within the airport building. These security systems are in addition
to the national security systems provided by the Police, Customs and Immigration services but can
be linked often by SCADA systems.
The following independent systems would typically be included and attached to a security network:-
• Biometric systems.
• Access control systems.
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Y 1 .4 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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Y 2.1 H E A T IN G A N D C O O L IN G S Y S T E M S : IN T R O D U C T IO N
The general standards of heating and cooling systems are usually stipulated by national statutes and
regulations found in publications that define the insulation properties and mandatory requirements of
building environmental conditions. These standards vary from country to country and often account
for local weather conditions and materials availability.
The airport designer should in the first instance review the national standard and then compare the
general international standard defined within this section, selecting the most appropriate course.
Certain aspects of the heating and cooling systems are defined within the IATA recommendation
clauses which airport designers are recommended to adhere to.
It is important that the building fabric and architectural design, while important in its design form,
should also function effectively within the climate that it will be operating in over the design life of the
building (up to 50 years).
Building insulation, conductivity and fabric design should be integrated into the approach adopted for
the selection of the heating and cooling systems. The operational efficiency of the building and it’s
capability to be able to heat and cool itself during the annual cycle of weather conditions is a major
factor, especially since the cost to heat and cool vast open airport terminal building spaces can be
immense. Architects and engineers should balance the requirements of form and functionality and
aim to achieve optimum design performance through better design and use of space.
Architects and engineers are urged to simulate the effects of varying weather conditions and the
need to maintain effective nominal internal building environments. The use of computational fluid
dynamic software should be explored to ascertain the affects of sun, cloud, wind and rain on the
outside fabric temperature and the resulting internal building temperatures, humidity and efficiency.
Y 2 .1 .2 M e th o d s o f H e a tin g a n d C o o lin g
The methods of heating may depend on fuel supply and capital costs of equipment and fuel supply.
Designers should assess the unit costs for fuel supply in whole-life cost assessments of the running
charges associated within system selection. Large consumers of fuels such as airports are often able
to negotiate favored tariffs for gas and electricity unit supply.
The types of heating and cooling systems operated at airports includes those noted in the following
table.
In the case of large and medium sized airports the use of centralized heating and cooling systems
is the favored choice, as monitoring is easier and small changes to the operational conditions often
yield large cost savings to the airport operation.
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Y 2 .2 B U IL D IN G F A B R IC S A N D D E S IG N
Building fabrics do not necessarily need to be passive in their ability to aid the performance of the
building. The properties of the material and their ability to both better retain heat in colder climates
and lose or reflect heat gains in hotter climates should be explored.
The roof space of terminals can be extensive, and use of active materials to generate energy should
be explored. The running costs of terminals can be dramatically reduced in some locations of the
world if reusable energy from the sun is explored and utilized.
Y 2 .3 A IR C O N D IT IO N IN G A N D V E N T IL A T IO N
The objective of air conditioning is to create an internal thermal environment which possesses the
correct balance of air and radiant temperatures, humidity and rate of ventilation. In glass-faced
structures the heat gains and losses can be extremely high, both in winter and summer, where heating
and cooling is required.
The need to maintain ventilation in airport passenger and staff buildings is mainly concerned with the
replacement of air vitiated by exhalation and gases resulting from cooking and even vehicles in some
cases. Special consideration is required for staff areas such as baggage halls and apron areas, which
must be extremely well ventilated, and filtration of these areas achieved such that combustible
materials are not unduly collated in filters. Filtration systems should be back-indicated to advise
maintenance teams of the need to service filters.
The following table details the generally recommended parameters for temperature humidity and
ventilation rates within the various facilities of the terminal complex. Special consideration should be
given to baggage halls, which in some locations use tugs powered by fossil fuels. Dedicated areas
for smoking within the terminal should be given special consideration, particularly with respect to the
use of increased ventilation rates and the use of passive smoking partitions.
