Liebherr Bohrwerkzeuge Für Kellybohren Drehbohrgeräte Deutsch Small

CHAPTER 8: Earth Loads on Steel Pipe
Source: Journal (American Water Works Association), Vol. 53, No. 8 (AUGUST 1961), pp. 1045-
1080
Published by: American Water Works Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41257176
Accessed: 04-12-2015 02:32 UTC
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
American Water Works Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal (American
Water Works Association).
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 165.123.34.86 on Fri, 04 Dec 2015 02:32:31 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
CHAPTER 8
Earth Loads on Steel Pipe

pipe, both with thin wall ningwith8.9,was derivedfromobser-
and with thick wall, has been vations on steel water pipe. The
usedunderground fornearlya century theoryis basic,however, and has been
in the case of smooth-wall pipe and foundto applyequallywellto corru-
halfa century inthecaseofcorrugated gated culvertpipe. Therefore,ex-
pipe. These kindsof pipe have been amplesof bothtypesare relevantto
subjectedto earthloadsand liveloads showvaliditythrough installation
ex-
of manykindsand of highintensity perience. All observations plottedin
withoutany generalfailureby col- Fig. 8.6 pertainto steel waterpipe
lapse or undesirable changein shape. installations, mostof the linesbeing
Therefore, the load resistance of pipe Dresser coupled. Verticaldeflection
in the commonly used diametersand averagesabout 2 per cent,whichis
wall thicknesseshas been generally normalforsuchlines,and is confirmed
adequateand theproblemofanalysis by thesidewisesettlement theory.
is not a vitalone,exceptthatdeflec-
tion of steel waterpipe mustbe re- 8.1. Types of Conduits
strictedto permissible limitsforthe
liningsand coatings used and for Whengroupedaccordingto degree
water tightnessof the joint where of rigidity, threeclasses of pipe are
mechanical couplingsare used. generally recognized:
Real collapsefailureof steel pipe a. Rigid conduits, whosecross-sec-
doesnotoccurunderearthloadsuntil tional shapes cannot be distorted
a conditionis reached where the sufficiently to change theirvertical
verticaldiameterhas been decreased or horizontal dimensionsmore than
about 20 per cent of the nominal 0.1 per cent without causingmaterial
diameterand thehorizontal diameter damage.
has been increaseda similaramount. b. Semirigidconduits, whosecross-
Many thousandsof corrugatedsteel sectional shapes can be distorted
drainagestructuresshow that they sufficiently to changetheirverticalor
are virtuallyuncrushableunderany horizontaldimensions morethan 0.1
existingfill or moving-wheel load per cent but not morethan 3.0 per
with or withoutimpact when the cent,without causingmaterialdamage.
earthcover is at least in
equal depth c. Flexible conduits,whose cross-
to the pipe diameter. The average sectional shapes can be distorted
verticaldeflection of such structures,sufficientlyto changetheirverticalor
even includingthoseunderrailroads, horizontaldimensions morethan 3.0
2 3
is about or percent of the nominal per cent before causing material
diameter. damage.
The Barnard"sidewise"settlement Steel pipe, havingeitherlightor
theory,describedin sectionsbegin- heavy wall, because of its physical
1045
1046 committee report Jour.
AW WA
characteristics
can alwaysfunctionas 8.3. RigidVersus FlexiblePipe
a flexible
conduit,with due considera-
tiongivenforthe relativerigidityof The differences in reactionto load
exhibitedby rigid and by flexibleor
liningsor coatingsofwaterpipe. semiflexible
The workingdata in this report pipe affect design. The
have special applicationto conduits methods of design which apply to
made of steel and not to conduits one do notapply to theother.
madeofothermaterials. Field load tests made on buried
pipe show: [1] that the load de-
8.2. Types of Loads velopedon rigidpipe is greaterthan
that developedon flexiblepipe; and
Earth loads on pipe are of two [2] that this greaterload tends to
kinds. The one more commonin concentrate at thetop and bottomof
Fig. 8.1. Effectof Earth Load on Rigid and Flexible Pipe

The load on rigid pipe (demonstrated at the left)is concentrated
at the top and bottom
of the pipe, creatingbendingmomentsthatmust be resistedby the shell. Withflexible
pipe {demonstratedat the right),a lesser load is developed,because it is more evenly
distributedaround thecircumference.
waterworkspracticeis trenchload- the rigidpipe,thuscreatingbending

ing,thepipebeinglaidinan excavated momentswhichmustbe resistedby
trenchand backfilled.The second the shell. The tests show that the
kindoccurswhena pipe is laid on a lesserload developedon flexible pipe:
gradedorprepared groundsurface and [1] is moreevenlydistributed around
a fillof earthis placed aroundand its withlessconcentra-
over the pipe. As the load carried circumference,
tionat any pointthan is trueforrigid
by the pipe may differin the two
cases, trenchloadingshouldbe dis- pipe; and [2] may be carriedas a
tinguished fromfillloading. Further, compressive forcein the shellwhich,
the reactionof flexiblepipe to either dependingon stiffness, frequently is
fromthe resistedmoreby archactionthanby
fillor trenchload is different
reactionofrigidpipeto theseloads. moment strength.The effect ofearth
Aug.1961 STEEL PIPE DESIGN AND INSTALLATION 1047
loadon rigidand flexible pipeis shown Figure 8.2 shows photographsof

in Fig. 8.1. sand models made to demonstrate
Although themaximum load-carry-whattakesplace whennormalsettle-
ing capacityof flexiblepipe depends mentoccursin a fillcontaining pipe.
to someextenton the wall thickness In thesemodels,the horizontal lines
and its sectionmodulus,the pipe,by were straightbeforesettlementoc-
deflecting, is able to make full use curred. Their displacementgives a
of the load-carrying ability of the clue to whatcauses the differencein
earth surrounding it. As the pipe loadingon rigidand flexible pipe.
may changeshape without failure,it In theleft-hand
portionofFig. 8.2,
transfers partoftheverticalload into showingrigidpipe, S represents the
a horizontal or radialthrustwhichis amountofsettlement offillbyconsoli-
resistedJ)ythepassivepressure ofthe dation. The layersabove the rigid
Fig. 8.2. Effectof Settlementon Rigid and Flexible Pipe in Fill

In thephotographat theleft,pertainingto rigid pipe, S representstheamountof settle-
mentoffill by consolidation. In thephotographat theright,pertaining'toflexiblepipe,
D representsthedeflectionof thepipe as it yields underload.
earthat its sidesas thesemoveout- pipearehigherthanthoseat thesides.

ward. If the wall itselfwere rigid, The outsidelayers,by sinkingfarther
thismovement couldnot occurwith- thanthelayersin theprismabovethe
outwallfracture.It followsthatthe pipe, create a drag at the sides of
rigidpipe mustcarrythe wholeload the prismabove the pipe and add to
itselfor break,whereasthe flexible the prismweightthe amountof the
pipe dividesthe load withthe earth frictionalforcesin the two vertical
enclosingit. Therein lies the in- friction planes. The load on therigid
herentdifference betweenrigidand pipemaytherefore be greaterthanthe
behaviorand the explanation weightof the earth prismdirectly
flexible
ofwhythe classicalbending-moment above it.
formulas applyto theanalysisofrigid In the right-hand portionof Fig.
pipe but not to theanalysisofflexible 8.2,showingflexible
pipe,D represents
pipe. of the pipe as it yields
the deflection
AW WA
underload. In thiscase,aftersettle- Consequently, in design,it should

mentand consolidation ofthefill,the be consideredthata rigidpipe under
layersabove the pipe are lowerthan a fill or embankment may carrya
thoseat thesides. The weightofthe load greaterthan the prismweight
earthprismresting on theflexible
pipe directlyover it by the amount of
is partiallysupportedby thematerial frictionalforcedrag betweenprism
I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
, уP^-- -
0Il 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 2 .3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
H_
Bd
Fig. 8.3. ComputationDiagram for Loads on Pipe CompletelyBuried in Ditches

tothecalculation
Cd refers H, totheheight
coefficient; (ft)offilloverthetopoftheconduit;
and Bd tothewidth(ft) oftheditchat thetopofthepipe. The numbers on thecurves
[i] minimum
represent: forgranularmaterialswithout cohesion;[2~' maximum forsand
and gravel;[J] maximum forsaturatedtopsoil;[4~] ordinary maximum forclay; and
[5] maximum forsaturated clay.
at thesidesofthepipe. This partial and side earth; a flexiblepipe may

supportis measuredby theamountof carrya loadwhichis lessthanthesame
the upward acting frictionalforce prismweightby an upliftamountde-
generatedin the two frictionplanes pendenton a similarfrictional force.
too, by the relative
and is governed, Withrigidpipe the frictionalforceis
settlementof fill and deflectionof additive. Withflexible pipeit is sub-
pipe. tractive. The same principleapplies
Aug. 1961 STEEL PIPE DESIGN AND INSTALLATION 1049
to flexiblepipe in a trench,as ex- If, however,the conduitis rela-

plained below. tivelyflexible,such as a thin-walled
steel pipe, it will deflectvertically
8.4. Determinationof Load and, by so doing,transmita portion
of the load to the trenchwalls by
The verticalload actingon a pipe friction and to the trenchbottomby
undera fillor embankment may be
calculatedin accordancewith Mar-
ston's formulaapplyingto fill or
embankment conditions(i). Alter-
natively,for flexiblepipe, fill load
may be taken as the weightof the
earth prism above the pipe. The
Marstonformulaforembankment or
fillwillnotbe discussedhere.
When installationis made in a
trench,theload maybe calculatedin
accordancewith Marston'sformula
for ' 'ditch" conduits (1). Or, for
flexiblepipe, the load again may be
taken as the weightof the earth
prismabove thepipe.
The Marston ditch conduit for-
mulais:
We = CdwBd* (8.1)
in which:
Wc = load on the conduit (lb/lin
ftofpipe)
Cd = a calculationcoefficient (see
Fig. 8.3)
w = unitweightof ditchfillma-
terial(lb/cuft) Fig. 8.4. Deflectionof Steel Pipe
Bd = width of ditch at top of
pipe (ft). Pipe deflection transfersa portionof earth
load to the sides and bottomof the trench.
Thisformula givesthetotalvertical В d is thetrenchwidthat thetop ofthepipe;
load in theditchor trenchat thelevel В c and Di, diameter of installed pipe;
betweenВ d and Bc ; d, pipe
ofthetop ofthepipe. Marstonand A, thedifference diameterof deflectedpipe;
othershaveshownby experiment and deflection;D2,
and r, radius of installedpipe.
observation of actual structures that
practically all of this load is carried
bytheconduititselfwhentheconduit settlement.The right-handphoto-
is rigid,as thistypeis veryunyielding graphin Fig. 8.2 illustrates theaction
in relationto the earthmaterialsbe- of friction in reducingtrench ]'load if
tweenthe sidesof the structure and the trenchsides are consideredto be
thesidesofthetrench. justoutsidetheverticallines. In Fig.
1050 report
COMMITTEE Jour.
AW WA
8.4, the trenchfillis showndivided in whichВ c is the widthof the pipe

