Metal Science and Heat Treatment Vol. 50, Nos.

3 – 4, 2008

FRACTURE
UDC 620.192.7

NATURE OF FRACTURE OF METALS AND ITS ANALOGS

IN THE BEHAVIOR OF OTHER KINDS OF MATTER

A. I. Gnevko1

Translated from Metallovedenie i Termicheskaya Obrabotka Metallov, No. 4, pp. 3 – 18, April, 2008.

The main kinds of fracture mechanisms of metals under the action of tensile loads are considered with allow-
ance for the state of the surface and special features of the structure. The determining role of the joint action of
stress concentration and generation of hypersonic waves at frequencies resonant for the metal atoms is de-
scribed. It is shown that the analogy between the behavior of metals and of physical vacuum can be used for
explaining the essence of gravitation and other natural phenomena.

INTRODUCTION metal structures. It is natural that other processes such as cor-

Despite the numerous studies that have deep historical
roots and great achievements [1 – 4 and other works] the na-
ture of fracture of metallic materials remains enigmatic in
many respects. Suffice it to recall that the secret of damask
remains unraveled until today. Understanding of the nature
(mechanism) of fracture is significant for two main reasons,
namely, the engineering necessity for improving the quality
of metal structures (operating capacity, endurance, storage-
ability) and scientific aims for fuller understanding of the
connection between fracture and other phenomena (general
laws of nature).
The relevance of the engineering aspect follows, in par-
ticular, from the widely discussed cases of accidents and ca-
tastrophes that continue to emerge despite the considerable
investment and time spent on ensuring safe operation of
metal structures; we can mention the destruction of the
“Thresher” and “Komsomolets” submarines, the catastro-
phes of the “Challenger” and “Columbia” spacecrafts, and
the crushes of components of metal structures of the “Ostan-
kino” TV tower and of the skating center in Krylatskoe in
Moscow as examples. As a rule, instantaneous failure is
caused by tensile or bending loads and other operational,
constructional, and production process factors that cause la-
tent propagation of cracks. Today, crack propagation is the
least studied process that limits the possibilities of the use of
high-strength metallic materials and the service lives of
1
Peter the Great Military Missile Academy, Moscow, Russia.
rosion, creep, loss of stability due to compression, biological
damage, aging, etc. contribute to the failure too. However,
their manifestations either end upon crack propagation or
take more time than the development of cracks and are there-
fore less dangerous.
Knowledge of the nature of fracture of metals can be ap-
plied to a considerable measure to other groups of structural
materials, for example, to those with ionic or covalent atomic
bonding. The differences are connected with the fact that the
resonance frequencies of the natural vibrations of atoms are
dependent on the type of bonding. For this reason the quanti-
tative characteristics of the intensity of elastic waves and of
stress concentration required for the occurrence of fracture
processes differ. At the same time, an attempt to generalize
some of the mentioned notions of fracture in metals to a
wider circle of kinds of matter can bring much more signifi-
cant and unexpected scientific results. This can be based on
the fact that all natural phenomena are interrelated and match
each other. Synergetics is a science that deals with this
matching today [4]. However, we know that scientists of the
past often knew of the existence of “invisible common ties”
in nature. For example, the prominent Russian metal scientist
D. K. Chernov, often referred to as “the father of metallo-
graphy,” has devoted much attention to general problems of
the universe. In his last unfinished work “Aphorisms from
the Field of Metallurgy” he wrote: “In order to be understood
appropriately hardening of steel requires delineation of the
general concepts of the forces acting in nature and of the
forms of their manifestation in this or that kind of transfor-