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■Babycare 23 21 60 max
5 air changes per
hour
Special
Consideration
•Smoking areas 23 21 60 max Required
(Play aiea? 23 21 8
10 air changes per
¡Staff toilets 24 20 hour
¡Rest rooms no smoking 23 21 60 max 8
jiResi rooms smoking allowed 23 21 60 max 24
«Control rooms 22 21 60 max 8
¡(Computer rooms [31 24 19 60 max 8
(Dining areas fno smok.ng) 23 21 60 max 8
(Workshops - 19 - 8
tService corridors and stairs - 19 - .
(storage areas 19 - -
Where air movement could cause discomfort the equivalent dry resultant temperature should be used for design.
[2] Ventilation rates may be increased if this results in a reduction in energy consumption.
[3] Computer rooms for specific purposes should be designed to comply with equipment manufacturers
requirements.
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Y 2 .4 L IG H T IN G S Y S T E M S
The lighting systems within terminals should be designed to provide appropriate levels of light
according to the function and use of the building space. Architectural considerations should be
balanced against the functional requirements of the passengers and staff using the facility. It is
essential that operators are able to work and function in a pleasant environment and that LUX levels
and UV levels for high intensity lighting systems are both balanced and safe. The airport designer
should call upon the services of lighting systems specialists to advise in this complex area. Their
services will ensure that the effects of proposed lighting schemes can be understood and developed
before the terminal development opens.
The table below outlines the necessary parameters to consider with respect to lux levels and
permissible glare indices. National standards may vary and should be adhered to in the first instance.
Y 2 .5 F IR E A L A R M A N D F IR E S U P P R E S S IO N S Y S T E M S
Heat sensitive and smoke detectors are usually mounted in the ceiling of airport terminal complexes
and sensor status should be back indicated to the airport control rooms and fire brigade services.
Sprinkler systems should be zoned to extinguish potential fires in the zone they occur. Each zone
should be fitted with CCTV systems to establish the status of the building in the event of fire or
evacuation. Particular attention should be placed as to the positioning of sprinklers and the effects
they would have on the building operation should they be operated, particularly in the context of the
use of electrical equipment at ground level (check-in equipment, conveyors, etc.) and elevated levels
(signage and FIDS). The designer should seek expert guidance and should conform to the national
standard on the use, maintenance and operation of fire alarm and fire suppression systems and
equipment in the first instance.
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Y 2 .6 IA T A R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S
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GLOSSARY
azimuth In surveying, the horizontal angle of the observer’s bearing, measured clockwise from a referenced
direction (usually north), or from a referenced celestial body (usually Polaris).
baggage, cabin (CBBG) Baggage which the aircraft passenger retains custody of (IATA RP 1008). This covers
personal belongings, such as briefcases, handbags and other non-bulky baggage conforming to specified
dimensions, to permit stowage aboard the aircraft. Synonymous with carry-on baggage.
baggage check Those portions of a ticket which provide for the carriage of a passenger’s checked baggage
and which are issued by the carrier as a receipt for same (IATA RP 1008).
baggage, checked Baggage of which the carrier takes sole custody and for which the carrier has issued a
baggage check (IATA RP 1724).
biometrics The systems and ideologies associated with a form of passenger identification which utilises the
measurement of exclusively self-identifying physical attributes. Examples of biometric devices and systems
include but are not limited to facial recognition devices, fingerprint scanners, iris scanners, and the software
programs developed for same. Any one of these types of systems may be used alone or in conjunction with
other forms of biometric, electronic or documentary identification for purposes of passenger security and customs
screening and/or passenger facilitation.
bluesea See Greenfield/bluesea airports.