into three prisms. It is suggested and the othersymbolsare as indi-
that, as a minimumloadingcondi- catedforEq 8.1.
tion,if the pipe deflection d equals It shouldbe pointedout that,for
the settlement of side fillbelow the steel pipe, Eq 8.1 representsthe
top of the pipe, the pipe and the maximum loading conditionsand
side fillsmay each carrythe same Eq 8.2 represents the probablemini-
-
amountof theload perunitofwidth. mum loadingconditionwhich may
developon a pipe in a trench. The
,-v
7j
1
1 1 1
. actual load in a givencase may lie
somewhere betweentheselimits,de-
pendingupon the soil properties and
the relativerigidityof the conduit
comparedwith the side fills. For
morerigidpipe,the actual load will
approachthatgivenby Eq 8.1,while,
forquiteflexible pipe,theactualload
will approach,or equal, that given
by Eq 8.2.
IX A roughestimateofthepercentage
settlement to be expectedin the side
2
fillsmay be obtainedfromFig. 8.24,
discussedin Sec. 8.19.
8.5. Wall Thickness to Resist Earth
Load
ll 1 1 1 1 1 The bending-moment, or flexural-
15 20 30 40 50 60 70
Diameter- in. stress,methodof analysisdoes not
to steelpipeunderearth
Fig. 8.5. RelationshipBetween Calculated alwaysapply
Height of Fill and Diameter of loads. Almost all analysesof steel
16-GageCorrugatedPipe conduitshave been directedat the
structure itselfand theload it carries.
The relationship was computed by use of This reportpresentstwo methodsof
Eq. 8.3fora deflection of1 percentofpipe bothof whichuse the elastic-
diameter;a constante = 20; lag factor design,
= 1.5; К = 0.10; and soil weight= 120 ring theoryfor analyzingthe pipe
lb/cuft(5).
barrel; both are based on designing
flexiblesteelpipeto obtaina required
verticaldeflection, and both recog-
Under theseconditions, the load on nizeearthassistanceat thesideofthe
the flexiblepipe may be determined pipe. The first methodis bySpangler
bymultiplying Marston'sload expres- (2, 3), who uses a single selective
sion(Eq 8.1) by theratioofthewidth constantforthe modulusof passive
ofthepipeto thewidthofthetrench, resistanceof the earth. The sec-
giving: ond is by Barnard(4), who analyzes
We= CdwBd*(^j
the pipe barrelboth forelastic-ring
(8.2) strength andforconfined-archstrength ,
determines the outwardthrustof the worksauthorities do not ap-

pipewall,and thenconsidersthe pas- ply the lag factor to the
sive deformation of the soil at the deflectioncaused by live
side ofthe pipe underthisload to be load.)
a "sidewise"settlement and employs
the principlesof soil mechanicsto It is to be notedin Eq 8.3 that W
determineits magnitude. In the is the totalload on the conduit (in
Spanglerformula,it is verydifficultpoundsper linearinch). Therefore,
to determine foruse thepropervalue to obtaindesignloads W forflexible
of the modulusof passiveresistance
pipe in trenchesusing Eq 8.1 and
of the envelopingsoil. The Barnard
methodpermitsuse of eithertypical
100 1 1 1 1 1-
values of engineering propertiesof 90 | 1 1
soils or any specially determined 80 • .

valuesin a givencase.
8.6. Design Factors in Spongier :s===i::

Formula .^,1^.
The formulafor the design of .-
flexible pipe culverts evolved by ..^
Spangleris:
-° tsrf&J <-> „_^____
in which:
Ax = horizontaldeflection
iblepipe (in.)
of flex-
■ •
• • N. '
'
К = beddingconstant (0.10 for .

'
flat-bottom trenchwith un- . '
tampedbackfill orwithback- io V"

filltampedto horizontaldi-
ameteror springlineofpipe)
W = verticalload perunitof pipe 7 '-
length(lb/lin in. of pipe) e A_
r = radiusofpipe (in.)
E = modulusof elasticityof pipe 5 ,__V-
metal(30,000,000 forsteel) 41 1 1 1 1 1 1 1-
/ = momentof inertiaof cross 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
sectionof pipe wall (in.4/lin Diameter- in.
in. ofpipe) Fig. 8.6. RelationshipBetween Values of

e = modulusofpassiveresistance Spangler e and Pipe Diameter
of envelopingearth (psi/in.) The values of e, calculatedfrom measured
Di = deflectionlag factor (1.25- test data, decreased as the pipe diameter
1.50). (Note: Some water increased (7).
1052 COMMITTEE REPORT lom. AW WA
includingboth live and dead loads 8.6.1.Earthmodulus , e. The factor

(and considering units of measure- e in the Spanglerformula is intended
ment): to measurethe passiveresistanceof
+w*)(8-4)
w-Ur-k
the earthat the sidesof the pipe on
an elasticbasis. It is supposedlyde-
pendenton the typeof soil and the
in which: void ratio,or degreeof compaction,
in thatsoil. Spanglerreportsmeas-
W = total load on flexiblepipe
(lb/linin. ofpipe) 121 . . _
We = dead load on pipe fromEq 1 1
8.1 (lb/linftofpipe) 10
Wl = live load on pipe as calcu-
latedbyMarston's(i) meth-
ods (lb/linftofpipe)
Bc = pipediameter(ft)
В d = trenchwidthat top of pipe
(ft).
i :~-Ziz:::
The Spanglerformulamay satisfy
engineerswho desire a theoretical
approach.*It must be understood,I 3
| /
however,that the earth assistance ý
propertiesof the soil surrounding a
buriedpipeare notadequatelymeas- 2 JL
uredby thesinglefactore, themodu-
lus of passive soil resistance,incor-
poratedin the formula. Because of
the inconsistent resultsgivenby the
it is suggested
that
Spanglerformula,
its range of usefulapplicationis to ll 1 I I 1111
pipe 60 in. and smallerunder fill
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
e
heightsof 10 ftand less. 8.7. RelationshipBetween Values of
The relationbetweenthe heightof Fig. Spangler e and Height of Fill
fill and the diameterof a 16-gage
Measured deflectionsshowed that,for the
corrugated pipe,computed(5) using same
pipe, the value of e increases as the
Eq 8.3, is shownin Fig. 8.5. As the fill heightincreases (5, 6).
diameter increases,the calculated
fillheightcausing1 per cent deflec-
tiondecreasesto a minimum and then ured values of e in embankments (2)
increases. Experiencedoes not con- as given in Table 8.1. Note that
firmsuch behaviorof pipe. When tamping the side fills practically
Eq 8.3 was used to determinethe doubled the value. When calculat-
thickness ofa pipe156in. in diameter ingthevalueofe corresponding to the
to deflect2| in. undera 20-ftbackfill then available measureddeflections
coverwithe = 30, the figureforre- forsmoothsteelwaterpipe of many
quiredwall thickness was negative. different diameters, Barnard(7) found
e to decreaseas the pipe diameterin- ofcommondepthand whereordinary

creased(Fig. 8.6).* backfilling methodshavebeenused.
When the measureddeflections in The method of backfillingvery
a carefullyconductedfieldtest (6) flexible pipeover4 ftin diametermay
wereemployed(5), to calculatethe completely offset thedesigner's calcu-
valueofe usingEq 8.3, forincrement lationsifcare is nottaken. Initially
increasesin fillheighton the same the pipe shouldhave its fullvertical
pipe,the resulting value of e varied diameter,at least. The backfilling
fromless than30 at 1 ftof coverto shouldbe builtup evenlyon each side
about70 at 12 ftofcover(Fig. 8.7). at the same time. Backfilling from
The moduluse has beenfoundcon- one side and thenthe othermay be
sistentwithmeasureddeflection and disastrous. Ordinarytampingup to
withsoil properties onlyin degreesof the horizontaldiameter,plus careful
soil compactionand loadingseldom backfilling above that point,will in-
reached in pipe installations(4). sureinstallations whereinthevertical
Therefore,e must be treatedas a deflection is normal.
selectiveconstantwhoseactualvalue
in a givencase is unknown. A value TABLE 8.1
ofe = 30 appearsto be an acceptable
approximation fordeflection calcula- ValuesofSpanglere Determined byExperiment
tions for pipe 60 in. and smaller Expt.
Kind of Soil
e
No. psi/in.
undercoverof 10 ftor less,foreither
trenchor fillconditions. 1 Blacksiltyloam (notcompacted) 14
2 Wellgradedgravel(not
Barnard (<?), using the Spangler
compacted)
formulawithe = 30 and load as in 3 Yellow sandy clay loam (not
Eq 8.4, developedthe deflectionof compacted)
60-in.and smallerforsteelpipeunder 4 Yellowsandyclayloam (tamped,
27
externalload in trenches, as shownin dry)
Table 8.2. Thesedata seemto check
quitewellwithexperience in trenches 8.6.2. Ax. Strictly
Deflection, speak-
* In 1957, after a study in similitude, 7a ing,Ax is the horizontal deflection of
Spangler modified the denominator of his the pipe,but, within the range of use,
originalformula(Eq. 8.3) by a change in experience has shownthatit may be
nomenclature whichsubstitutes e'rzforer4,in considered to be theverticaldeflection
whiche' = er. He thenbelievedthatthereis
a sizeeffectnotoriginally and that as well.
recognized
it is more nearly correctto considerthe The amountof verticaldeflection
modulusof soil reactione' to be a constant. that will cause collapse of flexible
The actualvalueofe' fora specific instanceis pipeis about 20 percentofthenom-
still unknown,but a tentative value of inal diameter.
e' = 700 is suggestedby Spanglerforside fill Structurallyspeak-
soilwhichhas beencompactedto 90 percent ing, therefore, deflections up to 10
or moreProctordensity. The corresponding per cent of diameterare amplysafe.
value of e fordifferent pipe diameterswhen The spun coal-tar enamel meeting
er= 700is shownas thedotted-dashed linein AWWA standardswill
Fig. 8.6. The comparisonis clear between 10
safelytake a
thesetheoreticalvaluesofe and valuescalcu- per cent deflection. Corrugated
latedby Barnardfrommeasureddata on steel culvert installationsare commonly
waterlines,as shownby thevariousdots. designedusing5 per cent deflection.
1054 COMMITTEE REPORT Jour.AW WA
TABLE 8.2
ofSteelPipe UnderExternalLoad in Trenches*
Deflection
12 3 4 5 6 7 8
- in,
d я Deflection
m of Wall Thickness- in.
Nominal 2% , Cover
„ «л ~
e Cover
Size Diam. 5-ft 10-ft
in. in.
Fraction Decimal Tru°k Tr¿ck Tru°k Tr¿ck

6 0.12 i 0.1250 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02
& 0.1875 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.01
8 0.16 I 0.1250 0.03 0.07 0.06 0.07
& 0.1875 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02
10 0.20 i 0.1250 0.07 0.17 0.15 0. 18
А 0.1875 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.07
12 0.24 i 0.1250 0.15 0.32 0.27 0.33
А 0.1875 0.06 0.12 0.10 0.12
i 0.2500 0.03 0.06 0.05 0.06
I4 0.28 i 0.1250 0.21 0.48 0.42 0.52
& 0.1875 0.09 0.21 0.19 0.24
i 0.2500 0.04 0.10 0.09 0.11
16 0.32 i 0.1250 0.30 0:60 0.56 0.68
& 0.1875 0.15 0.31 0.28 0.35
i 0.2500 0.08 0.16 0.14 0.18
18 0.36 Ä 0.1875 0.21 0.41 0.39 0.47
i 0.2500 0.12 0.22 0.21 0.26
A 0.3125 0.07 0.13 0.13 0.15
20 0.40 A 0.1875 0.28 0.53 0.49 0.59
i 0.2500 0.17 0.31 0.29 0,35
& 0.3125 0.10 0.19 0.18 0.21
24 0.48 A 0.1875 0.41 0.75 0.71 0.83
i 0.2500 0.29 0.54 0.50 0.59
I 0.3750 0.14 0.24 0.23 0.27
30 0.60 i 0.2500 0.40 0.71 0.70 0.83
& 0.3125 0.31 0.54 0.54 0.64
| 0.3750 0.23 0.40 0.40 0.48
36 0.72 i 0.2500 0.48 0.83 0.87 1.02
& 0.3125 0.41 0.71 0.75 0.87
Î 0.3750 0.34 0.58 0.62 0.72
42 0.84 i 0.2500 0.53 0.98 0.95 1.14
} 0.3750 0.44 0.80 0.78 0.92
i 0.5000 0.32 0.57 0.57 0.68
48 0.96 A 0.3125 0.52 0.87 0.94 1.09
I 0.3750 0.48 0.81 0.87 1.01
& 0.4375 0.43 0.73 0.78 0.91
i 0.5000 0.'38 0.65 0.70 0.81
60 1.20 * 0.3750 0.57 0.98 1.05 1.22
i 0.5000 0.51 0.87 0.95 1.10
* Trench widthequals outside diameterof pipe plus 2 ft. Field conditions: flat-bottomed
trench,tamped
backfill.
FromBarnard (8)
For steel water pipe, permitting2 8.6.4. Design load, W. Experience

per cent deflectionis good practice, indicates that the calculated deflec-
although for large-diameter pipe, tion will be morenearlyaccurate if W
unlined, deflection has sometimes approaches the minimum value for
amounted to as much as 10 per smallerpipe given by Eq 8.2 and the
cent on well engineeredlines. maximumvalue forlargerpipe given
Permissibledeflectionfor cement- by Eq 8.1. In this sense, large pipe
linedpipe is on the orderof 2 per cent. is 48-in. and over.
The effecton hydraulic efficiency 8.6.5. Deflectionlag factor,D/. It
of a pipe deflectedby as much as has been observed that corrugated-
5 per cent is entirelynegligibleas its pipe culverts continue to deflect
area is 99.75 per cent of that of a slowlyfora periodof timeafterinstal-
Fig. 8.8. Fringe Pattern AroundRing on Slip-Fit and Over-SizeHoles