149
0026-0673/08/0304-0149 © 2008 Springer Science + Business Media, Inc.
150
mation of the world energy.” Attempts at deeper penetration
into the laws of nature have special significance for Russia.
In order to maintain the status of a country with developed
science and engineering we should use principally new sci-
entific directions and technologies because we have persis-
tently lagged behind in many traditional ones. Where should
we search for them? Primarily among the known and repeat-
edly occurring phenomena, the nature of which has not yet
been explained by science. Here we can mention gravitation,
dark matter, corpuscular-and-wave dualism of microparti-
cles, high-temperature superconductivity, and other topics.
An attempt to apply a model of fracture of metals to simulat-
ing gravitation and some other phenomena of still disguised
nature seems to be a promising one in this respect.
ABOUT THE MECHANISM
OF FRACTURE OF METALS
From the standpoint of the micromechanism of the oc-
currence of fracture in time the model of thermal fluctuations
and its later dilatational version [1, 2] has been widely recog-
nized and systematically developed. In this model the time
before failure of test pieces is described by the expression
t = t0 exp [(U0 – gs)/kT ], (1)
where t0 is a preexponential factor, s is the rupture stress,
U0 is the activation energy, g is the activation volume of the
fracture, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is the tempera-
ture. The validity of this equation (under specific conditions)
has been confirmed by numerous experimental works per-
formed for smooth test pieces. However, the results of tests
of test pieces bearing macroscopic cracks (according to the
GOST 9.903–81 standard) show that the t – s dependence is
frequently more intricate. For example, in the case of liquid
metal embrittlement (the Rebinder effect) growth in the tem-
perature is accompanied by transformation of cracking into
plastic straining of the test piece, and the time before failure
increases instead of being decreased [3]. The techniques for
determining the values of t0 , U0 , and g and their variation
upon changes in the temperature and other factors have not
been worked out well enough for solving many practical
problems.
The example presented shows that the model of thermal
fluctuations does not reflect fracture manifestations fully
enough. It is necessary not only to take into account the tem-
perature vibrations of microparticles inside a body but also
the special features of vibrations of atoms at the surface and
in the region of structural defects and to allow for the effect
of the differences in the vibrations on the changes in the mi-
cro- and macromechanisms of fracture of metallic materials.
The main criteria to be met by a new model of fracture is
the highest correspondence to experimental data and obser-
vations, the possibility of unambiguous explanation of the
micromechanism of all or of a major part of practical cases
A. I. Gnevko
à b c
Fig. 1. Main kinds of tensile fracture of round test pieces: a) brittle
cleavage fracture; b ) ductile shear fracture; c) mixed cleavage and
shear fracture.
of cracking from a single standpoint. In this respect the syn-
ergy approach deserves special attention as the one reflecting
the latest achievements of science.
This approach treats a strained solid body as an open
nonequilibrium (active) system and the process of plastic
straining and cracking as a dissipative process of decrease in
the margin of the elastic energy in the body with time [4 – 6].
The available experimental data and theoretical models
[7 – 11] allow us to assume that fracture of metallic materials
under the action of tensile stresses can be classified into three
main kinds [12] in accordance with the macroscopic features,
i.e. (I ) brittle cleavage fracture virtually without plastic
straining, (II ) plastic shear fracture, and (III ) fracture that
develops with zones of cleavage and shear (Fig. 1). The mi-
croscopic features of fracture are much more diverse and are
related to numerous features of rearrangement of atoms upon
crack propagation in materials with various compositions
and structures under various conditions (cleavage, shear, fa-
tigue, hydrogen embrittlement, corrosion cracking, adsorp-
tion decrease in the strength, delayed fracture in vacuum,
etc.). Fracture has been shown to be affected by the kind of
bonding of the atoms in the crystal lattice, displacement and
multiplication of vacancies, dislocations and other defects of
structure, and stress and strain concentration. The roles of the
accommodation microscopic rotations of atomic groups [13],
of the properties of the surface layer [14], of the kind of the
stress-strain state [7], and of the composition of the ambient
[15 – 17] have been established. At the same time, some
questions have not been answered exhaustively. For exam-
ple, why does the liquid metal embrittlement occur selec-
tively? Why does the yield point exist? Why do cracks de-
velop in a jump manner?
Analysis of the entirety of the observed effects allows us
to suggest the following model of the mechanism of fracture
of metals under the action of tensile stresses, which seems to
be a fuller reflection of the variety of manifestations of this
process.
1. The common main cause of all the three (Fig. 1) mac-
roscopic variants of fracture is successive breakage of bonds
and creation of other bonds accompanied by displacement of
atoms into mew relatively stable positions in which the en-
ergy of the elastic deformations of the body is decreased. The
activation energy required for the displacement is supplied
Nature of Fracture of Metals and Its Analogs in the Behavior of Other Kinds of Matter
by elastic waves that propagate in the metal and match the
natural (resonance) frequencies of the vibrations of the at-
oms. The activation energy of the atoms located at free sur-
faces and at structural defects is the lowest. Upon the attain-
ment of resonance the amplitude of vibrations of atoms in
specific regions of the loaded body increases, and the proba-
bility that they would overcome the potential barriers hinder-
ing their displacement into new positions favorable from the
standpoint of energy grows. The displacement of the atoms
causes a respective displacement of defects. The locations of
the defects and the shape of the body change. The differences
in the macroscopic kinds of fracture are determined by the
kind of the prevalent type of displacement of atoms (mass
displacement of individual particles or of steady formations
of particles). The bonds between atoms in the region of struc-
tural defects are often excited (extended) and less rigid. For
this reason the natural frequencies of their fluctuations are
lower than the mean frequencies of thermal fluctuations in a
perfect crystal lattice. The frequency range in the case of ex-
tended metallic bonds is 108 – 1012 Hz, i.e., it belongs to the
hypersonic domain. The lower the number of atoms required
for displacement of a defect the higher the frequency of the
natural vibrations (this frequency is higher for point defects
and lower for linear defects). The assumption about the lead-
ing role of hypersonic vibrations agrees with some observa-
tions and effects. For example, seed cracks in alkali-halide
crystals form under the action of longitudinal vibrations with
a frequency of 1010 Hz [2]; in liquids the mean frequency of
displacement of ordered groups of atoms also belongs to the
hypersonic range [18].
The hypersonic vibrations that determine the main mani-
festations of fracture are characterized by the fact that the hy-
personic phonons transfer a higher energy than sonic ones
(E = hn, where h is the Planck constant and n is the fre-
quency). At the same time, the free path of hypersonic phon-
ons is shorter than that of sonic ones but longer than that of
thermal ones (up to several tens of mm [19]). This means that
hypersound can penetrate from the surface into the depth of a
material to tens of thousands of interatomic distances virtu-
ally instantaneously (at a speed comparable to the speed of
sonic waves). At the same time, hypersound is absorbed in-
tensely as compared to waves with sonic frequencies (espe-
cially in metals) and transforms into heat. The absorption
limits the depth of penetration of hypersound and the zone of
its direct action around the source and complicates its direct
detection, artificial excitation, and study of the related effects.
2. The necessary conditions for fracture of a solid body
are the specific level of uniform (hydrostatic) tensile stresses
and the margin of the energy of elastic straining of the metal
that ensures propagation of the process of degradation of
structure to considerable distances. For a body to be broken
into parts the value of the hydrostatic tensile stresses should
allow it to overcome the forces of surface tension of the
metal. Otherwise, the action of the surface tension G will
151
cause diffusion dissolution of pores and “healing” of cracks,
because it gives rise to a compressive stress s
s » 2G/rfs , (2)
where rfs is the radius of the free surface.
The required level of hydrostatic stresses can be ensured
only by stress concentration arising when all the accommo-
dation rotations in the body, which cause considerable plastic
straining, are suppressed [13]. An example is the plane-strain
stress state arising at the tip of a crack in the case of consi-
derable yield strength of the material and large sizes of the
fractured body [7].
3. Sufficient conditions for fracture of a metal arise
when the intensity I of the elastic hypersonic waves that are
selectively absorbed by atoms in the zone of fractured re-
gions of the body exceeds some threshold level Icr .
The existence of a threshold level of intensity of
hypersound follows from the collective nature of displace-
ment of atoms in plastic straining and crack propagation.
Large groups of atoms should be involved into the displace-
ment virtually simultaneously, for example, in order to form
a pore, a slip line, a twin, or a new crack surface [9].
The intensity I of hypersound depends substantially on
the conditions of generation (amplification), scattering, re-
flection, and absorption. For example, for a plane wave in a
solid we have
I = I0 exp [2(a – d)r ], (3)
where a and s are the coefficients of amplification and of
absorption of the sound and r is the distance in the direction
of propagation of the running wave. For a spherical wave and
other kinds of waves the expressions describing the variation
of the intensity can be different [20].
The absorption of hypersound is determined by the spe-
cial features of the crystal lattice of the metal, by the amount
and distribution of structural defects, and by the transforma-
tion into heat upon interaction with thermal phonons. In con-
trast to ideal harmonic vibrations the factor of nonlinearity
causes energy transfer between different modes. The reso-
nance nature of the absorption of hypersound agrees well, for
example, with the discovered peaks of internal friction in
metals [21, 22] and with the fact that liquid metal embrittle-
ment occurs only in specific pairs of metals [3, 7].
Generation of elastic hypersonic waves can be caused by
external and internal factors. Hypersound can be generated
by breakages of interatomic bonds, thermal vibrations of
atoms, vibrations due to changes in external loads (for exam-
ple, due to impacts of hard microparticles) and residual
stresses, free vibrations of microparticles of the ambient (in-
cluding liquid and gaseous one), and elastic waves artifi-
cially excited in the ambient, phase transformations, directed
motion of electrons, and electromagnetic waves. However,
the decisive condition for considerable plastic straining and
rapid avalanche cracking in brittle fracture is high enough
152
generation of elastic waves inside the body. Breakage and
formation of bonds between atoms, which accompanies their
accelerated displacement in the metal, is responsible for ab-
sorption and generation of hypersonic waves. The waves are
excited due to the part of the stored elastic energy of the
body, which is freed in atomic displacements and in the cor-
responding displacements of defects; the energy is dissi-
pated. The higher the tensile stresses and the stored energy
the more intense is the generation. This may be the cause of
acoustic radiation with power
Ni = B (Diks )2, (4)
where B is a constant that depends on the density and on the
elastic properties of the material, and Diks is the second time
derivative of the tensor of the dislocation moment [23], in the
case of unsteady motion of a dislocation loop. Another
example is the growth in the mobility of dislocations in crys-
talline silicon upon deformation of metallic ring plates on its
surface [24]. It is interesting that the rate of motion of dislo-
cations in a solid body and the energy irradiated by them are
related through dependences similar to those of special rela-
tivity [25].
Thus, when the margin of elastic energy in the body is
high enough, a moving defect generates more quanta of sonic
energy than absorbs. The elastic waves are intensified and
the frequency corresponds to the natural frequencies of the
vibrations of moving microparticles. In this case an active
(moving) defect excites atoms at neighboring defects, and
the process of displacement of defects acquires an avalanche
form (which does not require growth in the stresses). The
yield point is attained. Multiplication of hypersonic phonons
exceeds their absorption. This process resembles the process
of intensification of electromagnetic waves in lasers. The dif-
ferences are connected with the fact that defects multiply in
the course of displacement of dislocations, and more and
more energy of elastic waves is required for plastic straining
to be continued. Therefore, when the yield point in a metallic
material is attained, when the process of displacements of de-
fects becomes avalanche-like and then stops due to the multi-
plication of defects, the second “triggering” of an avalanche
requires a higher margin of elastic energy and, accordingly, a
higher stress. The critical intensity of hypersonic vibrations
drops upon growth in the temperature. For this reason, plas-
tic straining of a metal during melting does not require any
external load or additional hypersonic waves; the internal
sources of hypersound of a thermal nature are high enough.
The assumption on the possibility of resonance amplifi-
cation of hypersonic waves in straining of metallic materials
is a distinctive feature of the suggested model of fracture.
4. Plastic straining and propagation of cracks in
metals occur in a discontinuous jump-like manner due to the
resonance nature of the absorption and amplification of
hypersound [26]. The jumps are a consequence of alternation
of avalanche fracture processes at higher levels of the hierar-
A. I. Gnevko
chy of spatial scales and lower-scale processes at lower
levels. The role of short displacements that usually take more
time and occur at a lower speed is reduced to preparation of
local margins of elastic energy and microfragmentation of
the structure for subsequent high-speed jumps at a high level.
During fracture the low level of the hierarchy is occupied by
processes of displacement of point defects and the high level
is occupied by processes of macroplastic straining and
growth of pores and cracks.
These concepts agree with the fractal nature of fracture
and of the structure of fracture surfaces [5], with the jump-
like nature of plastic strain, with the effects of Haazen –
Kelly, and of Portevin – Le Chatelier, with the electron plas-
tic effect, etc. They match the wave nature of plastic yielding
[7], the special features of acoustic emission [26], the kinet-
ics of crack formation, and the high correlation of the motion
of near cracks [2].
We will use the model for explaining the nature of three
main manifestations of fracture (Fig. 1).
I. Brittle cleavage fracture yields a smooth cleavage
surface in ruptures (see Fig. 2a ) commonly connected with
the high hardness (low plasticity) of the material in which the
crack propagates. The speed of propagation of cracks in such
cases is almost always high and attains one-third of the speed
of sound. In hard materials the stress concentration is high
(for example, in glass and in steel at a temperature below that
of cold brittleness). The mean level of tensile stresses outside
the concentration zone is insufficient for occurrence of
microplastic shear straining (mass displacement of disloca-
tions to considerable distances under the action of micro-
scopic accommodation rotations [13]). For this reason the
dominant mechanism of cleavage fracture is the one requir-
ing shorter displacements of defects, lower energy, and lower
stresses in macroscopic volumes of the body but higher hy-
drostatic tensile stresses in the vicinity of the tip of the crack
and higher stress concentrations. This mechanism is initiated
by resonance of defects (primarily vacancies) in a thin sur-
face layer adjoining the tip of the crack. The motion of dislo-
cations to considerable distances is hindered due to their
large number and interlacing or due to insufficient generation
of hypersound of thermal origin. The zone of the material
that undergoes plastic straining is very small. The hydrostatic
stresses should exceed the stresses caused by surface tension
on the round surface of the tip of the crack for it to be
“healed” by diffusion or for microplastic yielding [27]. Such
“healing” can easily be observed, for example, upon lower-
ing of tensile forces in transparent gypsum crystals. It has
been shown that “healing” of discontinuities in a material oc-
curs in two manners, namely, relatively rapidly (by plastic
yielding at the free surfaces) and slowly (by diffusion) [27].
Cleavage primarily occurs through the first, relatively rapid,
mechanism that resembles microplastic “healing” but is di-
rected at growth of the free surface under the action of the
concentration of tensile stresses instead of decreasing it un-
der the action of the surface tension or external compressive
forces.
Nature of Fracture of Metals and Its Analogs in the Behavior of Other Kinds of Matter 153