Board of Airline Representatives (BAR) IATA recommends that a Board of Airline Representatives be
established in every country where civil aviation is an important part of the nation’s social and especially economic
viability. These boards represent the interests of their countries’ main servicing carriers and keep their member
airlines up-to-date on emerging industrial, technological and regulatory developments pertinent to their national
situation.
busy day (Forecasting measure) A typical ‘busy day’ is the second busiest day in an average week during the
peak month. An average weekly pattern of passenger traffic is calculated for that month, and peaks associated
with special events such as religious festivals, trade fairs, conventions and sport events are excluded. The busy
day should be representative of a frequently occurring ‘model’ busy period, indicative of a realistic day within a
weekly schedule.
capacity The variable measurement of a specific airport system or subsystem’s throughput, or the system’s
capability to accommodate a designated level of demand. Comprehensive capacity assessments are based on
five fundamental measurements: Dynamic Capacity; Static Capacity; Sustained Capacity; Maximum Capacity;
and Declared Capacity. See Section F2 for comprehensive definitions of these specific terms.
Capital Expenditure Plan The long-term financing and expenditure plan pertaining to the acquisition,
construction, or improvement of fixed assets such as land and buildings.
charter services Flights performed for remuneration on an irregular basis, including empty flight stages related
thereto and inclusive tours other than those reported under scheduled services.
combi aircraft See aircraft, combi
common use terminal equipment (CUTE) CUTE is a generic term (not to be related to certain vendors’
products and services) for a system of shared or common IT infrastructure which allows individual airlines to
access their host computer(s), undertake all their data processing functions, make the same entries and obtain
the same responses as they otherwise would through a proprietary terminal network. The basic CUTE concept
is to enable airlines at an airport to share passenger terminal handling facilities, including such areas as check
in and boarding gate counters, on a common-use basis, and thus eliminate the need for individual airlines to
install their own equipment. CUTE facilities also enable airlines to use their own host applications for departure
control, reservations, ticketing, seat allocation, boarding pass and baggage tag issuance, etc., at such counters,
as well as in their on-site administrative offices.
curbside That area of an airport terminal facility dedicated to the safe and efficient transfer of passengers and
meeters/greeters to and from road-based surface transport systems (cars, buses and taxis).
de/anti-icing De-icing is the process which removes ice, snow, slush or frost from airplane surfaces for flight
safety purposes. Anti-icing is a precautionary measure which prevents frost, ice or snow from forming or
accumulating on the protected surface of an aircraft. Standard safety procedures usually involve proper and
adequate de-icing, followed by an application of appropriate anti-icing freezing point depressant (FPD) fluids to
create a protective film that delays formations of frost, snow or other types of ice.
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SATA Glossary
facilitation (FAL) A general term reflecting the action being taken by governments, airlines, airports and other
organizations involved in civil aviation to standardize, simplify and reduce government-imposed formalities and
procedures at airports. The main objectives are to improve efficiencies and services to passengers and users
of cargo services, and to reduce relevant waiting times and costs.
Flight Information Display System (FIDS) A computerized airport, airline and baggage claim information
display.
freight Includes express and diplomatic bags but not a passenger’s checked baggage.
gate The point where an aircraft is parked for passengers enplaning or deplaning and for loading and unloading
baggage, cargo, mail, galley units and other supplies. Synonymous with arrival gate and departure gate.
Global Airport Monitor An IATA information product which provides comparative airport service performance
indicators for major international airports from Europe, North America and Asia Pacific.
greenfield/bluesea airports ‘Greenfield’ or ‘bluesea’ are terms used to describe what most planners would
consider to be ‘ideal’ airports or (alternately) airport locations. In general, greenfield or bluesea airports are
mega facilities that have benefited from planning decisions whereby designers and ACCs have opted to create
large, modern facilities incorporating many of the latest ‘best-practice’ airport planning guidelines. Current
greenfield/bluesea airports include facilities such as CLK in Hong Kong, Denver International Airport, Kuala
Lumpur KLIA, and Seoul NSIA, which all became operational between 1995 and 2000. These new airports are
generally sized in the 400,000 sqm range and have operating capacities upwards of 30 mppa. They’re usually
designed to be hub facilities, are capable of adapting to service currently-envisioned larger aircraft, and incorporate
a detailed master plan that will allow them to grow in a modular fashion to capacities up to 100 mppa.
hub Any airport having numerous inbound and outbound flights and a high percentage of connecting traffic. In
the context of scheduling and marketing from a hub-operating carrier’s perspective, hub denotes an airport
where many of its inbound and outbound schedules are coordinated with the aim of producing the most convenient
connections and/or trans-shipment for passengers, freight and/or mail. The same airport may serve as a hub
for more than one air carrier although this is exceptional. Currently, most hubs have been designed for passenger
traffic but the concept is also used for the development of cargo and mail traffic.