In a firstseries of tests,the hole size was a slip-fitfor the ring. The fringe pattern
(at theleft)indicatesa relativelyuniformradial stress. The stresspatternin a second
series of tests,when the diameterof the hole was -£j in. largerthan thatof the ring,is
shownat theright(4) .
perfectcircleand its hydraulicradius lation. The gradual increase in de-

is also 99.75 per cent. When the flectionis an action somewhatsimilar
deflectionis 2 per cent, the corre- to foundation settlement and time
spondingfigureis 99.95 per cent for consolidation of soils. The increase
both area and hydraulicradius. becomes slower and slower,however,
8.6.3. Bedding constant, K. For and after a period of years virtual
field conditions usually encountered stability is attained. Factor Dt re-
in steel pipe installations, a good lates initial deflectionto final deflec-
designvalue of К is 0.10. The range tion. Values observed by Spangler
of К is from0.110 for point support range from 1.38 to 1.46. A design
to 0.083 the full width value suggestion is 1.25 to 1.50.
for^bedding
of the pipe. ' Some water works authoritiesdo not
1056 committee REPORT Jour.
AW WA
applythe lag factorto the deflection zontal side thrustaction resembles

causedby liveload. verticalthrustaction on a footing
and that the resultingsoil deforma-
8.7. Barnard's Sidewise Settlement tionat the pipe side is a "sidewise"
Theory instead of a vertical settlement,
Barnard(4) determines thissidewise
A footingrestingon a groundsur- settlement usingempirically theprin-
face settles under a verticalload. ciplesestablishedforestimating ver-
An initialsettlement occursimmedi- tical settlementunder foundations.
ately,and usuallya further and slower The distancethepipesidewallmoves
settlementoccurs as time passes. against the soil is termed"passive
The extentofthesettlements depends deformation" of the soil. The ver-
upon the load intensity, the number ticalchangein diameteror deflection
and natureof applications,the size
of the footing,and the initialand / Die Pressure Die Pressure ч
final engineeringpropertiesof the
soil assumingthe load. To thisex- (a) 1st OperationForming
tentthereis interaction betweenthe
soil and every manmade structure
restingon it.
The engineerhas meansof design-
i ' I ^-]
ing footingsfromknowledgeof the '
Vu/
engineering propertiesofthematerials Pressure ft JJ
in the footings.Also at his disposal
aremeansofestimating soilsettlement
whenhe knowstheengineering prop-
vL/l
_J f ^r
ertiesofthesoils. (b) 2nd Operation (c) 3rd Operation
A rigorousanalysisof the problem Forming Closing
ofunderground conduitswillprobably Fig. 8.9. Operationsin FormingHigh-
remainimpracticalas long as there PressureSteel Pipe
are unmeasuredvariables in field Operationsshown are performedon pipe
installation,in backfilling and com- to 36-in. size having a wall thicknessas
pacting, and in precise knowledge small as 0.25 in. (4).
of soil engineeringcharacteristics.
Under such circumstances, extreme of the pipe is two timesthe passive
accuracyis notexpected. The semi- deformation.The true engineering
empirical approachis, however, justi- properties of boththe steelpipe and
fiedas a practicalapproximation. theearthenvelopeenterdirectlyinto
Experienceshowsthatthe vertical thesecalculationsfordeflection. The
diameterofa buriedflexible steelpipe methodof calculationhas checked
underdead load and live load de- closelywithmeasureddeflections un-
creases and that the horizontaldi- der low, medium,and high cover.
ameterincreases. The verticalloads The calculationprocessis simpleand
obviouslyresultin horizontal thrust- principallygraphical. The method
ing loads against the soil at the sides has the distinctadvantageof telling
of the pipe. Such thrustshave been directlythe amountof verticalellip-
measured. Postulating thatthishori- sing stulling,or strutting necessary
in a giveninstanceto avoidexceeding A 72-in.diameter, 8-gage(0.172-in.)

the finalpermissible maximumpipe corrugated metalpipe underthe "hot
deflection.This advantageis due to track"at a steelmillis one outstand-
the factthat the calculatedsidewise ingexample. Thisculvertcarriesone
settlement is reallya distancemeas- of the heaviestwheelloads known -
urement, even though it is expressed 343 tons on 16 wheels- 88.5 tons of
in termsofpipediameter. whichcan act on theculvertwhenthe
wheeltruckis directlyover it. The
8.8. Pipe Action coverofearth,whichis only3.5 ft,im-
an especiallycriticalcondition.
When there is little or no side poses Whenanalyzedforflexural stressby
support,a steel pipe undergroundthe classic methods,the indicated
functions as an elasticringloadedat maximumfiberstressis
972,000psi.
top and bottom. Relativelythick Actually,the culvertis made of soft
ringscarrymoreload withlessdeflec- ironwitha maximum tensile
tion than do thinnerringsand may specified
strength of 44,000 psi and a yield
be said to possess greater "ring
strengthof 27,500 psi. The calcu-
strength."In a givencase,however, latedfiberstressis therefore 22 times
if the ringstrengthis not sufficient
the ultimateand 35 timesthe yield
to carrythefullload,thepipedeflects In ofthefigures, how-
and soil side support builds up. strength. spite
ever, experience demonstrates that,as
Consideringprogressively pipe hav- a culvert,thisstructure has a safety
ing less and less ringstrength, it is factor of four or five. The unit
seen that the resisting action in the arch stress is
different wallsmustchangefromthat approximately6,500
psi. Carefulobservations showedno
ofa ringloadedat top and bottomto
the first
9 yearswitha
the arch actionof a totallyenclosed change during
load passing over it several times
ring. In thelattercase, theconfined daily. Now,after29 years
(1958),it
ring must possess sufficientarch is stillin servicewithno
strength to resisttheload adequately appreciable
eventhoughits ringstrength changein recentyears.
maybe Anotheroutstandingexampleis. a
inadequate. Data on ring strength 60-in. diameter,8-gage corrugated
are givenin Sec. 8.12. culvertundera 77-ftrailroadfill. If
8.9. Arch Strength theclassicalbending-moment formula
analysisand dead-load assumptions
That a confinedthin steel shell sometimes used by engineers are em-
underoutsideload mustact in com- ployed,and ifany effectof trainlive
pressionwithbendingresistance rela- load is ignored,the indicatedmaxi-
tivelyunimportant is provedby wide mumfiberstressis 1,100,000psi- 25
experience(4, 9). Two outstanding times the ultimate. Investigations,
examplesof culvertperformance will however,showedthatno appreciable
serveto demonstrate the tremendous changein shape has occurredin 11
resistance to earthpressurepossessed years. The unit arch stressis ap-
by thin metal cylinders. (The fact proximately 9,700psi.
that corrugatedpipe is involvedin The validityof the statementcon-
theseinstancesdoes not make them cerningthinsteelshellunderoutside
lessrelevant.) load can be demonstrated by labora-
1058 committee report . Jour.
AW WA
torytest and by the manufacturinglivereda load coveringone-halfthe

procedureof formingsteel pipe in tubediameter.
a die. In the firstseriesof tests,the hole
8.9.1. Proof by laboratorytest. An size was a slip-fit
forthe ring. This
endeavorwas made to demonstratewouldcome as near developinguni-
photoelasticallythat the postulation formradial pressurein the ring as
ofload distribution aroundembedded could be expected,consideringthe
steelpipe usedin the Barnardtheory elementsand factorsinvolvedin the
was not seriouslyin error. A hole test. The fringepattern(Fig. 8.8)
A A
Jr A A
AD
43_L ;A
- ¡^гч - ^t"
Plane H
_1
Di
I
>N1<
i v
plr's^ iЛ j I
I* B» и «- m i1 I
i_ 41
TIT, |
Fadeout Point-^
Fig. 8.10. Soil SettlementUnder Load

ГАе diagram pertainsto settlementоj fill and deflectionofflexiblepipe. See Sec. 8.10
for an explanationof lettersymbolsand a discussion of settlement (4) .
was drilledin a f-in. thick plastic indicatesa relativelyuniform radial

plate to accommodatean aluminum stressexceptnearthearea ofapplica-
ring 1.25 in. in diameter,0.034 in. tionof a concentrated load, wherea
thick,and £ in. long. A slot f in. different patternwould naturallybe
wide extendedfromthe hole to the expected.
top of the plate. A steel loading In the second seriesof tests,the
plunger| in. wide operatedin this diameterof theholewas made ^ in.
slot. The contactfaceoftheplunger largerthan that of the ring. Thus,
was groundto fiton thetube. It de- theringwas allowedto deflectabout
2' per cent verticallybefore full proofof the tremendousarch loads

contactwas establishedin the hori- whichcan be carriedby smooth-wall
zontaldirection.The idea herewas steel pipe. The formingoperations
to develop,at the extremitiesof the are shown in Fig. 8.9. The pipe
horizontaldiameter,a patternwhich is made fromsteel plates havinga
wouldresemblethefamiliar onionlike length equal to the finishedpipe
bulb of pressureexistingunderfoot- sectionand a widthsomewhatgreater
ings deliveringload to soil. Figure than the pipe circumference. The
8.8 showsthestresspatternachieved. firstoperationconsistsofdie-forming
To be notedare thebeginnings ofthe the ends of the plate to a radiusap-
"ears," which,whenfullgrown,are proximating thatof the finished pipe
postulatedas being similarto that
"bulb of pressure"undera footing
load exceptforhavingbeen rotated
90 degfromtheverticalandconverted
to a horizontalthrust.
Noteworthyare the calculated
stressesin the model ring. As an
elastic ring without side support,
placedbetweentheheadsofthetest-
ing machine,it held 30 lb with a
deflectionof about 2' per cent.The
maximumload in the firstseriesof
tests was 200 lb. In the second
series the maximumwas 250 lb.
The stress determined,using the
methodfor "arch load"- see Para-
graph 8.11(c)- is 5,900 psi for the
200-lb load and 7,300 psi for the Fig. 8.11. Distributionof Load
250-lbload. and Thrust
Calculatedon the basis of section
The diagram givesan idea of thedistribu-
modulus resistance,the apparent tion
stressin the ringunderthe plunger ofthehorizontalthrustof thepipe side
against the soil. A, B, and С are refer-
load is about 3,750,000psi for the ence points; a is one-halfthebeddingcon-
200-lbload and 4,700,000psi forthe tact angle (4).
250-lbload.
The materialin theringhad a yield as shownin Fig. 8.9a. The second
strength of about 55,000psi and an operationis performed in a U-shaped
ultimateof about 75,000 psi. The die, with the resultshown in Fig.
ring used was not harmed. After 8.9b. In the last operation, as
beingremovedfromthe testingma- shownin Fig. 8.9c, two semicircular
chine,it rolledon plateglasswithout die sectionsare broughtagainstthe
showinga balancepoint. U-shapedpipe,forcing it intoa com-
8.9.2. Proof by die-formingpipe. plete circle,with sufficient pressure
The processof manufacturing high- betweenthe plate edges to permit
testlinepipefurnishescontinuoustest electric-resistance flashwelding. The
finalclosingof the die forcesweld | in. Naturally,the pipe sections

metalfromthe weldedjoint inward endurethisoperationsuccessfully or
towardthe centerof the pipe and themethodof manufacture wouldbe
outwardat thetop. Such operations discarded. It is necessaryto recog-
are performed on 30-in.or 36-in.pipe nize the 'importantpart that the
having a wall thicknessofas littleas engineeringpropertiesof the pipe
^ о
'^
Fig. 8.12. Equivalent Earth Column