à b c

d e f

Fig. 2. Fracture surfaces of materials after fracture of various kinds (´ 1000): a) brittle fracture of bronze (quasi-cleavage); b ) duc-
tile cleavage fracture of steel; c) shear fracture of steel; d ) delayed fracture of steel; e) fatigue fracture of steel; f ) delayed fracture of
steel under the action of hydrogen.

The margin of elastic energy required for avalanche mul-
tiplication and primary displacement of defects in cleavage
fracture is concentrated in a thin near-surface layer of the
metal. It is known that the mobility dislocations in the latter
is elevated due to the closeness to the free surface [14]. The
level of hypersonic vibrations near this surface is relatively
high because a part of the interatomic bonds is absent, and
the frequency of their natural vibrations is lower than the fre-
quencies of thermal vibrations.
When the near-surface layer is fractured (more exactly, it
spreads like a liquid), the stress concentration in the next
layer increases (at an invariable load on the body due to
crack propagation) in accordance with the known law of the
linear mechanics of fracture
KI = Csl 1/2,
where KI is the stress intensity factor in cleavage, C is a fac-
tor determined by the shape and location of the crack, s is
the mean level of stresses directed perpendicularly to the sur-
face of the crack, and l is the effective length of the crack.
The additionally arising long stress waves promote the frac-
ture. The process resembles successive and virtually instan-
taneous local surface melting of the material at the tip of the
crack, which promotes its rapid propagation to a consider-
able distance at a sufficient margin of elastic energy.
The adequacy of the explanation suggested is confirmed
by a number of known manifestations of cleavage fracture. If
the stress concentration or the level of hypersound at the tip
of a crack changes, the fracture rate changes too. For exam-
ple, growth in the intensity of hypersound upon penetration
of mercury to the tip of a crack in zinc at normal temperature
causes its fast fracture. In the absence of liquid mercury zinc
remains ductile enough and does not undergo brittle fracture.
It is know that microparticles of a liquid vibrate at hyper-
sonic frequencies [18]. For this reason a part of the vibrations
is transferred in the surface layer in an athermal manner to
zinc. A kind of equilibrium with the ambient medium is es-
tablished not only at the thermal frequencies by also at the
hypersonic ones. At the free surface the zinc becomes some-
(5) what more ductile and the liquid mercury becomes some-
what “harder.” In addition, the diffusion and the formation of
a limited solid solution of mercury in zinc are accompanied
by growth in the volume of the metal, and local additional
tensile stresses appear. Consequently, cracks can grow
slowly even without application of external loads [3]. At the
same time, if we cool the metal until mercury freezes, frac-
ture will acquire a ductile nature again, because in this case
the level of the hypersound is reduced. If we heat the zinc
154
crystals, the stress concentration at the tip of the crack will
drop due to the decrease in the resistance of the metal to
macroplastic shear strain. In the depth of the metal the
macroplastic strain will cause relaxation of hydrostatic
stresses and the rapid brittle fracture will even be delayed
[3, 7].
Some other phenomena also agree with the concept of
the leading role of the concentration of tensile stresses and
hypersonic vibrations in brittle fracture. For example, for the
highly ductile aluminum and copper, liquid metals (tin, lead,
bismuth), which are characterized by low strength of bond-
ing with the atoms of the hard metal (limited wettability), do
not cause substantial embrittlement (growth of cracks). The
hypersound excited due to breakage and formation of weak
bonds at the interface of the liquid and solid phases only ele-
vates the rate of the dissolution of the hard metal over grain
boundaries [28] but is not capable of lowering the surface en-
ergy so as to cause yielding of the material on the free sur-
face and fast growth of pores. There are other examples of
the effect of hypersound on the speed of motion of
microdefects in the depth of metal. Nitriding of steel in a
“fluidized bed” that consists of mobile balls of a hard sub-
stance occurs at an elevated rate. In this case periodic com-
pressive stresses and friction act on the metal/ambient inter-
face and excite hypersound additional with respect to the
general surface background, which ensures diffusion pro-
cesses. It is interesting that the rate of the nitriding increases
only in a thin surface layer penetrable for the hypersound.
The resistance to plastic shear strain can also change due
to dynamic loading, because considerable collective dis-
placements of atoms take a relatively longer time. In the case
of dynamic loading macroplastic straining has simply no
time to occur and cannot ensure stress relaxation. The stress
concentration increases and a plastic material can fracture in
a brittle manner. For example, bitumen, which is plastic
at normal temperatures, fractures in a brittle manner upon
impact.
II. Plastic shear fracture (Fig. 1) occurs in virtually the
entire volume of a fractured body and requires a great margin
of elastic energy. Shear can occur slowly, when primarily
point defects displace upon the attainment of hypersonic re-
sonance, for example, in a material with amorphous struc-
ture. The material flows slowly like a viscous liquid. The
stress concentration is insufficient for formation and devel-
opment of micropores with little diameter. In fact, a single
“large pore” is formed by the external surface of the de-
formed body and the surrounding space.
On the other hand, shear may develop relatively fast in a
body with crystalline structure. In this case dislocations are
dominant moving defects after hypersonic resonance is at-
tained. The natural frequencies of dislocations are lower than
the natural frequencies of vacancies, and therefore hyper-
sound with a longer wavelength propagates to a relatively
long distance. If the stresses are high enough for hypersound
to be amplified by displacing dislocations, large groups of
A. I. Gnevko
atoms are involved into the motion virtually simultaneously.
Due to the anisotropy of elastic properties in crystalline bo-
dies the energy of hypersonic phonons is distributed non-
uniformly. Hypersound propagates primarily over directions
with the highest concentration of atoms. Dislocations move
over the same directions. Slip surfaces form, but dislocations
multiply simultaneously, which hinders slip in a single con-
stant direction and requires high stresses. As the stresses in-
crease, atoms from other directions, which are less favorable
crystallographically, are involved into the motion. A kind of
“rolls,” i.e., microscopic regions that turn with respect to the
slip surfaces, forms between the latter and the motion
of these surfaces becomes macroscopic. Shear propagates
through the whole of the body and travels to the free surface
in the form of bands or steps [7].
Adequacy of these concepts is confirmed by the results
of numerous studies [7 – 10, etc.]. For example, measure-
ments of microhardness have shown that fast loading causes
its decrease. On the other hand, according to macroscopic
studies growth in the loading rate is commonly accompanied
by increase in the hardness. Decrease in the microhardness of
the microlayer adjoining the surface of a metal is a result of
the elevated intensity of hypersound in this layer due to rapid
straining. The higher the temperature, the time of the appli-
cation of the load, and the mobility of dislocations and the
smaller the sizes of the body, which the hypersound has to
pass, the higher the probability of shear fracture. The higher
the strength of the interatomic bonding, the resistance to the
motion of dislocations, and the sizes of the body, which hin-
der the propagation of hypersound and simultaneous accom-
modation rotation of the “rolls,” the lower the possibility of
through slip and of fracture by pure shear. In the latter case
other mechanisms of fracture are involved into the process.
The physicochemical reactions on the surface of the metal
can also give rise to hypersound. For example, the rate of tor-
sional straining of round test pieces from titanium at a con-
stant load in vacuum increases when oxygen is introduced
into the ambient medium. We also know of an electron-plas-
tic effect (easing of plastic straining) due to intensification of
hypersound by free electrons moving in a metal through
which electric current is passed.
III. In the mixed type of fracture (Fig. 1) regions of the
action of the mechanisms of displacement of atoms by shear
and by cleavage prevail depending on the conditions. Such
fracture always ends with crack propagation. Results of stud-
ies of fracture surfaces show that fracture processes caused
by crack propagation can be classified into several typical
kinds. In addition to cleavage (Fig. 2a ) we observe relatively
ductile fracture that yields microscopic dimples when the
process occurs without macroplastic straining (Fig. 2b ), duc-
tile shear fracture (Fig. 2c ), delayed fracture under static