Hub Definitions
The following specialized terms and their definitions, commonly used to describe the different types of hub
airports, are contained in the ICAO Manual on the Regulation of International Air Transport (Doc 9626):
• cargo hub — An airport where facilities are provided for easy and fast connections and transshipment of air
cargo traffic.
• interline hub — An airport at which connections or transferring of traffic are chiefly made between flights of
different carriers.
• intermodel or multimodel hub — An airport that enables convenient connections or transshipment of traffic
from one mode of transport to another, for example, surface to air on a sea-air routing.
• mail or postal hub — An airport which serves as a transit center for mail or postal shipments.
• major hub — An airport with a large volume of connecting traffic, usually a centrally located airport served
by more than one airline with long-haul connections.
• mega- or super-hub — A very large airport.
• mini-hub — A secondary airport set up by a carrier.
• online hub — An airport at which connections or transferring of traffic are mostly made between different
flights of the same airline.
• regional hub — An airport that serves a region of a State or a region comprising more than one State.
• second country hub— An airport set up by an air carrier in a foreign country, typically to allow it to interconnect
traffic between numerous points in its home country and numerous third countries.
Gantt Chart A graphical representation of the duration of specified tasks against the progression of time.
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International Industry W orking Group (IIWG) IIWGs bring together IATA, Airports Council International (ACI)
and the International Coordinating Council of Aerospace Industries Associations (ICCAIA). The IIWG was founded
in 1970 and its main goal is to review airport/aircraft compatibility issues which might improve the development
of the air transport system.
landside Those areas of an airport to which the non-travelling public has free access. Sometimes referred to
as the public side.
load factor, passenger Passenger-kilometers/miles expressed as a percentage of available seat-kilometers/
miles. Alternatively, the number of passenger seats occupied expressed as a percentage of the total seat
capacity of an aircraft.
long-haul Operating distances of >5,000 km non-stop, presuming an aircraft with a full payload at normal cruising
conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport.
mail Refers to correspondence and other objects tendered by and intended for delivery to postal administrations.
master plan, airport A presentation of the airport planner’s conception of the ultimate development capacity
of a specific airport, created so that all air-side, land-side and airport support facilities can develop, expand and
improve the operational flexibility and efficiency of their businesses in a structured, balanced and orderly fashion
without adversely impacting on the business of their neighbours on or adjacent to an airport site. Master plans
are applied to the modernization and expansion of existing airports and to the construction of new airports,
regardless of their size or functional role. See Section C-1.
medium-haul Operating distances of >1,000 km and <5,000 km non-stop, presuming an aircraft with a full
payload at normal cruising conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport.
noise zones Areas surrounding an airport which are established to protect nearby residents from excess noise
and which also protect the airport from community encroachment. The establishment of noise zones is an
important step when determining future land-use, and the factors used to ascertain them will vary depending
upon local/national standards. Noise zones should be calculated and based on the ultimate achievable throughput
of the airport; i.e. when the runway is saturated, such that long term development flexibility is ensured.
operations area The designation given to the area occupied by airlines and ground handling, catering, etc.,
personnel who handle the aircraft while it is on the ground. It is usually located near the apron and includes the
area required for the flight crew and flight attendants as well as airline and ground handling personnel assigned
to ground service operations. Certain amenities for personnel; e.g. wash rooms, lunchrooms, locker rooms,
together with support areas for stores, are also located in this area.
passenger, destination With respect to a specific airport, a destination passenger is one who’s final section
of carriage, including aircraft disembarkation, baggage claim, etc., takes place at said facility. Synonymous with
terminating or arrivals passenger.