The diagramshowsthebasic conceptoftheequivalent-earth-column methodofcalculation.
See Sec. 8.13 for an explanationof lettersymbols(4).
materialand thedie materialhave in Test SpecimenA is testedwithcon-

thismanufacturing operation. finingpressure equivalent to the
heightof earthcolumnZb and axial
8.10. Barnard's General Theory pressurereachingthe specimenloca-
The soil whichsurroundsa pipe tion,theratioofitsshortening, s¿, to
in a trenchor in a fillis a remolded its /,
length, may be considered the
soil. Assumethat it is requiredto same as the ratioof settlement S' to
determine the settlement underload the thicknessof layer Zi, whichit
P, Fig.8.10,ina fillmadeoftwokinds represents.If Sa is expressedas a
of materialsand built on a natural percentageof /,thenSi is the same
groundat Plane3. Thereare several percentage ofL'.
ways to do this. One method is to The same reasoningapplies to
makeproperly controlled triaxialtests SpecimensВ and С and layersL4 and
of the soils involved,to determine Z,3. The sum of all the settlements
their engineeringproperties (11)- equals the settlement of the load P.
That methodis used in this report The accuracyof the findingsis in-
Case 1 Case 2 Case 3
''wv wv wv
''Щ+ "wv+ wv+

(a) No Side Support (b) Some Side Support (c) Full Side Support
Fig. 8.13. Cases of Conduitsand Loadings

As explainedin Sec. 8.13, wv represents
thetotalverticalunitload on pipe {psi) ; and Wh,
theunit horizontalload {psi) transferload contactpressure (4) .
forillustrativepurposesbecause the fluenced by themanyuncertainties of

data on severaltypicalremoldedsoils sampling,testing,and calculationsof
wereavailable{12). Settlement may underground load distribution.
be determined by void ratio-pressure The foregoingcalculation is an
data on soil samples or, in more estimateofinitialsettlement.Settle-
approximateform,by using data mentduetotimeconsolidation is addi-
developed by Proctor (13). The tive. In thisreport,timeconsolida-
lattersubjectis further discussedin tionis accountedforby a "lag factor"
Sec. 8.19. and is discussedin Sec. 8.18.
In Fig. 8.10, the load distribution The left-hand portionof Fig. 8.10
in thesoil due to load P is foundby indicatesa steel pipe as it mightbe
the methodsof Boussinesq,and a installedin a fillsuch as considered
"fadeout" point is establishedfor before. The pipe is shownas having
calculationpurposes. When triaxial settledwith Plane 3 and deflected
1062 COMMITTEE
REPORT Jour.
AW WA
enoughto occupythe space between theintensity on theverticaldiameter

Planes2 and 3 afterinitialsettlement.by someamount. It is affected also
For purposesofengineering design,it by the instantaneousradius of the
is postulatedthat the pipe is sup- pipe in contactwith the soil at a
portingthe fullweightof the prism givenpoint,suchas A , B, or C. This
of earthabove it because thereare is discussedin Sec. 8.15.
no "friction planes" (see Sec. S.3) to The size of a footingis a factorin
modifythe load. For a flexiblepipe its settlement,and thereforethe
diameterof a pipe is a factorin its
lOOi- » "sidewise"settlement.The greater
I I I 111
'''|''|''|
the size or diameter,the greaterthe
settlement forgivenload intensity in
stffiè5tEEE:!= unit per area. The settlementor
passivedeformation at the pipe side
maybe expressed in termsofthepipe
s.Kit
diameter.
The loadingat theside ofa pipe is
similarto that fora flexiblestripof
infinite lengthuniformly loaded.
The passivedeformation fora given
remoldedsoil withgivencompaction
°6 maybe determined fromtriaxialtest

data forthat soil corresponding to a
'''v«,iVi%M^- location P on the horizontalpipe
axis. Ofcourse,thedeformation also
■n
maybe determined by othermethods,
if available. For a given soil, the
load to cause a given deformation
becomesgreateras the depthof the
soilbelowthesurfacebecomesgreater.
This is important in determining pipe
deflection.
10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150 The basicconceptoftheequivalent-
Pipe Diameter- in.
earth-column methodof calculation
Fig. 8.14. TheoreticalHeight of Cover is shownin Fig. 8.12. The engineer-
"Ring Load" for Steel Pipe With ing properties of the soil are deter-
2 Per Cent Deflection
minedfora positionon thehorizontal
Theweight ofthesoil was 125 lb/cuft(4). pipeaxis.
8.11. Definitionof Terms
thisis theworstsituationpossible,so
itcan be usedforcalculationpurposes. Furtherdiscussionwill be facili-
The horizontalthrustof the pipe tated by definingand usingcertain
side againstthesoil is assumedto be terms:
distributed in some such fashionas a. Ring load- the load carriedby
in
indicated Fig. 8.11. As the total the conduitshell as determinedby
of all forcesmustbe in equilibrium,moment-modulus calculations
forring
the forceof maximumintensityon diameterchangesof about 5 percent
the horizontaldiametermustexceed or less.
b. Ringaid- the horizontalthrust Case 1. In this case (Fig. 8.13a),

towardthe pipe due to active earth thewallthickness and diameterofthe
; it maybe calculatedon the
pressure pipe selected to meet pressureand
basisofone-third
verticalpressure for otherservicerequirements are such
sand and one-halfforclay; it is used thatits ringstrength can carrysatis-
onlyto reduceringload, notarch load. factorilyall earthloads uponit with-
с Archload- the load carriedby out undue deflection.This case is
the conduit shell under external, quite frequentin waterworksprac-
radiallyacting pressuredetermined
by usingtheBarlowformula : 1>000L'''4 I 1 1 1 1 111 1
2St = pD (8.5) £00Л'УЛУ
or:
400'''' ^X V -'b
■l!i«F
St= pR (8.6) 'X
in which:
5 = stress(psi) 200V^S '' V О<%ОЛ^ ' J
/ = wall thickness (in.)
p = pressure(psi) due to heightof
coverabove pipe 1ии -
D = conduitdiameter(in.) ^Туллудлд
R = instantaneousradius of de- S
formed conduitat givenpoint 60 _N/§o$vOSX
ел X ' 4 V V 4 X '
(in.). 40
The indicatedstressin the pipe wall ^xW
fromEq 8.5 and 8.6 is, respectively: S УлЛ
20
5-f (8.7) ^
or:
5= 1OI 1 1 1- I- 11111
^ (8.8) 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 100 150
Pipe Diameter- in.
d. Transferload- theload in excess Fig. 8.15. TheoreticalHeight of Cover
oftheringload whichis impartedto "Arch Load" for Steel Pipe With
thesoilat thesidesofthepipe. Full Side Support
e. Passive deformation - the hori- Thestress(S) was equalto 7,500psi (Eq.
zontal "settlement"or distancethe 8.5); the weightof the soil was 125
soilis compressedbythetransfer load. lb/cuft(4).
/. Contact - the measureof
pressure
theforceactingbetweenmetalsurface tice,and no problemoccursin instal-
and soil surfacein an approximatelylation. Ringstrength for2 per cent
horizontaldirection. deflectionis given in Fig. 8.14.
Case2. In Case 2 (Fig. 8.13b),the
8.12. Ring Strengthand Arch pipe ring strengthis sufficient to
Strength carry part of the earth load and live
load, but notall ofit, withoutundue
Threedifferent cases ofpipe resist- deflection.Some side supportmust
ingactionare recognized : be afforded by theearth.
Case3. In Case 3 (Fig. 8.13c),the €= strain in soil (in./in., or

pipe is a completelyflexiblethin decimal of tested length)
ringand by itselfcan carryverylittle, underload of contactpres-
if any, of the live and dead loads sureintensity, Wh
withoutundue deflection.Full mo- Cwh= strain(percent)correspond-
ofearthassistanceis needed
bilization ingto givenwhin Fig. 8.18-
to retainthe degreeof roundnessre- 8.24.
quired. The enveloping forcesare
essentiallyradiallyacting. The ring 8.14»Intensityoí VerticalLoad
is a confinedarchundercompression.
It willcontinueto act as an archas Total vertical load equals dead
load forheightof cover,//,plus live
longas thecurvatureremainsconvex
againsttheearth. Archloadcreating
load,impact,and so forth:
compressivestress of 7,500 psi is wve wvd+ wvt (8.9)
in
given Fig. 8.15. Whena trenchis backfilled by ordi-
narymethodsand withouttamping,
8.13.Nomenclature some portionof the active pressure
ofthe soil in the backfillacts against
Referringto Fig. 8.12 and the dis- the side of the pipe and tends to
cussionbelow,let: supportit. For thiscase,
Wv< Wp+ Wa; Wv- Wa < Wp.. (8.10)
D = pipediameter(in.)
AD = vertical deflectionof pipe If wp is not greaterthan wv- wai
(in.,or decimalofdiameter) Eq 8.10 shouldbe ignoredaltogether.
wv= total verticalunit load on
pipe (psi) 8Л5. Intensityof ContactPressure
wVd= unitdead load on pipe (psi) Intensityof contact pressurebe-
wvi= unitliveload on pipe (psi) tweenpipe and soil is dependenton:
F = shape factor (a selective [lj the verticalload, [2J the degree
constant) of stiffnessof the pipe as definedin
Wp= unit load (psi) ring load Sec. 8.12, and [3J the instantaneous
carriedby pipe when AD radius of the point of contactcon-
= 0.02Z> (values fromFig. sidered- in this case, the extremity
8.14) ofthehorizontal axis.
wa = unit load (psi) ring aid A flexiblesteelringor pipewithout
afforded by activesoil pres- appreciableringstrengthor stiffness
sure (Case 3, Sec. 8.12) is bestthoughtof
Wh= unit horizontalload (psi) as being a stress gage itselfwhen
transferload contact pres- confinedby an earth envelopeand
sure supporting earth loads. If the pipe
L = effective lengthofequivalent is perfectlyround,thereis no bending
earth column (in., or in momentand the compressivestress
termsofD) in thewall is givenby Eq 8.8:
AL = passivedeformation (in., or
decimalofL)
It is obvious that the same stress stressgivenby Eq S.StwithR equal

mustprevailin everyportionof the to the instantaneousradius which
pipe periphery.The vertical load occursat the verticalaxis of an as-
initiatesthe stress. The confiningsumedellipse. This radiusis larger
pressurein the soil must maintain than that of the originalpipe and
thatsamestressat everypointor the createsa higherstressinthepipewall.
pipe will change shape. Therefore, Conversely, the instantaneous
radius
in a trulyroundpipe, the confiningat theextremity ofthehorizontal
axis
pressuremust act radially and be is smallerthan that of the original
equalto p in Eq S.S. pipeand,as thesamestressinthewall
Also,it is seenin Eq 8.8 that,fora mustbe maintainedthereto prevent
givenstressand thickness, the value pipe wall movement,the contact
ofp mustincreaseifR decreasesand pressureon the horizontalaxis must-
decreaseif R increases. Therefore, be greaterthan that on the vertical
tomaintainthiscircumferential corn- axis.
[-< с >■ ^ b- ^
^ V. ^
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.16. InstantaneousRadiuses
Shownare the radiusesof roundpipe expandinghorizontally(a) and ellipsedfor
installation(b). (FigurefromRef.4.)
pressiveforceequally at all points The calculationconstantwhichac-

aftera roundpipe has deflected, the countsforthis conditionwhencom-
outsideradiallyactingconfiningforce, bined with the figurefor lengthof
orearthpressure, mustriseat points equivalentearthcolumnis heretermed
oflesserradius. the "shapefactor." It is further
dis-
In an initiallyroundpipe of diam- cussedin Sec. 8.17.
eterD,a = bwherea andbarelocated The intensityof contactpressure
as shownin Fig. 8.16. As the pipe Cases 1 and 2 in Sec. 8.12
deflects,the amount by whichb is covering
lessenedis added to a. The unit can now be statedas :
verticalload on a flattenedpipe wh= F(wv-wp) (8.11)
createsin the wall at the vertical
diametera tangentialcompressionFor Case 3, wp = 0.
8.16. Lengthof EquivalentEarth per centstresshas been added. On