loading (delayed crack propagation without the action of cor-
rosion-active media, stress corrosion or corrosion cracking
(Fig. 2d and f ), and fatigue fracture (Fig. 2e ).
Ductile cleavage fracture (Fig. 2b ) is observed when
transverse straining is limited (plane-strain stress state). In
Nature of Fracture of Metals and Its Analogs in the Behavior of Other Kinds of Matter
this case shear deformations do not occur in macrovolumes
of the metal. The required concentration of hydrostatic
stresses is attained at some distance from the tip of the crack
(Fig. 3). Inconsiderable microplastic straining occurs in close
vicinity, where we observe microscopic yielding and de-
crease in the stress level (relaxation). Note that the plane of
crack propagation in cleavage is perpendicular to the direc-
tion of the action of tensile loads. Maximum hydrostatic
stresses act in this very plane. Maximum tensile stresses arise
in another plane located at an acute angle to the direction of
the loads. However, these unidirectional stresses do not en-
sure overcoming of the forces of surface tension in all direc-
tions and do not lead to mass formation of pores. Ductile
cleavage fracture consists in successive occurrence of stages
of nucleation of micropores at some distance from the tips of
cracks, their growth under the action of increasing tensile
loads, and merging with the cracks [12]. The role of the ten-
sile stresses consists in ensuring a margin of elastic energy
required for microplastic straining of the metal and creation
of conditions for enough generation of hypersound by struc-
tural microdefects and for stress concentration required for
overcoming the surface tension. The pores merge with the
crack upon the attainment of microplastic instability. The in-
stability arises when the multiplication of dislocations and
vacancies, which elevates the shear resistance (a higher in-
tensity of hypersound is required and hence higher stresses
for continuation of the process of slip), stops to compensate
the reduction of the cross section of the bridges between
pores. An analog of merging of microscopic pores at the
macrolevel is fracture of a smooth metallic test piece due to
stretching with formation of a “neck.” Merging is observed if
the condition of compensation of the reduction of the cross
section of the metal by growth in its yield strength stopps to
be observed, i.e.,
sdB + Bds > 0, (6)
where s are the tensile stresses in the interpore bridge, ds is
the stress increment that accompanies the strain hardening of
the metal, and B and dB are the cross-sectional area of a
bridge and its increment (reduction) respectively.
Ductile fracture accompanied by formation of micro-
scopic dimples due to the preceding macroplastic shear
straining of the metal at an angle to the tensile loads (mixed
fracture, Fig. 1c ) is observed when a planar stressed state
arises at the tip of a crack. Shear and relaxation of tensile
stresses occur in the zones of the metal adjoining the free
surface. The stress concentration required for overcoming
the forces of surface tension is not attained. This causes me-
chanical hardening of the metal. Its resistance to shear at the
slip surfaces increases, and the enhanced concentration of
stresses ensures growth of micropores. The micropores have
a somewhat “elongated” shape because the plane of the
cracks goes over the slip surfaces at an angle to the direction
of the tensile loads. The fracture surfaces exhibit “shear
lips.”
155
Ductile shear fracture of metals is observed when a crack
propagates in a plane parallel to the direction of application
of external loads under the action of tensile stresses. Prelimi-
nary shear arises and is accompanied by mechanical harden-
ing. This ensures the required concentration of tensile
stresses as a result of local microplastic straining of the
metal. The level of hypersound increases additionally due to
friction of the opposite surfaces of the crack against each
other, which promotes the fracture process. Micropores on
the fracture surface have an elongated shape in one direction
and are smoothed (Fig. 2c ).
Delayed fracture under static loading (Fig. 2d ) consists
in slow propagation of cracks as a result of the joint action of
virtually constant tensile stresses and external media. When a
large-size construction is fractured, the necessary conditions
with respect to the loads should be obeyed over the whole of
the path of crack propagation. The role of the ambient me-
dium is reduced to additional generation of hypersound or its
absorption on the free external surfaces of the body.
If the ambient is represented by vacuum, delayed frac-
ture occurs without the action of corrosion-active processes.
The external sources of hypersound in this case are the natu-
ral vibrations of atoms on the interface of the solid body and
the vacuum. The internal sources are thermal vibrations of
atoms in the metal and moving defects that amplify the
hypersound by participating in the dissipation of elastic
energy.
When the thickness of a metal construction is small, the
intensity of the hypersound penetrating from the surface is
high enough and the rate of the delayed fracture is describ-
able by the model of thermal fluctuations [1].
When a metal structure has a relatively large thickness,
the occurrence of delayed fracture requires stress concentra-
tion and high enough intensity of hypersound for a crack to
grow. The concentration is largely determined by the
microstructure of the metal. The necessary conditions occur
in structures with alternating layers of relatively ductile and
hard material. Such structures can form in the course of pro-
duction operations or as a result of nonuniform cold plastic
deformation (brass, austenitic steel) or at a high operating
temperature (the near-boundary zones of grains during heat-
ing soften more rapidly than the internal parts of crystals). A
plane-strain state arises upon stretching at the tip of a crack
in the ductile component of the microstructure, which is
“compressed” by grains of harder components; this state is
favorable for overcoming the forces of surface tension. Then
the hypersound penetrating from the surface and appearing
inside the metal as a result of thermal fluctuation and dis-
placement of defects under stresses ensures conditions for
growth of micropores (Fig. 3). A plastic layer should sur-
round grains of a hard component for the crack to develop
without obstacle. If the metal consists of homogeneous
grains and is ductile enough, plastic straining dulls the tip of
the crack with time. The stress concentration decreases and
delayed fracture virtually does not occur.
156
1
Y
2
3
4
5 X
6
Fig. 3. Distribution of stresses and growth of micropores in delayed
fracture: 1 ) tensile loads; 2 ) curve of tensile stresses acting along
axis Y; 3 ) hard component of the structure; 4 ) soft component (a
layer enclosing grains of the hard phase); 5 ) a crack; 6 ) growing
micropores.
The adequacy of the mentioned effect of the features of
microstructure of metals on the susceptibility to delayed
fracture is confirmed by practical operation of various struc-
tures. For example, the czar-bell has more than ten large
cracks (Fig. 4a ). Long-term observations (measurement of
the sizes) have shown that cracks do not grow noticeably,
though the metal has experienced loads (including a tensile
one) of its own weight (about 200 tons) for over two hundred
years. The microstructure of the bronze of the bell (Fig. 5)
contains large relatively soft grains of an a-phase (a solid so-
lution of tin in copper) surrounded by a continuous hard
layer of an eutectoid (a mixture of fine grains of the solid so-
lution and intermetallic compounds of tin and copper). A
metal with such structure is not susceptible to delayed frac-
ture. The rigid net of the eutectoid hinders the slow flow of
Fig. 4. The czar-bell (a) and a model of the czar-
bell broken under the action of its own weight
à when heated (b ).
A. I. Gnevko
Fig. 5. Microstructure of the bronze of the czar-bell (a crack propa-
gating over a brittle eutectoid can be observed).
grains. When the stresses become high enough for intensifi-
cation of hypersound in the motion of defects in the
eutectoid, the bronze undergoes brittle cleavage fracture. The
crack propagates fast over the hard eutectoid that bears an
elevated content of tin. For this reason the brittle fracture sur-
face has a white color. At the same time, if the bronze is
heated to a high enough temperature, the eutectoid becomes
softer than the grains of the a-phase and the tensile stresses
acting in the bronze can again promote crack propagation
over the boundaries of the eutectoid and of the a-phase, but
now the process is slower. The fracture surface is chiefly co-
lored yellow as copper. It seems that delayed fracture has
been responsible for the formation of cracks in the czar-bell
during fire; this is confirmed by the appearance of the sur-
face of the cracks and by the results of physical simulation. A
model of the bell from a special alloy broke during heating,
yielding a chip and some cracks similar to those in the proto-
type bell (Fig. 4b ).
Nature of Fracture of Metals and Its Analogs in the Behavior of Other Kinds of Matter 157