passenger, originating With respect to a specific airport, an originating passenger is one who’s first section
of carriage, including check-in, aircraft embarkation, etc, takes place at said facility. Synonymous with departures
passengers
passenger, transfer A passenger making a direct connection between two flights (i.e., using different aircraft
and flight numbers operated by the same or another airline), or a passenger arriving at an airport of a State
and whose journey continues on another flight at the same or another airport of that State (ICAO Airport
Economics Manual Doc 9562). Synonymous with connecting passenger.
passenger, transit A passenger who arrives and departs on the same aircraft.
passenger boarding bridge (PBB) A mechanically operated, adjustable ramp used to provide direct passenger
access between aircraft and terminal buildings or ground transport vehicles. Synonymous with aerobridge; air
bridge; passenger bridge (PB); jetway; passenger gangway; passenger loading bridge (PLB); telescopic
passenger bridge; telescopic passageway; and walkway.
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peak day The second busiest day in the busiest or second busiest week of normal airport traffic.
peak period, typical The typical peak is the maximum level of traffic, lower than the absolute peak, reached
in busy periods of a typical busy day (see busy day).
ramp See apron.
Regional Airports Steering Groups (RASGs) Multi-disciplinary IATA bodies of airline representatives
established in Europe and Asia/Pacific. They meet twice a year to review airport developments within their
regions.
Schengen/non-Schengen The name Schengen refers to a treaty signed in March 1995 by seven European
Union countries. The purpose of the treaty was to end internal border checkpoints and controls, and an additional
eight European countries have signed the treaty since it came into effect. The 15 Schengen countries are:
Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway,
Portugal, Spain and Sweden. All these countries except Norway and Iceland are European Union members.
short-haul Operating distances of <1,000 km non-stop, presuming an aircraft with a full payload at normal
cruising conditions and with an adequate fuel reserve to reach an alternate airport.
stand, aircraft A designated area on an apron intended to be used for parking an aircraft (ICAO Annex 4, 14,
Vol. I).
stopway (SWY) A defined rectangular area on the ground at the end of takeoff run available prepared as a
suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an abandoned takeoff (ICAO Annex 4, 14 Vol.
I, PANS-ABC, PANS-ATM).
taxilane a route bounded on either one or both sides by aircraft parking positions, and by which aircraft can
only gain access to these parking positions.
taxiway A defined path on an airfield established for the taxiing of aircraft and intended to provide a link between
one part of the airport and another, including:
• aircraft stand taxilane — A portion of an apron designated as a taxiway and intended to provide access to
aircraft stands only.
• apron taxiway — A portion of a taxiway system located on an apron and intended to provide a through taxi
route across the apron.
• rapid exit taxiway (RET) — A taxiway connected to a runway at an acute angle and designed to allow
landing airplanes to turn off at higher speeds than are achieved on other exit taxiways and thereby minimizing
runway occupancy times (ICAO Annex 2,4 ,1 4 Vol. I, PANS-ATM). Synonymous with high-speed exit taxiway.
traffic, direct transit Traffic which both arrives and departs the point (transits the point) as part of a continuous
movement under a single air ticket or waybill, without a stopover, on the same or different aircraft identified by
the same airline designator and flight number (ICAO Manual on the Regulation of International Air Transport
Doc 9626).
traffic, true origin and destination Traffic with the origin being the first point named on the transportation
document and the destination being the last point on a one-way movement or the point located furthest from
the point of origin on a return (round trip) movement (ICAO Manual on the Regulation of International Air
Transport Doc 9626).
User Charges Panel (UCP) The User Charges Panel is responsible for representing IATA airlines in negotiations
with airport authorities regarding the charges for the use of the airport, including but not limited to landing fees,
terminal building charges, passenger-related elements, lighting charges, air traffic control and monopoly-type
user charges.
wake vortex/vortices Tubes of rapidly rotating air (horizontal tornadoes in effect) that spill off the wingtips of
aircraft. The larger, heavier and slower the aircraft, the more intense the wake vortex. The tubes of air rotate
in opposite directions as air from the underside of each wingtip tries to swirl up and over. This counter-rotation
can flip a small aircraft, particularly one that approaches a runway below a preceding aircraft.