Column this basis, the horizontalleg of the
trianglehas a lengthofapproximately
To determine thelengthofequiva- 6.5 timesB. This distancefromthe
lentearthcolumn,a "footingwidth" consideredthe
mustfirst be assumed. This "width" pipe face is therefore
is takenas a chordsubtendedby a
of
point practical "fadeout" /orcalcu-
lationpurposes. Thus, in Fig. 8.17,
centralangleof 100 deg,as shownin
Fig. 8.17. DimensionВ is the usual В = r sin50° = 0.766r
one-halffootingwidth used in de- Or,in termsofpipediameterD :
termining verticalstressat selected
В = 0.383D
depths below that footing.In Fig.
the influence The length,
8.17, Line I represents L, oftheequivalentearth
line for calculatingvertical stress columnis:
TABLE 8.3 L = 6.5(0.383)D
ValuesofShape Factor,F L = 2A9D (say, 2.5D) (8.12)
Values of F*
8.17. Passive Deformation
Pipe Deflection On thebasisthatthedeformationor
% ofdiam. pipe Deflected Pipe Strutted
Horizontally Vertically shorteningof the equivalentearth
(Fig. 8.16a) (Fig. 8.16b) columnunderthefadingload is equal
0.0 1.25 1.25 to that produced by the average
0.5 1.29 1.21 :
load overfullcolumnlength
1.0 1.33 1.18
1.5 1.37 1.14 AL =
2.0 1.40 1.11 y* (2.5¿>)e
2.5 1.45 1.08 AL = 1.25whDe (8.13)
3.0 1.50 1.04
3.5 1.55 1.01 Whentheshapefactor,F, discussed
4.0 1.60 0.98 in Eq 8.13:
in Sec. 8.15,is substituted
4.5 1.65 0.95
5.0 1.70 0.93 AL = FwhDe ....(8.14)
*To nearest0.05. in whichF equals 1.25 timesa selec-

tive constantwhichdependson the
under a strip when the length-to-ratioofinstantaneous radiusesat the
widthratioliesbetween2 and infinity,top and sidesofthepipe.
as shown by Terzaghi (15). The The valuesof F foruse in Eq 8.14,
stresscentralin each increment of В including theconstant1.25in Eq 8.13,
is shownin thecorresponding blocks. are givenin Table 8.3 forroundpipe
Ten per cent of stressis yet unac- whichhas been decreasedin vertical
countedforin the ninthblockfrom diameterand also forpipewhichhas
thesoil-pipecontactline. been increasedor ellipsedin vertical
Line II represents the hypotenuse diameterfor construction purposes.
of a right-angle trianglewhichcon- Forpipenormally installedroundand
tains the same area (betweenline allowed to deflectunder load, the
and horizontalaxis) as that under horizontalthrust increasesas the
Line I, exceptthat the missing10 deflection increases.
Whenpipe is formed,strutted,or ble pipe tendsactuallyto make the

stulledto increaseits verticaldiam- pipeoccupya largerspace in the soil
eter, and it remains that way after as itexpandshorizontally andbecomes
the horizontalthrustde- morenearlyround. Thisactioncauses
installation,
creasesas the percentage of strutting a consolidation
of the earthenvelope
increases. The stress in the pipe and builds up pressureby changing
wallis lessthanforroundpipebecause thevoid ratiountilthe pipe becomes
theinstantaneous radiusoftheforce- fullyround. A round pipe, when
activating top is lessthanthaton the deflecting vertically,
actuallyoccupies
horizontalaxis. Therefore,a lower less and less volumeas thedeflection
balancingcontactpressureis needed increasesand mustdevelopside sup-
on the horizontalaxis than on the portwithoutthe specialaid supplied
verticalaxis. This ellipsingcannot to thestruttedpipe.
LineII
4^^^
i|r
^Л
ДЛ''
At n'
и'1
^ i
glslslslailslslsls
ö o d do dodo
/
Fig. 8.17. Determinationof Length of Equivalent Earth Column

See Sec. 8.16 for discussion of method. {Figure fromRef. 4.)
be carriedtoo far,however,or the 8.18. Time Lag Factor

activepressureat the pipe side may
reversethe convexityof the wall. The passivedeformation determined
using Eq 8.14 is the initialsidewise
Equation%.%maybe used to investi- settlement.As withverticalsettle-
gate the latterconditionwithallow-
able stressheld well belowthe yield ments, experienceshows that the
sidewisesettlementsincreaseslowly
point. The ring strengthmust be with time. The increase becomes
considered.
An importantfactoroftenover- slower and slower,however,until,
lookedin the case of struttedpipe is aftera periodofyears,virtualstabil-
thatthearea ofan ellipseis lessthan ity is attained. In a particularcase
thatofa circlewiththesamecircum- whenengineering ofa given
properties
ference.Therefore, theverticalload soilare known, the time consolidation
causingflatteningof a struttedflexi- rate can be determined.Initialand
1068 COMMITTEE report Jour.AW WA
subsequentmeasurements made on compactioncontrol. The diagram

actual pipe installations (2) showan representstheresultsofabout900soil
increasewithtimeoffrom1.38to 1.46 specimentests. The actual rangeof
times initial deflection.A design all varietiesof the remoldedsoils
value of 1.25 to 1.50 is suggestedfor testedindicatesa spreadof one-half
averageconditions. to twice the values shown. The
actual consolidationof naturalsoils
8.19. Passive Deformationby Use in place in the 40-1,200-psirangeof
of Diagrams indicatedsaturationpenetrationre-
sistancemay be about one-thirdof
Figures8.18-8.23 are includedas thevaluesshownin Fig. 8.24.
aids in designand deflection control To use
Fig. 8.18-8.24,calculateWh
150 i 1 . usingEq. 8.11. Determinethevalue
1 1 y. of z psi (Fig. 8.12). Enter at the
leftof the diagramfora givensoil
125 Applied Lateral--f-
Pressure-psi y >
type,usingthecalculatedvalueofWh.
ï io°
47 /
/
Tracerightto theintersection
(probably interpolated)
ofa line
representing
/ thevalueofz. Read theaxial strain
' verticallybelow in per cent, corre-
/у spondingto the calculatedWh. Sub-
stitutethisvaluefor€Whin Eq. 8.15to
1 determine passivedeformation at the
"^/^/ TÍH
sideofthepipe (Fig. 8.12):
AL = €whD (8.15)
8.20. Relationshipof VerticalDeflec-

0 12
tionto Passive Deformation
3 4 5
AxialStrain,(w - per cent
Because the verticaldeflectionof
Fig. 8.18. Axial Strain in Typical Soil:
the pipe and the shortening of the
Well Graded Sand earthcolumnare nowbothexpressed
in termsof D, it becomesadvan-
Data are from Test 1-T, Ref. 12.
tageous for calculationpurposesto
note the relationship.If e is ex-
calculations. The informationhas pressedas a percentage changein the
been selected frompublisheddata length of the earth column,then
(12,16). Other data are available. doublethatpercentage appliesto the
Thoseselectedaremoreorlesstypical pipe deflection.In otherwords,if
of remoldedsoils. If not otherwise a givencontactpressure inpoundsper
indicatedin thefigures, soilspecimens squareinchcausesa passivedeforma-
have been compactedto 98 Proctor tioncorresponding to eWh= 1 percent,
density. theverticaldeflectionofthepipewill
Figure8.24 has been includedfor be 2 percentofD. If the allowable
use by thosedesignersfamiliarwith verticaldeflection is 5 per cent,the
Proctor'smethods (13,14) of soil requiredpassive resistancemust be
mobilizedwith a passive deformation dead weightand liveload,exceedthe

to eWh
corresponding = 2.5 percent. allowableringload plusringaid range,
thenfroma designpointof viewthe
8.21. Methods of Calculation earthenvelopebecomesa partof the
To facilitate^calculation,
unitpres- structure.Attentionmusttherefore
be givento thebeddingandbackfilling
sures are expressedin pounds per
operationsto theextentthatsufficient
squareinch (psi). The following de-
terminations are involved: strengthis built into the backfillto
supportthepipeproperly.
Step 1- intensityof verticalload Step2. Ring load (wp) for2 per
(Eq 8.9) cent deflectionis givenin Fig. 8.14
Step 2- ringload (Fig. 8.14) in termsof depth of cover,in feet,
Step 3- ringaid (Paragraph8.11b) forsoil weighing125 lb/cuft. The
Step 4- archload (Fig. 8.15) depthof covermay be convertedto
Step 5- contactpressure(Eq 8.11) poundsper square inch by referring
Step 6- passive deformation(Eq to Table 8.4. Figure8.14 showsthe
8.14 or 8.15).
100- 1 Lateral1-
Step 1. The load on the pipe, of 1 i 1 Applied I
course,is governedby the heightof Pressure- psi
^
cover, plus live load, impact,and 'g. 75 J-JO.
1
other factors. The verticalload is
calculatedusingEq 8.9. Unit earth
loads in poundsper square inch for f so ^^-
-Tg^-^^:
givenheights of coverare shown in
Table 8.4 for soil weighing 125
lb/cuft. The unitpressure forother
soilweightsis in directproportion to
the tabularvalue fora givenheight 0 12 3 4 5
ofcover. AxialStrain,*w- per cent
Intensityoftruckliveloads forthe 8.19. Axial Strain in Typical Soil:

standardhighwayH-20 designand Fig. Sand With Clay Binder
forthe standardrailroadlocomotive
Data are from Test 10-T, Ref. 12.
Cooper E-72 loadingsare shownin
Table 8.5 forgivenheightsof cover.
Steelpipeforwaterserviceis usually heightofbackfillcarriedwithoutring
of such diameterand wall thickness aid by pipewitha givendiameter and
thatearthloadingis not a problem. thickness. If the proposedpipe will
In thesmallersizes,theringstrength carrytheentirebackfill load,and any
alone is sufficientto bear the load. live load present,no further calcula-
Whenringaid in the formof active tionsare necessary.
earthpressureis added to the ring Figure8.14is baseduponthestand-
strength, sizes up to about a 36-in. ard formulaforan elasticring,using
diameterin mostcases need no more a constantof 0.10, whichapplies to
than the ordinaryattentiongiven earth load on pipe in a flat-bottom
beddingand backfillingoperations. trench. The constant for concen-
But whenthe earthloads, including tratedloads top and bottomis 0.149.
Step 3. If the ring load for the

pipealmostcarriestheverticalloads, 1 1 1 1 ' Applied Lateral
1
theengineermayelectto figuresuch 30 Pressure-psi
1
assistanceat the side of the pipe as £ "jS^t^^"^
will be givenby some percentageof
theactivepressure oftheearthin the
backfill.Actually,underground pipe
has probablybeen gettingsuch aid
for a long time withoutits being
recognized.The value of the active
pressureto be used must remaina
matterofjudgmentbased on circum- 0 12 3 4 5
stances of the installation.Unless AxialStrain,tw -per cent
thevalueis betterknown,thesugges- 8.21. Axial Strain in Typical Soil:

tiongivenin Paragraph8.11bmaybe Fig. Very Plastic Clay
followed.The foregoing statements
are madeon theassumption thatthe Data are from Test 20-T, Ref. 12.
trenchis backfilled
byordinary meth-
ods and withouttamping. wishesand if care is taken in the
Step 4. If the proposedpipe will installation procedure to provideade-
not carry the verticalload in ac- in theearthenvelope.
cordancewithEq 8.10, its arch load quate strength
shouldbe determined fromFig. 8.15. load Step5. Aftertheeffective vertical-
The loads givenin Fig. 8.15 are asso- intensity and the ring strength of
the pipe are determined, the transfer
ciated with a safetyfactorof four
forsteelhavinga yieldpointof30,000 load frompipe to soil is determined
psi and a joint efficiency of 100 per usingEq 8.11.
cent in compression.Still higher Step6. Whenthe intensity of the
loads can be carriedif the designer transfer-load pressureis known,the
passive deformation may be deter-
40 1 1 . . ■
1
mined using Eq 8.14 or 8.15. The
value 6 or eWfi is a measureoftheaxial
Applied Lateral
straincausedby an axial load on the
£ 30 Pressure-psi ^ii^^r' soilwhileit is at thesametimebeing
subjectedto lateral radial pressures
20 due to heightof cover. It is at this
I <S^T* pointthat soil mechanicsmustenter
theproblem.
.ил I I
0 12
AxialStrain,6
h
3
- per cent
4 5
8.22. TriaxialShear Tests of Soils
In Fig. 8.12,an imaginary
shear-test
lie somewhere
triaxial-
soilspecimenis assumedto
alongthelengthofthe
Fig. 8.20. Axial Strain in Typical Soil: equivalentearthcolumn. Iftheposi-
Lean Clay tionС is at thecontactsurfaceofthe
Data are from Test 15-T, Ref. 12. pipe,the specimenwill be subjected
to the maximumaxial stressexisting 300 j 1 -T
in the equivalentearthcolumn,and
the confiningstresson the specimen A AppliedLateral
willbe thatdue to thedepthz. Then / Pressure,45 psi
if triaxial-shear-test
data, including 250 -j-
the stress-straincharacteristicsof
thesamplecorresponding to different
confiningpressuresdue to changein
depthz, are available,it is possibleto 200
solveEq 8.14 or 8.15. j
8.
Stress-straindiagramsof certain I /
/
"typical" remolded soil materials S /
compactedto 98 per cent maximum Я /

densityare shownin Fig. 8.18-8.21. §>150 j
These diagramsgive the usableaxial с T3 /
/
compressionin pounds per square оob

3 /
с /
/
inch corresponding to given lateral /
pressuresin poundsper square inch, 100 +

withaxialstraingivenas percentages.
The diagramsare presented as aids to
understanding ratherthan as solu-
tions for particularproblems. Full 50 - +
200i 1 1
Applied Lateral
Maximum Pressure-psi °0 0.5 1.0 1.5
DeflectionЛ *^^~ AxialStrain,(^ -per cent
150 V ^^^^
Fig. 8.23. Axial Strain in CrushedSlag
at MaximumDensity
Data are fromRef. 16.
£ loo -Л ,^
.1 // / ^^~~w data on these soils and the tests
conductedby theBureauofReclama-
tionhave been published(12). Fig-
50 If/ ures 8.22 and 8.23 show data for
graded gravel and crushed slag
for maximum compaction. Addi-
tionaldata have beenpublished(16).
1.0 1.5
The deviator stress ordinatesin
0.5
Fig. 8.18-8.21 and the longitudinal
0
AxialStrain,iw -per cent
stressordinatesin Fig. 8.22 and 8.23
Fig. 8.22. Axial Strain in Graded Gravel are values of Whfoundby use of Eq
at MaximumDensity 8.11 and associatedwith the proper
Data are fromRef. 16. applied lateral pressurecorrespond-
ing to distancez below the surface Deflection ofpipelines withspuncoal-

(Fig. 8.12). In Fig 8.18-8.24, the tarenamelis bestheldto 2 percentfor
are
abscissas(axialstrainpercentage) mechanical fieldjoints; however, other
values of eWh in Eq 8.15 stated in typesof fieldjointsmaybe deflected
percentagesforassociatedvalues of as muchas 5 per cent. The deflec-
Wh and z. tionof pipe linedwithspun cement-
mortarshouldbe heldto 2 percent.
8.23.2.Definition offailure. Atthis
200 1 , , 1 1 « , 1 , , ,
180
160
140 _ point,whendeflection is mentioned,
120 .
- ^ the engineer accustomed to thinking
100-J 1 1 ^-у^ -?^ in terms of flexure or
Indicated
80- PenetrationSaturated / / > bending-moment
_ Resistance /
BeforeLoading- psi /
s S formulas in rigidconstruction is likely
~f~ y
to contendthatpermanent deflection
can occuronlyafterthe yieldpoint
=-ao ЛЖ^-А-^
has been passed and that,therefore,
a pipe so stressedhas failedstruc-
'
turallyand is dangerous. The sim-
о / ¿s c' s y
%îs=- ÉgŽS^ - plestrebuttalto thisargumentis to

recognizethat the steelin a finished
pipehas,inthemanufacturing process,
been cold coiled, uncoiled, bent,
curved,or twisteda numberoftimes
andhasbeenstressed beyondtheyield
pointeach time; yet,afterall these
operationshave been completed,the
finishedsteel pipe is used for all
mannerofhigh-pressure workwithout
fearor hesitation.
If the engineerstill is hesitantto
restressa part of the finishedpipe
0 12 3 4 5. wallbeyond theyieldpointbyslightly
Mean Measured Consolidation,€w -
per cent of specimen depth
deflecting it underground, let him
considerwhat happens to the test
Fig. 8.24. Axial Strain or Consolidation specimenby whichthe pipe strength
of Soil SpecimensUnder Dif-
ferentConditions is measuredaccording to specification.
Usually it is slicedas a ringfromthe
The variousspecimenswereunderdifferent endofa finished
pipe,cutat oneside,
degreesofcompactionsubjectedtopressures uncurledfromthe circleinto a flat
induced by applied loads or weight of
cover(4, 13). piece,and thenputina tensile-testing
machinewhichproceedsto showthat
after once more passingthe elastic
8.23«Commentson Design Factors the steel still possesses the
in BarnardTheory limit,
specifiedstrength.In a way, the
8.23.1. Permissible deflection.De- deflectionunderground is simplya
flectionof unlinedpipe, or of pipe finished forming operation.
lined after installation,may safely Therefore, wheresteelpipesuchas
reach5 percentofnominaldiameter. is here discussedis concerned,the
word"failure"mustdefinea stateof in flexiblepipe have at timesshown

fallingshortof satisfactoryperform-the horizontalintensityto be about
anceand nota stateinwhichlocalized 25 per cent morethan the vertical.
stressesappearto pass theyieldpoint The shape factorused in the formula
ofthematerialas judgedbytheresults for transferpressure intensityis
of bending-moment formulaanalysis. intendedto accountforincreasedload
8.23.3. Verticalloads. The results dueto increaseinhorizontal
diameter,
ofmanytestsshowthatflexible steel increasedpressurebecauseofshorten-
pipe frequentlycarrieslessload than ing of vertical diameter,and in-
that indicatedby the weightof the creasedpeak horizontal intensitydue
prismdirectlyover the pipe. Some to load distribution.
measurements on flexiblepipe have In the originalconceptof contact
shownthe fullweightof the prism pressureand "sidewisesettlement,"
TABLE 8.4
UnitEarthLoads Due toHeightof Cover
(Soil Weight125 lb/cuft)
+0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9
Heightof -
Cover,H
Unit Earth Load- psi
0 0.87 1.74 2.60 3.47 4.34 5.20 6.08 6.94 7.81

10 8.68 9.55 10.4 11.3 12.2 13.0 13.9 14.8 15.6 16.5
20 17.4 18.2 19.1 20.0 20.8 21.7 22.6 23.4 24.3 25.2
30 26.0 26.9 27.8 28.6 29.5 30.4 31.2 32.1 33.0 33.9
40 34.7 35.6 36.5 37.3 38.2 39.1 39.9 40.8 41.7 42.5
50 43.4 44.3 45.1 46.0 46.9 47.7 48.6 49.5 50.3 51.2
60 52.1 52.9 53.8 54.7 55.6 56.4 57.3 58.2 59.0 59.9
70 60.8 61.6 62.5 63.4 64.2 65.1 66.0 66.8 67.7 68.6
80 69.4 70.3 71.2 72.0 72.9 73.8 74.6 75.5 76.4 77.3
90 78.1 79.0 79.9 80.7 81.6 82.5 S3.3 84.2 85.1 85.9
100 86.8 87.7 88.5 89.4 90.3 91.1 92.0 92.9 93.7 94.6
above the pipe transmitted to the the value of the shape factorF was
pipe. As carryingthe fullweightof givenby Barnardin an unpublished
the prism would probablybe the work as F = 1.35 for round pipe
worstcase forflexiblepipe,the full- whose horizontaldiameterwas in-
weightassumptionshould be used. creased2 per cent by verticalload.
A simpleempiricalmeansof varying The originalvalue of F = 1.35 was
theload wouldbe to modifytheesti- developedby consideration ofchange
matedweightof the soil prismitself. at the
in pipeshape,load distribution
The heightof coverover largepipe extremity of the horizontal
diameter,
maybe takenas theaveragebetween measuredpressuresat the side of in-
the horizontaldiameter line and stalled pipe, and the lengthof the
thetop. equivalentearthcolumnfromtheory
8.23.4. Horizontalpressure. Meas- and as influencedby experimentalob-
urementsof the horizontalpressure servations. The value F = 1.35,de-
AW WA
veloped througha methodentirely pipelikewise varieswiththesefactors.

differentfrom instantaneous-radius It shouldbe notedthat,whileonly
considerations, is in close agreement horizontalthrusting forcesare here
withF = 1.40inTable 8.3,developed considered, thesamegeneralprinciples
by the lattermoregeneralmethod. can apply to forcesradiatingfrom
Moreover, thevalue of F = 1.35was any partof the pipe periphery if the
usedoriginally to checkthemeasured thrusting loadsare known.
deflections ofmanysteelpipeinstalla- 8.23.6. Backfilling.In extensive
tions of large and small diameters, large-diameter flexiblepipe installa-
thickand thinwalls,underhighand tions,ifverticaldeflection is a serious
low cover,and withand withoutlive factor,laboratorytests on backfill
load, forthe purposeof provingthe materialare essential,unlessguessing
sidewise settlementtheory sound. is preferred.Field compactioncon-
trol should tie field operationsto
TABLE 8.5 laboratorydata unless,again,guess-
ing is preferred.
Approximate Unit Loads Due to H-20 Truck is
, Such fieldcontrol
and CooperE-72 EffectiveLive Loads nowcommonpracticein largehigh-
on StructureUnderGivenHeight wayprojectsand paysoffin theform
of Cover of betterroads and loweredmain-
tenancecosts. A nominalamountof
TT . , ,
Height of
Load - y
psi backfillcontrolcan reducepipe ma-
Cover,H
ft
terial costs on large-diameter pipe
H-20 E-72*
installations.
1 11 30 One approximatemethodof pre-
2 6 25 dicting settlementis to use the
4 3 18 Proctor(13) indicatedsaturatedpene-
6 2 14 tration in conjunction
8 1 10
resistance with
10 1 7 measuring soildryweight, bothopera-
12 1 5 tions being performed in the field.
14 4 Percentage of consolidationcan then
16 4 be estimatedusingFig. 8.24.
18 3
20 2
25 1 8.24. Ellipsing, Shilling, or Strutting
* Loads include50 per cent impact. It is commonpracticein the high-
way and railroadfieldto increasethe
The agreementwas good between verticaldiameter ofroundpipeduring
calculatedand measureddeflections,installation by installingverticalcol-
in the examplesin Sec. 8.29, either umnsinsidethe pipe. The amount
one,or both,valuesofF are usedas a of ellipsing has been a matter
matterofinterest. of judgmentand experience. The
8.23.5. Value of e. Strain, or methodhereinproposedfordetermin-
shorteningundercompression, in soil ing the passive deformation at the
varieswithsuchfactorsas voidratio, side of the pipe providesan immedi-
moisturecontent,axialload,confiningateandextremely simplemethodofde-
pressure,load repetition,and time. termining ifellipsingis neededand to
The "sidewisesettlement" or passive whatextentthepipediametershould
deformation of the soil around the be elongatedvertically.Becausethe
"sidewisesettlement,'*or increasein centelongationof the verticaldiam-