Fig. 6. Cast-iron column monument to Dmitry Donskoy

on Kulikovo Field (a) and a crack in its fragment (indi-
à cated by the arrow) (b ).

Numerous cracks have formed with time in the cast-iron
column monument to Dmitry Donskoy on Kulikovo Field
(Fig. 6). The structure of the gray iron from which the parts
of the column have been cast consists of regions of a rela-
tively fine-grained hard mixture of cementite and ferrite
grains surrounded by relatively soft layers of ferrite with car-
bon (graphite) inclusions. Such a structure promotes delayed
fracture, which has been confirmed by laboratory tests of
specimens with a crack under long-term action of loads.
Stress corrosion is caused by the joint action of loads and
corrosion-active media. Slowly developing anode dissolution
of the metal at the tip of a crack, hydrogen brittleness, and
adsorption lowering of strength are distinguished [16, 17].
In anode dissolution the stress concentration and the in-
tensity of hypersound are insufficient for crack growth by the
mechanism of plastic yielding with development of micro-
pores. In this case, regions with predominantly extended
bonds fracture at the tip of a crack because individual atoms
pass into the solution of the electrolyte in accordance with
the anode process of electrochemical corrosion. The rate of
propagation of the crack is very low. Crack propagation is
also slow in other cases, when the strength of the interatomic
bonds between the liquid and the solid phase is weak. For
example, liquid metal characterized by relatively weak bond-
ing with solid metal (insufficient wettability) causes only dis-
solution of the latter (primarily along grain boundaries [28]).
Hydrogen embrittlement arises due to the capacity of hy-
drogen ions to be displaced in metals relatively easily and to
accumulate primarily in places with elongated bonds. Hydro-
gen ions can also be emitted from a metal into various voids
(pores) contained in the metal and form gas molecules. The
gas creates additional pressure on the walls of the pores and
promotes crack growth. Vibrations of hydrogen ions increase
the intensity of hypersound. When the concentration of the
ions becomes high enough, the increased intensity of hyper-
sound permits the crack to grow by the mechanism of
microplastic yielding of the metal at the tip. The crack grows
like in cleavage but at a lower rate. The growth occurs peri-
odically upon the accumulation of a high enough number of
hydrogen ions in the zone of the metal lying near the tip [16].
Hydrogen promotes the process of microplastic straining.
Fracture develops primarily over grain boundaries given that
the conditions for additional structural concentration of
stresses observed in delayed fracture of metals in vacuum are
preserved. The crack moves primarily over the continuous
layers of the softer phase. The boundaries of the hard (rigid)
phase reflect the hypersound and make it pass through the
soft layer many times. Thus, the grains of the hard phase play
the role of mirrors for the hypersound like the mirrors in a la-
ser for electromagnetic waves.
The described mechanism of hydrogen embrittlement
and the role of microstructural stress concentration agree
with the kinetics of crack propagation (Fig. 7). The curve has
a region where the rate of crack growth dl/dt is virtually in-
dependent of the stress intensity factor KI . When hard grains
alternate with a thin continuous soft layer, the values of KI in
accordance with the linear mechanics of fracture are deter-
mined by an expression that does not include the crack
length, i.e.,
KI = s (hl /2)1/2, (7)
where hl is the thickness of the layer.
The concept of the decisive role of generation of hyper-
sound by hydrogen ions also agrees with the fact that when
the temperature decreases sufficiently, the hydrogen embrit-
tlement of steel virtually disappears, though the pressure of
gaseous hydrogen changes inconsiderably.
An example of manifestation of hydrogen brittleness is
the failure of an axle of the metallic structure of the skating
158
dl/dt
Kcr Kc KI
Fig. 7. Typical dependence of the rate of crack growth dl/dt on the
stress intensity factor KI in corrosion cracking.
center in Krylatskoe (Moscow). The axle 528 mm in diame-
ter failed by the mechanism of cleavage under the action of
internal tensile stresses though the main operating loads were
shear ones (Fig. 8). External operating tensile loads have not
been observed. When the axle was fabricated (casting of the
preform from steel 38KhN3MA, forging, quenching, and
tempering at 620°C) no special measure was taken for lower-
ing and controlling the content of hydrogen. The appearance
of the fracture surface reflects the initial intercrystalline frac-
ture. The source of the fracture was an internal crack that
propagated slowly from the center to the periphery of the
axle. The final failure occurred three years after the building
of the center was erected. The failure had an instantaneous
avalanche brittle nature (Fig. 2f ).
The effect of the ambient medium on the process of frac-
ture of metals is the highest in liquid-metal embrittlement
(adsorption lowering of strength). Cracks may grow without
application of external loads in such ductile metals as zinc
and aluminum, for example, under the action of molten mer-
cury or gallium. The mechanism of crack propagation corre-
sponds to cleavage fracture, which has been considered
above. We have grounds to assume that the disasters with the
“Thresher” submarine (USA) and with the “Komsomolets”
submarine (USSR) have been caused by different kinds of
corrosion cracking.
Fatigue fracture of metals under cyclic loading is also de-
termined by the special features of stress concentration and
generation of hypersound. If the external cyclic loads exceed
some critical level (as a rule it is lower than the yield
strength), some individual unfavorably oriented or softer
grains (blocks) of the metal can undergo microplastic shear
straining. Defects in such grains move partially irreversibly
and multiply. As a result, when the external load is decreased
in a cycle, residual stresses arise in microscopic regions and
promote motion of some defects in the opposite direction.
When the loading cycle is repeated many times, the strained
grains are hardened. Zones of hard (mechanically hardened)
and soft metal alternate in the grains. The neighbor regions
of the metal are involved into microplastic straining. Finally,
the structural inhomogeneity formed under the action of con-
A. I. Gnevko
Fig. 8. Appearance of the fracture surface of a broken steel axle of
the skating center in Krylatskoe.
tinuous external loads results in a stress concentration
enough for generation of hypersound by the defects and frac-
ture of the mechanically hardened parts of the metal by the
mixed mechanism in the zone of separation. The burst of the
intensity of the hypersound resembles a laser pulse. The
crack jumps to the part of the metal where the stress concen-
tration and the margin of the elastic energy are still insuffi-
ciently high, and stops. Continuation of cyclic loading en-
sures preparation for subsequent jumps of the crack. The
fracture surface (Fig. 2e ) exhibits repeated lines typical for
fatigue, which lie close together and preserve their geometric
features [29]. As a rule, harder metals are more susceptible to
fatigue fracture. Today the hardness of metals is chiefly
raised by increasing the amount of microdefects and the
structural inhomogeneity, which promotes the development
of fatigue.
SIMULATION OF PHYSICAL PROCESSES
WITH THE USE OF ANALOGIES
IN THE BEHAVIOR OF METAL AND VACUUM
Simulation is aimed at giving a generalized concept of
classical mechanics, relativism, and quantization based on
analogies in the behavior of ductile-elastic metal and physi-
cal vacuum [37].
Today’s science presumes that physical vacuum is able to
transfer interactions and to generate and absorb virtual and
actual microparticles of matter, possesses energy, is polari-
zable, and possess other features of matter (is treated as a
material medium) [38].
The analogy between the behaviors of physical vacuum
and a ductile-elastic body has already been used successfully
in some models [39, 40]. In the first turn, it is expedient to
use the analogy to a solid rather than to a liquid or a gas, be-
cause transverse elastic waves arise in addition to longitudi-
nal waves only in a solid. In contrast to longitudinal waves,
transverse waves are susceptible to different polarization. In
Nature of Fracture of Metals and Its Analogs in the Behavior of Other Kinds of Matter