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ACRONYMS
a /c Aircraft
ACFT Aircraft
ACC Airport Consultative Committee
ACI Airports Council International
AMD Archway metal detector (pax and hand baggage screening)
AOC Airline Operators Committees
AODB IATA Airport and Obstacle Database or Airport Operational Database
APASG Asia Pacific Airports Steering Group
AHM Airport Handling Manual
APM Automated people mover
ARP Airport reference point, with latitude and longitude to the nearest second based on the WGS-84
(world geodetic system).
API Advance passenger information
APU Auxiliary power units
A-SMGS Advanced surface movement guidance and control system
ATA Air Transport Association (American)
ATB Automated ticket and boarding pass
ATC Air traffic control
ATFM Air traffic flow management
ATM Air traffic movement
BAR Board of Airline Representatives
BHS Baggage handling system
BMS Building management system
BOT build-operate-transfer (leasing term)
BOOT build-own-operate-transfer (leasing term)
BRS Baggage reconciliation system
BTO build-transfer-operate (leasing term)
CAA Civil Aviation Authority
CAPEX Capital expenditure(s)
CCTV Closed-circuit television
CDA Continuous descent approach
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
CHP Combined heat and power
CIP Commercially important passenger or Capital investment programme
CT Computed tomography imaging
CTA Cargo terminal area or Central terminal area
CUTE Common use terminal equipment
DCS Departures control system
DCV Destination Coded Vehicle
ECAC European Civil Aviation Conference
EDS Explosive detection system
EDTS Explosive detection tomography system
EIS Environmental impact statement
ETD Electronic trace detection
ETV Elevating transfer vehicle
EU European Union
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FBO Fixed base operator
FEGP Fixed electrical ground power
FFL Finished floor level
FIDS Flight information display system
GPU Ground power unit
GPS Global positioning system
GSE Ground service equipment
HBS Hold baggage screening
HIRO High intensity runway operation
HHMD Hand-held metal detectors (pax and hand baggage screening)
HSR High speed rail
HVAC Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
IED Improvised explosive device
IATA International Air Transport Association
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
IFR Instrument flight rule
ILS Instrument landing system
IIWG International Industry Working Group
JAA Joint Aviation Authorities
JAR Joint Aviation Requirements
LAT Latest check-in acceptance time
LDA Localizer directional aid
LDA Landing distance available
MARS Multi-aircraft ramp system
mppa Million passengers per annum
MCO Miscellaneous charge order
MCT Minimum connecting time
MIS Management information system
MLW Maximum landing weight
MQT Maximum queuing time
MRS Magnetic resonance imaging
MRTD Machine readable travel documents
MTBF Mean time before failure (re: system maintenance)
MTOW Maximum take-off weight
MTTR Mean time to repair (re: system maintenance)
Mvts/annum Aircraft movements per annum
NASP National airport system plan
NB Narrow body aircraft
NGLA New generation large aircraft
NLA New large aircraft
NM Nautical miles
O&D Origin and destination
OFZ Obstacle free zone
OPEX Operating expenditure(s)
ORAT Operations readiness and airport transition
OTS Optimal turn-off segment
PAPI Precision approach path indicator
PAR Precision approach radar
PAX Passenger(s)
PBB Passenger boarding bridge
PCI Pavement condition index
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Pascall+Watson architects w w w .p a s c a lls .c o .u k
Heathrow Terminal 5
Stansted Terminal Extension Naples A irport Birmingham Airport Manchester Airport Oman Airport
5 Carlson Court 116 Putney Bridge Road London SW15 2NQ Phone +44(0)20 8874 1311 Fax+44 (0)20 8874 2584 info@pascalls.co.uk