horizontaldiameter,of the pipe is eterwouldachievethedesiredresult.
similarto thedeflectionofa beamor Fromthisit can be seenthatpercent-
bridge under load,
' ellipsing is the age ofellipsingdistanceis obtainable
equivalent of 'cambering."When directlythroughthe use of Fig. 8.18-
bridgesare cambered,an upwardex- 8.24. The pipe theoreticallythen
tending"bow" is builtintothem,and becomesroundafterinstallation.
theamountofcamberor bow is such The stulls or strutsmay be re-
that,whenloaded,thebeambecomes moved before backfillreaches full
straightor the bridgefloorconforms heightif it is determined that ade-
to the design contour. In these quatesidepressure has developed. If
cases, the naturaldeflectionof the thepipeis formed and installedas an
structureunderload occurspriorto ellipsewiththe longaxis vertical,no
the timethe deflection becomesob- stullsor strutsare necessary. Struts
jectionable. cannotbe used with some typesof
TABLE 8.6 fieldjoints.
BackfillClassification toSoil
According 8.25. Trench Conditions
Compaction Requirements
Standard When pipe is put in a trenchin-
ASTM
Percent-stead of a fill,that portionof the
age of
Compac- equivalent earth column lying be-
Class Type of Backfill tion tweenthe side of the pipe and the
1 Supportingextremelyheavy side of the trenchundergoespassive
loads 100+ deformation whichmay be equal to
2 Subjectto surfaceloads 95-97 that of the soil beyondthe trench
3 Not subject to surfaceloads 90-93 side only if the compactionbetween
4 Where settlementcauses no
harm 85-90
the pipe side and the side of the
trenchis such that it is comparable
FromSowers{17)
withthe remainderof the lengthof
theequivalentearthcolumn.
The same thinkingcan apply to Whenthebackfill is notplacedat 98
the passive deformation of the soil per cent of maximumdensity,the
at thesideofthepipe. For instance, additional passive deformationin
iftheaxialstraininthesoilreaches2.5 excessof thatshownby thesoil data
percentto developa certaintransfer figures may be estimated. Establish
load, the theoreticallengthof the the distanceI betweenpipe wall and
equivalentearth columncan be in- trench side. An extra amount of
creased2.5 per cent by pullingthe passivedeformation willoccurin this
pipesideinwardby thatamount. If portionof the equivalentearthcol-
then,underthesecircumstances, the umn. This additionaldeformation is
pipe is stulled or strutted 5 per cent approximately 0.5, 0.7, or 1.0 times
vertically, the fulltransfer load will the deformation whichwouldbe cal-
be accepted by the two equivalent culatedforthedistanceI forstandard
earthcolumns,each with a 2.5 per ASTM D698 densitiesof 95, 93, and
cent passive deformation!Alterna- 90 percent,respectively.This addi-
tively,if2 percentdeflection wereto tional-deformation figureis not a
be allowedin the pipe finally,3 per percentagebut a distanceand is to
1076 COMMITTEE REPORT Jour.AWWA
be so consideredin estimatingthe a decreaseinvertical diameter . When

pipedeflection. internalpressure is introduced intothe
For example,suppose a passive pipe, the firstactionis reversedand
deformation of 1 per cent occursat the internalpressuretends to force
theside ofa pipewhosewallis 12 in. the pipe to a perfectcircle. The
fromthetrenchsidewhenthetransfer internalpressurereducesthe stresses
pressureis developed. If this is a caused by the soil. In a way of
48-in.pipe, the verticaldeflection is speaking, thebackfilling operation has
2 percentofthediameter, or 0.96 in. prestressed the pipe againstinternal
The compactionis to be 90 per cent pressure. For the Case 3 (Sec. 8.12)
standardASTM density. The addi- designcondition - fullarch load and
tional deflectionbetweenpipe wall no internalpressure - the pipe wall
and trenchis 0.01 X 12 = 0.12in. for will be under7,500 psi compressive
one side. The total pipe deflection is stressif the fullcoverheightis used
0.96 plustwice0.12,or 1.20in. and willbe underproportionally lower
It hasbeenfoundthat,forstandard stressfor lesserheights. Whatever
ASTM D698 densitiesbelow 90 per compressive stressdue to soil action
cent,thesoilresistance off
drops very existsin the pipe mustbe overcome
rapidly. by the tensileforcedue to internal
pressurebeforethe pipe wall can go
8.26. CompactionControl intotension.
For theabove reason,thecommon
The maximumdensity,as defined practice of determining steel pipe
by standardASTM D698 tests, is wall thicknesson the basis of yield
that obtainable with a moderate strength to resistinternalpressureis
amountofrollingortampingwiththe soundand conservative.Theoretical
soil at optimummoisturecontent. bendingstressesand tensile stress
The ratiooftheactualsoildensityto shouldnotbe totaledforsteelpipeas
the maximum densityis the percent- mustbe doneforrigidpipe.
age of compaction. This indicates
the degree of compactionand the 8.28. Live Load and Shallow Cover
abilityof soil to carryheavy loads
withoutsettlement.Table 8.6 shows The equationforintensity of con-
classification to
according compaction tact pressure (Eq 11 ; F = 1.40) :
requirements (17). Data on methods = -
wh 1.40 (wv wp)
oftrenching and backfilling forwater
pipe based on a soil mechanicsap- containsa meansof determining the
proach have been published(17y18). ring strength necessary to keep the
transferpressureto its reasonable
8.27. InternalPressure limit. Whereno live loads are pres-
ent, or wherethe depthof cover is
Buried steel pipe when emptyis considerable,ring strengthas such
undercompressive forcesdue to soil is relativelyunimportant.For live
weightand soil pressure. The out- loadsand shallowcover,however, the
sideverticalforcestendto flatten the quantity(wv- wp)- thatis,thediffer-
pipe and createtensileand compres- encebetweentheverticalload on the
sionstressesin thepipewall owingto pipeand itsringstrength load- must
be such that the allowabletransfer Problem2 (testingforsemirigidity

load is not exceeded. An example -Case 2, Fig. 8.13b). Will a 30-in.
will illustratethe procedurefor de- pipehavinga J-in.wallthickness sus-
termining the wall thicknessin this tain a 5-ftcover plus an H-20 live
case. load withoutexceeding2 per cent
Assume: 48-in. diameterpipe, 2 deflection?Backfillis sandyclay.
per cent deflection, 3-ftcover,H-20 Solution:
live load, burialin sand-claybinder Step 1. Vertical-loadintensity
as in Fig. 8.19. FromTables 8.4 and equals 4.34-psidead load (Table 8.4)
8.5,wv= 2.6 + 4.5 = 7.1 psi. From plus 2.5 psi (Table 8.5), totaling
Fig. 8.19, the maximumWhfor1 per 6.84 psi.
centpassivedeformation is takenas Step 2. From Fig. 8.14, a dead
8.0 psi. Then: load of 2.7 ftof coverwillbe carried
Wh = 1.40 (wv - Wp) by ringstrength.A coverof 2.7 ft
8.0 = lA0(wv- wp) is equivalentto 2.34psi {yqof23.4psi
= -
8.0 1.40(7.1) lAOwp for27-ftcover;Table 8.4).
-
8.0 9.94 = - lAOwp Step3. Is thisa Case 2 situation ?
= 1.4 Assume ring aid (activesoil pressure)
wp psi
equals ' of verticalsoil pressureat
From Table 8.4, 1.4 psi corre- depth of pipe axis (6.25 ft). Pres-
spondsto a 1.6-ftcover. FromFig. sureat depthof6.25 ft (thisis height
8.14,fora 1.6-ftcover,the thickness 2, Fig. 8.12) equals 5.4 psi (interpo-
of a 48-in.pipe shouldbe 0.375 in. lated fromTable 8.4). Assumedac-
underthe live load in thissoil com- tive pressureis ' of 5.4 = 1.8 psi.
pacted to 98 per cent density. If Referring to Eq 8.10:
there were no live load, Fig. 8.15
Wv wa = 6.84 - 1.8 - 5.03
-
shows that this pipe could be as
5.03 > 2.34
lightas 0.141in. and stillnotdeflect
2 percent. As 5.03 is greaterthan 2.34, this
cannotbe considered Case 2 and must
8.29. Examplesof Calculation be calculated as Case 3- that is,
=
Problem1 (self-supporting conduit wp 0.
- Case 1, Fig. 8.13a- whereno side Step4. FromFig. 8.15, archload
is assumedto be providedby is 140ft,whichis morethanadequate.
support
the soil). What is the height of Step 5. WithF = 1.35in Eq 8.11,
coverwithoutlive load fora 30-in. wh - 1.35 (wvd+ wvi)
pipehaving§-in.wall thickness when = 1.35(4.34+ 2.5)
allowinga maximumdeflection of 2 = 9.23 psi
percent?
Solution. Referring to Fig. 8.14, If F = 1.40 is used instead of
the heightof cover is foundto be F = 1.35,wh= 9.57 psi. The differ-
21 ft. enceof 0.34 psi is too smallto detect
Comment.Backfilling may be done in Fig. 8.19.
withno specialattentionto tamping Step6.
becausethe pipe carriesthe fullload From Fig. 8.19, it is found (by
by ringstrength. interpolation betweenCurves3.1 and
AW WA
12.5) that fora z heightcorresponding If F = 1.40 is used instead of

to 5.4 psi (see Step 3) the axial strain, F = 1.35, the 3.8 per cent increasein
eWfi,for Wh= 9.2 psi is about 0.8 whis imperceptiblein Fig. 8.18.
per cent. From Eq 8.15, Step 6. Passive deformation(from
AL =
Fig. 8.18):
eWhD
AL = 0.008 (30) = 0.24 in.
Я=4 Я=8 Я = 12
As this is less than the 0.01 (30)
= 0.30 in. allowable, pipe will be wh- psi 4.7 9.4 14.0
z- psi 4.5 8.0 11.5
satisfactoryprovided backfillis simi- - per cent 0.3 0.6 0.7
eWh
lar to that representedby Fig. 8.19
and is tamped to about 98 per cent Pipe deflection
of optimumdensity. Calculated- per cent 0.6 0.12 0.14
Comment. In the foregoing ex- Calculated- m. 0.18 0.36 0.42
Measured- in. 0.13 0.22 0.32
ample, notice that there is a leeway
of 25 per cent between the 0.24-in.
theoreticaldeflectionand the 0.30 in. Comment. Problem3 is a duplicate,
allowable. Experience indicates this as far as is known fromreports,of
to be an ample lag factor, or time the Chapel Hill, N.C., pipe test (tf).
factor,to account for final soil con- Consideringthe multiplicityof factors
solidationand passive deformation. influencingthe precise installationof
Problem 3 (flexible conduit). A such a flimsypipe, plus the assump-
30-in.smooth-wall pipe with 0.109-in. tion of propertiesof sand, the above
wall thicknessis to be installed with agreement between estimated and
tamped sand backfill. What vertical actual figures appears quite satis-
deflectionis to be expected under factoryforpracticalpurposes.
coversof4, 8, and 12 ft,assumingthat Problem 4 (large pipe, high fill).
Fig. 8.18 is typical of the backfill What deflectioncan be expected in
material- graded sand? an 84-in.-diameter corrugated pipe
Solution: with a wall thickness of 0.281 in.
1. From Table =
8.4, wvd 3.47, installed with 137 ftof cover in a 100
Step
6.94, and 10.4 psi for4-, 8-, and 12-ft per cent compacted granularfillhav-
cover,respectively. ing propertiesof graded gravel in Fig.
8.22 ? Pipe is to be strutted3 percent
Step 2. Ring load fromFig. 8.14
is less than 1 ft (ignore). verticallyduringinstallation.
Step 3. No ring load, no ring aid Solution:
(ignore). StepL FromTable 8.4, wvd=118.9
Step 4. Arch load fromFig. 8.15, psi.
by extrapolation, is 60 ft and is Step 2. Ring load- by comparison
thereforesatisfactory. of section modulus values, this pipe
has a ring load capacity about equal
Step 5. Transferload, Wh= 1.35«w to 1-in.
(withF = 1.35 in Eq 8.11). Then: plate pipe of the same diam-
eter. Then, fromFig. 8.14, ringload
wh = 4.68 for H = 4 cover equals 8 ft, equivalent to 6.94
- 9.37 for H = 8 psi.
= 14.0 for H = 12 Step 3. Omitted,ringaid ignored.
Step 4. From Fig. 8.15, the arch practicalpurposesand is on the con-