vacuum, polarization resembling transverse waves in a solid
is exhibited by electromagnetic waves.
Physical vacuum in the known solid models consists of
elastically interacting components but not of particles of
matter. The microparticles of matter or antimatter are repre-
sented by point defects of the structure of vacuum and by
their unions similar to vacancies, interstitial atoms, disloca-
tions, and other imperfections in metal. For example, an elec-
tron is a vacancy of vacuum and a positron antiparticle is an
interstitial atom.
The main item that distinguishes the suggested new
model of compressed vacuum (MCV) from other models of
the kind is the assumption that physical vacuum is com-
pressed uniformly (from all sides) until the occurrence of
microplastic straining. The margin of the elastic energy of
compression is high enough for a transverse wave in the vac-
uum to be intensified when passing through matter. Such am-
plification of waves corresponds to the beginning of yielding
in a metal or is similar to amplification of an electromagnetic
wave in a laser.
The concept on compression of vacuum and the repre-
sentation of matter (but not antimatter) in the form of defects
that lower the “density” of vacuum is confirmed by a number
of circumstances, for example, by the higher speed of light in
vacuum as compared to that in matter. The speed of sound in
extended and compressed metal behaves in a similar way. In
addition, it is known that when a metallic powder is com-
pressed, vacancies and pores tend to leave the compressed
zone and enter a zone free of stresses or extended [27]. In the
same way matter in the Universe in the form of unions of
galaxies tends to leave the observed part of vacuum with ac-
celeration. It seems that outside these limits vacuum is now
extended. The start of the burst-like expansion of the Uni-
verse [41] has been caused by a change of hydrostatic exten-
sion of the surrounding vacuum for compression, similarly to
the change in the sign of stresses upon propagation of
large-scale elastic waves in metal.
In microplastic straining (motion with respect to va-
cuum) matter partially transforms the energy of vacuum
compression into longitudinal elastic waves that generate
moving dislocations and vacancies in a solid body. For this
reason a powerful background of longitudinal waves exists
in the Universe. Like in a solid, the speed of the longitudinal
waves in vacuum is higher than the speed of transverse
waves, i.e., exceeds the speed of light, and therefore every
microparticle of matter irradiating longitudinal waves and re-
ceiving their refractions from other particles is displaced
with respect to the vacuum in accordance with the spatial
distribution of longitudinal waves. Most of the time the parti-
cle resides in nodes of standing waves and for a short period
resides in zones with maximum amplitude. In this way we
find an explanation for the wave (quantum) properties of par-
ticles of matter. Accordingly, on the basis of analogies with
the fracture behavior of metals, we can explain the nature of
the main concepts in classical mechanics, thermodynamics,
and relativity. Such explanations suit the nature of the cor-
159
puscular properties of microparticles, and the varieties of
mass, energy, acting forces, momentum, action, temperature,
entropy, space, and time [37]. Specifically, space is consid-
ered to be plane (meeting the Euclidean geometry in three di-
mensions).
The important assumption that longitudinal waves in
vacuum initiate motion in microparticles when they pass
through matter and are amplified leads to some new conse-
quences. These consequences do not match the concepts of
“standard” models but only outside the conditions where the
models have been checked experimentally (large space and
time ranges, large masses, enhanced accuracy of measure-
ments).
The first consequence is the possibility of a large (as
compared to the Newton law) increment of gravitation forces
upon considerable growth in the mass. Moreover, additional
forces appear when the interacting bodies are arranged not
randomly but in a line. The consequence follows from the
explanation of the nature of gravitation interaction.
By analogy with intensification of light in a laser the in-
tensity (and hence the “pressure” on particles and antiparti-
cles) of longitudinal waves that pass through matter should
increase upon growth in the path in an active medium (mat-
ter). The difference in the background pressure of longitudi-
nal waves and of waves amplified by matter is responsible
for the gravitation attraction of bodies [34]. The waves arriv-
ing from a neighboring body are more intense than the waves
of the background. Amplifying additionally when passing
through a body they tend to move the body toward a neigh-
boring one. The more matter is passed by the longitudinal
waves the higher the amplification and hence the gravitation
force. For this reason the features of motion of matter in ga-
lactic or larger scales can be caused not by the action of a
“hidden mass” [38] but rather by deviations from the Newton
law in the interaction of a great number of stars and galaxies.
The relation between the true force of gravitation interaction
Fgr and the Newton force FN for two interacting masses can
be approximately written as
Fgr » FN [1 + m0 A (l1 + l2 )/2 +
m02 A 2 (l12 /6 + l22 /6 + l1 l2 /4) + ...], (8)
where A is the amplification factor of longitudinal waves
upon passage of one nucleon, kg – 1; l1 and l2 are the mean
numbers of nucleons through which a ray of longitudinal
waves passes in the first and second bodies with masses
m1 = b1 l1 m0 and m2 = b2 l2 m0 , respectively, when it crosses
both bodies; b1 and b2 are the numbers of nonrepeating rows
of nucleons over which the rays pass both bodies in one di-
rection; and m0 = 1.7 ´ 10 – 27 kg is the rest mass of a nu-
cleon.
The first consequence also determines the existence of
other new effects that have already been discovered. For ex-
ample, if a body is surrounded by a ring of uniformly distri-
buted matter, it experiences the action of a centripetal gravi-
160
tation force, which does not match the Newton law but al-
lows us to eliminate the known gravitation paradox [39]. One
more effect: when a star (or another compact mass) bursts
and matter is spread in space, the total force of gravitation at-
traction decreases (we observe an apparent decrease in the
mass, i.e., its defect [38]). Concentration of a mass (reduc-
tion of the volume taken by it) is accompanied by growth in
the gravitation attraction and we observe formation of white
dwarfs, neutron stars, and (as astrophysicists assume) “black
holes” [39]. However, since the energy of compression of
vacuum is limited, the amplification of longitudinal waves
can be limited too (similarly to the ultimate strengthening in
compressed metal), which means that “back holes” most
probably do not exist. In accordance with the MCV their
place should be occupied by large superdense bright stars
containing enormous amounts of matter. They possess a level
of gravitation maximum attainable for the present compres-
sion of vacuum but insufficient for holding light and infinite
compression of neutrons.
The second consequence following from the MCV is ac-
celerated inertial motion of bodies. When a particle of matter
moves relative to a background of longitudinal waves, the
Doppler effect gives rise to an additional force that tends to
increase the speed of the moving particles. As applied to one
nucleon this is described by a differential equation
d ( mv ) 2 yI 0 vmA
= , (9)
dt C gr
where Cgr is the phase speed of longitudinal waves in vac-
uum, t is the time, v is the speed of motion of a nucleon with
respect to vacuum, m is the mass of a nucleon with allowance
for its relativistic change during motion, I and I0 are the pres-
sures of the amplified and background longitudinal waves on
the surface of the nucleon corresponding to a unit spatial an-
gle, and y » p/3 is a dimensionless factor allowing for the
special features of the spatial distribution of the forces. Ex-
pression (9) is similar to the equation of reactive motion; the
only difference is that the mass of a particle is not spent and
the acceleration is ensured by intensification of the radiation
of longitudinal waves in the direction opposite to that of the
motion of the particle. In a solid body pores also move direc-
tionally in the presence of a temperature gradient (which im-
plies nonuniformity of elastic fluctuations) [27]. Thus, mo-
tion in compressed vacuum should be accompanied by an in-
considerable apparent violation of the laws of conservation
of momentum and energy. However, in this case the increase
in momentum and energy is a mechanism of dissipation of
the energy of compression of vacuum (the main source of the
world energy is vacuum, which corresponds to modern con-
cepts of astrophysics [38]). This increase is very low; it has
not exceeded the accuracy of measurement of the increments
of energy in a vast majority of experiments, and this has
masked the effect. Note that the indirect action of these small
increments has manifested itself repeatedly, for example, in
A. I. Gnevko
the irreversible growth of entropy in closed thermodynamic
systems. Specifically, the circumstance mentioned removes
the known Gibbs paradox that manifests itself in the case of
mixing of two volumes of a gas [40].
At the same time, defects in a metal (if the normal condi-
tions in it are disturbed by a shock wave or another devia-
tion) cannot move faster than transverse waves (for displace-
ments of matter in vacuum this is the speed of sound C ).
Other relativistic effects can be observed in a solid body too
[25]. We will solve the equation using the dependences of
special relativity in the first approximation.
For the case v ^ C we then obtain [34]
v¢/v » 2I0 yA/Cgr , (10)
whence
H gr t
v » v0 e , (11)
where Hgr » 2I0 yA/Cgr is a constant that characterizes the
acceleration of a body moving by inertia, v0 is the initial
value of the speed, and v¢ is the acceleration. The expression
is similar to the Hubble law and this allows us to assume that
the determined regularity is one of the causes of accelerated
expansion of the Universe.
Growth in the speed of a body moving by inertia is
caused by increase in its energy E with time, i.e.,
E » m0 C 2 + m0 v 20 (1 + 2Hgr t )/2. (12)
At v ® C and m ® ¥ we have
m0 v 02 Hgr t
E » m0 C 2 + . (13)
1- v 2 / C 2
At v = C
E = hn0 + hn0Hgr t, (14)
where h is the Planck constant and n0 is the light frequency.
Using these dependences and the recent evaluations of
gravitation, of the power of the solar radiation, of the speed
of stars in galaxies, and of the energy of space rays, we can
compute the values of the constants introduced, i.e.,
A » 4.0 ´ 1017 kg – 1, I0 » 1.9 ´ 10 – 16 N,
Hgr » 10 – 15 sec – 1, Cgr » 2.0 ´ 1017 m/sec. (15)
The order of the obtained value of the speed of longitudi-
nal (gravitational) waves Cgr agrees satisfactorily with the
value determined with the help of other approaches
(Cgr > 1017 m/sec [41, 42]).
The third consequence following from the MCV is the
“faster-than-light (gravitational) interaction” of objects of the
Universe by exchange of longitudinal waves. The faster-
Nature of Fracture of Metals and Its Analogs in the Behavior of Other Kinds of Matter
than-light speed of interaction of material objects manifests
itself, for example, in quantum correlation [43] and in the
Sokolov effect [44].
The fourth consequence of the generalizing model is the
possibility of controlling the action of forces related with the
proper (resonance) radiation of longitudinal waves by matter.
Under conventional conditions the proper longitudinal radia-
tion has a low intensity and does not perform substantial
work; however, under the conditions of resonance it can ac-
celerate or delay the work of other forces (by “accelerating”
or “delaying” the time, respectively) or cause a change in the
values of the forces. Similar phenomena in metals can be the
processes of acceleration of displacements of defects under
the action of hydrogen [14] or the Rebinder effect in fracture
[3]. Examples of “acceleration” of time can be the emission
of energy many times higher than the spent one in the burst-
ing of thin metallic films [44] or cold thermonuclear fusion
[45]. The common cause of all the mentioned phenomena is
accelerated withdrawal of the elastic energy of vacuum by
matter.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The described concepts on the nature of fracture of
metals differ from the already known ones primarily in the
greater attention paid to the decisive role of resonance phe-
nomena in the range of hypersonic vibrations. Fracture may
be controlled in various processes by intensifying or weaken-
ing hypersound. For example, at attempt to straighten a plas-
tically deformed wire by stretching the latter requires great
force. At the same time, if a slightly stretched wire is hit
against ground (which gives rise to hypersound), the wire
straightens easily.
Direct observation of hypersound in metals is difficult,
but its usually latent effect manifests itself vividly in the ac-
tion of the medium, temperature, dynamic loads, scale factor,
and special features of the production process on the struc-
tural strength of materials. For example, the nonuniformity
of the chemical composition and structure, of residual stresses,
and of the distribution of defects in metal structures is now
evaluated approximately by indirect methods (for reasons of
economy or other circumstances). At the same time, these in-
dividual features of a structure can be combined unfavorably
and lead to unexpected failures, emergencies, and catastro-
phes. Understanding of the nature of fracture allows us to
choose an appropriate way for timely detection and preven-
tion of fracture. It seems possible to choose an efficient
enough combination of methods of destructive and nonde-
structive checking that would allow us to solve contradictory
problems simultaneously, i.e., to reduce the time of testing,
to raise the reliability of results, and to reliably ensure safe
operation.
In the field of destructive methods the efficiency of con-
trol can be increased considerably by evaluating the crack re-
sistance of metals in brittle and delayed fracture [30, 31].
161
The evaluation can be performed in a simplified manner us-
ing results of microscopic diffraction analysis with allow-
ance for the effect of the location of the hard and soft compo-
nents (for example, retained austenite in hardenable steel) on
the fracture behavior. Checking of the crack resistance is
necessary for determining the remaining life of metal struc-
tures when their operation is prolonged after the exhaustion
of the design time. However, the evaluation of crack resis-
tance is not yet used widely enough, especially for unique
constructions.
In the field of nondestructive methods of evaluation of
the structural strength the efficiency can be raised by turning
to the method of acoustic emission [32]. This method makes
it possible to detect splashes of intensity of hypersound
(more exactly, of the ultrasonic waves into which it partially
transforms) at a distance of over 50 m from the place of per-
manent mounting of a sensor on the inspected metal struc-
ture. These splashes accompany plastic straining of the metal
and propagation of cracks in it, which makes it possible to
detect the threat way before the occurrence of the final fail-
ure. The method of acoustic emission is suitable for continu-
ous monitoring of the strength of a construction during oper-
ation even when the access to the parts is limited and other
methods of nondestructive checking are inapplicable [33].
2. The main criterion for determining the scientific sig-
nificance of any hypothesis is the correspondence between
its predictions and newly discovered processes. We have
grounds to assume that the prediction of manifestations of
cold thermonuclear fusion [45], of anomalous accelerations
of the “Pioneer” spacecrafts [46], and of some recent disco-
veries in astrophysics (accelerated expansion of the Universe
[39], dependence of the motion of stars in the nuclei of gal-
axies on the sizes of the galaxies [38], and concentration of
dark matter over the periphery of galaxies detected upon
their collision [47]) has been justified.
It is important that the consequences of the MCV can be
checked experimentally without too high expenditure and in
a reasonable time. Consultations with specialists, analysis of
the level of modern engineering, and results of experiments
including my own ones allow us to expect that the validity of
the amended evaluation of gravitational forces, of higher-
than-light speeds of data transfer, and of the possibility of
control over the processes of emission of energy will be con-
firmed or rejected in the near future and other questions will
be answered [34].
The inferences of the new model agree with the infe-
rences of classical and quantum mechanics and of the relati-
vity theory where they have been checked experimentally.
Differences can be found only outside the tested frameworks
(large masses, long times, giant spaces) and the entire experi-