load indicatedis over200 ft. servativeside.
Step 5. Because of the veryhigh Problem5 (largepipe, low cover).
loadon thispipe,and becausethefinal A 96-in. -diameter waterpipecarrying
transfer pressurewill dependon the 150 psi pressureis to be put in a
finalshapeofthepipe,a trialcalcula- trenchunder22 ft of coverwithno
tionshouldbe made to estimatethis live load, allowing2 per centdeflec-
finalshape. The deflection shownby tion. What thicknesscan be used
the trial calculationwill permita withsandy-clay ?
backfill
F
closervalue of to be selectedfor a Solution. Wall thickness required
subsequentcalculationfor transfer forinternalpressureis ' in.,allowing
load and deflection. a tensilestressof 15,000psi (Table
Trialcalculation: 6.1, Chap. 6). An old ruleof thumb
For 3 per centstrutting vertically, for minimum wall thicknessto meet
=
F 1.04 (Table 8.3) in Eq 8.11: the practical requirements offabricat-
ing,transporting, and installing steel
wh= 1.04(118.9- 6.94) pipe is that thisminimum shouldbe
wh= 116.4 notlessthan0.5 percentofthediam-
eter. For 96-in.pipe, the minimum
Step 6. Figure8.22 does not con- thicknesswould be 0.48 in. As a
taina value forz distanceas greatas thicknessof in. also satisfiesthe
involved here. But ifthecurveshow- '
internal-pressure requirement, further
ing laboratorymaximummeasured calculations will be based on the useof
deflection is read, eWfi = 0.6 per cent,
'-'x'. wall :
and pipedeflection is twicethis,or 1.2
Step1. FromTable 8.4,wvd=19.1.
percent. The pipewithload on will Step2. FromFig. 8.14, ringload
be deflected 3 percentminus1.2 per
is lessthan1 ft (ignore).
cent,or 1.8 per cent. By interpola-
tioninTable 8.3 betweenF = 1.14for Step3. Omitted.
4. FromFig. 8.15, archload
1.5 per centdeflection and F 1.11 is Step
=
ft. As coveris only22 ft,|-in.
F = 1.122 90
for2 per cent deflection, wall thickness is adequate.
for1.8 percentdeflection. 5. From Eq 8.11, transfer
Final calculation: Step
load wh= 1. 40(19.1) = 26.7 psi.
= -
wh 1.122(118.9 6.94) Step6. FromFig. 8.19,forz = 26
Wh= 136.6 ft or 22.6 psi, €wh = 1.7 per cent;
€uh = 0.8 percent (Fig. 8.22). pipe deflectionequals 2 (1.7) = 3.4
cent.
The calculated pipe deflectionis per Therefore, thispipe can be heldto
therefore 1.6 percentor 1.34in. 2 per centdeflection withfullycom-
Comment.Problem 4 postulates pacted backfillof sand with clay
the conditions of the multiplatepipe binder,providedit is strutted 3.4- 2.0
installedand observedat Cullman, = 1.4 percent (about 1^ in.).
Ala. (19). Two yearsaftercomple-
tion,the maximumdeflection meas- References
uredat thehighfillwas about 1.25in. 1.
Marston, Anson. The Theoryof Ex-
Therefore,the calculateddeflection ternalLoads on ClosedConduitsin the
checksthemeasureddeflection forall Light of the Latest Experiments.
Proc. 9th Annual Meeting,Highway TriaxialCompression Test Conditions.

ResearchBoard (Dec. 1929). In Special Tech. Pub. 106, Am. Soc.
2. Spangler, M. G. The Structural Design for Testing Materials, Philadelphia,
of FlexiblePipe Culverts. Iowa State (1951).
CollegeBul., No. 153 (1941). 12. Wagner,A. A. ShearCharacteristics of
3. Spangler, M. G. Protective Casingsfor RemoldedEarth Materials. In Spe-
Pipelines. Iowa State College Eng. cial Tech. Pub. 106, Am. Soc. for
Rpts.,No. 11 (1951-52). TestingMaterials,Philadelphia(1951).
4. Barnard, R. E. Designand Deflection 13. Proctor, R. R. An Approximate
ControlofBuriedSteelPipeSupporting MethodforPredictingthe Settlement
Earth Loads and Live Loads. Proc. of Foundationsand Footings. Paper
ASTM, $7:1233 (1957). 14.4, 2nd International
Conference on
5. Spangler, M. G. UndergroundCon- Soil Mechanics & FoundationEngi-
duits- An Appraisal of Modern Re- neering, The Hague, Netherlands
search. Trans.ASCE, 113:316 (1948). (1948).
6. Braune, Cain & Janda. EarthPressure 14. Proctor, R. R. Design and Construc-
Experiments on CulvertPipe. Public tion of Rolled-Earth Dams. Eng.
Roads,10:9 (1929). News-Record, 111:245, 286, 348, 372
7. Barnard, R. E. Behaviorof Flexible
Steel Pipe Under Embankmentsand (1933).
in Trenches. Bulletin,ArmcoDrain- 15. Terzaghi, Karl. Theoretical Soil Me-
chanics. John Wiley & Sons, New
age & Metal Products,Inc., Middle- York (1943). p. 380.
town,Ohio (1955). 16. Housel, W. S. Interpretation
7a. Watkins, R. K. & Spangler, M. G. of Tri-
SomeCharacteristics oftheModulusof axial CompressionTests on Granular
PassiveResistanceofSoil: A Studyin Soils. In Special Tech. Pub. 106,
Similitude. HighwayResearchBoard, Am. Soc. forTestingMaterials,Phila-
Proc, 37:576 (1958). delphia(1951).
8. Barnard, R. E. Design Standardsfor 17. Sowers, G. F. TrenchExcavationand
Steel Water Pipe. Jour. A WWA, Backfilling.Jour. A WWA, 48:854
40:24 (Jan.1948). (Jul.1956).
9. Report on Steel Pipelines for Under- 18. Reitz, H. M. Soil Mechanicsand Back-
ground Water Service. Special In- filling Practices. Jour. A WWA,
vestigation888, Underwriters' Labs., 48:1497 (Dec. 1956).
Inc., Chicago (1936). 19. Spangler, M. G. & Phillips, D. L.
10. Wiggin,T. H. ; Enger, M. L. ; & Schlick, Deflectionsof Timber-Strutted Cor-
W. J. A ProposedNew Method for rugated-MetalPipe Culverts Under
DeterminingBarrel Thicknesses of Earth Fills. Bui. 102, Highway Re-
Cast-ironPipe. Jour.A WWA,31:841 search Board; Pub. 350, National
(May 1939). Academy of Sciences-NationalRe-
11. Burmister, D. M. The Importance of search Council, Washington, D.C.
Natural Controlling ConditionsUpon (1955).

Liebherr Bohrwerkzeuge Für Kellybohren Drehbohrgeräte Deutsch Small

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Liebherr Bohrwerkzeuge Für Kellybohren Drehbohrgeräte Deutsch Small

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

CHAPTER 8: Earth Loads on Steel Pipe

Earth Loads on Steel Pipe

Fig. 8.1. Effectof Earth Load on Rigid and Flexible Pipe

waterworkspracticeis trenchload- the rigidpipe,thuscreatingbending

loadon rigidand flexible pipeis shown Figure 8.2 shows photographsof

Fig. 8.2. Effectof Settlementon Rigid and Flexible Pipe in Fill

earthat its sidesas thesemoveout- pipearehigherthanthoseat thesides.

underload. In thiscase,aftersettle- Consequently, in design,it should

Fig. 8.3. ComputationDiagram for Loads on Pipe CompletelyBuried in Ditches

at thesidesofthepipe. This partial and side earth; a flexiblepipe may

to flexiblepipe in a trench,as ex- If, however,the conduitis rela-

8.4, the trenchfillis showndivided in whichВ c is the widthof the pipe

determines the outwardthrustof the worksauthorities do not ap-

soils or any specially determined 80 • .

8.6. Design Factors in Spongier :s===i::

К = beddingconstant (0.10 for .

flat-bottom trenchwith un- . '

tampedbackfill orwithback- io V"

sectionof pipe wall (in.4/lin Diameter- in.

in. ofpipe) Fig. 8.6. RelationshipBetween Values of

includingboth live and dead loads 8.6.1.Earthmodulus , e. The factor

e to decreaseas the pipe diameterin- ofcommondepthand whereordinary

Fraction Decimal Tru°k Tr¿ck Tru°k Tr¿ck

For steel water pipe, permitting2 8.6.4. Design load, W. Experience

Fig. 8.8. Fringe Pattern AroundRing on Slip-Fit and Over-SizeHoles

perfectcircleand its hydraulicradius lation. The gradual increase in de-

applythe lag factorto the deflection zontal side thrustaction resembles

in a giveninstanceto avoidexceeding A 72-in.diameter, 8-gage(0.172-in.)

torytest and by the manufacturinglivereda load coveringone-halfthe

Fig. 8.10. Soil SettlementUnder Load

was drilledin a f-in. thick plastic indicatesa relativelyuniform radial

2' per cent verticallybefore full proofof the tremendousarch loads

finalclosingof the die forcesweld | in. Naturally,the pipe sections

Fig. 8.12. Equivalent Earth Column

materialand thedie materialhave in Test SpecimenA is testedwithcon-

''Щ+ "wv+ wv+

Fig. 8.13. Cases of Conduitsand Loadings

forillustrativepurposesbecause the fluenced by themanyuncertainties of

enoughto occupythe space between theintensity on theverticaldiameter

°6 maybe determined fromtriaxialtest

b. Ringaid- the horizontalthrust Case 1. In this case (Fig. 8.13a),

Case3. In Case 3 (Fig. 8.13c),the €= strain in soil (in./in., or

It is obvious that the same stress stressgivenby Eq S.StwithR equal

pressiveforceequally at all points The calculationconstantwhichac-

8.16. Lengthof EquivalentEarth per centstresshas been added. On

*To nearest0.05. in whichF equals 1.25 timesa selec-

Whenpipe is formed,strutted,or ble pipe tendsactuallyto make the

Fig. 8.17. Determinationof Length of Equivalent Earth Column

be carriedtoo far,however,or the 8.18. Time Lag Factor

subsequentmeasurements made on compactioncontrol. The diagram

8.20. Relationshipof VerticalDeflec-

mobilizedwith a passive deformation dead weightand liveload,exceedthe

Intensityoftruckliveloads forthe 8.19. Axial Strain in Typical Soil:

Step 3. If the ring load for the

thevalueis betterknown,thesugges- 8.21. Axial Strain in Typical Soil:

to the maximumaxial stressexisting 300 j 1 -T

compactedto 98 per cent maximum Я /

compressionin pounds per square оob

pressuresin poundsper square inch, 100 +

ing to distancez below the surface Deflection ofpipelines withspuncoal-

%îs=- ÉgŽS^ - plestrebuttalto thisargumentis to

word"failure"mustdefinea stateof in flexiblepipe have at timesshown

0 0.87 1.74 2.60 3.47 4.34 5.20 6.08 6.94 7.81

veloped througha methodentirely pipelikewise varieswiththesefactors.