ence proving the “standard” models confirms the suggested
model too.
One more merit of the model is a single approach to the
explanation of gravitational, relativistic, and quantum ef-
fects. For example, the known corpuscular and wave dua-
lism, the decoherence, the uncertainty relations and other
162
special features of quantum mechanics are easily explainable
with the help of the MCV because every microparticle of
matter in this model is a generator of longitudinal waves and
moves in space in accordance with their distribution. The
main effects of special and general relativity are explainable
within the MCV by the first and second consequences. The
actuality of the development of the MCV is determined by
the fact that in dozens of cases a model makes it possible (of
course, at a qualitative level) to suggest a direction for solv-
ing problems that are subjects of laborious scientific research
[48]. For example, astrophysics has long dealt with the prob-
lem of “latent mass” [39]. Stars move in galaxies as if the
mass of the galaxies is an order of magnitude larger that the
mass of the observed matter. On the other hand, scientists
have noted the hardly explainable disappearance of a large
part of the mass due to explosions of supernova. In the MCV
there are no “latent mass and defects of mass” but the special
features of gravitation manifest themselves in accordance
with the first consequence. Using the MCV we can explain
the nature of decomposition of microparticles, of high-tem-
perature superconductivity, of the magnetic field of the
Earth, and other phenomena in a simple way (without addi-
tional postulates or measurements). It seems that such a num-
ber of fortunate explanations cannot be accidental.
The practical significance of the MCV can hardly be
overestimated in the case of a fuller confirmation of the pre-
dictions. Suffice it to mention the possibility of controlling
gravitation and using the energy of vacuum, which today be-
long to the sphere of space fiction.
As for the reliability of the model, we have not yet found
a result of an experiment or observation that would contra-
dict the inferences of the MCV.
At the same time, the MCV is a hypothesis, and further
checks and critical discussions are of course necessary. It
should also be noted that only a small part of the model has
been described in the present paper and with little comment.
A fuller presentation of the model can be found in [34].
REFERENCES
1. S. M. Zhurkov (ed.), The Physics of Strength and Ductility [in
Russian], Nauka, Moscow (1988).
2. V. I. Vettegren’, S. O. Lazarev, and V. A. Petrova, Physical Fun-
damentals of the Kinetics of Fracture of Materials [in Russian],
FTI, Leningrad (1989).
3. Yu. V. Goryunov, N. V. Pertsev, and B. D. Summ, The Rebinder
Effect [in Russian], Nauka, Moscow (1966).
4. V. S. Ivanova, “Prospects of the use of the approach of synergy
to solving problems of the science of nanomaterials,”
Metalloved. Term. Obrab. Met., No. 7, 55 – 61 (2005).
5. V. S. Ivanova, Synergetic. Strength and Fracture of Metals [in
Russian], Nauka, Moscow (1992).
6. A. I. Gnevko, “The synergetic model of delayed fracture of so-
lids,” Izv. Ross. Akad. Nauk, Metally, No. 2, 21 – 28 (1992).
7. H. Liebowitz (ed.), Fracture, Academic Press, New York (1969,
1971, 1972), Vols. 1 – 7.
8. J. Nott, The Fundamentals of Fracture Mechanics [Russian
translation], Metallurgiya, Moscow (1978).
A. I. Gnevko
9. E. F. Dudarev, Microplastic Deformation and Yield Strength of
Polycrystals [in Russian], Izd. Tomsk Univ., Tomsk (1988).
10. V. I. Vladimirov, The Physical Nature of Fracture of Metals [in
Russian], Metallurgiya, Moscow (1984).
11. L. P. Botvina, “Common regular features in the processes of
fracture and crystallization,” Metalloved. Term. Obrab. Met.,
No. 8, 2 – 9 (1994).
12. A. P. Gulyaev, “Cracking studies,” Metalloved. Term. Obrab.
Met., No. 10, 17 – 20 (1994).
13. V. E. Panin, Yu. V. Grinyaev, V. I. Danilov, et al., The Structural
Level of Straining and Fracture [in Russian], Novosibirsk,
Nauka (1990).
14. V. E. Panin, “Surface layers as a synergetic activator of plastic
yielding of a loaded solid body,” Metalloved. Term. Obrab.
Met., No. 7, 62 – 68 (2005).
15. K. D. Shchukin (ed.), Environment-Sensitive Mechanical Be-
havior [Russian translation], Mir, Moscow (1969).
16. I. I. Vasilenko and R. K. Melekhov, Corrosion Cracking of
Steels [in Russian], Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1977).
17. L. P. Botvina, T. V. Tetyueva, and A. V. Ioffe, “Stage nature of
multiple fracture of low-alloy steels in a medium of hydrogen
sulfide,” Metalloved. Term. Obrab. Met., No. 2, 14 – 22 (1998).
18. A. M. Prokhorov (ed.), Physical Encyclopedia [in Russian],
Sovetskaya Éntsiklopediya, Moscow (1990), Vol. 2.
19. J. Tucker and V. Rampton, Microwave Ultrasonics in Solid
State Physics, North-Holland, Amsterdam (1971).
20. I. P. Golyamin (ed.), Ultrasound [in Russian], Sovetskaya
Éntsiklopediya, Moscow (1979).
21. M. A. Krishtal and S. A. Golovin, Internal Friction and the
Structure of Metals [in Russian], Metallurgiya, Moscow (1976).
22. T. F. Volynova and I. B. Medov, “Mechanisms of energy dissi-
pation and damping properties of Fe – Mn alloys with a struc-
ture of hexagonal e-martensite,” Metalloved. Term. Obrab.
Met., No. 4, 23 – 39 (1998).
23. A. M. Kosevich, Dislocations in the Elasticity Theory [in Rus-
sian], Naukova Dumka, Kiev (1978).
24. V. P. Alekhin, The Physics of Strength and Ductility of Surface
Layers of Materials [in Russian], Nauka, Moscow (1983).
25. Ya. I. Frenkel’, An Introduction to the Theory of Metals [in Rus-
sian], FizmatGIZ, Moscow (1958).
26. V. N. Bovenko, “Regular features of acoustic emission due to
deformation of metallic crystals,” Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Me-
tally, No. 1, 129 (1984).
27. Ya. E. Geguzin, Why and How Void Disappears [in Russian],
Nauka, Moscow (1983).
28. A. L. Petelin, Grain Boundary Wetting in Binary Metallic Sys-
tems. Experiment and Theory, Author’s Abstract of Candidate’s
Thesis [in Russian], Izd. MGGU, Moscow (2006).
29. D. F. Terent’ev, Fatigue of Metallic Materials [in Russian],
Nauka, Moscow (2003).
30. L. P. Karpov, “On the problem of unexpected fracture of steel
parts,” Metalloved. Term. Obrab. Met., No. 3, 31 – 34 (1998).
31. GOST 9.903–81, GOST 25.506–85 [in Russian].
32. PB 03-593-03, Rules for Organization and Conduction of
Acoustic Emission Control of Vessels, Devices, Boilers, and
Process Pipelines [in Russian].
33. A. I. Gnevko, et al., A Method for Performing Acoustic Emis-
sion Control with the Use of Single-Channel Devices, RF Patent
No. 2210766 [in Russian] (2003).
34. A. I. Gnevko, About Simulation of Gravitation and Some Phe-
nomena of Yet Unknown Nature. Possibilities of a Single Con-
cept of Classical Mechanics, Relativism, and Quantization on
the Basis of Analogies in the Behavior of Physical Vacuum and
Nature of Fracture of Metals and Its Analogs in the Behavior of Other Kinds of Matter
Viscoelastic Solid [in Russian], Izd. “Kompaniya Sputnik,”
Moscow (2007).
35. N. N. Latypov, V. A. Beylin, and G. M. Vereshkov, Vacuum, Ele-
mentary Particles, and the Universe [in Russian], Izd. MGU,
Moscow (2001).
36. V. A. Dubrovskii, “An elastic model of physical vacuum,” Dokl.
Akad. Nauk SSSR, 282(1), 83 (1985).
37. V. P. Dmitriev, “An elastic model of physical vacuum,” Izv.
Ross. Akad. Nauk, Mekh. Tverd. Tela, No. 6 (1992).
38. M. P. Khan, The Violent Universe: from the Big Bang to Acce-
lerated Expansion, from Quarks to Superstrings [in Russian],
LELAND, Moscow (2006).
39. É. V. Kononovich and V. I. Moroz, A General Course of Astro-
nomy [in Russian], Izd. URSS, Moscow (2004).
40. S. D. Khaitun, The History of the Gibbs Paradox [in Russian],
KomKniga, Moscow (2005).
163
41. P. S. Laplace, A Presentation of the World System [Russian
translation], Tov. “Obshchestv. Polza,” St. Petersburg (1861),
Vols. 1 and 2.
42. A. Aspect, J. Dalibard, and G. Roger, Phys. Rev. Lett., 49(25),
1804 (1982).
43. B. B. Kadomtsev, Dynamics and Information [in Russian], Red.
Zh. “Usp. Fiz. Nauk,” Moscow (1997).
44. M. Marakhtanov and A. Marakhtanov, “Metal bursts,” Nauka i
Zhizn’, No. 4 (2002).
45. Yu. N. Eroshenko, “Thermonuclear synthesis in bubbles?” Usp.
Fiz. Nauk, No. 4, 472 (2002) (rf. Science, 295, 1868 (2002)).
46. J. D. Anderson, et al., PRL, 81(14), 2858 (1998).
47. Yu. N. Eroshenko, “Collision of galaxies,” Usp. Fiz. Nauk,
No. 6, 700 (2002) (rf. http:chandre.harvard.edu).
48. V. L. Ginzburg, “What problems of physics and astrophysics
seem to be especially important and interesting today,” Usp.
Fiz. Nauk, No. 4, 419 (1999).